Methods of Research

Educ 301

Methods of

Research

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

Research Methods is a 3-unit course designed to introduce the student to nearly all of the fundamental concepts of research particularly in preparing a proposal. The first half of the course will focus on the basic principles of research, while the second half of the course will deal with the preparation of the proposal that will make use of the theories as basis of the study. The primary function of this course is to prepare the undergraduate student for more advanced course work in the discipline.

CREDIT UNITS: 3 PLACEMENT: SY 2010-2011

SEMESTER: Second Semester FACULTY: Victor C. Bongar, PhD CONTACT NOS.: Globe (0917-7046443)

Smart (0921-8110120)Office (082-2210634 loc 23)

E-MAIL ADDRESS:Personal: [email protected]: [email protected]

COURSE ORGANIZATION:

This course will include three hours of lecture/discussion. In addition to the regularly scheduled lectures/discussions, students will need to devote some additional time to work during their free time to prepare the thesis proposal.

REFERENCES: Nursing research: Principles and methods, (7th ed., 2004) by Denise F. Polit

and Cheryl Tatano Beck, J. B. Lippincot Company Data analysis and statistics for nursing research, (1996) by Denise F. Polit,

Apleton and Lange Nursing research: Design, statistics and computer analysis, (1981) by Carolyn

Feher Waltz and R. Barker Bausell, F. A. Davis Company How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, (5th ed., 2003) by Jack

R. Fraenkel and Norman E. Wallen, McGraw Hill Basic Statistical Methods (5th ed., 1983) by N. M. Downie and Robert W.

Heath, Harper International Edition Introduction to Educational Research, (2003) by Florante O. Vizcarra, Great

Books Trading Fundamentals of Research, (1992) by Gaudencio V. Aquino, National Book

Store Thesis Writing: A Practical Guide, (1997) by Jose P. Leveriza, New Day

Publishers

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:

1. To provide students with a strong background in the principles of research that will involve in a systematic search for knowledge about issues of importance to the profession.

2. To provide students with the ability to analyze data and interpret analytically.

3. To make students aware of the power of research in uplifting the profound knowledge about the profession.

4. To help students become familiar with the language of research and the terminology of it.

5. To prepare students for more advanced course work in research.

CONTENT OUTLINE:

Introduction to Research An Overview of Designing and Interpreting Research Creating a Reliable and Valid Experiment Risk, Deception, and the Ethics of Research Selecting a Research Design Experimental, Quasi-Experimental and

Nonexperimental Research Additional Types of Research Research Control

CONTENT OUTLINE:

Sampling Designs Measurement and Data Collection

-Hypothesis Testing-Sampling-Measurement-Instrumentation

Data Analysis The Research Report Writing a Research Report Evaluating Research Reports Utilization of Research Writing a Research Proposal

STUDENT EVALUATION:

Long Examination 50%Class Standing 50%

Oral presentationClass participationQuizzesThesis proposal

Total 100%

Chapter 1

Introduction to Research

What is research? is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined

methods to answer questions or solve problems. The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge (Polit & Beck, 2004).

a scientific process of critical selection of data, investigation, and analysis of such to gain new knowledge or to complement an existing one (Martinez, 1998).

What is nursing research?

is systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.

What is clinical nursingresearch?

is designed to generate knowledge to guide nursing practice and to improve the health and quality of life of nurse’s clients.

The Importance of Research

Research tests assumptions and observations made about user needs and services and creates new knowledge that can be used to improve services.

Consumers of research – read research reports to develop new skills and to keep up to date on relevant findings that may affect practice.

Research utilization – the use of research findings in a practice setting

Producers of research – peoples who actively participate in designing and implementing research studies

The Consumer-Producer Continuum in Research

NURSING RESEARCH: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE The early years: From Nightingale to the

1950s Nursing research in the 1960s Nursing research in the 1970s Nursing research in the 1980s Nursing research in the 1990s

Future Directions for Nursing Research

1. Increased focus on outcomes research2. Increased focus on biophysiologic research3. Promotion of evidence-based practice4. Development of a stronger knowledge base

through multiple, confirmatory strategies5. Strengthening of multidisciplinary collaboration6. Expanded dissemination of research findings

7. Increasing the visibility of nursing research

Sources of Evidence for Nursing Practice Tradition Authority Clinical Experience, Trial and Error, and

Intuition Logical Reasoning Assembled Information Disciplined Research

Two kinds of research according to purpose BASIC RESEARCH - Research that seeks to

create new knowledge and is not directly related to technical or practical problems. This research provides new knowledge about a particular user group but does not specify a way this knowledge can be used to solve a problem.

Example: a researcher may perform an in-depth study or better understand normal grieving processes

Two kinds of research according to purpose APPLIED RESEARCH - Research that seeks to

solve problems practitioners face. Using a variety of techniques this research aims to develop solutions and recommendations that can be used to improve practices.

Example: a study to determine the effectiveness of a nursing intervention to ease grieving

Types of Research According to Methodology

a. Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research is research

involving the use of structured questions where the response options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents is involved.

Types of Research According to Methodology

a. Quantitative ResearchBy definition, measurement must be

objective, quantitative and statistically valid. Simply put, it’s about numbers, objective hard data. Quantitative research refers to counts and measures of things

Types of Research According to Methodologyb. Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research is collecting, analyzing,

and interpreting data by observing what people do and say.

Qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things.

Types of Research According to Methodologyb. Qualitative ResearchQualitative research is much more subjective uses

very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open-ended. Small numbers of people are interviewed in-depth and/or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted.

Classification of Research by General Methodology

1. Experimental- at least one variable is manipulated to determine

the effect of the manipulation- subjects are randomly assigned to experimental

treatments

Questions asked: What is the effect of the experimental variable?


2.Quasi-experimental- at least one variable is manipulated to determine

the effect of the manipulation- intact, naturally formed groups are used

Questions asked: What is the effect of the experimental variable?


3. Survey

-the incidence, relationships, and distributions of variables are studies

-variables are not manipulated but studied as they occur in a natural setting

Questions asked: What are the characteristics of the variables? What are the relationships and possible effects among the variables?


4.Historical- a description of past events or facts

is developed Questions asked: What was or what

happened?


5.Ethnographic- a holistic description of a particular

group is developed Questions asked: What is the nature of

the phenomena?

Specific Research Purposes and Research Questions

1. Description: tells us the nature of things or situations; gives us a picture of the current status of a situation; describes to us what exists

Quantitative: How prevalent is the phenomenon? How often does the phenomenon occur? What are the characteristics of the phenomenon?

Qualitative: What are the dimensions of the phenomenon? What variations exist? What is important about the phenomenon?

