Methods of Research 1

8/6/2019 Methods of Research 1

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Why Study Research?Why Study Research?Here are a few reasons to take thisHere are a few reasons to take thiscourse and learn about research:course and learn about research:

� To become "research literate."� To become "research literate."

� Because we live in a society that's� Because we live in a society that'sdriven by research.driven by research.

� To improve your critical thinking skills.� To improve your critical thinking skills.

� To learn how to read and critically� To learn how to read and criticallyevaluate published research.evaluate published research.

� To learn how to design and conduct� To learn how to design and conductresearch in case the need arises oneresearch in case the need arises one

day.day.



Objectives of ResearchObjectives of Research

There are five major objectives of research.

� 1. Exploration. This is done when you are

trying to generate ideas about something.� 2. Description. This is done when you want to

describe the characteristics of something or some phenomenon.

� 3. Explanation. This is done when you want toshow how and why a phenomenon operates asit does. If you are interested in causality, you areusually interested in explanation.



� 4. Prediction. This is your objective when your primary interest is in making accuratepredictions. Note that the advanced sciencesmake much more accurate predictions than thenewer social and behavioural sciences.

� 5. Influence. This is done to bring impact to thelives of the people by application of researchresults. An example of this is the policy making-related research.



General Types of ResearchGeneral Types of Research

(A) Based on Purpose

� 1. Basic research is aimed at

generating fundamental knowledgeand theoretical understanding about

basic human and other natural

processes.



It is also known as fundamental, pure or

theoretical research, because it looks for facts, µmeanings¶ and µrealities¶ [thatpuzzled you] on a certain problem or phenomenon without having a particular

use or application in mind (Reyes,1998)²meaning that you are doing it for the sake of answering a problem.Therefore, it is theoretical where the

findings in your inquiry can become a partof the underlying foundations of a certaintheory and knowledge



Furthermore, it is regarded as the most academicform of research, since its principal aim is to

make contribution to knowledge, usually for thegeneral good, rather than to solve a specificproblem. Thus, it can be in either in these forms:

� Discovery²where a totally new or novel idea or

explanation (know-why) emerges, which canrevolutionise thinking on a particular topic.

� Invention²where a new technique (know-how)is created for the benefits of mankind, especiallyin improving their activities.

� Reflection²where the existing theory,technique or group of ideas, concepts are re-examined in a different context.



� 2. Applied research is focused on

applying a certain knowledge or theory inanswering practical questions into

immediate solutions.

� An applied research is done to verify

findings or gather more information from

the findings of basic or theoretical

research with specific application in

mind (Pagdilao, 1997).



� It includes the following forms:

� Innovation²is an applied research in which a

new and better design, product or process ismade out of the existing ones to improve further the human activities. Product development andpackaging research are part of this type.

� On-farm or On-field level research²is done

when theories, process or concepts are tested inthe field or limited area of application prior toimplementation in large-scale.

� Developmental research²is done when theresults of applied or practical research are doneat a wider scope of analysis and interpretationprior to mass implementation or production of outputs or results.



� Basic and applied research can be viewed

as two endpoints on a researchcontinuum; with the centre representing

the idea that the generated knowledge in

basic research can be developed further

leading to applied research. Whatever isdiscovered in the application of the

outcomes can contribute at the same time

to basic research and vice versa. Here isthe continuum:

� Basic <-----------> Mixed <------->Applied



� Research examining the process of

cognitive "priming" is an example of relatively basic research; a comparison of

the effectiveness of two approaches to

counselling is an example of relatively

applied research.

� Basic and applied researches are

generally conducted by researchers at

universities.



� 3. Evaluation or Assessment research

involves determining the worth, merit or quality of an object, program / project .

Other authors categorised it as

Developmental research, but some

group this under applied research. It

involves the systematic activity of µdrawing

off¶ new and much improved products,

processes, services or systems out of existing ones.



Evaluation is traditionally classified

according to its purpose:� Formative evaluation is used for the

purpose of program improvement.

� Summative evaluation is used for thepurpose of making summary judgments

about a program and decisions to continue

of discontinue the program.



A newer and currently popular way to

classify evaluation is to divide it into five

types:

� Needs assessment, which asks this

question: Is there a need for this type of program? An example of this is the TNAs

(Training Needs Analysis) among

development practitioners.



Others use the following types :

� Ex-ante evaluation²that is assessmentof the program or project beforeimplementation. It includes the review of the program / project based on pre-

determined set of criteria or goals.

� Ex-post evaluation²that is done uponcompletion of the program / project to find

out what has been achieved and whatlearning can be obtained for further improvement in the future to come.



