India Study Guide

Concepts/Key Terms

1) Harappan – First civilization of India, see M 1.1

2) Aryans – Group of warrior tribes that either migrated into and conquered Northern India or emerged from the remnant of the Harappan

3) Rigveda – The earliest collection of Indian hymns, ritual texts, and treatises that was written in Sanskrit between 1500 and 500 BC, provides basis for the caste system.

4) Raja – tribal chieftain of the Aryans

5) Caste system – society in which people cannot elevate their social status, as imposed by the Aryans with Brahmanism and later, Hinduism.

6) Varna – different classes of Aryan society

7) Outcastes – “the untouchables” of Brahmanism and Hinduism who had no caste

8) Samsara – the transmigration of souls, i.e. reincarnation

9) Moksha – the end of the wheel of life, oneness with the ultimate being, Brahma

10) Brahman –the royal priests of Aryan society who came to dominate the religion, creating Brahmanism

11) Four Noble Truths – key tenants of Buddhism, see 1.2

12) Eightfold Path – the “right” ways to live and achieve enlightenment/nirvana by ending desire in Buddhism

13) Nirvana – Buddhist concept of eternal bliss freed from the material world

14) Mahayana – the “greater vehicle” of Buddhism – more inclusive

15) Dharma – the law/ethics code of the Hindu

16) Karma – the total sum of good and bad deeds done in Brahmanism, Jainism, and Hinduism. Used to determine next reincarnation status

17) Code of Manu – Law code detailing commercial, familial, and caste law, created around 200 BC

Timeline

Harappan Civilization (around 3000BC to 2000 BC) →

Aryan Civilization (1500 – approx 300 BC) – Aryans have power, numerous small states →

Mauryan Empire (300 BC – 184 BC) – Chandragupta and Ashoka rule →

Period of Domination by Foreign Powers→

Gupta Empire→

Attacks and control by the Muslim Ummayad Caliphate and the Turks (Medieval Period) →

Mughal Invaders under Akbar and Shah Jahan →

British Occupation→

Ghandi, Neru, and Jinnah (the Indian National Congress independence movement) →

Partition – Pakistan and India

Religions

Brahmanism

Jainism

Buddhism

Hinduism

10 Major Geographic Characteristics of India

1) The Indian subcontinent is a well defined physiographic region extending from the southern slopes of the Himalayas to the island of Sri Lanka.

· Very well defined geographically

· Mountains and Seas

· “Indus River” – led to the name India, is not in modern day India

· Modern India is smaller than historical India

2) Two river systems, the Ganges and the Indus form the crucial lifelines needed to support hundred of millions of people. The annual wet monsoon season is also a critical environmental element. The rivers are so important, they are worshipped as gods.

3) The Indian subcontinent lies at the heart of the world’s second largest population cluster. Together, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh have almost 1.5 BILLION people.

4) No part of the world suffers from demographic problems with the scope and urgency of South Asia - Approximately 900 people/square mile; not enough infrastructure to support the population.

5) All states of South Asia suffer from underdevelopment – although there has been some industrialization and new businesses in India, most of India remains a low tech, farming society. There has been growth in the Indian economy but there are still many undeveloped areas.

6) In general, agriculture in South Asia is comparatively inefficient and unproductive compared to other parts of Asia.

7) The great majority of South Asia’s peoples live in villages and subsist directly from the land.

8) Strong cultural regionalism marks South Asia. Areas are defined by cultural divisions.

9) European colonialism has left its impression on the political and geographic framework of South Asia.

10) India constitutes the world’s largest and most complex federal state (a state in which power is shared between the federal government and regional governments).

An Overview of India History

I. Harappan Culture – 2500 BC → 1900 BC

a. Great River Valley Civilization

b. Major Complex cities such as Mohenjo Daro

i. Enormous cities

ii. Planned streets and plumbing

c. Written Language

d. Disappeared around 1900 BC, no one knows why

e. Language remains a mystery

f. Similar to Sumerian culture

II. Aryan Invasions

a. Indo European invaders

b. Sanskrit language

c. Brahman Religion developed into Hinduism

d. Lighter skinned rulers over dark subjects, origins of caste system

III. Development of Empires

a. Maurya Empire – 300 BC

i. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya

ii. Greatest emperor – Ashoka

iii. Ashoka embraced Buddhism

iv. Decline followed with cruel, harsh rulers

IV. Disintegration and reintegration

a. 185 BC to 320 AD

b. Disintegration was the norm in India

c. There is no single line of succession in India

V. Gupta Empire

a. Golden Age of India

b. Supported the arts

c. Developed the concept of 0 in math

d. Arabic numerals created (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)