Example: A survey on the perception of students about premarital sex


2. Exploration: helps us to discover what factors or conditions/situations are related to each other; what factors are influencing each other

Quantitative: What factors are related to the phenomenon? What are the antecedents of the phenomenon?

Qualitative: What is full nature of the phenomenon? What is really going on here?

Example: A study on the relationship between self-esteem and academic performance


3.Explanation: helps to explain the causes why a certain phenomenon occurs; tells the reasons why a certain condition occurs

Quantitative: What are the measurable associations between phenomena? What factors cause the phenomenon? Does the theory explain the phenomenon?

Qualitative: How does the phenomenon work? Why does the phenomenon exist? What is the meaning of the phenomenon? How did the phenomenon occur?

Example: A study on the causes of juvenile delinquency


4. Prediction: tells of the probability that something will happen or occur; tells that when certain conditions are present, something is likely to occur

Quantitative: What will happen if we alter a phenomenon or introduce an intervention? If phenomenon X occurs, will phenomenon Y follow?

Example: The results of a study on enrolment trends will allow administrators to project how many teachers would be needed, how many classrooms will be built, etc.


5. Control: helps in promoting or preventing the occurrence of an event or situation.

Quantitative: How can we make the phenomenon happen or alter its nature or prevalence? Can the occurrence of the phenomenon be prevented or controlled?

Example: A study on the effects of praise on academic achievement

Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigm Assumptions

QUESTION: What is the nature of reality?

Quantitative: Reality is objective and singular, apart from the researcher.

Qualitative: Reality is subjective and multiple as seen by participants in a study.


QUESTION: What is the relationship of the researcher to that researched?

Quantitative: Researcher is independent from that being researched.

Qualitative: Researcher interacts with that being researched.


QUESTION: What is the role of values?

Quantitative: Value-free and unbiased.

Qualitative: Value-laden and biased.


QUESTION: What is the language of research?

Quantitative: FormalBased on set of definitionsImpersonal voiceUse of accepted quantitative words

Qualitative: InformalEvolving decisionsPersonal voiceAccepted qualitative words


QUESTION: What is the process of research?

Quantitative: Deductive processCause and effectStatic design – categories isolated

before studyContext-freeGeneralizations leading to

prediction, explanation, and understanding

Accurate and reliable through validity and reliability


QUESTION: What is the process of research?

Qualitative: Inductive processMutual simultaneous shaping of factorsEmerging design-categories identified during research processContext-boundPatterns, theories developed for understanding Accurate and reliable through verification

Chapter 2

Key Concepts and Terms in Qualitative and

Quantitative Research

The Phases and Places of ResearchStudies with humans involve two sets of people:

1. Those who do the research

2. Those who provide the information

Roles on a Research Project

- Subjects or study participants – the people who are being studied quantitative research

- Respondents – subjects who provide information to researchers by answering questions directly like filling out questionnaire

- Informants or key informants - those who provide the information in qualitative research


Sample – refers to the study participants both in quantitative and qualitative studies

Researcher or Investigator or sometimes called Scientist (quantitative studies) – person who undertakes the research

Collaborative research – a research that involves a team of professionals with both clinical and methodologic expertise


Subjects – is a term that implies to people that are acted upon by researchers

Project Director or Principal Investigator – refers to the person directing the investigation in team research

Consultants – experts needed on a short-term basis

Other roles on a research project: Funder or sponsor, Reviewers, Peer reviewers, Mentors

Research Settings

Site – is the overall location for the research

Multisite studies – studies that require a larger or more diverse sample of study participants

Settings – are the more specific places where data collection occurs; Types: Naturalistic and Laboratory

The building blocks of a study

Phenomena, Concepts, and Constructs – abstractions in which studies are based

Phenomena – used in qualitative studies

Concepts – used in quantitative studies; less complex abstraction

Constructs - used in quantitative studies; are abstractions that are deliberately and systematically invented by researchers for a specific purpose.

Theories and conceptual modelsTheory – is a systematic, abstract

explanation of some aspect of reality.

- concepts are knitted together in a coherent system to describe or explain some aspect of the world.

Note: In quantitative study, researchers often start with a theory, framework or conceptual model. In qualitative research, conceptual or sensitizing frameworks are used.

Variables

- In quantitative studies, concepts are usually referred to as variables.

Variable – means something that varies.

Examples: Weight, anxiety levels, income, body temperature

Variables – are the central building blocks of quantitative studies

Continuous, Discrete, and Categorical VariablesContinuous – have values that can be represented on

a continuum and take on wide range of values. Example: Weight

Discrete – is one that has finite number of values between any two points, representing discrete quantities. Example: Number of patients

Categorical – variables that take on only a handful of discrete nonquantitative values. Example: Blood type

Dichotomous – refers to a categorical variable that takes on only two values. Example: Sex – Male and Female

Active Versus Attribute Variables

Attribute variables – refer to the characteristics of research subjects such as age, health beliefs, or weight

Active variables – refer to variables that the researcher creates

Dependent Versus Independent Variables

Independent – presumed cause

Dependent or Criterion or Outcome – presumed effect

Definitions

Conceptual definition – presents the abstract or theoretical meaning of the concepts being studied.

- are based on theoretical formulations, on a firm understanding of relevant literature, or on researchers’ clinical experience.

Operational definition – specifies the operations that researchers must perform to collect the required information.

Data

Data – are the pieces of information obtained in the course of the investigation.

Quantitative Data – information in numeric form.

Qualitative Data – narrative descriptions

Relationships

Relationship – is a bond or a connection between phenomena.

Example: Relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer

Types:

1. Cause-and-effect or causal

2. Functional or associative

Key Challenges of Conducting Research Conceptual challenges Financial challenges Administrative challenges Practical challenges Ethical challenges Clinical challenges Methodologic challenges

Reliability, Validity, and TrustworthinessTwo most important criteria in quantitative research:Reliability – refers to the accuracy and consistency

of information obtained in the study. The term is most often associated with the methods used to measure research variables.

Validity – is a more complex concept that broadly concerns the soundness of the study’s evidence – that is, whether the findings are cogent, convincing, and well-grounded.

Reliability, Validity, and TrustworthinessMost important criterion in qualitative

research:

Trustworthiness – encompasses several different dimensions-credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability.

Dependability – refers to evidence that is consistent and stable

Trustworthiness

Confirmability – is similar to objectivity; it is the degree to which study results are derived from characteristics of participants and the study context, not from researcher biases.

Credibility – is achieved to the extent that the research methods engender confidence in the truth of the data and in the researchers’ interpretations of the data.

TRIANGULATION – is the use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth.

BIAS – is a major concern in designing a study because it can threaten the study's validity and trustworthiness.

