Methods of Research
177
Virgilio C. Boado, MA Ed. M School Principal IV PEQNHS
Transcript of Methods of Research
Virgilio C. Boado, MA Ed. M
School Principal IV
PEQNHS
1.1. Definition, Purpose, characteristics,
differences, kinds and classification of Research
Qualities of Good Research
Qualities of Good Researcher
Hindrances of scientific Inquiry,
Major needs and problems/demands of Research
Values of Research to Man
Types of Research
Classification of Research,
The variable
Components of Research Process,
1.2. Qualities of Good Research
Instrument
Validity, Types of validity, reliability,
methods in testing the reliability of research instrument,
usability
determining factors of usability of research
2.1
The Research Problems, characteristics of
a Research Problem, Sources of Research
Problem
The Research Objectives,
Statement of the Problem/Objectives,
Hypothesis, Theoretical and Conceptual
Framework, Assumptions,
Significance of the Study, Scope
and Delimitation of the Study
3.1.Importance of Related Literature and
Studies
3.2, Purpose and Functions of related
studies,
3.3 Characteristics,
3.4. Sources and Where to locate the
sources,
3.5 Related Legal Bases, Related
Literature, Related Studies( Local, Foreign)
3.6. Definition of Terms: Conceptual and
Operational
4.1.Historical Design:
Uses of historical
research, major steps of historical d
esigns, sources of historical
research
4.2.Descriptive Design: Meaning,
characteristic, value, importance an
d
advantages, techniques, Types of Des
criptive Research : Descriptive-
Survey, Descriptive-
normative survey, Descriptive-status,
Descriptive
analysis, Descriptive classification,
descriptive-evaluative, descriptive-
comparative, correlational survey, lo
ngitudinal survey
4.3. Experimental Design: Meani
ng, concepts of causation,
distinguishing features,
experimental designs, experimen
tal plan,
Types of Experimental Designs: Si
ngle-group design, Two-
group design, two-pair group
design, parallel group design, co
unterbalanced
or latin square design, complete
randomized
design, randomized complete blo
ck design,
correlational Design, Pre-
test and Post test
design, case study design, Case
work, Content Analysis
5.1. Definition,
Purpose, Terminologies, Principles, advantages and Disadvantages of
Sampling,
Planning a Sample
Survey,
5.2. Determination of
Sample Size
5.3. Sampling Design:
(A) Scientific Sampling:
Restricted random sampling, unrestricted
random sampling,
stratified random sampling, systematic
sampling, multistage sampling,
cluster sampling
(B) Nonscientific sampling:
Purposive Sampling, Incidental sampling,
Quota sampling
6.1. Classification of Data According to
Source, Selecting method of collecting Data,
Research Instruments or
Tools
6.2. The Questionnaire: Definition,
Advantages and Disadvantages,
Construction of Questionnaire,
Types of Questions, Guidelines in
Formulation, Problems in
responses, evidence of misleading
questions, the cover letter,
evaluating the questionnaire,
sample questionnaires
6.3. The Interview: Purpose
and uses of interview,
advantages and
disadvantages, types of
classes of
interviews, interview as
instruments, steps/
pointers, what
to avoid in interview
7.1. Data Processing: Definition
7.2. Data Matrix: Types of matrices
(Univariate matrix, bivariate,
multivariate)
7.3. Dummy tables
8.1. Univariate Statistical
Treatment, Bivariate Statistical Treatment,
Multivariate Statistical
Treatment
8.2. Frequency Distribution and
Graphical Representation
8.3. Descriptive Statistics:
Measures of
Central Tendency, Measures of
Variability, Normal
Distribution of Standard,
Measures of Relative
Variability,
Measures of Kurtosis,
Measures of Skewness
8.4. Inferential Statistics:
Correlation,
Chi-square, z test means, t-test,
f- test, Kruskal-Wallis One-way
Analysis of variance
by ranks,
Friedman Two-way analysis of variance by ranks
9.1. Data Analysis: Types ofData
Analysis (Univariate
Analysis, Bivariate Analysis,
Multivariate Analysis, Normative Analysis, Status Analysis, Descriptive Analysis, Classification Analysis, Evaluative Analysis, Comparative Analysis)
9.2. Presentation of Data:
Textual presentation, tabular presentation,
Graphical Presentation,
Purpose of Graphing, Advantages and
Limitations of Graphs,
Types of graphs, construction of
Individual Graphs
9.3. Group Derive Generalization
10.1. Summary of Findings
10.2. Conclusion and Some dangers to
avoid in drawing up conclusions
10.3. Recommendations
11.1. Writing Requirements
11.2. Content and Structure of Thesis Proposal:
The Problem: Rationale and Background, Review of
Related Literature, Methodology,Materials and methods,
results and discussion, summary, conclusion and
recommendations, Schedule of Activities,
Bibliography, Curriculum Vitae
11.3. Form and Styles of a Research
Paper, Thesis and Dissertations
Validity
- It means the degree to which a test or measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.
