Sketches of Church History from AD33 to the Reformation

Sketches of Church History, from AD 33 tothe Reformation

by

J. C. Robertson

Christian Classics Ethereal Library

www.servantofmessiah.org

http://www.ccel.org/

Table of Contents

p. iiAbout This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 1Title Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 2Contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 14Part I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 14Chapter 1. The Age of the Apostles (A.D. 33–100). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 16Chapter 2. St. Ignatius (AD 116. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 19Chapter 3. St. Justin Martyr (AD 166). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 20Chapter 4. St. Polycarp (AD 166). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 22Chapter 5. The Martyrs of Lyons and Vienne (AD 177). . . . . . . . . . . .p. 23Chapter 6. Tertullian; Perpetua and Companions (AD 181–206. . . . . .p. 25Chapter 7. Origen (AD 185–254). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 27Chapter 8. St. Cyprian, Part I (AD 200–253). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 31Chapter 9. From Gallienus to the End of the Last Persecution (AD261–313). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 35Chapter 10. Constantine the Great (AD 313–337). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 38Chapter 11. The Council of Nicaea (AD 325). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 40Chapter 12. St. Athanasius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 47Chapter 13. The Monks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 51Chapter 14. St. Basil and St. Gregory of Naziansum; Council ofConstantinople. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 55Chapter 15. St. Ambrose (AD 374–397. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 57Chapter 16. The Temple of Serapis (AD 391). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 59Chapter 17. Church Government.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 61Chapter 18. Christian Worship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 66Chapter 19. Arcadius and Honorius (AD 395–423). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 67Chapter 20. St. John Chrysostom (AD 347–407). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 74Chapter 21. St. Augustine (AD 354–430). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 86Chapter 22. Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon (AD 431–451). . . . . .p. 88Chapter 23. Fall of the Western Empire (AD 451–476). . . . . . . . . . . .p. 89Chapter 24. Conversion of the Barbarians; Christianity in Britain. . . . . .p. 90Chapter 25. Scotland and Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 92Chapter 26. Clovis (AD 496). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 94Chapter 27. Justinian (AD 527–565). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 95Chapter 28. Nestorians and Monophysites.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 96Chapter 29. St. Benedict (AD 480–529). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

J. C. RobertsonSketches of Church History, from AD 33 to the Reformation


p. 99Chapter 30. End of the Sixth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 101Chapter 31. St Gregory the Great (AD 540–604). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 109Part II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 109Chapter 1. Mahometanism; Image-Worship (AD 612–794). . . . . . . . . .p. 110Chapter 2. The Church in England (AD 604–734). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 111Chapter 3. St. Boniface (AD 680–755. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 113Chapter 4. Pipin and Charles the Great (AD 741–814). . . . . . . . . . . .p. 116Chapter 5. Decay of Charles the Great’s Empire (AD 814–887). . . . . .p. 117Chapter 6. State of the Papacy (AD 891–1046). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 118Chapter 7. Missions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 121Chapter 8. Pope Gregory the Seventh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 125Chapter 9. The First Crusade (AD 1095–1099). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 129Chapter 10. New Orders of Monks; Military Orders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 132Chapter 11. St. Bernard (AD 1091–1153). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 134Chapter 12. Adrian IV; Alexander III; Becket; The Third Crusade (AD1153–1192). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 136Chapter 13. Innocent the Third (AD 1198–1216). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 142Chapter 14. Frederick II; St. Lewis of France (AD 1220–1270). . . . . . .p. 145Chapter 15. Peter of Murrone (AD 1294). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 146Chapter 16. Boniface VIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 149Chapter 17. The Popes at Avignon; the Ruin of the Templars (AD1303–1312). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

p. 152Chapter 18. The Popes at Avignon (continued) (AD 1314–1352). . . . . .p. 153Chapter 19. Religious Sects and Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 154Chapter 20. John Wyclif (AD c1324–1384). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 156Chapter 21. The Popes Return to Rome (AD 1367–1377). . . . . . . . . .p. 157Chapter 22. The Great Schism (AD 1378–1410). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 158Chapter 23. John Huss (AD 1369–1414). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 159Chapter 24. The Council of Constance (AD 1414–1417). . . . . . . . . . .p. 162Chapter 25. The Hussites (AD 1418–1431). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 163Chapter 26. Councils of Basel and Florence (AD 1431–9). . . . . . . . . .p. 165Chapter 27. Nicolas V and Pius II (AD 1447–1464). . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 167Chapter 28. Jerome Savonarola (AD 1452–1498). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 169Chapter 29. Julius II and Leo X (AD 1503–1521). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 170Chapter 30. Missions; The Inquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 173Indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 173Index of Scripture References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. 174Index of Pages of the Print Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv



SKETCHES OF CHURCH HISTORY.

From AD 33 to the Reformation

by the late REV. J. C ROBERTSON, M.A., CANON OF CANTERBURY,PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE TRACT COMMITTEE, LONDON:

SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE,

NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, CHARING CROSS, W.C.;43, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.C.

NEW YORK: EDWIN S. GORHAM.

1904



C O N T E N T S.

PAGE CHAPTER

PART I

1The Age of the Apostles1.

5St. Ignatius2.

10St. Justin, Martyr3.

13St. Polycarp4.

15The Martyrs of Lyons andVienne

5.

17Tertullian—Perpetua and herCompanions

6.

21Origen7.

25St Cyprian—Part I8.

27—Part II

29—Part III

31The Last Persecution9.

38Constantine the Great10.

43The Council of Nicaea11.

47St. Athanasius—Part I12.

51—Part II

54—Part III

59The Monks13.

67St. Basil and St. Gregory ofNaz.—Part I

14.

70—Part II

73St. Ambrose15.

77The Temple of Serapis16.

80Church Government17.

85Christian Worship—Part I18.

87—Part II

90—Part III

93Arcadius and Honorius19.

95St. John Chrysostom—Part I20.

2



100—Part II

103—Part III

105—Part IV

108St. Augustine—Part I21.

111—Part II

114—Part III (Donatism)

118—Part IV

120—Part V

124—Part VI (Pelagianism)

127—Part VII

128Councils of Ephesus andChalcedon

22.

131Fall of the Western Empire23.

133Conversion of theBarbarians—Christianityin Britain

24.

136Scotland and Ireland25.

140Clovis.26.

142Justinian27.

144Nestorians and Monophysites28.

147St. Benedict—Part I29.

150—Part II

152E n d o f t h e S i x t hCentury—Part I

30.

154—Part II

156St. Gregory the Great—PartI

31.

159—Part II

160—Part III

163—Part IV

PART II

169Mahometanism; Imageworship

1.

71The Church in England2.

3



73St. Boniface3.

77Pipin and Charles theGreat—Part I

4.

79—Part II

81Decay of Charles the Great’sEmpire

5.

84State of the Papacy6.

85Missions of the Ninth andTenth Centuries

7.

91Pope Gregory VII —Part I8.

93—Part II

94—Part III

96—Part IV

98The First Crusade—Part I9.

201—Part II

204—Part III

205N e w O r d e r s o fMonks—Military Orders

10.

211St. Bernard—Part I11.

213—Part II

214Adrian IV.12.

—Alexander III.—Becket.—The Third Crusade

217Innocent III—Part I13.

220—Part II

223—Part III

225—Part IV

228Frederick II—St. Lewis ofFrance—Part I

14.

229—Part II

232Peter of Murrone15.

235Boniface VIII—Part I16.

236—Part II

4



The Popes at Avignon.17.

239— R u i n o f t h eTemplars—Part I

241—Part II

245The Popes at Avignon(continued)

18.

247Religious Parties19.

249John Wyclif20.

252The Popes return to Rome21.

254The Great Schism22.

256John Huss23.

258T h e C o u n c i l o fConstance—Part I

24.

260—Part II

261—Part III

263The Hussites25.

265Councils of Basel andFlorence

26.

268Nicolas V and Pius II27.

271Jerome Savonarola—Part I28.

273—Part II

275Julius II and Leo X.29.

277Missions—The Inquisition30.

TABLE OF DATESPART I

PAGE A.D.

1Descent of the Holy Ghost Onthe Day of Pentecost

33.

3Martyrdom of St. James theLess

62.

2Persecution by Nero begins64.

2Martyrdom of St. Peter andSt. Paul

68.

3Destruction of Jerusalem byTitus

70.

5



3Persecution by Domitian95.

5Death of St. John100.

9Martyrdom of Ignatius116.

10-15Martyrdoms of Justin andPolycarp

166.

17Montanus publishes hisheresy

168.

15Persecution at Lyons andVienne

177.

18Tertullian flourishes190.

18Persecution by Severusbegins

202.

21Martyrdom of Origen’s father—.

18Martyrdom of Perpetua andher companions

206.

25Cyprian, bishop of Carthage248.

23Persecution by Decius249.

60Paul, the first hermit251.

27Troubles at Carthage;Novatian schism

—.

27Plague at Carthage253.

24Death of Origen254.

29Disagreement betweenCyprian and Stephen of Rome

—.

29Persecution by Valerian257.

31Martyrdom of Cyprian258.