e. Medical and astronomical achievements

VI. Muslim India

a. Muslims arrive around 600 – 700

b. 1200 – Turkish invasion

c. Capital = Delhi

d. Mogul Dynasty established under Babur

e. Akbar = first great ruler of united India

f. Grandson – Shah Jahan, built Taj Mahal

g. Muslims ruled Hindus

VII. British

a. 1400’s – 1500’s: Europeans begin to arrive in India

b. Mogul Empire declines in the 1700s, the British fill the power vaccum

c. Small kingdoms under the Rajas emerged

d. Initially dominated by the East India Trading Company

e. The Company’s policies led to some unrest and the Sepoy mutiny

f. British Government assumed direct control of India

Notes on Hinduism

Hinduism is not a universal religion. It is geographically specific in the same way the Egyptian religion was specific to the ancient Egyptians. There are approximately 800,000,000 (that’s not a typo) adherents. It is almost impossible to convert to Buddhism.

I. Pantheistic

a. Everything is god, god is everything

b. God is BRAHMAN –

i. the impersonal ‘it’

ii. the ‘cosmos’

iii. An infinite, unconscious being

iv. Similar to the Taoist religion

v. No good or evil, only illusions

II. Polytheistic

a. Approximately 330 MILLION gods

b. The single Brahman manifests itself in many lesser gods

c. The most important gods are:

i. Brahma – creator

ii. Vishnu – preserver

iii. Shiva – destroyer

d. Destruction is necessary for rebirth

e. Reincarnation is a curse – the goal is to accumulate good karma and to move up in the next life. There is a hope to attain moksha or release from the karmic cycle

III. Complex, Contradictory, and Paradoxical

a. Hinduism is an eclectic mix of many ideas –

i. There is no single unifying theory of Hinduism

ii. There are some common aspects of Hinduism

iii. Many Hindus pick and choose different aspects of religion – polytheism vs. monotheism, vegetarian vs. omnivorous

Key Concepts of Hinduism

Caste

* Not based on amount of money

* Based on profession and birth

* Social group based on occupation, determines job, marriage, religion, social relations

* Cannot change

* Four Major Castes – Brahmans (priests), Kshytriyas (Warriors), Vaisyas (Merchants and Artisans) and Sudras (peasants and servants)

* Below these were the outcastes – the untouchables who performed ceremonially unclean jobs such as barbers.

* Many, many subdivisions called Jatis.

* Society is arranged in pyramid with the Brahmans on top.

Karma

* Moral debt

* Accumulation in past lives determines present status

Dharma

* Duty, determined by caste

* Different responsibilities for each caste

* Buddhism said that reincarnation is not essential. Hinduism states that reincarnation is a necessary curse needed to pay off moral debts.

* Deterministic – everything is already determined by past lives.

Reincarnation

* The transmigration of souls to new forms based off of the actions of a previous life.

Buddhism vs. Hinduism

* Buddhism rejects the caste system and says that anyone can achieve enlightenment.

* Hinduism says that one must be at the highest class (a Brahman) to have any hopes of achieving Moksha.

Today, untouchability is outlawed. There are 160 million outcastes living in India. They are often discriminated against.

Module 1 – 1

Pgs 53 – 59

Notes:

* What are the major geographic characteristics of India?

o The subcontinent of India is the size of Western Europe and is divided into Pakistan, Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

o India has a wide range of climates including wet regions, arid deserts, Himalayan Mountain ranges.

o Three regions – Plains of central India, fertile river valley of the Indus ang Ganges, and the Sub Himalayan area.

o India’s geography insured isolation with the Indian Ocean and steep mountains.

o The Indian Ocean kept invaders out while fostering trade with the Near East and China.

o Most areas are warm year-round. Extreme moisture due to the monsoons has created areas of jungle and swamp such as the Ganges.

* Who were the first settlers of India?

o The first settlers of India were Neolithic peoples that established agriculture in India around 7000 BC.

o They also domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats and created pottery.

* How was Harappan civilization discovered?

o In 1921, archaeologists discovered a planned city at Mohenjo-daro dating to around 2500 BC.

o This was an astonishing discovery because there had previously been no information about ancient Indian culture.

* What were some characteristics of Harappan civilization?

o Harappan civilization included around over 300 planned cities that had uniform houses and underground sewers. It developed over around 1000 years and its golden age was from 2500 BC – 2000 BC.

o This civilization was located in the Indus River Valley and spanned over 500,000 square miles.

o There was amazing uniformity. Blocks were standardized as well as waits. Figurines representing goddesses have also been found.

o The best known cities are Mohenjo-daro in modern day southern Pakistan and Harappa. Both were larger than 3 miles in circumference and home to tens of thousands of people.

o Cities were logically planned with blocks of houses in grid plans. Houses had drainage systems and refuse collection. The sanitation system was extremely advanced.

o Public buildings such as tenement buildings, central government buildings, granaries, and bath houses.

o The Harappans had writing. However, no one has ever deciphered their language.