Types of Validity
Content validity – It means the extent to which the content or topics of the test is truly representative of the content of the course.
Concurrent validity – It is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an acceptable measure.
Predictive validity – It is determined by showing how well predictions made from the test are confirmed by evidence gathered at some subsequent time.
Construct validity – It is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
Reliability
- It means the extent to which a research instrument is dependable,
consistent and stable.
Methods in Testing the Reliability of a Good Research Instrument
· Test-retest method – In this method, the same instrument is administered
twice to the same group of subjects and the correlation coefficient is
determined.
rs = 1 – Z6D2
N3-N
Parallel-forms method – Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be
administered of the group of subjects, and the paired observations correlated
· Split-half method – The test in this method may be administered twice,
but the test items are divided into two values.
rwt = Z(rt)
1 + rnt
· Internal-consistency method – This method is used with psychological
test which consist of dichotomously scored items.
Kuder-Richardson Formula
Rxx = [N] [SD2 - ∑piqi]
N-1 SD2
Usability
- It means the degree to which the research instrument be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers, supervisors and school managers without expenditures of time, money and effect.
Factors to Determine Usability
1. Base of administration. To facilitate the administration of a research instrument, instruction should be complete and precise.
2. Base of scoring. It depends on the following aspects:
· Construction of a test in the objective type.
· Answer keys are adequately prepared.
· Scoring directions are fully understood.
3. Ease of interpretation and application. Results of test are easy to interpret and apply if tables are provided.
4. Low cost. It is more practical if the test is low cost material-wise.
5. Proper mechanical make-up. A good research instrument should be printed clearly in an appropriate size for the grade or year level for which the instrument is intended.
Research problem and research objectives
have the same characteristics but they differ
in form because the former is stated in
interrogative or question form and the latter,
in declarative form.
Hypothesis – is defined as a wise guess that is
formulated and temporarily adopted to
explain the observed facts covered by the
study.
Types of Hypothesis
· Null Hypothesis – is a denial of an
existence of a trait, characteristic, quality,
value, correlation or difference of the result.
· Alternative Hypothesis – is an
affirmation of the existence of the observed
phenomenon.
- shapes the justification of the
research problem/research objectives in
order to provide the legal basis for defining
its parameters
- presents specific and well-defined
concepts which are called constructs.
are presumed to be true statements of
facts related to the research problem.
- Is presented comprehensively to
convince the screening committee the
importance of the study.
- This includes the coverage of the
study area, the subjects, the research
apparatus, equipment or instrument, the
research issues and concerns, the duration of
the study, and the constraints that have
direct bearing on the result of the study.
1. Conceptual Definition – The definition
are based on concepts or hypothetic ones
which are usually taken from a dictionary,
encyclopedia and published journals.
2. Operational Definition – The definition
of terms are based on observable
characteristics and how it is used in the
study.
This includes the coverage of the study
area, the subjects, the research apparatus,
equipment or instrument, the research issues
and concerns, the duration of the study, and
the constraints that have direct bearing on
the result of the study.
Lesson 3
Related literature is composed of
discussions of facts and principles to
which the present study is related.
The materials are usually printed and
found in books, encyclopedias,
professional journals, magazines,
newspapers, and other publications.
Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the
researcher in the following ways:
Help or guide the researcher in searching for or
selecting a better research problem or topic.
Help the investigator understand his topic for
research better.
Ensure that there will be no duplication of other
studies.
Help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information.
Help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in
a. The formulation of specific questions to be researched on;
b. The formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any;
c. The formulation of conceptual framework;
d. The selection and application of the methods of research;
e. The selection and application of sampling technique;
f. The selection and/ or preparation and validation of research instruments for gathering data;
g. The selection and application of
statistical procedures;
h. The analysis, organization,
presentation, and interpretation of data;
i. The making of the summary of
findings, conclusions, and recommendations;
and
Help and guide the researcher in making
comparison between his findings with the
findings of other researchers on similar
studies with the end in view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the
contributions of the study to the fund of
knowledge.