Factors influencing bias

1. Study participants’ candor

2. Subjectivity of the researcher

3. Sample characteristics

4. Faulty methods of data collection

5. Faulty study design

Types of Bias

1. Random bias – affects only small segments of the data.

2. Systematic bias – results when the bias is consistent or uniform.

Research Control

- involves holding constant other influences on the dependent variable so that the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables can be understood.

- attempts to eliminate contaminating factors that might cloud the relationship between the variables that are of central interest.

Randomness

- a powerful tool for eliminating bias

Generalizability – the criterion used in a quantitative study to assess the extent to which the findings can be applied to other groups and settings.

Transferability – the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings.

Replication

- is an attempt to validate the findings from one study in an independent inquiry.

- essential for the development of nursing science and evidence-based practice

Chapter 3

Overview of the Research

Process in Qualitative and

Quantitative Studies

Major Steps in the Research Process: Quantitative

Phase A. The Conceptual Phase1.Formulating and Delimiting the Problem

2.Reviewing the Related Literature

3.Developing a Theoretical Framework

4.Formulating Hypotheses

Major Steps in the Research Process: QuantitativePhase B. The Design and Planning Phase

5.Selecting a Research Design

6.Identifying the Population to be Studied

7.Specifying Methods to Collect the Research Data

8.Designing the Sampling Plan

9.Finalizing and Reviewing the Research Plan

10.Conducting the Pilot Study and Making Revisions


Phase C. The Empirical Phase11.Collecting the Data

12.Preparing the Data for Analysis

Phase D. The Analytic Phase13.Analyzing the Data

14.Interpreting the Results


Phase E. The Dissemination Phase15.Communicating the Findings

16.Utilizing the Findings

Activities in a qualitative study

1. Conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study

a. Identifying the research problem

b. Doing literature reviews

c. Selecting and gaining entrée into research sites

d. Establishing the research design

e. Addressing ethical issues

Activities in a qualitative study

2. Conducting the qualitative study

3. Disseminating qualitative findings

Chapter 4

Research Problems, Research Questions,

and Hypotheses

What is a topic?

Topic - a phenomenon on which to focus.

Examples: adolescent smoking, patient compliance, coping with disability, pain management

What is a research problem?

Research problem - an enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling condition.

Note: Both qualitative and quantitative researchers identify a research problem within a broad area of interest. The purpose of research is to “solve” the problem - or to contribute to its solution - by accumulating relevant information.

Problem statement

- articulates the problems to be addressed and indicates the need to study.

Research questions - are the specific queries researchers want to answer in addressing the research problem.

Hypotheses – are predictions regarding answers to the research question pose and to be tested empirically.

Statement of purpose

- the researcher’s summary of the overall goal of a study.

Research aims or objectives

– refers to the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting the study.

Sources of Research Problems

1. Experience and clinical fieldwork

2. Nursing literature

3. Social issues

4. Theory

5. Ideas from external sources

Development and Refinement of Research Problems

1. Selecting a topic

2. Narrowing the topic

3. Evaluating research problems

How to evaluate research problems?

1. Significance of the problem

2. Researchability of the problem

3. Feasibility of addressing the problem

4. Interest to the researcher

How to determine if the problem is feasible?

1. Time and timing

2. Availability of study participants

3. Cooperation of others

4. Facilities and equipment

5. Money

6. Experience of the researcher

7. Ethical considerations

Research-related expenditures

1. Literature costs2. Personnel costs3. Study participants costs4. Supplies5. Printing and duplication costs 6. Equipment7. Computer-related expenses8. Laboratory fees9. Transportation costs

Chapter 5

Reviewing the Literature

Types of Literature:

1. Conceptual Literature

2. Research Literature or Related Studies

Note: Researchers undertake a literature review to familiarize themselves with the knowledge base.

Purposes of Literature Review

1. Identification of a research problem and development or refinement of research questions or hypotheses

2. Orientation to what is known and not known about an area of inquiry, to ascertain what research can best make a contribution to the existing base of evidence


3. Determination of any gaps or inconsistencies in a body of research

4. Determination of a need to replicate a prior study in a different setting or with a different study population

5. Identification or development of new or refined clinical interventions to test through empirical research


6. Identification of relevant theoretical or conceptual frameworks for a research problem

7. Identification of suitable designs and data collection methods for a study

8. For those developing research proposals for funding, identification of experts in the field who could be used as consultants


9. Assistance in interpreting study findings and in developing implications and recommendations

Scope of a Literature Search

1.Types of Information to Seek

Primary source research reports - descriptions of studies written by the researchers who conducted them

Secondary source research reports - descriptions of studies prepared by someone other than the original researcher

Scope of a Literature Search

2. Depth and Breadth of Literature Coverage A review included in a research report. A review included in a research proposal. A review in a thesis or dissertation. Free-standing literature review.

Locating Relevant Literature for a Research Review1. Electronic Literature Searches

Commonly used service providers: Aries Knowledge Finder (www.ariessys.com) Ebsco Information Services (www.ebsco.com) PaperChase (www.paperchase.com) SilverPlatter Information (www.silverplatter.com)

Locating Relevant Literature for a Research ReviewKey Electronic Databases for Nurse

Researchers:a. CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied

Health Literature)b. MEDLINE (Medical Literature On-Line)c. AIDSLINE (AIDS Information On-Line)d. CancerLit (Cancer Literature)e. CHID (Combined Health Information Database)

Locating Relevant Literature for a Research Review

Key Electronic Databases for Nurse Researchers:

f. EMBASE (the Excerpta Medica database)

g. ETOH (Alcohol and Alcohol Problems Science Database)

h. HealthSTAR (Health Services, Technology, Administration, and Research)

I. PsycINFO (Psychology Information)

Locating Relevant Literature for a Research Review2. Print Resources

Print indexes - are books that are used to locate articles in journals and periodicals, books, dissertations, publications of professional organizations, and government documents.

Locating Relevant Literature for a Research ReviewCommon print indexes

a. International Nursing Index

b. Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature

c. Nursing Studies Index

d. Index Medicus

e. Hospital Literature Index

Locating Relevant Literature for a Research Review2. Print Resources

Abstract Journals - summarize articles that have appeared in other journals.

Two most important abstracts:

a. Nursing abstracts

b. Psychological abstracts

Reading Research Reports

What are research journal articles?

- are reports that summarize a study or one aspect of a complex study.

Content of Research Reports

- research reports consist of introduction, method section, results section, discussion section, plus an

abstract and references.

