Textbook Topic Lab Manual

Chapter 7 The Axial Skeleton Exercise 9

Chapter 8The Appendicular Skeleton

Exercise 10

Chapter 9 Articulations (Joints) Exercise 11

The Skull: Bones to Know

Cranial Bones• Frontal bone• Parietal bones (2)• Occipital bone• Temporal bones (2)• Auditory ossicles (6):malleus, incus, stapes

• Sphenoid bone• Ethmoid bone

Facial Bones• Palatine bones (2)• Zygomatic bones (2)• Lacrimal bones (2)• Nasal bones (2)• Vomer bone• Maxillae (2)• Inferior nasal conchae (2)• Mandible

Other axial bones to know

• Vertebrae• C1 to C7

• C1: atlas

• C2: axis

• C7: vertebra prominens

• T1 to T12

• L1 to L5

• Sacrum• Coccyx

• Ribs• True (vertebrosternal)• False

• vertebrochondral

• vertebral (floating)

Other axial features to know:• Foramen magnum• Hard palate• Infraorbital foramen• Mastoid process• Mental foramen

Focus on structures unless lecture covered function as well.

A final note on the axial skeleton

• Lab manual, page 133:“The spinal cord ends at the superior edge of L2, but the outer covering of the cord, filled with cerebrospinal fluid, extends an appreciable distance beyond.”

How might this info be useful clinically?

1. Lumbar puncture: get CSF to see about infection (meningitis)2. Anaesthesia: straight into CSF (vs. epidural)

L3-L4 is safer (avoids spinal cord)

Transition between axial & appendicular skeleton: the pelvis! Lab manual, Figure 10.6a

(again: sacrum & coccyx is axial; everything else = hip bones = pelvic girdle = coxal bones)

Ilium, ischium, pubis, pubic symphysis, iliac crest. Know these!

Male Pelvis versus Female Pelvis

• What are the female’s unique “needs”?

• Give birth!• Carry fetus while growing!

Lab manual, Table 10.1

Anterior: Pubic arch (large angle in female), pelvic brim wider, more flared pelvic girdle (smaller acetatabula – smaller bones)

From left side: More posterior coccyx

Wider pelvic outlet, less protrusion of coccyx

Tangent: How do males and females develop differently?(How do genetic differences lead to physiological differences?)

http://ivebecomemyparents.com/2011/09/18/

Less-than-perfect accuracy:• Complex traits are not coded for by single

genes (or clusters of genes in one area)• Male chromosome is not just a chromosome

missing “girl genes”• Each chromosome stores hundreds to

thousands of genes (in reality)•

Testis-Determining Factor (TDF)immature

gonad

Y chromosome containing TDF gene

No Y chromosome (no TDF gene)

Turns on expression of other genes that cause gonad to develop as testes

Testes make testosterone

Testosterone leads to male traits (such as male pelvis)

Gonad develops into ovaries

Ovaries produce (mostly) estrogen, progesterone => “female” traits

Note: Y chromosome with mutated TDF => female!(beware, Olympic judges!

Bone projections revisited (textbook Chapter 6, lab manual Exercise 8)

• 2 basic functions of projections?

Lab manual: Review Sheet 9 and Figure 10.7

- Surfaces for muscle/ligament attachment- Help form joints (articulations)

Vertebra: note “levers” where muscles attach!

Appendicular Skeleton

• Components that you need to know:• Pectoral girdle: clavicle, scapula• Upper limb: humerus, radius, ulna, carpals (8),

metacarpals (5), phalanges (3 per digit except thumb)

• Pelvic girdle: see previous slide: pubis, ilium, ischium

• Lower limb: femur, petalla, tibia, fibula, tarsals (7: talus, calcaneus – know these specifically!), metatarsals, phalanges

Other appendicular structures/markings to know

• Acromion• Anterior border of tibia• Iliac crest• Lateral malleolus• Medial malleolus• Olecranon• Pubic arch• Pubic symphysis

Bones of the arm and legBones of the arm and leg, from proximal to distal:

Sing along with Doctor Greg, and shoot ‘em off like a pistol!

An arm has 1 humerus, 1 ulna, and, thicker toward the wrist, 1 radius;

8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges (these are not the weightiest!).

Bones of the arm and leg, from proximal to distal:

Sing along with Doctor Greg, and shoot ‘em off like a pistol!

A leg has 1 femur, 1 patella, 1 fibula, and 1 larger tibia;

7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges (I’m not ribbin’ ya!).

Bones of the arm and leg, from proximal to distal:

Sing along with Doctor Greg, and shoot ‘em off like a pistol! [Bang!]

Bones of the Arm and Leg

Melody playback:http://www.noteflight.com/scores/view/f72a6c039c165051b09a049368bdf66e3f5fab2f

Skeleton Worksheet

What was hard here?

Tibia/fibulaIschiumMetatarsals vs. phalanges

Articulations … also known as Joints(textbook Chapter 9 / lab manual Exercise 11)

Why are joints useful?

Flexibility – some parts of skeleton need to move relative to other parts.Independence – good to have some parts of skeleton isolated from others, at least partly.Developmentally, good to have separate bones (?) that can grow together.