The surveyed materials must be as recent as
possible
Exceptions:
A. Treatises that deal on universals or
things of more or less permanent nature may
still be good today.
B. When a comparison or contrast is to
be made between the conditions of today
and those of a remote past, say ten or
twenty years ago.
Materials reviewed must be
objective and unbiased.
Materials surveyed must be relevant
to the study.
Surveyed materials must have been
based upon genuinely original and
true facts or data to make valid and
reliable.
Reviewed materials must not be too
few or too many.
Literature reviewed typically
includes scholarly journals, scholarly
books, authoritative databases and
primary sources. Sometimes it
includes newspapers, magazines,
other books, films, and audio and
video tapes, and other secondary
sources.
are the origin
of information under study,
fundamental documents relating to
a particular subject or idea. Often
they are first hand accounts written
by a witness or researcher at the
time of an event or discovery.
E.g. published books, magazines,
encyclopedias, almanacs and etc.
are
documents or recordings that
relate to or discuss information
originally presented elsewhere.
E.g. Information from the
internet, unpublished thesis and
dissertations
Generally, the sources of related literature and studies are located in the following places:
Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.
Government and private offices.
The National Library.
The library of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports.
The last two are especially rich depositories of related materials, particularly unpublished master’s thesis and doctoral dissertations.
Related – means the legal bases, literature and studies which have direct bearing or relation to the present study.
It determine the relevance of the study to the government’s thrusts. The major sources of related legal bases are laws and department directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda, and others which are related to the present study.
Example:
Republic Act No. 7164 known as the “Philippine Nursing Act of 1991” defines professional nursing as the performance for a fee, salary, or other reward or compensation… toward the promotion of health, and alleviation of suffering through utilization of nursing process. (LEGAL BASIS).
The foregoing professional nursing definition explicitly expressed that nurses practice their profession for a fee or salary commensurate with their work in order to satisfy their needs and wants to cope with the fast changing world. In other words, the performance of a particular job affects nurses’ values especially if nurses meet the problems related to their job in the hospital, hence, promotion of health services cannot be attained. (EXPLANATION OF THE LEGAL BASIS)
It is a section in a research paper, thesis
dissertation, and research project in which
the sources are taken from books, journals,
magazines, novels, poetry, etc that contains
facts, laws, theories and other documented
observations. This is in a chronological order
from recent to past when presented. It is
unscientific if related literature are
presented and of no explanation at the
relevance to the present study.
Example:
Murray’s (1998) article on nurse executives’ leadership roles stated that chief nursing officers (CNO) leave their position due to lack of power conflict with chief executive officer (CEO), and inadequate nursing personnel. [Related literature by Bruce P. Murray. 1998. “Nurse Executives’ Leadership Roles.” Journal of Nursing Administration. 28(6):48. (June 1998)].
The article of Murray has bearing to the present study because staff nurses’ performance would be affected if the middle managers or chief nursing officers have conflict with the chief executive officer or top manager and with problems met related to their job, for instance, inadequate nursing personnel. (EXPLANATION OF THE RELATED LITERATURE)
Published and unpublished research
studies are sources of materials that
are included in this section. The
research studies which have direct
bearing to the present study are
segregated into foreign and local
studies.
Example of LOCAL STUDY:
In 1999, Sultan in her study on perceived sources of stress among staff nurses at a tertiary hospital in Quezon City, found out that lack of administrative support and no rewards were perceived by staff nurses as the most stressing… (Related local study by Vilma Sultan. 1999. “Perceived Sources of Stress Among Staff Nurses at Tertiary Hospital in Quezon City.” MA Thesis in Nursing. Central Philippine University, Iloilo City, Philippines.)
Sultan’s study has bearing to the present study because lack of administrative support, no rewards, and no opportunities for career development are among the job-related problems met by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo City which block their way to perform effectively and efficiently. (EXPLANATION OF THE RELATED STUDY)
Conceptual – also known as constitutive, is that which is given in dictionaries. It is the academic or universal meaning attributed to a word or group of works. Moreover, it is mostly abstract and formal in nature.
Operational – also known as
functional. Operational definition
may be measured and experimental.
The measured operational definition
states the way the concept is
measured in the investigation. In an
experimental operational definition
the researcher may spell out the
details of the manipulation of a
variable.
Lesson 4
Lesson 5
Sampling – may be defined as the method of
getting a representative portion of the
population.
Population –is the aggregate or total of
objects, persons, families, species, or orders
of plants or animals.