40Conversion of the Gothsbegins

260.

32Valerian prisoner—Gallienustolerates Christians

261.

110Manes publishes his heresy270.

33Diocletian requires idolatryfrom soldiers, &c.,

298.

34The last general persecutionbegins

303.

44,116Separation of the Donatistsfrom the Church

311.

6



38End of the persecution313.

117Council of Arles about theDonatists

314.

44Arius begins to publish hisheresy

319.

38Constantine defeats Licinius,declares self Christian

324.

46The First General Councilheld at Nicaea

325.

—Arius condemned—The Nicene Creed

made

47Athanasius, bishop ofAlexandria

326.

48Council of Tyre335.

49Athanasius banished toTreves

—.

50Death of Arius336.

51Death of Constantine337.

52Athanasius restored to his see338.

52Second banishment ofAthanasius

341.

41Persecution in Persia343.

117Revolt, defeat, andbanishment of the Donatists

347.

93Ulfilas, bishop of the Goths348.

52Second return of St.Athanasius

349.

53Third exile of Athanasius356.

61Death of Antony the hermit—.

57Julian emperor—Paganismrestored

361.

120The Donatists recalled362.

56Athanasius restored, but againbanished

—.

57Attempt to rebuild theTemple of Jerusalem

—.

7



58Death of Julian363.

68Basil, bishop of Caesarea, inCappadocia

370.

69Gregory of Nazianzumconsecrated bishop of Sasima

372.

59Death of Athanasius373.

73Ambrose, bishop of Milan374.

69Gregory of Nazianzum goesto Constantinople

378.

70Theodosius, emperor379.

70Gregory, bishop ofConstantinople—Death ofBasil

380.

71Second General Councilheld at Constantinople

381.

— G r e g o r ywithdraws from his see

72Execution of Priscillian385.

113Baptism of Augustine387.

97Sedition at Antioch—.

75Massacre at Thessalonica,repentance of Theodosius

390.

78Destruction of the Temple OfSerapis

391.

77Death of Theodosius395.

114Augustine, bishop of Hippo—.

77Death of Ambrose397.

100Chrysostom, bishop ofConstantinople

—.

124Pelagius teaches his heresy atRome

400.

95Death of Telemachus atRome

403.

105C o u n c i l o f t h eOak—Chrysostom banished,recalled

—.

8



106Chrysostom banished toCucusus

404.

107Death of Chrysostom407.

135The Romans withdraw fromBritain

409.

93Rome taken by Alaric410.

125Pelagius and Celestius inAfrica

—.

122Conference with the Donatistsat Carthage

411.

136Ninian bishop of Whithorn412.

126Councils in the Holy Land asto Pelagius

415.

135Pelagianism put down inBritain by German & Lupus

429.

128Death of Augustine430.

129Third General Councilheld at Ephesus

431.

—Condemnation ofNestorius

136Death of Ninian—Patrickgoes into Ireland

432.

129“Robber Council” meets atEphesus

449.

136Landing of the Saxons inEngland

—.

129Fourth General Councilheld at Chalcedon

451.

—Condemnation ofEutyches

131Attila in France—Deliveranceof Orleans

—.

132Attila in Italy452.

132Rome plundered by Genseric455.

133End of the Western Empire476.

144Schism between Rome andConstantinople

484–519.

9



138Death of Patrick493.

141Conversion of Clovis496.

142Justinian, emperor527.

143The heathen schools ofAthens shut up

529.

149Benedict draws up his Rulefor monks

—.

145Jacob leader of theMonophysites

541.

145Fifth General Council held atConstantinople

553.

139Columba settles at Iona565.

142Death of Justinian—.

134Third Council ofToledo—

589.

The Spanish Churchrenounces Arianism

139Columban goes into France—.

155Gregory the Great, bishop ofRome

590.

163Mission of Augustine toEngland

596.

164Landing of Augustine inKent

597.

—Conversion ofEthelbert

166Deaths of Gregory andAugustine

604.

PART II

205Missionary labours of StColumban

589–615.

169Mahomet begins to publishhis religion

612.

169Jerusalem taken by theMussulmans

627.

169Death of Mahomet.632.

10



172Settlement of Scottishmissionaries in Holy Island

635.

172Council of Whitby664.

170Beginning of controversy asto images

724.

174Victory of Charles Martelover the Saracens

—.

173Death of the Venerable Bede734.

174Missionary Labours of StBoniface

715–755.

177Pipin becomes king of theFranks

752.

180Second Council of Nicaea787.

180Council of Frankfort794.

178Charles the Great crowned asemperor

800.

192Forgery of Constantine’sdonation (approx.)

—.

181Death of Charles the Great814.

187Missionary labours of Anskar826–865.

192Forgery of the False Decretals(approx.)

846.

185Conversion of Bulgarians,Moravians, Bohemians, &c

860–870.

206Foundation of the Order ofCluny

912.

183Otho I, emperor962.

188Conversion of Basil, greatprince of Russia

988.

184Sylvester II, pope999.

189Conversion of Norwegians.994–1030.

185Council of Sutri1046.

193Pope Leo IX.— Beginning ofHildebrand’s influence overthe papacy

1048.

193Hildebrand elected pope(Gregory VII )

1073.

11



207Foundation of the CarthusianOrder

1074.

197Death of Gregory VII1085.

208Foundation of the CistercianOrder

1098.

202Jerusalem taken in the FirstCrusade

1099.

209Order of St John (orHospitallers) founded

1113.

210Order of the Temple founded1116.

198Agreement between pope andemperor at Worms

1123.

213The Second Crusade1147–1149.

214Death of St. Bernard1153.

214Nicolas Breakspeare, anEnglishman, chosen pope(Adrian IV)

1154.

216Murder of ArchbishopThomas Becket

1170.

217The Third Crusade1189.

218Innocent III elected pope1198.

222Constantinople taken byCrusaders

1203.

219England put under aninterdict

1208.

223War against the Albigenses1208–1229.

227Fourth Council of theL a t e r a n — I n n o c e n t

1215.

sanctions the Dominicanand Franciscan Orders ofMendicant Friars

230First Crusade of St. Lewis1240.

231Second Crusade and death ofSt. Lewis

1270.

232Second Council of Lyons1274.

233Election of Pope Celestine V1294.

12



235Election of Pope BonifaceVIII

—.

235Boniface celebrates the firstjubilee

1300.

239Death of Boniface1303.

240The popes settle at Avignon1310.

243Council of Vienne—TheTemplars dissolved

1312.

253Gregory XI moves the papacyfrom Avignon to Rome

1377.

254Beginning of the GreatSchism of the West

1378.

251Death of John Wyclif1384.

258Council of Constance1414–1418.

260Pope John XXIII deposed1415.

261John Huss burnt by order ofthe Council

—.

261Election of Pope Martin Vand end of the Schism

1417.

264Religious war of Bohemiabreaks out

1418.

265Council of Basel opened1431.

267Council of Ferrara andFlorence

1438.

268Constantinople taken by theTurks

1453.

269Invention of Printing1455.

270Pope Pius II vainly attemptsa crusade

1464.

274Death of Savonarola1498.

275Death of Pope Alexander VI1503.

276Appearance of Martin Lutheras a reformer

1517.

1

13



PART I

CHAPTER I: THE AGE OF THE APOSTLES (AD 33–100)

The beginning of the Christian Church is reckoned from the great day on which the Holy Ghostcame down, according as our Lord had promised to His Apostles. At that time, “Jews, devout men,out of every nation under heaven,” were gathered together at Jerusalem, to keep the Feast ofPentecost (or Feast of Weeks), which was one of the three holy seasons at which God required Hispeople to appear before Him in the place which He had chosen (Deuteronomy xvi. 16). Many ofthese devout men there converted by what they then saw and heard, to believe the Gospel; and,when they returned to their own countries, they carried back with them the news of the wonderfulthings which had taken place at Jerusalem. After this, the Apostles went forth “into all the world,”as their Master had ordered them, to “preach the Gospel to every creature” (St Mark xvi. 15). TheBook of Acts tells us something of what they did, and we may learn something more about it fromthe Epistles. And, although this be but a small part of the whole, it will give us a notion of the rest,

2

if we consider that, while St. Paul was preaching in Asia Minor, Greece, and at Rome, the otherApostles were busily doing the same work in other countries.

We must remember, too, the constant coming and going which in those days took placethroughout the world, how Jews from all quarters went up to keep the Passover and other feasts atJerusalem; how the great Roman empire stretched from our own island of Britain as far as Persiaand Ethiopia, and people from all parts of it were continually going to Rome and returning. Wemust consider how merchants travelled from country to country on account of their trade; howsoldiers were sent into all quarters of the empire and were moved about from one country to another.And from these things we may get some understanding of the way in which the knowledge of theGospel would be spread, when once it had taken root in the great cities of Jerusalem and Rome.Thus it came to pass, that, by the end of the first hundred years after our Saviour’s birth somethingwas known of the Christian faith throughout all the Roman empire, and even in countries beyondit; and if in many cases, only a very little was known, still even that was a gain, and served as apreparation for more.

