METHODS OF RESEARCH DR. RUVEL J. CUASITO, SR., PECEDEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITYETHIOPIA, AFRICA

DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH

The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996).

Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions (Tuckman, 1999).

Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events (Best and Kahn, 1998).

Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).

Points to ponder!

Research can not be undertaken without related literature reviews

A thorough review of literatures helps you identify problems

Based on literatures, research questions/problems can be formulated to build your logical framework

In doing research, a proponent constantly assessing, reassessing, and makes decisions about the best possible means of obtaining information that is trustworthy.

The information gathered through research recommendations provides an insight to the researchers for future course of action to be taken for better implementation and application.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH BY FIELDSScientific researchEnvironmental researchSocial researchMedical researchEngineering & TechnologyEtc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCHBy Classification:Quantitative and Qualitative researchObservational and Experimental researchBasic researchApplied researchDevelopmental research

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is the collection of objective numerical data.

Features are classified and counted, and statistical models are constructed to analyze and explain the information that has been gathered.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Some of the tools used for this type of research include questionnaires that are given to test subjects, equipment that is used to measure something and databases of existing information.

The goal of quantitative research is to compile statistical evidence, so the questionnaires used in this method typically include yes-or-no questions or multiple-choice questions rather than open-ended questions such as essay questions.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is subjective and seeks to describe or interpret whatever is being researched.

Instead of numbers, this type of research provides information in the form of words or visual representations.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

It relies on the researcher to observe and record of what happens, such as participants' answers to open-ended questions, subjects behavior or the results of experiments. Case studies are common examples of qualitative research.

OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

Observational research is the collection of information without interference or input from the researcher.

It is the examination of things as they naturally or inherently are.

OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

The researcher simply observes, measures or records what occurs. That information is then analyzed and used to draw conclusions.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHExperimental research , the researcher sets the parameters or conditions and is able to change them to determine their effects.

Experimental research often occurs in laboratories but can occur anywhere. It merely requires the researcher to be able to control one or more conditions of the experiment.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

This method helps researchers understand how certain variables the different aspects or conditions that can change can affect whatever it is they are studying.

BASIC RESEARCH

When the purpose of research is simply to reveal or discover what is true, it can be called basic research. This type of research involves exploring that which is not known or understood.

APPLIED RESEARCH

Applied research is taking what is already known and looking for ways to use it, such as to solve problems.

Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science.

APPLIED RESEARCH

It accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-, business-, or client-driven purpose.

Applied research is contrasted with pure research (basic research) in discussion about research ideals, methodologies, programs, and projects

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

Developmental research is similar to applied research but focuses on using what is already known to improve products or existing technology or to create something new.

DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH SKILLSLearning how to conduct good research:New skills (that many people do not have)Better understanding and interpretation of the literatureRecognize new questions that need investigation

Objectivity is the key element of research

SEARCH FOR TRUTHFive sources of evidence in the pursuit of truth:Custom and traditionAuthorityPersonal experienceDeductive reasoningScientific inquiry

DEDUCTIVE REASONINGLogic.In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general assumption to specific applicationGENERAL SPECIFICAristotle and other early philosophersDrawing conclusions through categorical syllogism (arguments) [general and specific statements].All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher. Therefore, Socrates is moral.Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body mass. Sandi is into resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will become big and bulky.

INDUCTIVE REASONINGConclusions about events (general) are based on information generated through many individual and direct observations (specific).SPECIFIC GENERALResearchers observe an individual or group of individuals from a larger population based on these observations, generalizations are made back to the larger population.

INDUCTIVE REASONINGTwo kinds of induction:PerfectConclusions based on observations made from ALL members of a group or populationImperfectConclusions based on observations made from a random sample of members of a population

DEDUCTIVE VS. INDUCTIVE REASONINGDeductive:Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.Inductive:Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHODSystematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.Identifying the problemFormulating a hypothesisDeveloping the research planCollecting and analyzing the dataInterpreting results and forming conclusions

IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEMFirst, and arguably the most important, stepSeveral sourcesTheoretical basisProfessional practicePersonal experienceShear curiosityStarts as a broad question that must be narrowedProblem statement; experimental approach to the problem; etc.