� Theory assessment, which asks this

question: Is this program conceptualized in a

way that it should work?

� Implementation assessment, which asks:

Was this program implemented properly and

according to the program plan?� Impact assessment, which asks: Did this

program have an impact on its intended

targets?

� Efficiency assessment, which asks: Is thisprogram cost effective?



� 4. Action research focuses on solving practitioner¶s local problems or to the practical concerns of the people in an immediate

problematic situation. It is generally conductedby the practitioners after they have learnedabout the methods of research and researchconcepts that are discussed in your textbook. It

is important to understand that action research isalso a state of mind ; for example, teachers whoare action researchers are constantly observingtheir students for patterns and thinking about

ways to improve instruction, classroommanagement, and so forth. We hope you get this³state of mind´ as you read more the articles inthis manual!



Two approaches to action research, they are:

� Classical action research²begins with the

idea that the researcher wants to understandand learn when something (maybe a process) istried to change.

� New paradigm research²involves inquiry into

person/s, group/s of people and relationsbetween them. It is based on a close relationshipbetween the researcher and those beingresearched and thus can be easily carried outwhen the researcher is working with small group

or individuals where the research work is beingundertaken. It upholds the concept that theresearcher can never be µneutral¶ on what he istrying to find out, if he wants change.



5. Orientational research is done for the purpose

of advancing an ideological position. It is

traditionally called critical theory, which

upholds the concept that µreality cannot be

grasped without researcher¶s bias that is caused

by historical, political, societal, ethnic, or gender conditions¶. We use the broader term

orientational research, because critical theory

was originally concerned only with class

inequalities and was based on the Karl Marx¶stheory of economics, society, and revolution.



Orientational research is focused on some

form of inequality, discrimination,stratification in society, empowering or

emancipatory to eliminate the causes of

alienation and domination. Some areas in

which inequality manifests itself are large

differences in income, wealth, access to

high quality education, gender, race,

power and occupation. Here are somemajor areas of interest to orientational

researchers:



A. Class stratification (i.e., inequality

resulting from one¶s economic class insociety).

B. Gender stratification (i.e., inequality

resulting from one¶s gender).

C. Ethnic and racial stratification (i.e.,

inequality resulting from one¶s ethnic or

racial grouping).

D. Sexual orientation stratification (i.e.,

inequality and discrimination based on

one¶s sexual preferences)



Many orientational researchers work for universities or Many orientational researchers work for universities or

interest group organisations, like people¶s organisation,interest group organisations, like people¶s organisation,

NGOs, marginalised groups, etc.NGOs, marginalised groups, etc.

2.1. The relationship between research & development (R&D) and science & technology (S&T) continuum

RESEARCH

Basic, Applied,

Developmental,

Orientational,

Action

SCIENCE

Know ledges, Theories

TECHNOLOGY

Soft & Hardwares

DEVELOPMENTProblem



� B) Based on discipline and relationshipbetween researchers

� It was a common observation amongscientists working in isolation before. Andeven today, some of them are soindividualistic, which keep their works

cloistered in their home¶s basement or attic. They behaved like that, because they did notwant to be distur bed, ridiculed or heckled byothers. They were treated as µmisunderstood

individuals¶ and even until now.

Thus, theyalso liked to keep their ideas amongthemselves and afraid that their works mightbe stolen by others



� Today, a number of researchers are

engaged in an µopen-door policy¶ that is

they engaged in collaborative works.

They learned that teamwork helps them

to come up with better ideas through

the µcross-fertilisation¶ of their ideas

and outputs.



� From the examples I cited, research could becategorised based on the number of engagedresearcher/s and discipline/s that composed aresearch program, pro ject or study. The first one isknown as monodisciplinary research, while thesecond one maybe a multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary research. An interdisciplinaryapproach involves a team of researchers / scientists

that solved a particular problem by integrating or linking their findings holistically despite thedifferences in their fields of specialisation²theycome up with a unified result despite the differencesin their fields of specialisation. The multidisciplinary

one is that the researchers interpret their findingswith biased in their field of specialisations, yet theyform the research team.



� It can be noted that the three above types aremore biased on the formal disciplines or

µuniversity knowledge¶ of the researchers. But, because of the increasing acceptance of µtraditional¶, µfolk¶, µindigenous¶ or µrural¶knowledges worldwide, especially amongdevelopment scientists, a new form of

research has been emerging²theparticipatory research. In this type, thegrassroots, the indigents, the peasants, thewomen or the ordinary folks, are involved indoing the research work. Its primary basis is

that, they are µmore knowledgeable¶ abouttheir problems, social situations based fromtheir experiences



LINKING UP

� Let us go through the discussed topics

before going to the next!H

ere are someof the µsituations¶ where you will link

the concepts that we discussed. This is

my style of doing a µbrain-check¶ to my

students.