The last chapter of the Acts leaves St. Paul at Rome, waiting for his trial on account of thethings which the Jews had laid to his charge. We find from the Epistles that he afterwards got hisliberty, and returned into the East. There is reason to suppose that he also visited Spain, as he hadspoken of doing in his Epistle to the Romans (ch. xv. 28); and it has been thought by some that heeven preached in Britain; but this does not seem likely. He was at last imprisoned again at Rome,where the wicked Emperor Nero persecuted the Christians very cruelly; and it is believed that bothSt. Peter and St. Paul were put to death there in the year of our Lord 68. The bishops of Romeafterwards set up claims to great power and honour, because they said that St. Peter was the firstbishop of their church, and that they were his successors. But although we may reasonably believe

14



http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Deut.16.html#Deut.16.16

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Mark.16.html#Mark.16.15

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Rom.15.html#Rom.15.28

3

that the Apostle was martyred at Rome, there does not appear to be any good ground for thinkingthat he had been settled there as bishop of the city.

All the Apostles, except St. John, are supposed to have been martyred (or put to death for thesake of the Gospel). St. James the Less, who was bishop of Jerusalem, was killed by the Jews inan uproar, about the year 62. Soon after this, the Romans sent their armies into Judea, and, after abloody war, they took the city of Jerusalem, and destroyed the Temple.

Thirty years after Herod’s time another cruel emperor, Domitian, raised a fresh persecutionagainst the Christians (AD 95). Among those who suffered were some of his own near relations;for the Gospel had now made its way among the great people of the earth, as well as among thepoor, who were the first to listen to it. There is a story that the emperor was told that some personsof the family of David were living in the Holy Land, and that he sent for them, because he wasafraid lest the Jews should set them up as princes, and should rebel against his government. Theywere two grandchildren of St. Jude, who was one of our Lord’s kinsmen after the flesh, and thereforebelonged to the house of David and the old kings of Judah. But these two were plain countrymen,who lived quietly and contentedly on their little farm, and were not likely to lead a rebellion, or toclaim earthly kingdoms. And when they were carried before the emperor, they showed him theirhands, which were rough and horny from working in the fields; and in answer to his questions aboutthe kingdom of Christ, they said that it was not of this world, but spiritual and heavenly, and thatit would appear at the end of the world, when the Saviour would come again to judge both the quickand the dead. So the emperor saw that there was nothing to fear from them, and he let them go.

It was during Domitian’s persecution that St. John was banished to the island of Patmos, where

4

he saw the visions which are described in his “Revelation.” All the other Apostles had been longdead, and St. John had lived many years at Ephesus, where he governed the churches of the countryaround. After his return from Patmos he went about to all these churches, that he might repair thehurt which they had suffered in the persecution. In one of the towns which he visited, he noticed ayoung man of very pleasing looks, and called him forward, and desired the bishop of the place totake care of him. The bishop did so, and, after having properly trained the youth, he baptised andconfirmed him. But when this had been done, the bishop thought that he need not watch over himso carefully as before, and the young man fell into vicious company, and went on from bad toworse, until at length he became the head of a band of robbers, who kept the whole country interror. When the Apostle next visited the town, he asked after the charge which he had put into thebishop’s hands. The bishop, with shame and grief, answered that the young man was dead, and, onbeing further questioned he explained that he meant dead in sins, and told all the story. St John,after having blamed him because he had not taken more care, asked where the robbers were to befound, and set off on horseback for their haunt, where he was seized by some of the band, and wascarried before the captain. The young man, on seeing him, knew him at once, and could not bearhis look, but ran away to hide himself. But the Apostle called him back, told him that there was yethope for him through Christ, and spoke in such a moving way that the robber agreed to return to

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the town. There he was once more received into the Church as a penitent; and he spent the rest ofhis days in repentance for his sins, and in thankfulness for the mercy which had been shown to him.

St. John, in his old age, was much troubled by false teachers, who had begun to corrupt theGospel. These persons are called “heretics”, and their doctrines are called “heresy” from a Greek

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word which means “to choose”, because they chose to follow their own fancies, instead of receivingthe Gospel as the Apostles and the Church taught it. Simon the sorcerer, who is mentioned in theeighth chapter of the Acts, is counted as the first heretic, and even in the time of the Apostles anumber of others arose, such as Hymenaeus, Philetus, and Alexander, who are mentioned by St.Paul (1 Tim. i. 19f; 2 Tim. ii. 17f). These earliest heretics were mostly of the kind called Gnostics,—a word which means that they pretended to be more knowing than ordinary Christians, and perhapsSt. Paul may have meant them especially when he warned Timothy against “science” (or knowledge)“falsely so called” (1 Tim. vi. 20). Their doctrines were a strange mixture of Jewish and heathennotions with Christianity; and it is curious that some of the very strangest of their opinions havebeen brought up again from time to time by people who fancied that they had found out somethingnew, while they had only fallen into old errors, which had been condemned by the Church hundredsof years before.

St. John lived to about the age of a hundred. He was at last so weak that he could not walk intothe church; so he was carried in, and used to say continually to his people, “Little children, loveone another.” Some of them, after a time, began to be tired of hearing this, and asked him why herepeated the words so often, and said nothing else to them. The Apostle answered, “Because it isthe Lord’s commandment, and if this be done it is enough.”

CHAPTER II: ST. IGNATIUS (AD 116)

When our Lord ascended into Heaven, He left the government of His Church to the Apostles.We are told that during the forty days between His rising from the grave and His ascension, He

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gave commandments unto the Apostles, and spoke of the things belonging to the kingdom of God(Acts i. 2f). Thus they knew what they were to do when their Master should be no longer with them;and one of the first things which they did, even without waiting until His promise of sending theHoly Ghost should be fulfilled, was to choose St. Matthias into the place which had been left emptyby the fall of the traitor Judas (Acts i. 15–26).

After this we find that they appointed other persons to help them in their work. First, theyappointed the deacons to take care of the poor and to assist in other services. Then they appointedpresbyters (or elders), to undertake the charge of congregations. Afterwards, we find St. Paul sendingTimothy to Ephesus, and Titus into the island of Crete, with power to “ordain elders in every city”(Tit. i. 5), and to govern all the churches within a large country. Thus, then, three kinds (or orders)of ministers of the Church are mentioned in the Acts and Epistles. The deacons are lowest, thepresbyters, or elders, are next; and, above these, there is a higher order, made of the Apostles

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.iTim.1.html#iTim.1.19

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.iiTim.2.html#iiTim.2.17


http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Acts.1.html#Acts.1.2


http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Titus.1.html#Titus.1.5

themselves, with such persons as Timothy and Titus, who had to look after a great number ofpresbyters and deacons, and were also the chief spiritual pastors (or shepherds) of the people whowere under the care of these presbyters and deacons. In the New Testament, the name of “bishops,”(which means “overseers”) is sometimes given to the Apostles and other clergy of the highest order,and sometimes to the presbyters, but after a time it was given only to the highest order, and whenthe Apostles were dead, the bishops had the chief government of the Church. It has since beenfound convenient that some bishops should be placed above others, and should be called by highertitles, such as archbishops and patriarchs, but these all belong to the same order of bishops; just asin a parish, although the rector and the curate have different titles, and one of them is above theother, they are both most commonly presbyters (or, as we now say, priests), and so they both belongto the same “order” in the ministry.

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One of the most famous among the early bishops was St. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, the placewhere the disciples were first called Christians (Acts xi. 26). Antioch was the chief city of Syria,and was so large that it had more than two hundred thousand inhabitants. St. Peter himself is saidto have been its bishop for some years; and, although this is perhaps a mistake, it is worthremembering, because we shall find by-and-by that much was said about the bishops of Antiochbeing St. Peter’s successors, as well as the bishops of Rome.

Ignatius had known St. John, and was made bishop of Antioch about thirty years before theApostle’s death. He had governed his church for forty years or more, when the Emperor Trajancame to Antioch. In the Roman history, Trajan is described as one of the best among the emperors;but he did not treat the Christians well. He seems never to have thought that the Gospel couldpossibly be true, and thus he did not take the trouble to inquire what the Christians really believedor did. They were obliged in those days to hold their worship in secret, and mostly by night, or veryearly in the morning, because it would not have been safe to meet openly; and hence, the heathens,who did not know what was done at their meetings, were tempted to fancy all manner of shockingthings, such as that the Christians practised magic; that they worshipped the head of an ass; thatthey offered children in sacrifice; and that they ate human flesh! It is not likely that the EmperorTrajan believed such foolish tales as these; and, when he DID make some inquiry about the waysof the Christians, he heard nothing but what was good of them. But still he might think that therewas some mischief behind; and he might fear lest the secret meetings of the Christians should havesomething to do with plots against his government; and so, as I have said, he was no friend to them.

When Trajan came to Antioch, St. Ignatius was carried before him. The emperor asked what

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evil spirit possessed him, so that he not only broke the laws by refusing to serve the gods of Rome,but persuaded others to do the same. Ignatius answered, that he was not possessed by any evil spirit;that he was a servant of Christ; that by His help he defeated the malice of evil spirits; and that hebore his God and Saviour within his heart. After some more questions and answers, the emperorordered that he should be carried in chains to Rome, and there should be devoured by wild beasts.When Ignatius heard this terrible sentence, he was so far from being frightened, that he burst forth

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into thankfulness and rejoicing, because he was allowed to suffer for his Saviour, and for thedeliverance of his people.