PHILOSOPHY OF HIGHER EDUCATIONMENTORSHIP!Work with a professor/researcher that has established a research agendaDirected researchConsultative GuidanceResearch Completion is the sole responsibility of the research proponents and not the adviser. Not spoon feeding

RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

(Unethical practices are unacceptable)Plagiarism, violation of intellectual property laws, spoon feeding ..

FORMULATING A HYPOTHESISHypothesis:A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the researchA concrete, specific statement about the relationships between phenomenaBased on deductive reasoning

FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS2 types of hypotheses:Null hypothesis (HO)All is equal; no differences existAlternative (research) hypothesis (HA)Usually specific and opposite to the null

DEVELOPING THE RESEARCH PLANA strategy must be developed for gathering and analyzing the information that is required to test the hypotheses or answer the research questionFour parts:Selection of a relevant research methodologyIdentification of subjects or participantsDescription of the data-gathering proceduresSpecification of the data analysis techniquesPilot studies, all must be determined in advance!

COLLECTING AND ANALYZING THE DATAFollowing all the pre-determined protocolsTime in the lab collecting dataAnalyzing the composite dataControlling the environment

Easiest part of the processHowever, sometime the most time-consuming part of the process

INTERPRETING RESULTS AND FORMING CONCLUSIONSDATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF!Does the evidence support or refute the original hypotheses?Accept or reject the hypothesesConclusions should be drawn:Develop new hypotheses to explain the resultsInferences are typically made beyond the specific study

New Questions AriseResults InterpretedData CollectedQuestion IdentifiedHypotheses FormedResearch PlanClosed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996)

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

3 TypesDescriptive questionsDifference questionsRelationship questions

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

Purpose:To describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of subjects being studiedSurvey researchQualitative research

DIFFERENCE QUESTIONSPurpose:To make comparisons between or within groups.Is there a difference?Experimental researchTreatment vs. controlPre- vs. post-test comparisonsNonexperimental researchCompare one group to another based on existing characteristics

J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88.Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors. Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD. Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1. The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally tolerable passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women) underwent 30 min of cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar control period (Con) of no stretch of the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximal voluntary contraction), with twitch interpolation and electromyography, and twitch characteristics were assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after PS(max) or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary contraction was decreased at Post (28%) and at 5 (21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor unit activation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) but had recovered by 15 min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have been temporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single muscle decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation and contractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the entire period of deficit.

RELATIONSHIP QUESTIONSPurposeTo investigate the degree to which two or more variables covary or are associated with each otherRather than analyzing the differences between groups, researchers characterize the relationships among them.Extent to which variables are relatedNot to establish cause-and-effect

THEORY VS. HYPOTHESISHypothesisA belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the researchA concrete, specific statement about the relationships between phenomenaBased on deductive reasoning

TheoryA belief or assumption about how things relate to each otherA theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables with a purpose of explaining and predicting phenomenaBased on inductive reasoning

HypothesesTheoriesLawsIn an ideal world

EMPIRICISMAcquiring information and facts through the observation of our worldPragmatic observations (realistic, actual)Developing theory through experience and observationNon-scientificQuick and practical solution to a problemWith little interest in explaining when, how, or whyExample: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)

RESEARCH CLASSIFICATIONSSystem #1:Basic researchApplied researchSystem #2:Quantitative researchQualitative researchSystem #3:Experimental researchNonexperimental research

BASIC VS. APPLIED RESEARCHBasicPure, fundamental researchDiscovery of new knowledge; theoretical in natureTakes many years for the results of basic research to find some practical utilityAppliedCentral purpose to solve an immediate problemImproved products or processesInfers beyond the group or situation studiedInterpretation of results relies upon Basic research