* What were the similarities between Harappan and Sumerian societies?

o Harappan civilization was more than twice as large as Sumerian society.

o While Sumerian society’s luxury goods have been preserved in graves, very few graves have been found in Harappan civilization.

o Bronze was used for purely mundane tasks and not decorated in Harappan civilization.

o Both used ceramics and cotton.

* What did Indus civilization depend on?

o Intense agricultural cultivation of the fertile river valley was necessary to supply the civilization.

o A long growing season promoted growth of wheat, barley, vegetables, and cotton.

o They traded agricultural surplus with the Mesopotamians and other people to the south. They received gold from the south and lapis lazuli from the Mesopotamians.

* Why did Harappan civilization decline?

o The decline was most likely internally generated.

o Perhaps economic crisis or natural disasters led to a decline in cities. Eventually, the population returned to villages and for the next thousand years, there was no longer written language.

* Why weren’t mountains completely adequate as buffers to migration and invasion?

o There were numerous mountain passes that could be traversed.

Section 2

Pgs 59 – 69

The Aryans and the Vedic Age

* Who were the Aryans? How did they affect India’s development?

o The Aryans were either a group of people that migrated into India bringing with them the Indo-European Sanskrit language or possible a group of people descended from the Harappans around

1500 BC.

o The Rigveda, a collection of hymns and ritual texts, provides us with much of our information about them.

o They are portrayed as greatly skilled and heroic warriors. The Aryans were a collection of tribes that gradually took over and dominated Northern India.

o Using their superior military technology including chariots and bronze, along with a religious motive to conquer India, they were able to control much of India.

o They were lead by chiefs or rajas. Over several hundred years, the Aryans conquered more land, cleared jungles, and crafted iron.

* What were the major social classes of Aryan India?

o The Aryans originally classified themselves as warriors, priests, tribesmen, and subjects.

o This evolved into different strata (called varna); the Brahman priests, the Merchants and Artisans, the Shudra or peasants, and the outcasts. This evolved into a religious practice in which people were born into different castes.

* Identify the major elements of Brahmanism.

o The Brahmans began as priests of the Aryan society.

o Brahmanism evolved from the Aryans’ polytheistic religion with its emphasis on ritual sacrifice.

o Proper ritual and sacrifice became so important that it was said that it could cause a God to grant a wish.

o Brahmanism included the samsara or the transmigration of souls, and karma – the tally of good and bad deeds

o Good deeds led to better reincarnations while bad deeds led to worse reincarnations.

o The wheel of life includes animals, humans, and gods. No matter how bad life was, status could improve in the next life through good deeds.

o Brahmanism holds that life is an illusion.

* What are the main beliefs of Jainism?

o Jainism holds that souls float or sink based on how much matter they have. The more matter, the lower the soul. People should free themselves from all material possessions and hold life as sacred.

o Souls are not immaterial or infinite, they can be measured and a higher soul is less attached to worldly objects.

o Jainism was founded by Vardhamma Mahavira. It kept the ideas of reincarnation and karma from Brahmanism.

o Key beliefs include vegetarianism, nonviolence, and becoming an ascetic.

* What are the Four Noble Truths?

o These are the main tenants of Buddhism. They are:

o Life is suffering.

o Suffering is caused by desire and attachment.

o To end desire is to end suffering.

o To end desire, one must follow the 8-fold Path of the Middle Way.

* Following this path may lead to Nirvana – bliss free from reincarnation.

* How did Brahmanism change into Hinduism?

o Brahmanism was directly challenged by the religions of Buddhism and Jainism. To cope, it moved toward a more devotional and individual faith.

o Hinduism holds that the Vedas or sacred revelations are sacred texts that prescribe a caste system.

o Hinduism became more inclusive and personal. People could try to follow Hinduism to achieve a union with the supreme god that is all things; Brahman.

* Explain the concept of Dharma

o Dharma is the moral law of the Hindus. Unlike Buddhism and Jainism, it permits material gain and pleasure.

o Material gain, attained honestly, is sanctioned as well as pleasure, love, and the moksha.

* Explain the concept of Moksha.

o Moksha is similar to the Buddhist concept of Nirvana except that it is achieved in different ways. It is the release from the wheel of life and unity with Brahman.

o Moksha is the goal of all Hindus.

* Identify Bhagavad Gita, Mahabharata, Ramayana

o The Bhagavad Gita is a central Hindu ethical text. It describes the problems facing a Hindu; how to honor the dharma and achieve moksha.

o It is part of the world’s longest ancient epic; the Mahabharata.

o Ramayana was another tale of an early Indian king.