Classify the following research situationsbased on general types of research e.g.

purpose and disciplinarity. Please don¶tforget to µreason out¶ why you haveclassified this as this and underline the µkeyword/s¶ or group of words in the given cases

that lead to you to decide with final answer!A team of social workers works on the status

and productive roles of the elderly in thecoastal areas of Sta. Cruz, Marinduque. They

like to learnw

hy they are remainingproductive and what are their commonproblems, socio-cultural, health, political,etc.



A study revealed that mine tailings have 85% silica, which can be utilised in the production

of good quality glazed for ceramics. A groupof material scientists and environmentscientists was organised as team to see thepossibility of converting this abundant waste

into profitable community-based livelihood,which at the same helps mitigate thehazardous effect to the environment andhealth of the community people.

Maria is a rural health practitioner . She alsoearned a degree in Chemistry withspecialisation in Phytochemistry.



As rural health worker, she has continuouscontact with her bolarios in the uplands. M

ariaw

as fascinated by the her balmedicines that the herbolarios used, so sheworks on the isolation of µactive chemicals¶present in these plants without theknowledge of the herbolarios she is working

with.A classroom teacher in Hinapulan, Boac found

out that ma jority of her Grade III pupils havedrastic decreased in attendance during themonths of June to July and January to

February. Ma jority of her students are fromsubsistence farming families, who haveswiddens in the remaining forest of BaliisBantay and Hinapulan



The teacher decided to visit the families of thesechildren during weekends to gather informationregarding this perennial problem that she isencountering with her pupils.A nutritionist heard andread in a scientific journal that Bidens pilosa Linn.,locally called wild cosmos or µPanibat¶ is good for goiter . So, she suspected that is a good source of iodine. At first, she surveyed the presence of plantsin Tumagabok, Boac, because she hails in this area. It is an upland village in the interior part of theisland, where the scarcity of seafoods as source of

natural iodine is prevalent. Because the nutritionistdoes not have enough background in Chemistry, shesought the help of her former classmate who is aChemist working in DoST.



Lygodium species or locally called µNito¶ ,

is a common material for weavingbaskets and novelty items in

Marinduque. Through years of

gathering this fern in the wild, its

number is dwindling in the forest and

near by thickets. To solve this problem,

the Marinduque State College forms a

team of researchers that will study inpropagating them for possible re-

introduction in the wild.



Perla is a head teacher in a local elementary school. She has been a headmaster for almost three years.

The performance of the pupils in her school isalways at the bottom as compared to other schoolsin their district. Perla knows that her teachers areµexperts¶ in their fields of specialisation and doingtheir best as reflected in her weekly observation

report, based from the µstandard¶ that was imposedto all public schools teachers. As headmaster, shewas challenged by her immediate supervisor . So,Perla sought the help of her co-teachers in findingways of improving the pupils¶ performance, first by

zeroing in on the pupils¶ social situation, their families and the village where they live.



� An anthropologist found out that thehouseholds in the interior villages of the

province are living in extreme povertyw

ithvery limited medical and health services. They are dependent on the available crops intheir fields that are µnaturally grown¶ andothers are gathered in the wild, through hard

labour . For health problems, they sought theservices of the local shamans. Heart, lungsand kidney diseases are rare among them. As a matter of fact, they have longer life spanthan those in the lowlands. To find more

concrete answers, the anthropologist,decided to live with the village people tolearn more from them and to further findanswers to the situation that puzzled him.



� A teacher noticed that in the interior sitios of Bayute,the women are well-represented during school

meetings, social gatherings and in giving disciplineto their children. She rarely met the fathers of her pupils, but only the village leader and two electedmale officials. In fact, ma jority of the elected officialsin these villages are females. When a µbayanihan¶

was organised by the school to build a study shedfor the children, it was attended by all women. Theteacher was puzzled by this situation, so shedecided to find out why ma jority of the villageactivities are attended by women. She also likes to

find out the implications of the women¶s role to their children¶s lives.



A teacher in a local high school discoveredthat young boys en joyed smoking the dried

flowers of Yellow Angel¶s Trumpet (Daturaarborea Linn.). She also heard that theteeners steep this in an alcoholic drink,which makes them µhigh¶. Concern about theyoung boys, she reported it to her

headmaster . Due to lack of knowledge aboutthe plant, the headmaster sought the help of a social worker and a chemist from a localuniversity. In short, they form a researchteam to find out the substance present in the

flower of the plant, the academicperformance and social situation of theusers.

Methods of Research 1

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