J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Mar;43(1):21-7. Related Articles, Links Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance.Young WB, Behm DG.School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. w.young@ballarat.edu.auAIM: The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during warm-up for jumping tests has not been investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static stretching of the leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. METHODS: Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a randomised order prior to the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were control, 4 min run, static stretch, run + stretch, and run + stretch + practice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop jump were performed, which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of the leg extensor muscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of force developed, drop jump height, contact time and height/time). RESULTS: Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and the run or run + stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There were no significant differences (p

J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Aug;16(3):399-408.Power output, mechanomyographic, and electromyographic responses to maximal, concentric, isokinetic muscle actions in men and women. Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, Johnson GO, Ebersole KT, Perry SR, Bull AJ. Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln 68588, USA. jcramer@unlserve.unl.edu The purpose of this study was to examine the responses of peak torque (PT), mean power output (MP), mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) amplitudes, and mean power frequencies (MPFs) of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and vastus medialis (VM) in men and women during dynamic muscle actions. Twelve women (mean +/- SD age = 22 +/- 3 years) and 11 men (22 +/- 3 years) performed maximal, concentric, isokinetic leg extensions at velocities of 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 degrees x s(-1) on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. Piezoelectric MMG-recording sensors and bipolar surface EMG electrodes were placed over the VL, RF, and VM muscles. No sex-related differences were found among the velocity-related patterns for PT, MP, MMG amplitude, MMG MPF, or EMG MPF. There were, however, sex-related differences in the patterns of EMG amplitude across velocity. The results indicated similar velocity-related patterns of increase of MP and MMG amplitude for all 3 muscles and of EMG amplitude for the VL and VM in the women. Velocity-related decreases (p 0.05) across velocity. MMG MPF increased (p < or = 0.05) only between 240 and 300 degrees x s(-1). Overall, these findings suggested that there were sex- and muscle-specific, velocity-related differences in the associations among motor unit activation strategies (EMG amplitude and MPF) and the mechanical aspects of muscular activity (MMG amplitude and MPF). With additional examination and validation, however, MMG may prove useful to practitioners for monitoring training-induced changes in muscle power output.

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVEQuantitativeNumerical, measurable dataTraditional or positivist approachClearly stated questionsRational hypothesesDeveloped research proceduresExtraneous variable controlsLarge samplesTraditional, statistical analysesQualitativeGenerally non-numerical dataTypically anthropological and sociological research methodsObservations of a natural settingIn-depth descriptions of situationsInterpretive and descriptive

EXPERIMENTAL VS. NON-EXPERIMENTAL ExperimentalCause-and-effectExtraneous variable controlsNon-experimentalCausal-comparativeDescriptiveCorrelationalHistorical

STEPS TO EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHIdentifying the research question or problem areaInitial review of literatureDistilling the question to a specific research problemContinued review of literatureFormulation of hypothesesDetermining the basic research approachIdentifying the population and sample

Designing data collection planSelecting or developing specific data collection instruments or proceduresChoosing the method of data analysisImplementing the research planPreparing the research report

ASSIGNMENT 1PART 1Bring copies (for everyone, 4 total) of a full-text article published recently on a topic of your interest that is related to alternative power generation, industrial automation, motor controls, etc. Provide a written summary (1-2 pages, double spaced, times roman font) of your answers and answer the following questions.Youll be asked to give a brief oral presentation (5 7 min) regarding your article and your answers to the following questions:What is the research problem?What is the purpose statement?What were the delimitations of this study?What were some potential limitations of this study?What were the initial hypotheses for this study? (Optional)Where the hypotheses rejected or accepted? (Optional)What was the overall conclusion of this paper?If you were to replicate this study, describe how you would do it.

QUESTIONSIdentify the research problem.Identify the research plan.How did they collect the data? What equipment/methods/procedures did they use?How did they analyze the data?Did they support or reject the original research hypothesis? Why?

QUESTIONS6. What were the conclusions? Future studies?Identify the purpose statement.Identify the hypotheses.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONSRe-write the title using 5 8 words.Re-write the title using 15 18 words.Provide the delimitations for this study.What are 2 examples of the limitations of this study?Does this study answer the questions of the Methods section checklist?