Flow of tasks in a literature review1. Identify key words and key concepts to be

searched

2. Identify potential references through electronic or manual search

3. Retrieve promising references

4. Screen references for relevance and appropriateness (Note: Discard irrelevant and inappropriate references)

Flow of tasks in a literature review5. Read relevant reference and take notes

6. Identify new references through citations

7. Organize references

8. Analyze and integrate materials

9. Write review

Review of Literature

- This section discusses the theoretical foundations of the problem. The goal is to develop your problem conceptually and place it in the context of previous scientific work. Thus, a conceptual integration of previous research is needed. Point out the themes, link, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature with the aim to provide a clear conceptualization of the problem. Note that it is NOT the purpose of this section to display how much literature you have read. Avoid presenting a litany of past studies that are conceptually disconnected from each other.

Review of Literature

- This section provides justification of your problem and hypothesis: Why study these particular variables? Why propose these particular hypotheses? Why study the problem with this method? What differentiates your approach from what has been previously done?

Developing a conceptual context

Theories, Models, and Frameworks Theory – refers to an abstract

generalization that offers a systematic explanation about how phenomena are interrelated.

- requires at least two concepts that are related in a manner that the theory purports to explain.

Types of theories

a. Grand theories or macrotheories – purport to describe and explain large segments of the human experience.

b. Middle-range theories – attempt to explain such phenomena like decision-making, stress, self-care, health promotion, and infant attachment.

- are more restricted in scope, focusing on a narrow range of experience

Conceptual models, conceptual frameworks, or conceptual schemes

- Represent a less formal attempt at organizing phenomena than theories.

- Deal with abstractions that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme

- Lack with deductive system of propositions that asset and explain a relationship among concepts

- Provide a perspective regarding interrelated phenomena, but are more loosely structured than theories

Types of conceptual models

a. Schematic models – common in both qualitative and quantitative research representing phenomena graphically.

b. Statistical models – are playing a growing role in quantitative studies and these models use symbols to express quantitatively the nature of relationships.

Framework

Is the overall conceptual underpinnings of the study

Types of Framework

a. Conceptual– relates to the types of ideas you will be discussing

b. Theoretical – relates to how you will be discussing those ideas

The Nature of Theories and Conceptual Models Origin of theories and models

- Theory construction is a creative and intellectual enterprise that can be engaged in by anyone who is insightful, has a solid knowledge base, and has the ability to knit together observations and evidence into an intelligible pattern.

Tentative nature of theories and models A theory is a scientist’s best effort to

describe and explain phenomena; today’s successful theory may be discredited tomorrow.

Theories and models are never considered final and verified. There always remains the possibility that a theory will be modified and verified.

Purposes of theories and conceptual models Play several interrelated roles in the

progress of science. Their overall purpose is to make research

findings meaningful and generalizable. Theories allow researchers to knit together

observations and facts into an orderly scheme.

Relationship between theory and research The relationship between theory and research is

reciprocal and mutually beneficial. Theories and models are built inductively from

observations, and an excellent source for those observations is prior research, including in-depth qualitative studies.

Concepts and relationships that are validated empirically through research become the foundation of theory development.

Conceptual models used in nursing research1. Open Systems Model – Imogene King (1981)2. Theory of Culture Care and Diversity and

Universality – Madeline Leininger (1991)3. Conservation Model – Myra Levine (1973)4. Health Care Systems Model – Betty Neuman

(1989)5. Health as Expanding Consciousness –

Margaret Newman (1994)

Conceptual models used in nursing research

6. Self-Care Model – Dorothea Orem (1985)

7. Theory of Human Becoming – Rosemarie Rizzo Parse (1992, 1995)

8. Science of Unitary Human Beings – Martha Rogers (1970, 1986)

9. Adaptation Model – Sr. Callista Roy (1984, 1991)

10. Theory of Caring – Jean Watson (1999)

Other models used by nurse researchers Health Belief Model – Becker (1978) Theory of Stress and Coping – Folkman &

Lazarus (1988), Lazarus (1966) Social Cognitive Theory – Bandura (1986,

1997)

Testing, Using, and Developing a Theory or Framework: Quantitative Research

Testing a theory Testing two competing theories Using a model or theory as an organizing

structure Fitting a problem to a theory Developing a framework in a quantitative

study

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework This is the “creative” section of your work, where you

define your researcher’s theoretical/conceptual frame. It is different from the literature review, in that here you discuss your own original integration of the major theories and/or frameworks that you intend to apply, which serves as the basis of the conceptual definitions of your variables and the laws of interactions or presumed relationships among them. The build-up of arguments from the literature review, to the theoretical/conceptual framework, to the research problem and hypothesis should be clear and logical.

Research questions

- are direct rewordings of statements of purpose, phrased interrogatively rather than declaratively.

- Research questions in quantitative studies

1. Existence of relationship

2. Direction of relationship

3. Strength of relationship

4. Nature of relationship

5. Moderated relationship

6. Mediated relationship

- Moderator variable – is a variable that affects the strength or direction of an association between the independent and dependent variable.

- Mediator variable – is a variable that intervenes between the independent and dependent variable and helps to explain why the relationship exists.

- Research questions in qualitative studies

Example:

1. What is the lived experience of caring for a family member with Alzheimer’s disease at home?

Research questions (Levels of inquiry)Level 1- Questions are asked when the researcher has limited

knowledge of the topic. They usually start with “what” and are exploratory in nature.

Level 2- Questions are on relationships or effects of variables.Level 3- Questions are those which assume relationships and

effects and ask “why” of the results.

Statement of the Problem

This section presents the specific research question(s). The statement of the problem should have a several characteristics: Firstly, it should be phrased in the form of a question; secondly, the question should suggest a relationship between variables to be examined (unless the study is exploratory and descriptive). Thirdly, the research question should imply the possibility of empirical testing.

Research hypotheses

Hypothesis - is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

- it translates a quantitative research question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes.

Function of Hypotheses in Quantitative Research: are proposed solutions or answers queries about relationship between variables

Characteristics of Testable Hypotheses State expected relationships between the independent

variable (the presumed cause or antecedent) and the dependent variable (the presumed effect or outcome) within a population

Types of Hypothesis (Statement)1. Null or Statistical (H0) – state that there is no relationship

between the independent and dependent variables.2. Alternative or Research (H1) – also referred to as

substantive, declarative, or scientific- state that there is an expected relationships between variables

Types of Hypothesis (Direction)

1. Directional – is one that specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between variables.

2. Nondirectional – does not stipulate the direction of the relationship.

Wording of hypotheses

Simple versus complex hypothesesSimple – a hypothesis that expresses an expected

relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable

Complex – is a prediction of a relationship between two (or more) independent variables and/or two (or more) dependent variables

- Sometimes called as multivariate hypothesis

Hypothesis (if applicable)

This section is necessary only if you have a particular theory/framework/premise that you are testing. In the case of exploratory research, for example, a hypothesis is not necessary.