UNIVERSE – the set of all entities under study
VARIABLE – attribute of interest observable on each entity in the universe
ELEMENT – is a member of the population. It is a unit in which data is collected and analyzed.
POPULATION – the set of all possible values of the variable. Also pertains to the total number of elements to be studied.
SAMPLE – subset of the universe or the population. It is a proportion, an element or part of the population which is scientifically and randomly drawn that actually possesses the same characteristics as the population.
SAMPLING – the process of selecting a sample or a representative portion of a population to represent the entire population.
PARAMETER – descriptive measure of the population ex. Mean income, mean age of all the families and age distribution of all the people.
SAMPLE SIZE – the number of subjects in the study.
MARGIN OF ERROR – the allowable error in percentage due to the use of the sample, instead of the population.
1. It saves time, money and effort.
2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster, cheaper and economical.
4. It is more accurate.
5. It gives more comprehensive
information.
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classification due to small number of subjects.2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results can be erroneous.4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population.5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.
1. State the objectives of the survey.2. Define the population.3. Select the sampling individual.4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the sample.5. Design the sampling design to be used that suits to the study, either scientific or nonscientific sampling.6. Determine the sample size.7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample.8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution.9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.10. Choose experts to administer the research instruments.
Step 1: Determine the total population (N) as
assumed subjects of the study.
Step 2: Get the value of V(2.58), Se(0.01),
and p(0.50).
Step 3: Compute the sample size using this
formula:
Ss = NV + [ Se2 (1-p)]
NSe + [ V2p(1-p)]
Sampling Designs
Sometimes population is difficult to identify
who makes up the entire population.
Sample is cheaper, faster, more accurate and
can yield tomore comprehensive information.
Getting the population is too costly in terms
of human resources and other expenses, and
time consuming.
In population, there is lot of error to control
and monitor.
Sometimes lists are rarely up to date.
Keys to Good Sampling
Formulate the aims of the study
Decide what analysis is require to satisfy this
aims
Decide what data are required to facilitate the
analysis
Collect the data required by the study
Defective Sampling Sampling that is too small or not a representative
will be biased, invalid and unreliable
The sampling becomes very complicated if the population is too large or has many sections and subsections
The sample (respondents0 should have common characteristics in order to eradicate faulty conclusions
The sampling becomes biased and unrepresentative if the researcher does not possess the necessary skills and technical know-how of the sampling procedure.
An appropriate sample size is required for
validity
If the sample sizes are too small, it will not
yield valid results
An appropriate sample size can produce
accuracy of results
The results from small sample size will be
questionable
A sample size that is too large will result in
wasting money and time
Researchers
Scientific Sampling1. Restricted random sampling – This type of sampling design involves certain restrictions to improve the validity of the sample.2. Unrestricted random sampling – This is the best random sampling design due to no restrictions imposed, and every member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
Lottery Technique
Table of Random Numbers
3. Stratified random sampling – This type of design divides the population into two or more strata.4. Systematic sampling – In this type of design the individuals of the population are arranged in a methodical manner.5. Multistage sampling – This design is done in several stages.6. Cluster sampling – In this type of design, the population is grouped into clusters or small units.
Nonscientific sampling1. Purposive sampling – This type of nonscientific sampling is based on selecting the individuals as samples according to the purpose of the researcher as his controls.2. Incidental sampling – This type of sampling design is “applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available.”3. Quota sampling – This type of design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics.
Lesson 6
are those which are
collected for
specific purpose
directly from the
field of enquiry and
original in nature.
Such data are
published by
authorities who
themselves are
responsible for
their collection.
They are original
Example:
Documents
Creative
works
Interviews
Man-made
materials
Surveys
This is any source
cited for its
second-hand
information from a
different work.
It also pertains on
the data which
have already
collected by other
person who
entitled to
organize a data.
Example:
Unpublished
thesis and
dissertations
Manuscript
Books
Journals
Deals with descriptions.
Data can be observed but not
measured. It approximates or
characterizes but does not
measure the attributes,
characteristics, and properties
of a thing or phenomenon.
Deals with numbers.
Data which can be
measured.
This method rely on random
sampling and structured
data collection instruments
that fit diverse experiences
into predetermined response
categories.
Clerical Tools and
Mechanical Tools
used when researcher studies people and gathers data on the feelings, emotions, attitudes and judgment of the subjects.
Example:
Questionnaire
Interview
Experiment
Observation
includes all tools that is used
in different branch of science.
