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Social Research Methods

Practicalities of research

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A. Text book approach vs Alternative

Text book model Don’t collect data until you have planned what

you are doing. especially for experiments and surveys.

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Text book model

Focus -> Research Question -> Research Strategy -> Methods -> Data Collection -> Analysis/Interpretation -> Write Report

But this is idealised

May be over-neat, over-linear, post hoc tidying up, a constructed logic.

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Alternative

Garbage can model. Messy combination of

Theory, Method, Resources, Solutions.

In differing order. Some at the same time as others. Idea that research is as reported in “research paper”

is a fiction.

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B. Access needs to be negotiated

1. Allow time for it to take place2. Use friends, relative, etc. (A sponsor is good)3. Use non-threatening language e.g.

4. Deal positively with reservations

Threatening Equivalent

Research Inquiry, learning from your experience

Interview Conversation

Publish Write an account.

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B. Access needs to be negotiated cont.

5. Offer a report. N.B. this is not the journal article, but done especially for the organisation. Could make recommendations.

6. Find out who you need to negotiate with

7. Prepare an outline of your study

8. Make a formal request for access (check informally before how to do this)

9. Discuss the study with “gatekeepers” Try to anticipate sensitive issues

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B. Access needs to be negotiated cont.

9. Discuss the study with likely participants

10. Modify the study in the light of discussions, if necessary and if appropriate.

11. Consider using a “Fully informed consent form”See Robson, C (1993) Real World Research, box 10.8

for an example

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C. External Access vs “Insider” research

Insider = prior to research

you already have a position

in the organisation

Advantages1. Insider knowledge - historical, developmental, political,

people

2. “Street credibility” - already known, trustworthy - OR NOT!

3. No travel

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C. External Access vs “Insider” research cont.

Disadvantages1. New, additional role may produce conflict

2. Difficult to interview people above/below in organisation

3. Maintaining objectivity

4. Having to live with mistakes

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Also

D Get organised

E. Pilot Test out designs essential for experiments and surveys

F. Work on your relationships all the way through a project, not just at the start. Keep people “on board” Don’t let resentment, antagonism etc. build up against you.

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And…

G. Don’t just disappear at the end This may not affect you much in the short term, But it may affect future researchers. You may want to go back at some stage (e.g. to

check things)

H. Be prepared to modify e.g. Catherine Hakim’s idea of “trading down” accept a lesser project if that is all that is possible

rather than nothing at all.

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Reporting of research Essential part of research = making public

Reporting format depends on nature and purpose of study esp. idea of ‘Audience’ is important

Examples are: Scientific journal format.

for academic/professional audience e.g. postgraduate dissertation.

Technical Report – Writing for a “client” Oral (handout) = presentation Poster Pamphlet Press release

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Reporting of research cont.

Alternative literary presentations are possible Portrayal, Adversarial, Dialogue etc.

One project may demand more than one type of report

Always produce to good professional standards Spelling, grammar, layout, design, reproduction,

binding.

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Ethics of publication

1. Legitimate expectation is that findings get out into the public domain (Publish or Perish!)

2. Needs to keep to assurances of anonymity/confidentiality

e.g. use pseudonyms, alter non-important details

3. Given fact that you have taken reasonable precautions over 2. then publish.

beware, when negotiating access etc. of giving away your rights to publish.

4. Consider legitimate interest of sponsors/gatekeepers before publishing

but beware of allowing them a censorship role.

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Typical Scientific Journal Format

Each journal has its own detailed format. Follow the journal. e.g. Title Abstract Introduction Methods/procedures (participants, samples, appropriate

materials) Results Discussion Bibliography

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Typical Scientific Journal Format cont.

Language Traditionally this is in the impersonal, past tense,

and passive voice e.g. A sample of 10 respondents was taken and

each was given same attitude test. not. We used 10 respondents and they all took the

same attitude test.

However, this is now changing. More use of the personal, active voice and even

present tense. BUT follow the journal format.

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Technical Reports

1. Find out what is expected, ask. Look at other “good” reports.

2. Provide an Executive Summary. 1 or 2 pages only, summarising key points.

3. Put as much as possible (esp. of methods details) in appendices

4. Present to professional standards.

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Revising the Draft

See Robson 1993 pg. 427

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Ethics

No hard and fast rules. Even the most suspect activities might be justifiable

Examples of suspect activities.1. Involve people without their knowledge or consent.

But often not an issue e.g. observing aggression in a football crowd.

Needs Informed consent. i.e. not just saying yes, but also knowing what’s involved.

2. Coerce people into participation (e.g. Students get credit for taking part)

3. Withholding information about the true nature of the research. (e.g. Milgram)

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Ethics cont.

4. Otherwise deceiving participants (e.g. covert observation)

Indicator is reaction of people when deception is revealed.

5. Inducing people to commit acts diminishing their self-esteem - make a fool of themselves.

6. Violating code of self determinism (e.g. studies seeking to promote individual change.)

e.g. behaviour modification - especially where people cannot give consent.

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Ethics cont.

7. Exposing people to mental and physical stress or risks

Should not be greater than they would experience anyway in their lives.

8. Invading people’s privacy9. Withholding benefits from some participants

(compared with other groups)10. Not treating people fairly, or with consideration or

with respect.11. Discouraging people from withdrawing before the

end of the research.

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Codes of practice.

Most professions have this. BPS, BSA

Costs to participants can be balanced by benefits.e.g.1. Advance in theory, better understanding of people

and society2. Advance in knowledge which is of practical value.3. Gains for participants (e.g. self-understanding,

contribution to social/personal problems - smoking, agoraphobia, gambling)

4. for the researcher - fame, career etc.