Significance of the Study(for proposal, include in INTRODUCTION; for final paper, integrate in DISCUSSION)

This section contains the theoretical and practical reasons why the research is being conducted. It is where you justify why the study should be conducted at all.

Chapter 7

Designing Ethical

Research

The Need for Ethical Guidelines

When humans are used as study participants – as they usually are in nursing research – care must be exercised in ensuring that the rights of those humans are protected

Nazi medical experiments in 1930s and 1940s are the most famous example of recent disregard for ethical conduct

Tuskegee Syphilis Study by US Public Health Service between 1932 and 1972

Ethical Dilemmas in Conducting Research Ethical dilemmas – research problems in

which participants’ rights and study demands are put in direct conflict

Codes of Ethics – have been developed to guide the efforts of researchers

Codes of Ethics

1. Nuremberg Code –developed after the Nazi atrocities were made public in the Nuremberg trials

2. Declaration of Helsinki – adopted in 1964 by the World Medical Association and then revised in 2000

3. Ethical Guidelines in the Conduct, Dissemination, and Implementation of Nursing Research (1995)

4. Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992)

The Principle of Beneficence – encompasses the maxim: Above all, do no harm.

a. Freedom from harm

b. Freedom from exploitation

c. Benefits from research

d. The risk/benefit ratio

The risk/benefit ratio

Minimal risk – is defined as risks anticipated to be no greater than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during routine physical or psychological tests or procedures.

The Principle of Respect for Human Dignity

a. The right to self-determination

Self-determination – means that prospective participants have the right to decide voluntarily whether to participate in the study, without risking any penalty or prejudicial treatment.

b. The right to full disclosure

The Principle of Justice

a. The right to fair treatment

b. The right to privacy

INFORMED CONSENT

means that participants have adequate information regarding the research, are capable of comprehending the information, and have the power of free choice, enabling them to consent to or decline participation voluntarily.

INFORMED CONSENT

1. Participant status2. Study goals3. Type of data4. Procedures5. Nature of the commitment6. Sponsorship7. Participant selection8. Potential risks

INFORMED CONSENT

9. Potential benefits10. Alternatives11. Compensation12. Confidentiality pledge13. Voluntary consent14. Right to withdraw and withhold information15. Contact information

VULNERABLE SUBJECTS

1. Children

2. Mentally or emotionally disabled people

3. Severely ill or physically disabled people

4. The terminally ill

5. Institutionalized people

6. Pregnant women

Chapter 8

Designing quantitative studies

Features associated with the quantitative approach

- A brief consideration of the major distinctions between quantitative research and qualitative research can help put quantitative research into context.

Features associated with the quantitative approach Quantitative Qualitative - Both are systematic in their approach- Objective -Subjective - Deductive - Inductive- Generalizable - Not generalizable- Numbers - Words

Features associated with the quantitative approach Both designs, quantitative and qualitative are said to be

systematic. In fact having a system or following a process is a defining principle of research.

Broadly speaking, quantitative research is thought to be objective whereas qualitative research often involves a subjective element.

It is thought that in gaining, analyzing and interpreting quantitative data, the researcher can remain detached and objective.

Often this is not possible with qualitative research where the researcher may actually be involved in the situation of the research.

Major types of Quantitative Research

Types of quantitative research include:

A. Descriptive

B. Quasi-experimental

C. Experimental

RESEARCH DESIGN IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHResearch Design – a plan or strategy for

conducting the research

- deals with matters such as selecting participants for the research and preparing for data collection.

Purposes of Research Design

1. To provide answers to research questions

2. To control variance

Procedures for Controlling Variance

1. Randomization

2. Building conditions or factors into the design as independent variables

3. Holding conditions or factors constant.

4. Statistical adjustments.

Characteristics for good research design

1. Freedom from bias

2. Freedom from confounding

3. Control of extraneous variables

4. Statistical precision for testing hypothesis

Experimental Research

Experiment – is a research situation in which at least one independent variable, called the experimental variable, is deliberately manipulated or varied by the researcher.

Experimental design – is a preconceived plan for conducting an experiment.

- Is the structure by which variables are positioned, arranged, or built into the experiment.

Experimental variable – sometimes called as experimental treatment

Criteria for a well-designed experiment1. Adequate experimental control

2. Lack of artificiality

3. Basis for comparison

4. Adequate information from the data

5. Uncontaminated data

6. No confounding of relevant variables

7. Representativeness

8. Parsimony

Experimental Validity

Types

1. Internal validity – is the basic minimum control, measurement, analysis, and procedures necessary to make the results of the experiment interpretable.

- Deals with being able to understand the data and draw conclusions fro them.

Experimental Validity

Types

2. External validity – deals with the generalizability of the experiment.

* Generalizable to: what populations, variables, situations

Threats to Internal Validity

1. History – unexpected events occur between the pre- and posttest, affecting the dependent variable.

2. Maturation – changes occurring in the participants, from growing older, wiser, more experienced, etc. during the study.

3. Testing – taking a pretest alters the result of the posttest.


4. Instrumentation – the measuring instrument is changed between pre- and posttesting or a single measuring instrument is unreliable.

5. Statistical Regression – extremely high or extremely low scores tend to regress to the mean on retesting.


6. Differential Selection of Participants – participants in the experimental and control groups have different characteristics that affect the dependent variable

7. Mortality – different participants drop out of the study in different numbers, altering the composition of the treatment groups.


8. Selection-maturation interaction - the participants selected into treatment groups have different maturation rates. Selection interactions also occur with history and instrumentation.

Threats to External Validity

1. Pretest-Treatment Interaction – the pretest sensitizes participants to aspects of the treatment and thus influence posttest scores.

2. Selection-Treatment Interaction – the nonrandom or volunteer selection of participants limits the generalizability of the study.


3. Multiple Treatment Interference – when participants receive more than one treatment, the effect of prior treatment, can affect or interact with later treatments, limiting generalizability.

4. Specificity of variables – poorly operationalized variables make it difficult to identify the setting and procedures to which the variables can be generalized.


5. Treatment Diffusion – treatment groups communicate and adopt pieces of each other’s treatment, altering the initial status of the treatments comparison.

6. Experimenter effects – conscious and unconscious actions of the researcher affects participants’ performance and responses.


7. Reactive Effects – the fact of being in a study affects participants from their normal behavior. The Hawthorne and John Henry effects are reactive responses to being in a study.

Experimental Research Designs

1. Posttest-Only Control Group

2. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

3. Solomon Four-Group Design

4. Factorial Designs

5. Repeated Measures Designs

6. Designs Extended in Time

a. Posttest- Only Time Series

b. Pretest-Posttest Time Series


1. Posttest-Only Control Group Design- Contains as many groups as there are

experimental treatments, plus a control group or comparison group. Subjects are measured only after the experimental treatments have been applied.