It is more on to measure
things. Example:
Thermometers
Cameras
Microscopes
Meter stick
is a list of prepared questions or a checklist.
This is usually sent of distributed to respondents for the purpose of seeking their opinions, views, suggestions, or perceptions.
Practical
Large amounts of information can be collected
from a large number of people in a short period
of time
Can be carried out by the researcher or by any
number of people with limited affect to its
validity and reliability
The results of the questionnaires can usually be
quickly and easily quantified by either a
researcher or through the use of a software
package
Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and
objectively than other forms of research
Lacks validity
There is no way to tell how truthful a
respondent is being
There is no way of telling how much thought a
respondent has put in
The respondent may be forgetful or not
thinking within the full context of the situation
People may read differently into each question
and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question
Doing a research with a specified topic
Talking to people with knowledge about
the topic
Study the guidelines on what data should
be gathered
Writing the Questionnaire
Revise the Questionnaire
Rewrite the Questionnaire
Pre-test the Questionnaire
Write the Questionnaire in the final form
Open-ended Questions – They are used in
qualitative interviews where the respondent is
made to explain why certain things is done.
Free Response Questions – They are asked in such
a way that the respondent does not limit the scope
of his answers or responses.
Multiple Choices – It is the most commonly used
type of questioning. It is a list of a number of
answers provided for every question.
Scaled Response – The respondents are given a range of categories in which to express their feelings or opinions.
Checklist – This is a form of multiple choice questions from which the respondents chooses one or more response categories.
Ranking Questions – This refers to an opinion question where the respondent is asked to rank comparatively the items listed either in ascending or descending order.
Dichotomous Question – There are only two possible answers to the questions like the Yes – No type.
1. Decide on the specific information needed and
its sources.
2. Prepare a list of sources of the specific
information needed.
3. Put yourself in a place of the respondents.
4. Understand the sequences in which these
various subjects should appear on the
questionnaire.
5. Decide on the type of question to use.
6. Write the actual question.
7. Provide proper spaces for the answers.8. Consider the facts needed to understand the results
properly.9. Examine the whole questionnaire.10. Try to time test yourself in answering the whole
questionnaire.11. See if the questions are clear, interesting, and
cordial.12. Reconsider the hypothesis to see if the questions
are asked to answer the research problem.13. Pre-test the questionnaire.14. Have the final form reproduced in the quality and
quantity needed.
1. Answers might be bias
2. The answers might be irrelevant.
3. Answers might be a guess.
4. The choice of words affect responses.
5. Some respondents give answers that
would make them appear good to a
researcher.
6. Irrelevant way of the respondents
answering the questionnaire.
– it would be a classified as a part of a questionnaire
where in it is normally written at the upper left
corner of the questionnaire that entails the message
of the researcher to the respondents
Things that should be seen in a cover letter would be:
Purpose of the questionnaire
The study itself
Thing to be gathered in the questionnaire for the research
Reasons it should be answered
Due date of the questionnaire
Guaranteed confidentiality for the respondents
Expressions of thanks to the respondents
These are the following to consider in
evaluating a questionnaire:
Grammar
Format
Arrangement of Questions
Relevant to the Study
Number of Questions
Format of the Questionnaire
Reliability of Questionnaire
Respondents
It is one of the major techniques
in gathering data or information.
It is a conversation between two
or more people where questions
are asked by the interviewer to
elicit facts or statements from
the interviewee.
The researcher could gain some insights
about the study, the variables to be use,
in making the hypothesis and generalize
questions and the methods to be use
statistically.
The researcher could add some more
significance about the study.
The researcher could collect some factual
data in order to be added for the support
of the study.
Generating more valid and compete
information
Interviewer can classify points or
questions which are vogue to the
interviewee
Seeing the sincerity in terms of answering
the questions
Flexibility
Greater complex questions can be asked
Respondents would be hard to be
contacted
Time consuming
Inaccurate in terms of getting
numerical data
Inaccurate due to bias data given by
the interviewee in favourable with
the study
Difficult to make conclusion
Structured Interview
Semi-structured Interview
Unstructured Interview
Description and/or Aim of interview:
- Normally, structured interviews are done in a face-to-
face format or via telephone using a standard set of
questions to obtain data that can be aggregated because
identical questions have been asked of each participant.
Nature of questioning route: fixed, given order, very
standardized
Type of question format/structure:
1. Open-ended
2. Closed-ended with ordered response choices
3. Closed-ended with unordered response choices
4. Partially closed-ended
Role of probing: Little or none, perhaps only repeating
or clarifying instructions
Description and/or aim of interview: “More or less open-ended questions are brought to the interview situation in the form of an interview guide” (Flick, 1998 p. 94). From the beginning the focus is on gaining an understanding based on textual information obtained. The level of depth of understanding that the researcher pursues is used to characterize this type of interview.