It was a long and toilsome journey, over land and sea, from Antioch to Rome, and an old man,such as Ignatius, was ill able to bear it, especially as winter was coming on. He was to be chained,too, and the soldiers who had the charge of him behaved very rudely and cruelly to him. And nodoubt the emperor thought that, by sending so venerable a bishop in this way to suffer so fearfuland so disgraceful a death (to which only the very lowest wretches were usually sentenced), heshould terrify other Christians into forsaking their faith. But instead of this, the courage and thepatience with which St Ignatius bore his sufferings gave the Christians fresh spirit to endure whatevermight come on them.

The news that the holy bishop of Antioch was to be carried to Rome soon spread, and at manyplaces on the way the bishops, clergy, and people flocked together, that they might see him, andpray and talk with him, and receive his blessing. And when he could find time, he wrote letters tovarious churches, exhorting them to stand fast in the faith, to be at peace among themselves, toobey the bishops who were set over them, and to advance in all holy living. One of the letters waswritten to the Church at Rome, and was sent on by some persons who were travelling by a shorterway. St. Ignatius begs, in this letter, that the Romans will not try to save him from death. “I am thewheat of God,” he says, “let me be ground by the teeth of beasts, that I may be found the pure bread

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of Christ. Rather do ye encourage the beasts, that they may become my tomb, and may leave nothingof my body, so that, when dead, I may not be troublesome to any one.” He even said that, if thelions should hang back, he would himself provoke them to attack him. It would not be right forordinary people to speak in this way, and the Church has always disapproved of those who threwthemselves in the way of persecution. But a holy man who had served God for so many years asIgnatius, might well speak in a way which could not become ordinary Christians. When he wascalled to die for his people and for the troth of Christ, he might even take it as a token of God’sfavour, and might long for his deliverance from the troubles and the trials of this world, as St. Paulsaid of himself, that he “had a desire to depart, and to be with Christ” (Phil. i. 23).

He reached Rome just in time for some games which were to take place a little before Christmas;for the Romans were cruel enough to amuse themselves with setting wild beasts to tear and devourmen, in vast places called amphitheatres, at their public games. When the Christians of Rome heardthat Ignatius was near the city, great numbers of them went out to meet him, and they said that theywould try to persuade the people in the amphitheatre to see that he might not be put to death. Buthe entreated, as he had before done in his letter, that they would do nothing to hinder him fromglorifying God by his death; and he knelt down with them, and prayed that they might continue infaith and love, and that the persecution might soon come to an end. As it was the last day of thegames, and they were nearly over, he was then hurried into the amphitheatre (called the Coliseum),which was so large that tens of thousands of people might look on. And in this place (of which theruins are still to be seen), St Ignatius was torn to death by wild beasts, so that only a few of hislarger bones were left, which the Christians took up and conveyed to his own city of Antioch.

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Phil.1.html#Phil.1.23

10CHAPTER III: ST. JUSTIN MARTYR (AD 166)

Although Trajan was no friend to the Gospel, and put St. Ignatius to death, he made a law whichmust have been a great relief to the Christians. Until then they were liable to be sought out, andany one might inform against them; but Trajan ordered that they should not be sought out, although,if they were discovered, and refused to give up their faith, they were to be punished. The nextemperor, too, whose name was Hadrian (AD 117–138) did something to make their condition better;but it was still one of great hardship and danger. Notwithstanding the new laws, any governor ofa country, who disliked the Christians, had the power to persecute and vex them cruelly. And thecommon people among the heathens still believed the horrid stories of their killing children andeating human flesh. If there was a famine or a plague,—if the river Tiber, which runs through Rome,rose above its usual height and did mischief to the neighbouring buildings,— or if the emperor’sarmies were defeated in war, the blame of all was laid on the Christians. It was said that all thesethings were judgments from the gods, who were angry because the Christians were allowed to live.And then at the public games, such as those at which St. Ignatius was put to death, the people usedto cry out, “Throw the Christians to the lions! away with the godless wretches!” For, as the Christianswere obliged to hold their worship secretly, and had no images like those of the heathen gods, anddid not offer any sacrifices of beasts, as the heathens did, it was thought that they had no God atall, since the heathens could not raise their minds to the thought of that God who is a spirit, and

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who is not to be worshipped under any bodily shape. It was, therefore, a great relief when theEmperor Antoninus Pius (AD 138 to 161), who was a mild and gentle old man, ordered thatgovernors and magistrates should not give way to such outcries, and that the Christians should nolonger be punished for their religion only, unless they were found to have done wrong in someother way.

There were now many learned men in the Church, and some of these began to write books indefence of their faith. One of them, Athenagoras, had undertaken, while he was a heathen, to showthat the Gospel was all a deceit; but when he looked further into the matter, he found that it wasvery different from what he had fancied; and then he was converted, and, instead of writing againstthe Gospel, he wrote in favour of it.

Another of these learned men was Justin, who was born at Samaria, and was trained in all thewisdom of the Greeks; for the Greeks, as they were left without such light as God had given to theJews, set themselves to seek out wisdom in all sorts of ways. And, as they had no certain truth fromheaven to guide them, they were divided into a number of different parties, such as the Epicureans,and the Stoics, who disputed with St. Paul at Athens (Acts xvii. 18). These all called themselves“philosophers,” (which means, “lovers of wisdom”); and each kind of them thought to be wiserthan all the rest. Justin, then, having a strong desire to know the truth, tried one kind of philosophyafter another, but could not find rest for his spirit in any of them.

One day, as he was walking thoughtfully on the sea-shore, he observed an old man of graveand mild appearance, who was following him closely, and at length entered into talk with him. The

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old man told Justin that it was of no use to search after wisdom in the books of the philosophers,and went on to speak of God the maker of all things, of the prophecies which He had given to menin the time of the Old Testament, and how they had been fulfilled in the life and death of the blessed

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Jesus. Thus Justin was brought to the knowledge of the Gospel; and the more he learnt of it, themore was he convinced of its truth, as he came to know how pure and holy its doctrines and itsrules were, and as he saw the love which Christians bore towards each other, and the patience andfirmness with which they endured sufferings and death for their Master’s sake. And now, althoughhe still called himself a philosopher, and wore the long cloak which was the common dress ofphilosophers, the wisdom which he taught was not heathen but Christian wisdom. He lived mostlyat Rome, where scholars flocked to him in great numbers. And he wrote books in defence of theGospel against heathens, Jews, and heretics, or false Christians.

The old Emperor Antoninus Pius, under whom the Christians had been allowed to live in peaceand safety, died in the year 161, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, whom he hadadopted as his son. Marcus Aurelius was not only one of the best emperors, but in many ways wasone of the best of the heathens. He had a great character for gentleness, kindness, and justice, andhe was fond of books, and liked to have philosophers and learned men about him. But, unhappily,these people gave him a very bad notion of Christianity, and, as he knew no more of it than whatthey told him, he took a strong dislike to it. And thus, although he was just and kind to his othersubjects, the Christians suffered more under his reign than they had ever done before. All themisfortunes that took place, such as rebellions, defeats in war, plague, and scarcity, were laid tothe blame of the Christians; and the emperor himself seems to have thought that they were in fault,as he made some new laws against them.

Now the success which Justin had as a teacher at Rome had long raised the envy and malice ofthe heathen philosophers; and, when these new laws against the Christians came out, one Crescens,a philosopher of the kind called “Cynics”, or “doggish” (on account of their snarling, currish ways),

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contrived that Justin should be carried before a judge, on the charge of being a Christian. The judgequestioned him as to his belief, and as to the meetings of the Christians; to which Justin answeredthat he believed in one God and in the Saviour Christ, the Son of God, but he refused to say anythingwhich could betray his brethren to the persecutors. The judge then threatened him with scourgingand death: but Justin replied that the sufferings of this world were nothing to the glory which Christhad promised to His people in the world to come. Then he and the others who had been broughtup for trial with him were asked whether they would offer sacrifice to the gods of the heathen, andas they refused to do this, and to forsake their faith, they were all beheaded (AD 166). And onaccount of the death which he thus suffered for the Gospel, Justin has ever since been especiallystyled “The Martyr.”

CHAPTER IV: ST. POLYCARP (AD 166)

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About the same time with Justin the Martyr, St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was put to death.He was a very old man; for it was almost ninety years since he had been converted from heathenism.He had known St. John, and is supposed to have been made bishop of Smyrna by that Apostlehimself, and he had been a friend of St. Ignatius, who, as we have seen, suffered martyrdom fiftyyears before. From all these things, and from his wise and holy character, he was looked up to asa father by all the churches, and his mild advice had sometimes put all end to differences of opinionwhich but for him might have turned into lasting quarrels.