- Pretest – refers to a measure or test given to the subjects prior to the experimental treatments.

- Posttest - refers to a measure or test given to the subjects after the experimental treatments.


Schematic Diagram:

R G1 X O1

R G2 - O2

Where:G – indicates groupR – indicates that the members of the group are randomly selected

or assigned to each groupX – indicates an experimental treatment- – indicates no experimental treatmentOs – indicate measurement Note: vertical positioning of the Os indicates when they take place


2. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design- Contains as many groups as there are experimental

treatments, plus a control group. Subjects are measured before and after receiving the experimental treatments.

Schematic Diagram:

R G1 O1 X O3

R G2 O2 - O4


3. Solomon Four-Group Design – is a combination of the posttest-only control group design and the pretest-posttest control group design.

Schematic Diagram: R G1 O1 X O2

R G2 O3 - O4

R G3 X O5

R G4 - O6


4. Factorial Designs – involve two or more independent variables, called factor, in a single design. The levels of the independent variables taken in combination determine the cell of the design.


5. Repeated Measures Designs – are designs in which the same subject is measured more than once on the dependent variable.

Schematic Diagram:S1 X1 O - X2 O….. Xk OS2 X1O - X2 O….. Xk OS3 X1O - X2 O….. Xk OSn X1O - X2 O….. Xk O


6. Designs Extended in Time- Designs can be extended by taking additional observations in

groups. Such observations provide information about possible delayed effects of the experimental variable and about the duration of the effect

Types :a. Posttest-Only Time Seriesb. Pretest-Posttest Time Series


a. Posttest-Only Time Series

R G1 X O1 O2 O3

R G2 - O4 O5 O6

b. Pretest-Posttest Time Series

R G1 O1 X O2 O3 O4

R G2 O5 - O6 O7 O8

Quasi-experimental Research Designs

- Involves the use of intact groups or subjects in an experiment, rather than assigning subjects at random to experimental treatments.

Quasi-Experimental Designs

1. Posttest Only, Nonequivalent Control Group Design

2. Pretest-Posttest, Nonequivalent Control Group Design

3. Time Series Designs

a. Single-Group Time Series Design

b. Multiple-Group Time Series Design

Quasi-Experimental Research Designs1. Posttest-Only, Nonequivalent Control

Group Design – contains as many groups as there are experimental treatments plus a control group. Intact groups are used, and subjects are measured only once, after the experimental treatments have been applied.

Schematic Diagram:

G1 X O1

G2 - O2

Quasi-Experimental Research Designs2. Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group

Design – aids in checking the extent of group similarity, and the pretest scores may be used for statistical control or for generating gain scores.

Schematic Diagram:

G1 O1 X O3

G2 O2 - O4

Quasi-Experimental Research Designs3. Time Series Designs- Involve repeated measurement of one or more intact groups, with

an experimental treatment inserted between two of the measurements of at least one group.

Types :a. Single Group Time SeriesG O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6

b. Multiple-Group Time SeriesG O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6

G O7 O8 O9 - O10 O11 O12

Nonexperimental Research

- Is probably the single most widely used research type.

- Are used to measure attitudes, opinions, and achievements

Reasons for undertaking nonexperimental research

1. Vast number of human characteristics are inherently not subject to experimental manipulation like blood type, personality, health beliefs, and medical diagnosis


2. There are many variables that could technically be manipulated but could not be manipulated ethically

3. There are many research situations in which it is simply not practical to conduct a true experiment


4. There are some research questions for which an experimental design is not appropriate.

5. Nonexperimental research is usually needed before an experimental study can be planned

Broad classes of nonexperimental research

a. Ex post facto (from after the fact) research – means that the study has been

conducted after variations in the independent variable have occurred

-attempts to understand relationships among phenomena as they naturally occur, without any intervention


a. Ex post facto (from after the fact) research – is more often referred to as

correlational researchCorrelation – is an interrelationship or

association between two variables, that is, a tendency for variation in another

Purpose: to understand relationships among variables

Ex post facto research designs

a. Restrospective design – a design used to determine the relationship between a phenomenon existing in the present and phenomenon that occurred in the past before the study was initiated.

b. Prospective nonexperimental design- a design used to determine the relationship between the presumed cause and then goes forward in time to the presumed effect

Ex post facto research designs

c. Natural experiments – a group is exposed to natural or other phenomena that have important health consequences are compared with the nonexposed group.

d. Path analytic studies – researchers test a hypothesized causal chain among a set of independent variables, mediating variables, and a dependent variable


b. Descriptive research – the purpose of this class is to observe, describe, and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development

Descriptive research designs

1. Descriptive correlational studies- Is used to describe the relationship among

variables rather than to infer cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Univariate descriptive studies – are undertaken to describe the frequency of occurrence of a behavior or condition rather than to study relationships

Types:a. Prevalence studiesb. Incidence studies

Prevalence studies – are done to determine the prevalence rate of some condition at a particular point in time

Incidence studies – are used to measure the frequency of developing new cases.

Limitations of correlational research

Weak to reveal causal relationships Harbor biases due to self-selection into groups

being comparedSelf-selection – occurs when the members of the

groups being studied are in the groups, in part, because they differentially possess traits or characteristics extraneous to the research problem, characteristics that possibly influence or are otherwise related to the variables of the research problem

Strengths of correlational research Efficient means of collecting a large

amount of data about a problem Is often strong in realism and therefore

has an intrinsic appeal for solving practical problems and is seldom criticized for its artificiality.

Research Design

The research design that will be used in the study is the pretest-posttest control group design. The schematic diagram is presented below:R G1 O1 X O3

R G2 O2 - O4

Where: R = randomization G1 = Group 1

G2 = Group 2 X = treatment variable - = no treatment variable O1 = Pretest of Group 1 O2 = Pretest of Group 2 O3 = Posttest of Group 1 O4 = Posttest of Group 2

Research Design

The research design that will be used in the study is the descriptive-correlational research design. The design is used to describe the relationship among variables rather than to infer cause-and-effect relationships (Polit & Beck, 2004). In the study, the design is used to determine the relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer.

Research Locale

- Research can be conducted in a wide variety of locales – in health care facilities, in people’s homes, in classrooms, and so on. Researchers make decisions about where to conduct a study based on the nature of the research question and the type of information needed to address it.

Research Locale

The study will be conducted in Davao City particularly in selected tertiary hospitals, namely: Davao Doctors Hospital, San Pedro Hospital, Davao Medical Center, and BIHMI.

DDH is…..

SPH is……

DMC is……..

BIHMI is ……

Chapter 9

Sampling Designs

Sampling

What is sampling?

- is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population.

What is a sample?- Is a subset of population elements.