Module 1.3

Pgs 70 – 74

* How were the Indians affected by Westerners?

o The Persians had a small amount of influence in India around 500 BC because of their expanding empire. However, it greatly increased the introduction of new ideas and techniques that spread into India.

o After the Persians, the Greeks and Macedonians under Alexander the Great defeated the Indian king of West Punjab. He expanded his influence into Western India.

* How did Alexandra’s invasion strengthen Chandragupta’s rule?

o Chandragupta the ruler of a growing state in the Ganges River Valley, took advantage of Alexander’s invasion in the 300s and expanded his rule. He eventually became the ruler of North India and he founded the Mauryan Empire.

o Chandragupta defeated one of Alexander’s lieutenants and gained some of the easternmost provinces of Alexander’s empire.

* Describe the contributions of the Mauryan Empire.

o He divided the area into provinces and assigned governors. He also developed a complex bureaucracy and a regular army.

o Chandragupta financed public services and he established his capital at Pataliputra, in the Ganges Valley.

o Chandragupta had a network of agents who informed him on political situations. His chief minister, Kautilya, wrote a treatise on the manipulation of power, similar to the Legalist policies in China.

o The Mauryans established a strong authoritarian state.

* Describe some of Ashoka’s contributions.

o Ashoka was Chandragupta’s grandson and he inherited the empire.

o He ruled intelligently and creatively. He led the golden age of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka expanded the empire to its furthest boundaries.

o Ashoka embraced Buddhism after rebelling against his older brother for the throne.

o Ashoka, after slaughtering thousands in a military campaign, renounced violence and embraced Buddhism.

o He emphasized compassion, nonviolence, and adherence to the Dharma.

o After 37 years of rule, Ashoka died and his empire broke into many smaller units. However, Ashoka and the history of Indian cultural unity with the caste system, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism united India culturally, if not politically.

* Identify the Code of Manu

o The Code of Manu was created during the 100s or 200s AD and it was a law code detailing family, caste, and commercial law.

Module 1.4

Pgs 76 – 77

1) What can you infer about early Indian family life and social relations from the story?

a. Obedience to the father figure of a family was very important, as demonstrated by Rama’s obedience to his father.

b. Wealthy men could have had may different wives. Each wife wanted her son to be the heir of the father.

c. The love between a wife and husband was highly valued.

2) What do Sita’s words and actions indicate about women’s roles in Indian society?

a. Sita obviously was very devoted to Rama and loved him very much. However, she was still subservient to him. Indian women had to obey the wishes of their husbands and were beneath them socially. This is demonstrated when Sita calls her husband her ‘lord’ and obeys his desires, even when she disagrees.

3) What do you think accounts for the continuing popularity of the story of Rama throughout Indian history?

a. Rama and Sita’s story reflects a cultural ideal of love between husband and wife. Their love story and the ideals represented resonate even today.

b. The timeless ideals of the story are still believed in by many Hindus.

Module 2

Section 1

Pgs 192-195, 307-316, 646-655

* How did cultural diffusion influence the historical development of South Asia?

o Buddhism spread from India into central and southern Asia. Buddhism spread into China, where it found numerous adherents, and to other societies.

o Buddhism, in the form of the ‘greater vehicle’ or Mahayana, led to the establishment of numerous monasteries and the spread of literature from India. Buddhist monks and nuns also grew in number.

o Buddhism influenced the visual arts in China and brought with it

the architectural designs for the construction of temples.

* How did the Gupta Empire arise?

o In the 300’s AD, a state modeling itself off of the Mauryans was able to control large parts of Northern India. They were named after the founder the Mauryans, Chandragupta.

o The founder of this new empire named himself Chandragupta, after the Chandragupta of the Mauryans.

* Why was the Gupta Empire called the “Golden Age of India”?

o The Gupta Empire was powerful in military conquest and a patron of the arts and culture.

o Under Chandragupta, his son Samudragupta, and his son Chandragupta II, the empire increased its size. It overthrew the Shakas in West India and solidified a central government, although not as centralized as the Mauryans were.

o The Gupta kings were patrons of the arts and preserved many masterpieces including poems. Indian drama also became popular and numerous plays and poems were written such as The Cloud Messenger.

o In mathematics, the Arabic numerals used today were invented. A base ten system was created as well.

o The Gupta were a Hindu people but religious tolerance of all faiths was observed. Buddhist monasteries were also popular in the cities.

* What happened after the Gupta Empire?

o After the Gupta declined, India was split into several kingdoms that fought each other. These divisions promoted growth of regional culture, that is, the practices of small groups of people separated by political boundaries.