When the persecution reached Smyrna, in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, a number of Christians

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suffered with great constancy, and the heathen multitude, being provoked at their refusal to giveup their faith, cried out for the death of Polycarp. The aged bishop, although he was ready to diefor his Saviour, remembered that it was not right to throw himself in the way of danger; so he leftthe city, and went first to one village in the neighbourhood and then to another. But he was discoveredin his hiding-place, and when he saw the soldiers who were come to seize him, he calmly said,“God’s will be done!” He desired that some food should be given to them, and while they wereeating, he spent the time in prayer. He was then set on an ass, and led towards Smyrna; and, whenhe was near the town, one of the heathen magistrates came by in his chariot, and took him up intoit. The magistrate tried to persuade Polycarp to sacrifice to the gods; but finding that he could makenothing of him, he pushed him out of the chariot so roughly that the old man fell and broke his leg.But Polycarp bore the pain without showing how much he was hurt, and the soldiers led him intothe amphitheatre, where great numbers of people were gathered together. When all these saw him,they set up loud cries of rage and savage delight; but Polycarp thought, as he entered the place, thathe heard a voice saying to him, “Be strong and play the man!” and he did not heed all the shoutingof the crowd. The governor desired him to deny Christ, and said that, if he would, his life shouldbe spared. But the faithful bishop answered “Fourscore and six years have I served Christ, and Hehath never done me wrong; how then can I now blaspheme my King and Saviour?” The governoragain and again urged him, as if in a friendly way, to sacrifice; but Polycarp stedfastly refused. Henext threatened to let wild beasts loose on him, and as Polycarp still showed no fear, he said thathe would burn him alive. “You threaten me,” said the bishop, “with a fire which lasts but a shorttime; but you know not of that eternal fire which is prepared for the wicked.” A stake was then setup, and a pile of wood was collected around it. Polycarp walked to the place with a calm and cheerful

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look, and, as the executioners were going to fasten him to the stake with iron cramps, he beggedthem to spare themselves the trouble. “He who gives me the strength to bear the flames,” he said.“will enable me to remain steady.” He was therefore only tied to the stake with cords, and as hestood thus bound, he uttered a thanksgiving for being allowed to suffer after the pattern of his Lordand Saviour. When his prayer was ended, the wood was set on fire, but we are told that the flamesswept round him, looking like the sail of a ship swollen by the wind, while he remained unhurt inthe midst of them. One of the executioners, seeing this, plunged a sword into the martyr’s breast,and the blood rushed forth in such a stream that it put out the fire. But the persecutors, who wereresolved that the Christians should not have their bishop’s body, lighted the wood again, and burnt

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the corpse, so that only a few of the bones remained; and these the Christians gathered out, andgave them an honourable burial. It was on Easter eve that St. Polycarp suffered, in the year of ourLord 166.

CHAPTER V: THE MARTYRS OF LYONS AND VIENNE (AD 177)

Many other martyrs suffered in various parts of the empire under the reign of Marcus Aurelius.Among the most famous of these are the martyrs of Lyons and Vienne, in the south of France (orGaul, as it was then called), where a company of missionaries from Asia Minor had settled with abishop named Pothinus at their head. The persecution at Lyons and Vienne was begun by the mobof those towns, who insulted the Christians in the streets, broke into their houses, and committed

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other such outrages against them. Then a great number of Christians were seized, and imprisonedin horrid dungeons, where many died from want of food, or from the bad and unwholesome air.The bishop, Pothinus, who was ninety years of age, and had long been very ill, was carried beforethe governor, and was asked, “Who is the God of Christians?” Pothinus saw that the governor didnot put this question from any good feeling; so he answered, “If thou be worthy, thou shalt know.”The bishop, old and feeble as he was, was then dragged about by soldiers, and such of the mob ascould reach him gave him blows and kicks, while others, who were further off, threw anythingwhich came to hand at him; and, after this cruel usage, he was put into prison, where he died withintwo days.

The other prisoners were tortured for six days together in a variety of horrible ways. Their limbswere stretched on the rack; they were cruelly scourged; some had hot plates of iron applied to them,and some were made to sit in a red-hot iron chair. The firmness with which they bore these dreadfultrials gave courage to some of their brethren, who at first had agreed to sacrifice, so that these nowagain declared themselves Christians, and joined the others in suffering. As all the tortures wereof no effect, the prisoners were at length put to death. Some were thrown to wild beasts; but thosewho were citizens of Rome were beheaded: for it was not lawful to give a Roman citizen up to wildbeasts, just as we know from St. Paul’s case at Philippi that it was not lawful to scourge a citizen(Acts xvi. 37).

Among the martyrs was a boy from Asia, only fifteen years old, who was taken every day tosee the tortures of the rest in the hope that he might be frightened into denying his Saviour; but hewas not shaken by the terrible sights, and for his constancy he was cruelly put to death on the lastday. The greatest cruelties of all, however, were borne by a young woman named Blandina. Shewas slave to a Christian lady; and, although the Christians regarded their slaves with a kindness

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very unlike the usual feeling of heathen masters towards them, this lady seems yet to have thoughtthat a slave was not likely to endure tortures so courageously as a free person; and she was the moreafraid because Blandina was not strong in body. But the poor slave’s faith was not to be overcome.

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Day after day she bravely bore every cruelty that the persecutors could think of; and all that theycould wring out from her was, “I am a Christian, and nothing wrong is done among us!”

The heathen were not content with putting the martyrs to death with tortures, or allowing themto die in prison. They cast their dead bodies to the dogs, and caused them to be watched day andnight, lest the other Christians should give them burial; and after this, they burnt the bones, andthrew the ashes of them into the river Rhone, by way of mocking at the notion of a resurrection.For, as St. Paul had found at Athens (Acts xvii. 32), and elsewhere, there was no part of the Gospelwhich the heathen in general thought so hard to believe as the doctrine that that which is “sown incorruption” shall hereafter be “raised in incorruption;” that that which “is sown a natural body”will one day be “raised a spiritual body” (1 Cor. xv. 42–44).

CHAPTER VI: TERTULLIAN; PERPETUA AND COMPANIONS (AD 181–206)

The Emperor Marcus Aurelius died in 181, and the Church was little troubled by persecutionfor the following twenty years.

About this time a false teacher named Montanus made much noise in the world. He was bornin Phrygia, and seems to have been crazed in his mind. He used to fall into fits, and while in them,

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he uttered ravings which were taken for prophecies, or messages from heaven: and some womenwho followed him also pretended to be prophetesses. These people taught a very strict way ofliving, and thus many persons who wished to lead holy lives were deceived into running after them.One of these was Tertullian, of Carthage, in Africa, a very clever and learned man, who had beenconverted from heathenism, and had written some books in defence of the Gospel, but he was ofa proud and impatient temper, and did not rightly consider how our Lord Himself had said thatthere would always be a mixture of evil with the good in His Church on earth (St. Matt. xiii. 38,48). And hence, when Montanus pretended to set up a new church, in which there should be nonebut good and holy people, Tertullian fell into the snare, and left the true Church to join the Montanists(as the followers of Montanus were called). From that time he wrote very bitterly against the Church;but he still continued to defend the Gospel in his books against Jews and heathens, and all kindsof false teachers, except Montanus. And when he was dead, his good deeds were remembered morethan his fall, so that, with all his faults, his name has always been held in respect.

After more than twenty years of peace, there were cruel persecutions in some places, under thereign of Severus. The most famous of the martyrs who then suffered were Perpetua and hercompanions, who belonged to the same country with Tertullian, and perhaps to his own city,Carthage. Perpetua was a young married lady, and had a little baby only a few weeks old. Her fatherwas a heathen, but she herself had been converted, and was a “catechumen”— which was the namegiven to converts who had not yet been baptized, but were in a course of “catechising”, or trainingfor baptism. When Perpetua had been put into prison, her father went to see her, in the hope thathe might persuade her to give up her faith. “Father,” she said, “you see this vessel standing here;

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.iCor.15.html#iCor.15.42

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Matt.13.html#Matt.13.38 Bible:Matt.13.48

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Matt.13.html#Matt.13.38 Bible:Matt.13.48

can you call it by any other than its right name?” He answered, “No.” “Neither,” said Perpetua,

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“can I call myself anything else than what I am—a Christian.” On hearing this, her father flew ather in such anger that it seemed as if he would tear out her eyes; but she stood so quietly that hecould not bring himself to hurt her, and he went away and did not come again for some time.

In the meanwhile Perpetua and some of her companions were baptized; and at her baptism sheprayed for grace to bear whatever sufferings might be in store for her. The prison in which she andthe others were shut up was a horrible dungeon, where Perpetua suffered much from the darkness,the crowded state of the place, the heat and closeness of the air, and the rude behaviour of theguards. But most of all she was distressed about her poor little child, who was separated from her,and was pining away. Some kind Christians, however, gave money to the keepers of the prison,and got leave for Perpetua and her friends to spend some hours of the day in a lighter part of thebuilding, where her child was brought to see her. And after a while she took him to be always withher, and then she felt as cheerful as if she had been in a palace.