STRUCTURAL Classification of Joints• Cartilaginous: contain (fibro)cartilage!• Fibrous: contain fibrous (collagen-rich) material (e.g.,

ligament)• Synovial: see below! (contain synovial fluid in cavities)

Synovial fluidCapsuleCapillary

Adipocytes

Synovialmembrane

Recall Figure 4-16d from 10th Martini (type of tissue membranes):Hyaline cartilage

Areolar connective tissue

Epithelial cells(simple squamous)

STRUCTURAL Classification of Joints:Cartilaginous, Fibrous, or Synovial?

Lab manual, Figure 11.1

Elbow = synovial sternum = cartilaginous fibrous synovial

Intervertebral discs and pubic symph. = (fibro)cartilaginous fibrous

FUNCTIONAL Classification of joints(How much can they move?)

• Synarthroses: can’t move!• Cartilaginous, Fibrous

• Amphiarthroses: can move a little!• Cartilaginous, Fibrous

• Diarthroses: can move more than a little!• All synovial joints are here!

Simple Model of Joint Motion10th Martini: Figure 9-2

linearangular

circumductionrotation

Joint Movement: 3 Axes of Motion

10th Martini: Figure 9-2

Not all joints can move in all 3 axes, though…..

Classification of Synovial Joints 10th Martini: Figure 9-2

Animations of movement: http://faculty.stcc.edu/AandP/AP/AP1pages/Units5to9/joints/synovial.htm

Ball and socket: 3! Saddle: 2 Condylar: 2

Hinge: 1 Pivot: 1 Gliding/Plane: 0-2(but not much movement)

What are the differences?

• Condylar versus Ball-and-Socket:

• Condylar versus Saddle:

Name that joint type!

(HIP) Saddle joint (not synovial)Ball & socket Cartilaginous

Synovial joints’ accessory structures10th Martini: Figure 9-1b

Bursa: lubricating body (fluid-filled)

Intracapsular ligament (cruciate)(Anterior & Posterior)

Fat pad

Meniscus: (C-shaped) fibrocartilage, lateral & meniscus)

Extracapsularligament (patellar)

Tendon: joins bone to muscle

Synovial joint trade-off: mobility versus stability

• What can make joints more stable (but less mobile?)• Cartilaginous or fibrous (not synovial)

• Numerous and/or strong ligaments

• Presence of other nearby bones, tendons, fat pads stabilizes/restricts the motion

• Deep sockets (hip, vs. shoulder, which is shallow)

• Thickness/strength of synovial capsule

•

Joint problems (from lab manual + textbook)

Name Problem Treatment

SprainTearing/stretching ligament (and tendon?)

RICE (Rest*, Ice, Compression,Elevation) / MICE

DislocationBone out of place Put it back! (have a pro

do this)

Arthritis= jointinflammation

OsteoarthritisWear and tear, loss of cartilage protecting bones

Anti-inflammatory meds;Joint replacement surgery (e.g, James’ femur-acetabulum problem … steel ball into steel cup!)Exercise??? (see next slide)

Rheumatoidarthritis

Autoimmune – joints are attacked by immune system

Gouty arthritis

Crystals (of uric acid) build up in synovial fluid

Worksheet: Exercise for arthritis?

• Reasons against?• Don’t want to make inflammation worse.

• Reasons for?• Don’t sit and get rusty like an old car! (Use it or lose it!)

Muscles will lose fitness, etc.• Stimulate more blood flow to damaged area.• Can still exercise without stressing the joint much

(e.g., swimming).• Keep weight down to reduce stress on weight-bearing

joints.

Bulging disc vs. herniated disc? (worksheet)

• (Clinical Case from Martini textbook)• Hernia = protrusion outside of normal area; here,

nucleus pulposus penetrates annulus fibrosis (harder outer covering)

• Bulging disc = no rupture• BOTH can impinge upon nerves (pain, numbness,

etc.)• most often a problem at lumbar level

• POSTERIOR protrusions will affect spinal nerves

Synovial joints: Triaxial, Biaxial, Monoaxial, or Nonaxial

Tri, bi, mono, non! How many axes of movement are in this joint?

Tri, bi, mono, non! Synovial classification is this song’s point!

There’s pivot, hinge, and plane: their movement’s quite constrained!

There’s condylar and saddle: two axes now are straddled!

And last, there’s ball and socket: three axes in its pocket!

Whoa-oh-oh-oh... Three, two, one, zero!

Tri, bi, mono, non! How many axes of movement are in this joint?

Tri, bi, mono, non! Synovial classification is this song’s point!

It’s this song’s point!

Students rap the red underlined words.

[etc.]

Melody playback:http://www.noteflight.com/scores/view/7f332978abe76d46b31078f06a6718f66270b152

Lab Exercise 11: key points

• Reasons for relative stability of hip, knee, and shoulder joints (see Review Sheet)

• Movements: • flexion/extension• abduction/adduction• rotation vs. circumduction• pronation/supination• dorsiflexion/plantar flexion• inversion/eversion

Lab Exercise 11: key points (continued)• Joint names to recognize (most should be straightforward)

• Temporomandibular • Intercarpal

• Atlantooccipital • Carpometacarpal

• Atlantoaxial • Metacarpophalangeal

• Intervertebral • Interphalangeal

• Costovertebral • Sacroiliac

• Sternoclavicular • Tibiofemoral

• Sternocostal • Femoropatellar

• Acromioclavicular • Tibiofibular (superior and inferior)

• Glenohumeral • Intertarsal

• Tarsometatarsal • Metatarsophalangeal

• Radioulnar (proximal and distal)