What is an element?- Is the most basic unit about which information is

collected.

Types of Sampling Design

1. Probability sampling – involves random selection in choosing the elements.

2. Nonprobability sampling – involves nonrandom selection in choosing the elements.

Types of Nonprobability Sampling1. Convenience Sampling – entails using the

most conveniently available people as study participants. A faculty member who distributes questionnaires to nursing students in a class is using a convenience sample, or an accidental sample.

Types of Nonprobability Sampling2. Quota Sampling – is one in which the

researcher identifies population strata and determines how many participants are needed from each stratum. By using information about population characteristics, researchers can ensure that that diverse segments are represented in the sample, preferably in the proportion in which they occur in the population.

Types of Nonprobability Sampling3. Purposive Sampling or judgmental

sampling – is based on the belief that researchers’ knowledge about the population can be used to hand-pick sample members. Researchers might decide purposely to select subjects who are judged to be typical of the population or particularly knowledgeable about the issues under study.

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple random sampling – is the most basic probability sampling design.

2. Stratified random sampling – the population is first divided into two or more strata. Types: a. Simple stratified random sampling

b. Proportionate stratified random sampling


3. Cluster sampling – there is a successive random sampling of units. The first unit is large groupings or clusters. Because of the successive stages in cluster sampling, this approach is often called multistage sampling.


4. Systematic Sampling – involves the selection of every kth case from a list or group, such as every 10th person on a patient list or every 100th person in a directory of Nurses Association members

Comparisons of Random and Nonrandom Sampling Strategies for Quantitative Research

Steps in sampling in quantitative studies1. Identify the population

2. Specify the eligibility criteria

3. Specify the sampling plan

4. Recruit the sample

Chapter 10

Collecting Data (Measures)

Instrumentation Procedures

Researchers sometimes prepare their data collection procedures along with participant procedures. The number of participants affects the choices of strategies for data collection, and vice versa. The preparation for data collection is called INSTRUMENTATION.

What is INSTRUMENTATION?

- Involves decisions about which data are necessary to answer research questions and the instruments or strategies by which data are to be gathered.

Comparisons of Instrumentation in Quantitative and Qualitative Inquiry Modes

Requirements for Quantitative studies Provide the type(s) of data required by the

research questions; Yield valid and reliable measures of

variables; Fit with the participant procedures; and Provide data at the level of measurement

required for analysis

Measures

Content: In this section, discuss the conceptual and operational definition (a description of how variables will be measured or observed) of each variable. In an experiment, the measurement of the dependent variables is described here. If using an instrument, include the source, number of items and type of scale, scoring, reliability, and validity of the instrument. If constructing your own instrument, include the details of the steps/procedures you took to develop the scale.

Format: Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

Measure (Research Instrument)- research instrument is a device designed or adopted by the researcher for data gathering

-data presented, analyzed, and interpreted in a thesis or dissertation are drawn through research instruments

-to arrive at accurate findings and conclusions, the instruments used by a researcher should be valid and reliable to objectively answer the purpose of the study as discussed in the statement of the problem

Validity and Reliability of Researcher-Made Instruments

The need to establish the validity and reliability of instruments should not be overlooked by the researcher. The instruments, when valid and reliable, measure the needed information objectively.

Validity of Researcher-Made Instruments

Validity - refers to the extent of acceptance of the instruments. The instrument is valid when based on facts; it measures what is intended to be measured. Validation of an instrument is the process of collecting evidence to support inferences. This is done to come up with the appropriate, meaningful and useful data.

Three types of validity1. Content-related evidence of validity2. Criterion-related evidence of validity3. Construct-related evidence of validity

Content-related evidence of validity- refers to the content and format of the instrument. Sample questions to be answered to this effect:-1. How appropriate is the content?-2. How comprehensive?-3. Does it logically get at the intended variable?-4. How adequately does the sample of items or questions represent the content to be assessed?-5. Is the format appropriate?

Criterion-related evidence of validity

-refers to the relationship between scores obtained using the instrument and scores obtained using one or more instruments or measures. Questions to be answered are: How strong is the relationship? How well do such scores estimate present or predict future performance of a certain type?-The measures of correlation are the statistical tools to be used to compare results. The higher the results obtained the better the instrument.

Construct-related evidence of validity

-refers to the nature of the psychological construct or characteristics being measured by the instrument. How well does this construct explain differences in the behavior of individuals or their performance of certain tasks?-Can be measured by noting group differences, changes, correlations, processes, multi-trait, multi-method ways and through factorial validity.

RELIABILITY-Refers to the measurement of internal consistency of the research instrument.-Widely used when the instrument in data gathering is in the form of a test.-The test is reliable when administered repeatedly, providing similar results.-When significant relationship exists after administering on a group of respondents, accuracy of the test is said to be achieved.

Four tests of reliability

1. Test-retest

2. Split half

3. Parallel form

4. Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 and 21

Test-Retest Method- determines the internal consistency of a research instrument

- can be done by administering the instruments on the same group of respondents repeatedly

- can be done twice or more if the researcher is not satisfied with the results however, it is advisable to do it two consecutive times at most.

- the statistical tool in computing the reliability coefficient: Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Split-half Method- is another method in determining the reliability of researcher-made instruments

- it measures the internal consistency and it can be done by dividing the number of items into two, say, odd numbered questions and even numbered questions

- Statistical tools:

1. Pearson r - to determine the reliability of the half test

2. Spearman- Brown Prophecy Formula - to determine the reliability of the whole test

Parallel form Method- is sometimes known as an equivalent form method.

- is used particularly when the instrument is in the form of an achievement test.

- is done by constructing two types of achievement tests equivalent to each other and administered on one group of respondents one after the other.

- Statistical tool: Pearson Product Moment Correlation

The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 and 21

- Kuder-Richardson is used as the test-retest and split-half methods in determining the internal consistency of the instruments.

- Formula 20 is longer and more laborious while Formula 21 is commonly used and preferred by researchers because it is quite simple in terms of mathematical computation.

- KR21 can be used only if it can be assumed that the items are of equal difficulty.

MeasuresThe study will make use of the researcher-made

instrument. It consists of three parts: Part I establishes the profile of the respondents, Part II determines the level of knowledge, and Part III highlights the level of skills and attitudes. Part I can be answered by putting a check mark beside the choices. Parts II and III can be answered by determining the scale where the respondents identified as their level. The Likert Scale will be used. Responses range from 1 to 4 where 1 means very low and 4 means very high.

The instrument will be content validated by some experts in the discipline.

Procedure

Pretest (or Pilot Phase)Content: If applicable, this section contains everything about the pretesting process, including the sample to be used, a description of the materials that will be pretested, and the actual conduct of the pretest procedures. Report the relevant results of your pretest and the resulting adjustments or modifications you make, especially in terms of how these affect or determine the final sample, instruments, and procedures that you will employ in your study.