The martyrs were comforted by dreams, which served to give them courage and strength tobear their sufferings, by showing them visions of blessedness which was to follow. When the daywas fixed for their trial, Perpetua’s father went again to see her. He begged her to take pity on hisold age, to remember all his kindness to her, and how he had loved her best of all his children. Heimplored her to think of her mother and her brothers, and of the disgrace which would fall on allthe family if she were to be put to death as an evil-doer. The poor old man shed a flood of tears;he humbled himself before her, kissing her hands, throwing himself at her feet, and calling herLady instead of Daughter. But, although Perpetua was grieved to the heart, she could only say,“God’s pleasure will be done on us. We are not in our own power, but in His.”

One day, as the prisoners were at dinner, they were suddenly hurried off to their trial. Themarket-place, where the judge was sitting, was crowded with people, and when Perpetua was

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brought forward, her father crept as close to her as he could, holding out her child, and said, “Takepity on your infant.” The judge himself entreated her to pity the little one and the old man, and tosacrifice but, painful as the trial was, she steadily declared that she was a Christian, and that shecould not worship false gods. At these words, her father burst out into such loud cries that the judgeordered him to be put down from the place where he was standing and to be beaten with rods.Perhaps the judge did not mean so much to punish the old man for being noisy as to try whetherthe sight of his suffering might not move his daughter; but, although Perpetua felt every blow asif it had been laid upon herself, she knew that she must not give way. She was condemned, withher companions, to be exposed to wild beasts; and, after she had been taken back to prison, herfather visited her once more. He seemed as if beside himself with grief; he tore his white beard, hecursed his old age, and spoke in a way that might have moved a heart of stone. But still Perpetuacould only be sorry for him; she could not give up her Saviour.

The prisoners were kept for some time after their condemnation, that they might be put to deathat some great games which were to be held on the birthday of one of the emperor’s sons; and duringthis confinement their behaviour had a great effect on many who saw it. The gaoler himself was

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converted by it, and so were others who had gone to gaze at them. At length the appointed daycame, and the martyrs were led into the amphitheatre. The men were torn by leopards and bears;Perpetua and a young woman named Felicitas, who had been a slave, were put into nets and thrownbefore a furious cow, who tossed them and gored them cruelly; and when this was over, Perpetuaseemed as if she had not felt it, but were awaking from a trance, and she asked when the cow wasto come. She then helped Felicitas to rise from the ground, and spoke words of comfort andencouragement to others. When the people in the amphitheatre had seen as much as they wished

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of the wild beasts, they called out that the prisoners should be killed. Perpetua and the rest thentook leave of each other, and walked with cheerful looks and firm steps into the middle of theamphitheatre, where men with swords fell on them and dispatched them. The executioner who wasto kill Perpetua was a youth, and was so nervous that he stabbed her in a place where the hurt wasnot deadly; but she herself took hold of his sword, and showed him where to give her thedeath-wound.

CHAPTER VII: ORIGEN (AD 185–254)

The same persecution in which Perpetua and her companions suffered at Carthage raged alsoat Alexandria in Egypt, where a learned man named Leonides was one of the martyrs (AD 202).Leonides had a son named Origen, whom he had brought up very carefully, and had taught to getsome part of the Bible by heart every day. And Origen was very eager to learn, and was so goodand so clever that his father was afraid to show how fond and how proud he was of him, lest theboy should become forward and conceited. So when Origen asked questions of a kind which fewboys would have thought of asking, his father used to check him, but when he was asleep Leonideswould steal to his bedside and kiss him, thanking God for having given him such a child, andpraying that Origen might always be kept in the right way.

When the persecution began, Origen, who was then about seventeen years old, wished that hemight be allowed to die for his faith; but his mother hid his clothes, and so obliged him to stay athome; and all that he could do was to write to his father in prison, and to beg that he would not fear

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lest the widow and orphans should be left destitute, but would be stedfast in his faith, and wouldtrust in God to provide for their relief.

The persecutors were not content with killing Leonides, but seized on all his property, so thatthe widow was left in great distress, with seven children, of whom Origen was the eldest. A Christianlady kindly took Origen into her house; and after a short time, young as he was, he was made masterof the “Catechetical School,”, a sort of college, where the young Christians of Alexandria wereinstructed in religion and learning. The persecution had slackened for a while, but it began again,and some of Origen’s pupils were martyred. He went with them to their trial, and stood by them intheir sufferings; but although he was ill-used by the mob of Alexandria, he was himself allowed togo free.

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Origen had read in the Gospel, “Freely ye have received, freely give” (St. Matt. x. 8), and hethought that therefore he ought to teach for nothing. In order, therefore, that he might be able to dothis, he sold a quantity of books which he had written out, and lived for a long time on the price ofthem, allowing himself only about fivepence a day. His food was of the poorest kind; he had butone coat, through which he felt the cold of winter severely, he sat up the greater part of the night,and then lay down on the bare floor. When he grew older, he came to understand that he had beenmistaken in some of his notions as to these things, and to regret that, by treating himself so hardly,he had hurt his health beyond repair. But still, mistaken as he was, we must honour him for goingthrough so bravely with what he took to be his duty.

He soon grew so famous as a teacher, that even Jews, heathens, and heretics went to hear him;and many of them were so led on by him that they were converted to the Gospel. He travelled agreat deal; some of his journeys were taken because he had been invited into foreign countries thathe might teach the Gospel to people who were desirous of instruction in it, or that he might settledisputes about religion. And he was invited to go on a visit to the mother of the Emperor Alexander

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Severus, who was himself friendly to Christianity, although not a Christian. Origen, too, wrote agreat number of books in explanation of the Bible, and on other religious subjects; and he workedfor no less than eight-and-twenty years at a great book called the “Hexapla”, which was meant toshow how the Old Testament ought to be read in Hebrew and in Greek.

But, although he was a very good, as well as a very learned man, Origen fell into some strangeopinions, from wishing to clear away some of those difficulties which, as St Paul says, made theGospel seem “foolishness” to the heathen philosophers (1 Cor. i. 23). Besides this, Demetrius, thebishop of Alexandria, although he had been his friend, had some reasons for not wishing to ordainhim to be one of the clergy; and when Origen had been ordained a presbyter (or priest) in the HolyLand, where he was on a visit, Demetrius was very angry. He said that no man ought to be ordainedin any church but that of his own home; and he brought up stories about some rash things whichOrigen had done in his youth, and questions about the strange doctrines which he held. Origen,finding that he could not hope for peace at Alexandria, went back to his friend the bishop of Caesarea,by whom he had been ordained, and he spent many years at Caesarea, where he was more soughtafter as a teacher than ever. At one time he was driven into Cappadocia, by the persecution of asavage emperor named Maximin, who had murdered the gentle Alexander Severus; but he returnedto Caesarea, and lived there until another persecution began under the Emperor Decius.

This was by far the worst persecution that had yet been known. It was the first which was carriedon throughout the whole empire, and no regard was now paid to the old laws which Trajan andother emperors had made for the protection of the Christians. They were sought out, and were madeto appear in the market-place of every town, where they were required by the magistrates to sacrifice,and if they refused, were sentenced to severe punishment. The emperor wished most to get at the

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bishops and clergy; for he thought that, if the teachers were put out of the way, the people wouldsoon give up the Gospel. Although many martyrs were put to death at this time, the persecutors didnot so much wish to kill the Christians, as to make them disown their religion; and, in the hope of

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this, many of them were starved, and tortured, and sent into banishment in strange countries, amongwild people who had never before heard of Christ. But here the emperor’s plans were notablydisappointed, for the banished bishops and clergy had thus an opportunity of making the Gospelknown to those poor wild tribes, whom it might not have reached for a long time if the Church hadbeen left in quiet.

We shall hear more about the persecution in the next chapter. Here I shall only say that Origenwas imprisoned and cruelly tortured. He was by this time nearly seventy years old, and was weakin body from the labours which he had gone through in study, and from having hurt his health byhard and scanty living in his youth, so that he was ill able to bear the pains of the torture, and,although he did not die under it, he died of its effects soon after (AD 254).

Decius himself was killed in battle (AD 251), and his persecution came to an end. And whenit was over, the faithful understood that it had been of great use, not only by helping to spread theGospel, in the way which has been mentioned, but in purifying the Church, and in rousing Christiansfrom the carelessness into which too many of them had fallen during the long time of ease and quietwhich they had before enjoyed. For the trials which God sends on His people in this world are likethe chastisements of a loving Father, and, if we accept them rightly, they will all be found to turnout to our good.

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CHAPTER VIII: ST. CYPRIAN

PART I (AD 200–253)

About the same time with Origen lived St Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. He was born about theyear 200, and had been long famous as a professor of heathen learning, when he was converted atthe age of forty-five. He then gave up his calling as a teacher, and, like the first Christians atJerusalem (Acts iv. 34f), he sold a fine house and gardens, which he had near the town, and gavethe price, with a large part of his other money, to the poor. He became one of the clergy of Carthage,and when the bishop died, about three years after, Cyprian was so much loved and respected thathe was chosen in his place (AD 248).