Nature of questioning route: flexible, but usually a given set of questions is covered, varying levels of standardization
Type of question format/structure:
1. Open-ended, yet directed at obtaining particular information (content, topic, aspects of theory, etc.)
2. In some cases, closed-ended style of questions are used
Role of probing: Get the participant to expand upon their answer, give more details, and add additional perspectives
Description and/or Aim of interview:
Normally, unstructured interviews are done in a
face-to-face format and some would say you are
trying to get participants to share stories. The
researcher starts from a position of wanting to be
sensitive to how participants construct their views
and perspectives of things. Therefore, a goal is to
allow the participant’s structure to dominate.
Nature of questioning route: ask questions to get
people to talk about constructs/variables of
interest to the researcher.
Type of question format/structure:
1. Open-ended – descriptive
2. Reactions to a given situation
presented by the researcher
Role of probing: Simply to get the
participant of talk about a topic area,
normally probing questions are not
directed, but rather asked to encourage
the participant to keep talking or to get
back to the subject of interest.
1. Interview
Schedule
It is like a
questionnaire.
Used when the
researcher knows
all the item to be
included in the
interview about
the research
problem.
2. Interview Guide
It only provides
ideas and allows the
interviewer to freely
pursue relevant
topics in depth.
The items provide
for flexibility in the
manner, order, and
language of
questioning.
1.Set the feeling tone for the interview
2.Set up Equipment
3.Prepare the Person
4.Start the Tape Recorders
5.Let the Interviewee Talk
6.Get Consent
7. Word/Name list
Being unprepared
Dress in a wrong manner
Don’t argue with the interviewee’s answer in the
questions
Don’t talk irrelevant manners
Don’t unduly pressing the respondent to make a
reply
Don’t appear too high above the respondent in
education, knowledge and social status.
Don’t talk about irrelevant matters
Lesson 7
Data processing involves:
Input – it involves the responses from the
research instrument by the subjects of the
study.
Throughput – it includes statistical
procedures and techniques.
Output – the results of the study which are
presented in data matrix form.
Data processing
It consists of three basic steps:
1. Categorization of data
It refers to the grouping of subjects under
study according to the objectives or purposes
of the study.
Five rules in categorizing research
information by Kerlinger:
1. Categories are set up according to the
research problem.
2. The categories are exhaustive.
3. Each category is derived from one
classification principle.
4. The categories are mutually exclusive
and independent.
5. Any categorization scheme must be one
level of discourse.
2. Coding of data – Information from the questionnaire, tests, interview schedules, rating scale and many others must be transformed into coded items to facilitate tabulation of data.
3. Tabulation of data – this is done by tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several tables.
Data matrix
- Presentation of data in tabular form
3 Types of Data Matrices
Univariate matrix – involves only one
variable.
Bivariate matrix – involves two variables.
Multivariate matrix – has three or more
variables in the table.
Dummy tables
- Are helpful in preparing for the data
matrix because they are used in planning,
summarizing, organizing and analyzing the
data on how the different variables differ
with each other.
Lesson 8
It is a must that researchers diagnose the
problem by using the appropriate statistical
tool to arrive at accurate and definite
interpretation of results.
Incorrect Statistical Tool
- Percentage is incorrect or
inappropriate statistical tool to scale options
due to vague interpretation of results.
Univariate analysis
the examination of the distribution of cases ononly one variable at a time (e.g., collegegraduation)
Bivariate analysis
the examination of two variablessimultaneously (e.g., the relation betweengender and college graduation)
Multivariate analysis
the examination of more than two variablessimultaneously (e.g., the relationship betweengender, race, and college graduation)
Univariate analysis
Purpose: description
Bivariate analysis
Purpose: determining the empiricalrelationship between the two variables
Multivariate analysis
Purpose: determining the empiricalrelationship among the variables
Univariate Statistical Treatment- The appropriate statistical tool for univariateproblem is the weighted arithmetic mean and the like.
Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Experimental Research- The statistical tools for bivariate problem in experimental research are t-test and linear correlation.
Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Descriptive Research- The statistical tool used in bivariatedescriptive research problems are z-test and linear correlation.
is a grouping of all observations into interval
or classes together with a count of the
number of observations that fall in each
interval or class.