Procedure

Actual Procedure Content: This section contains the process that will

be used when conducting the actual study and includes the step by-step “recipe” beginning with how the subjects will be contacted all the way to how the data will be collected collected. In an experiment, this is where you describe how the independent variables will be manipulated and how the extraneous variables be controlled. This section should also contain the ethical procedures to be applied in this study, for example, informed consent, debriefing procedures, etc.

Procedure

Actual Procedure Format: Begin this section with a heading (bold,

centered, upper- and lowercase). Subsections within this section have headings that are italicized and flushed left. Depending on the complexity of the design and/or procedures, additional subsections may be used (e.g., Apparatus and Materials; Manipulation of the IV; etc.)

Procedure

A letter will be sent to the heads of the different teacher training institutions asking permission to conduct the study. Upon approval, the study will start.

The pre-service secondary teachers will be competency tested using the Biological Science Competency Test. To determine the level of competence, the score will be transformed into a percentile score. The results will be used to prepare the feedback for curriculum remediation in BSEd-Biosciences.

Data Analysis

(for proposal, include in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in RESULTS)

Content: This section describes the procedures on how the data are to be (or were) analyzed, be it quantitative or qualitative data.

Format: In the proposal, begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase). In the final paper, this is integrated in the Results chapter and has no separate subsection.

Descriptive Statistics Applied to Research

Topics:

1. Frequency distribution

2. Percentages

3. Ranking

4. Measures of Centrality

5. Measures of Variability

Inferential Statistics in ResearchTypes of inferential statistics used in research:

1. Parametric – is a robust test and is applicable when data is measured in interval or ratio scales

2. Non-parametric – also known as distribution free statistics. Used in ordinal or nominal data.

Parametric Tests

1. t-test for independent groups (Between)

Purpose: to test the difference between two independent group means

Measurement Level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Interval, ratio

Guide to Widely Use Bivariate Statistical Tests

2. Paired t-test (Within)

Purpose: To test the difference between two related group means

Measurement Level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Interval, ratio

3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Between)

Purpose: To test the difference among the means of 3+ independent groups, or of 2+ independent variables

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Interval, ratio

4. Repeated-measures ANOVA (Within)

Purpose: To test the difference among the means of 3+ related groups or sets of scores

Measurement:

IV: Nominal

DV: Interval, Ratio

5. Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation (Between, Within)

Purpose: To test that a correlation is different from zero (that a relationship exists)

Measurement level:

IV: Interval, ratio

DV: Interval, ratio

Advantages of nonparametric methods1. Nonparametric methods can be applied to a wide

variety of situations because they do not have the more rigid requirements associated with their parametric counterparts.

2. Nonparametric methods can often be applied to nonnumerical data such as the genders of survey respondents.

3. Nonparametric methods usually involve simpler computations than the corresponding parametric methods and are therefore easier to understand.

Disadvantages of nonparametric methods

1. Nonparametric methods tend to waste information because exact numerical data are often reduced to a qualitative form.

2. Nonparametric tests are not as efficient as parametric tests.

Nonparametric Tests

1. Mann-Whitney U-test (Between)

Purpose: To test in the difference between the ranks of scores of two independent groups

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Ordinal

2. Median Test (Between)

Purpose: To test the difference between the medians of three or more independent groups

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Ordinal

3. Kruskal-Wallis test ( Between)

Purpose: To test the difference in the ranks of scores of 3+ independent groups

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Ordinal

4. Wilcoxon signed-rank test (Within)

Purpose: To test the difference in ranks of scores of two related groups

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Ordinal

5. Friedman test (Within)

Purpose: To test the difference in ranks of 3+ related groups

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Ordinal

6. Chi-square test ( Between)

Purpose: To test the difference in proportions of 2+ independent groups

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Nominal

7. McNemar’s test (Within)

Purpose: To test the difference in proportions for paired samples (2X2)

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Nominal

8. Fisher’s exact test (Between)

Purpose: To test difference in proportions in a 2X2 contingency table when N < 30

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Nominal

9. Spearman’s rho (Between, within)Purpose: To test that a correlation is

different from zero (that a relationship exists)

Measurement level:IV: OrdinalDV: Ordinal

10. Kendall’s tau (Between, within)

Purpose: To test that a correlation is different from zero (that a relationship exists)

Measurement level:

IV: Ordinal

DV: Ordinal

11. Phi coefficient (Between)

Purpose: To examine the magnitude of a relationship between two dichotomous variables

Measurement level:

IV: Nominal

DV: Nominal

12. Cramer’s V (Between)Purpose: To examine the magnitude of a

relationship between variables in a contingency table (not restricted to 2x2)

Measurement level:IV: NominalDV: Nominal

Data Analysis

The following are the statistical tools to be used in the study:

1. Mean –It will be used to compute the level of competence of the pre-service education students.

2. Stepwise Multiple Regression – It will be used to determine the best predictive equation model of the performance of the pre-service education students.

Level of significance is set at .05.

Limitations of the Study

(for proposal, in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in DISCUSSION)

Content: This section contains the theoretical and practical boundaries of the study. It includes the parameters of the topic, subjects and method used. In other words, it will tell the reader that it will be studying “this” but not “that”, and in “this way” but not “that way”. It also includes the limitations as to the kind of results the study will generate.

Format: This section is written in the present tense. Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

Limitations of the Study

The focus of the study is to prepare a feedback to remediate the present curriculum of teacher training institutions offering BSEd-General Sciences. The basis of the feedback is the level of competence of the pre-service secondary teachers in the Biological Science Competency Test.

The study will be conducted in Davao City and Tagum City. All PAASCU accredited TTIs are considered in the study. The study will start on September 1, 2008 and will end on December 31, 2008. The study is affected by the following: sample deficiencies, research design, and weaknesses in data collection.

REFERENCES .

Content: This section lists all references cited in the text. If an abstract rather than an actual journal/book is utilized, this should be cited as such. Electronic references (e.g., Internet sources) must also be formally cited.

Format: The heading REFERENCES should be bold, all CAPS, and centered on top of the first page of this section. References follow a hanging indent format. Single-space within entries, but double-space between entries.

APPENDIX

Content: The appendices section should include the instruments, and other special materials, tools, and instructions that were used in the study. It may also contain information that may be too detailed for the text but which some may want to refer to (e.g., complex scoring procedures; a different type of analysis). No raw data are included here.

Format: Each appendix should be placed in its own separate page, and affixed with its own heading (APPENDIX A; APPENDIX B, so on). Headings should be in boldface, uppercase, and centered on top of each page.

Methods of Research

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