Cyprian tried with all his power to do the duties of a good bishop, and to get rid of many wrongthings which had grown upon his Church during the long peace which it had enjoyed. But abouttwo years after he was made bishop the persecution under Decius broke out, when, as was said inthe last chapter, the persecutors tried especially to strike at the bishops and clergy, and to forcethem to deny their faith. Now Cyprian would have been ready and glad to die, if it would haveserved the good of his people; but he remembered how our Lord had said, “When they persecuteyou in this city, flee ye into another” (St. Matt. x. 23), and how He Himself withdrew from the rageof His enemies, because His “hour was not yet come” (St. John viii. 20, 59; xi. 54). And it seemedto the good bishop, that for the present it would be best to go out of the way of his persecutors. But

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.John.8.html#John.8.29 Bible:John.8.59

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.John.11.html#John.11.54

he kept a constant watch over all that was done in his church, and he often wrote to his clergy andpeople from the place where he was hidden.

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But in the meanwhile, things went on badly at Carthage. Many had called themselves Christiansin the late quiet times who would not have done so if there had been any danger about it. And now,when the danger came, numbers of them ran into the market-place at Carthage, and seemed quiteeager to offer sacrifice to the gods of the heathen. Others, who did not sacrifice, bribed some officersof the Government to give them tickets, certifying that they had sacrificed; and yet they contrivedto persuade themselves that they had done nothing wrong by their cowardice and deceit! Therewere, too, some mischievous men among the clergy, who had not wished Cyprian to be bishop,and had borne him a grudge ever since he was chosen. And now these clergymen set on the peoplewho had lapsed (or fallen) in the persecution, to demand that they should be taken back into theChurch, and to say that some martyrs had given them letters which entitled them to be admitted atonce.

In those days it was usual, when any Christian was known to have been guilty of a heavy sin,that (as is said in our Commination Service), he should be “put to open penance” by the Church;that is, that he should be required to show his repentance publicly. Persons who were in this statewere not allowed to receive the holy sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, as all other Christians thendid very often. The worst sinners were obliged to stand outside the church door, where they beggedthose who were going in to pray that their sins might be forgiven, and those of the penitents whowere let into the church had places in it separate from other Christians. Sometimes penance lastedfor years; and always until the penitents had done enough to prove that they were truly grieved fortheir sins, so that the clergy might hope that they were received to God’s mercy for their Redeemer’ssake. But as it was counted a great and glorious thing to die for the truth of Christ, and martyrswere highly honoured in the Church, penitents had been in the habit of going to them while theywere in prison awaiting death, and of entreating the martyrs to plead with the Church for the

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shortening of the appointed penance. And it had been usual, out of regard for the holy martyrs, toforgive those to whom they had given letters desiring that the penitents might be gently treated.But now these people at Carthage, instead of showing themselves humble, as true penitents wouldhave been, came forward in an insolent manner, as if they had a right to claim that they might berestored to the Church; and the martyrs’ letters (or rather what they called martyrs’ letters) wereused in a way very different from anything that had ever been allowed. Cyprian had a great dealof trouble with them; but he dealt wisely in the matter, and at length had the comfort of settling it.But, as people are always ready to find fault in one way or another, some blamed him for being toostrict with the lapsed, and others for being too easy; and each of these parties went so far as to setup a bishop of its own against him. After a time, however, he got the better of these enemies,although the straiter sect (who were called Novatianists, after Novatian, a presbyter of Rome) lastedfor three hundred years or more.

PART II (AD 253–257)

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Shortly after the end of the persecution, a terrible plague passed through the empire, and carriedoff vast numbers of people. Many of the heathen thought that the plague was sent by their gods topunish them for allowing the Christians to live; and the mobs of towns broke out against theChristians, killing some of them, and hurting them in other ways.

But instead of returning evil for evil, the Christians showed what a spirit of love they had learntfrom their Lord and Master; and there was no place where this was more remarkably shown thanat Carthage. The heathen there were so terrified by the plague that they seemed to have lost allnatural feeling, and almost to be out of their senses. When their friends fell sick, they left them todie without any care; when they were dead, they cast out their bodies into the street, and the corpses

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which lay about unburied were not only shocking to look at, but made the air unwholesome, so thatthere was much more danger of the plague than before. But while the heathen were behaving inthis way, and each of them thought only of himself, Cyprian called the Christians of Carthagetogether, and told them that they were bound to do very differently. “It would be no wonder,” hesaid, “if we were to attend to our own friends; but Christ our Lord charges us to do good to heathensand publicans also, and to love our enemies. He prayed for them that persecuted Him, and if weare His disciples, we ought to do so too.” And then the good bishop went on to tell his people whatpart each of them should take in the charitable work. Those who had money were to give it, andwere to do such acts of kindness as they could besides. The poor, who had no silver or gold tospare, were to give their labour in a spirit of love. So all classes set to their tasks gladly, and theynursed the sick and buried the dead, without asking whether they were Christian or heathens.

When the heathens saw these acts of love, many of them were brought to wonder what it couldbe that made the Christians do them, and how they came to be so kind to poor and old people, towidows, and orphans, and slaves; and how it was that they were always ready to raise money forbuying the freedom of captives, or for helping their brethren who were in any kind of trouble. Andfrom wondering and asking what it was that led Christians to do such things, which they themselveswould never have thought of doing, many of the heathen were brought to see that the Gospel wasthe true religion, and they forsook their idols to follow Christ.

After this, Cyprian had a disagreement with Stephen bishop of Rome. Rome was the greatestcity in the whole world, and the capital of the empire. There were many Christians there even inthe time of the Apostles, and, as years went on, the Church of Rome grew more and more, so thatit was the greatest, and richest, and most important church of all. Now the bishops who were at the

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head of this great church were naturally reckoned the foremost of all bishops, and had more powerthan any other, so that if a proud man got the bishopric of Rome, it was too likely that he might tryto set himself up above his brethren, and to lay down the law to them. Stephen was, unhappily, aman of this kind, and he gave way to the temptation, and tried to lord it over other bishops and theirchurches. But Cyprian held out against him, and made him understand that the bishop of Rome hadno right to give laws to other bishops, or to meddle with the churches of other countries. He showedthat, although St. Peter (from whom Stephen pretended that the bishops of Rome had receivedpower over others) was the first of the Apostles, he was not of a higher class or order than the rest;

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and, therefore, that, although the Roman bishops stood first, the other bishops were their equals,and had received an equal share in the Christian ministry. So Stephen was not able to get the powerwhich he wished for over other churches, and, after his death, Carthage and Rome were at peaceagain.

PART III (AD 257–258)

About six years after the death of the Emperor Decius, a fresh persecution arose under anotheremperor, named Valerian (AD 257). He began by ordering that the Christians should not be allowedto meet for worship, and that the bishops and clergy should be separated from their flocks. Cyprianwas carried before the governor of Africa, and, on being questioned by him, he said. “I am a Christianand a bishop. I know no other gods but the one true God, who made heaven and earth, the sea, andall that is in them. It is this God that we Christians serve; to Him we pray day and night, for ourselvesand all mankind, and for the welfare of the emperors themselves.” The governor asked him abouthis clergy. “Our laws,” said Cyprian, forbid them to throw themselves in your way, and I may notinform against them; but if they be sought after, they will be found, each at his post.” The governor

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said that no Christians must meet for worship under pain of death; and he sentenced Cyprian to bebanished to a place called Curubis, about forty miles from Carthage. It was a pleasant abode, andCyprian lived there a year, during which time he was often visited by his friends, and wrote manyletters of advice and comfort to his brethren. And, as many of these were worse treated than himself,by being carried off into savage places, or set to work underground in mines, he did all that hecould to relieve their distress, by sending them money and other presents.

At the end of the year, the bishop was carried back to Carthage, where a new governor had justarrived. The emperor had found that his first law against the Christians was of little use; so he nowmade a second law, which was much more severe. It ordered that bishops and clergy should be putto death; that such Christians as were persons of worldly rank should lose all that they had, and bebanished or killed; but it said nothing about the poorer Christians, who do not seem to have beenin any danger. Cyprian thought that his time was now come; and when his friends entreated himto save himself by flight, he refused. He was carried off to the governor’s country house, about sixmiles from Carthage, where he was treated with much respect, and was allowed to have somefriends with him at supper. Great numbers of his people, on hearing that he was seized, went fromCarthage to the place where he was, and watched all night outside the house in fear lest their bishopshould be put to death, or carried off into banishment without their knowledge. Next morningCyprian was led to the place of judgment, which was a little way from the governor’s palace. Hewas heated with the walk, under a burning sun; and, as he was waiting for the governor’s arrival,a soldier of the guard, who had once been a Christian, kindly offered him some change of clothes.“Why,” said the bishop, “should we trouble ourselves to remedy evils which will probably cometo an end to-day?”

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The governor took his seat, and required Cyprian to sacrifice to the gods. He refused; and thegovernor then desired him to consider his safety. “In so righteous a cause,” answered the bishop,“there is no need of consideration;” and, on hearing the sentence, which condemned him to be

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beheaded, he exclaimed, “Praise be to God!” A cry arose from the Christians, “Let us go and bebeheaded with him!” He was then led by soldiers to the place of execution. Many of his peopleclimbed up into the trees which surrounded it, that they might see the last of their good bishop.After having prayed, he took off his upper clothing; he gave some money to the executioner, andas it was necessary that he should be blindfolded before suffering, he tied the bandage over his owneyes. Two of his friends then bound his hands, and the Christians placed cloths and handkerchiefsaround him, that they might catch some of his blood. And thus St. Cyprian was martyred, in theyear 258.

Valerian’s attempts against the Gospel were all in vain. The Church had been purified andstrengthened by the persecution under Decius, so that there were now very few who fell away forfear of death. The faith was spread by the banished bishops, in the same way as it had been in thelast persecution (see page 25); and, as has ever been found, “the blood of the martyrs was the seedof the Church.”

CHAPTER IX: FROM GALLIENUSTO THE END OF THE LAST PERSECUTION (AD 261–313)

Valerian, who had treated the Christians so cruelly, came to a miserable end. He led his armyinto Persia, where he was defeated and taken prisoner. He was kept for some time in captivity; and

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we are told that he used to be led forth, loaded with chains, but with the purple robes of an emperorthrown over him, that the Persians might mock at his misfortunes. And when he had died from theeffects of shame and grief, it is said that his skin was stuffed with straw, and was kept in a temple,as a remembrance of the triumph which the Persians had gained over the Romans, whose pride hadnever been so humbled before.

When Valerian was taken prisoner, his son Gallienus became emperor (AD 261). Gallienussent forth a law by which the Christians, for the first time, got the liberty of serving God withoutthe risk of being persecuted. We might think him a good emperor for making such a law; but hereally does not deserve much credit for it, since he seems to have made it merely because he didnot care much either for his own religion, or for any other.

And now there is hardly anything to be said of the next forty years, except that the Christiansenjoyed peace and prosperity. Instead of being obliged to hold their services in the upper rooms ofhouses or in burial-places under ground, and in the dead of night, they built splendid churches,which they furnished with gold and silver plate, and with other costly ornaments. Christians wereappointed to high offices, such as the government of countries, and many of them held places inthe emperor’s palace. And, now that there was no danger or loss to be risked by being Christians,multitudes of people joined the Church who would have kept at a distance from it if there had beenanything to fear. But, unhappily, the Christians did not make a good use of all their prosperity.Many of them grew worldly and careless, and had little of the Christian about them except the

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name; and they quarrelled and disputed among themselves, as if they were no better than mereheathens. But it pleased God to punish them severely for their faults, for at length there came sucha persecution as had never before been known.

At this time there were no fewer than four emperors at once; for Diocletian, who became emperor

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in the year 284, afterwards took in Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius, to share his power, andto help him in the labour of government. Galerius and Constantius, however, were not quite sohigh, and had not such full authority, as the other two. Galerius married Diocletian’s daughter, andit was supposed that both this lady and the empress, her mother, were Christians. The priests andothers, whose interest it was to keep up the old heathenism, began to be afraid lest the empressesshould make Christians of their husbands; and they sought how this might be prevented.

Now the heathens had some ways by which they used to try to find out the will of their gods.Sometimes they offered sacrifices of beasts, and, when the beasts were killed, they cut them open,and judged from the appearance of the inside, whether the gods were well pleased or angry. Andat certain places there were what they called oracles, where people who wished to know the willof the gods went through some ceremonies, and expected a voice to come from this or that god inanswer to them. Sure enough, the voice very often did come, although it was not really from anygod, but was managed by the juggling of the priests. And the answers which these voices gave wereoften contrived very cunningly, that they might have more than one meaning, so that, howeverthings might turn out, the oracle was sure to come true. And now the priests set to frighten Diocletianwith tricks of this kind. When he sacrificed, the insides of the victims (as the beasts offered insacrifice were called) were said to look in such a way as to show that the gods were angry. Whenhe consulted the oracles, answers were given declaring that, so long as Christians were allowed tolive on the earth, the gods would be displeased. And thus Diocletian, although at first he had beeninclined to let them alone, became terrified, and was ready to persecute.

The first order against the Christians was a proclamation requiring that all soldiers, and allpersons who held any office under the emperor, should sacrifice to the heathen gods (AD 298).

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And five years after this, Galerius, who was a cruel man, and very bitter against the Christians(although his wife was supposed to be one), persuaded Diocletian to begin a persecution in earnest.

Diocletian did not usually live at Rome, like the earlier emperors, but at Nicomedia, a town inAsia Minor, on the shore of the Propontis (now called the Sea of Marmora). And there the persecutionbegan, by his sending forth an order that all who would not serve the gods of Rome should losetheir offices; that their property should be seized, and, if they were persons of rank, they shouldlose their rank. Christians were no longer allowed to meet for worship; their churches were to bedestroyed, and their holy books were to be sought out and burnt (Feb. 24, 303). As soon as thisproclamation was set forth, a Christian tore it down, and broke into loud reproaches against theemperors. Such violent acts and words were not becoming in a follower of Him, “who, when Hewas reviled, reviled not again, and when He suffered, threatened not” (1 Peter ii. 23). But the manwho had forgotten himself so far, showed the strength of his principles in the patience with which

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he bore the punishment of what he had done, for he was roasted alive at a slow fire, and did noteven utter a groan.

This was in February, 303; and before the end of that year, Diocletian put forth three moreproclamations against the Christians. One of them ordered that the Christian teachers should beimprisoned; and very soon the prisons were filled with bishops and clergy, while the evil-doerswho were usually confined in them were turned loose. The next proclamation ordered that theprisoners should either sacrifice or be tortured; and the fourth directed that not only the bishopsand clergy, but all Christians, should be required to sacrifice, on pain of torture.

These cruel laws were put in execution. Churches were pulled down, beginning with the greatchurch of Nicomedia, which was built on a height, and overlooked the emperor’s palace. All theBibles and service-books that could be found, and a great number of other Christian writings, werethrown into the flames; and many Christians who refused to give up their holy books were put to

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death. The plate of churches was carried off, and was turned to profane uses, as the vessels of theJewish temple had formerly been by Belshazzar.

The sufferings of the Christians were frightful, but after what has been already said of suchthings, I will not shock you by telling you much about them here. Some were thrown to wild beasts;some were burnt alive, or roasted on gridirons; some had their skins pulled off, or their flesh scrapedfrom their bones; some were crucified; some were tied to branches of trees, which had been bentso as to meet, and then they were torn to pieces by the starting asunder of the branches. Thousandsof them perished by one horrible death or other, so that the heathens themselves grew tired anddisgusted with inflicting or seeing their sufferings; and at length, instead of putting them to death,they sent them to work in mines, or plucked out one of their eyes, or lamed one of their hands orfeet, or set bishops to look after horses or camels, or to do other work unfit for persons of theirvenerable character. And it is impossible to think what miseries even those who escaped must haveundergone, for the persecution lasted ten years, and they had not only to witness the sufferings oftheir own dear relations, or friends, or teachers, but knew that the like might, at any hour, come onthemselves.

It was in the East that the persecution was hottest and lasted longest; for in Europe it was notmuch felt after the first two years. The Emperor Constantius, who ruled over Gaul (now calledFrance), Spain and Britain, was kind to the Christians, and after his death, his son Constantine wasstill more favourable to them. There were several changes among the other emperors, and theChristians felt them for better or for worse, according to the character of each emperor; but it isneedless to speak much of them in a little book like this. Galerius went on in his cruelty until, atthe end of eight years, he found that it had been of no use towards putting down the Gospel, and

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that he was sinking under a fearful disease, something like that of which Herod, who had killed St.James, died (Acts xii. 23). He then thought with grief and horror of what he had done, and (perhapsin the hope of getting some relief from the God of Christians) he sent forth a proclamation allowingthem to rebuild their churches, and to hold their worship, and begging them to remember him intheir prayers. Soon after this he died (AD 311).

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The cruellest of all the persecutors was Maximin, who, from the year 305, had possession ofAsia Minor, Syria, the Holy Land, and Egypt. When Galerius made his law in favour of theChristians, Maximin for a while pretended to give them the same kind of liberty in his dominions.But he soon changed again, and required that all his subjects should sacrifice—even that little babiesshould take some grains of incense into their hands, and should burn it in honour of the heathengods; and when a season of great plenty followed after this, Maximin boasted that it was a sign ofthe favour with which the gods received his law. But it very soon appeared how false his boast was,for famine and plague began to rage throughout his dominions. The Christians, of course, had theirshare in the distress; but instead of triumphing over their persecutors they showed the true spirit ofthe Gospel by treating them with kindness, by relieving the poor, by tending the sick, and by buryingthe dead, who had been abandoned by their own nearest relations.

Although there is no room to give any particular account of the martyrs here, there is one ofthem who especially deserves to be remembered, because he was the first who suffered in our ownisland. This good man, Alban, while he was yet a heathen, fell in with a poor Christian priest, whowas trying to hide himself from the persecutors. Alban took him into his own house, and shelteredhim there; and he was so much struck with observing how the priest prayed to God, and spent longhours of the night in religious exercises, that he soon became a believer in Christ. But the priestwas hotly searched for, and information was given that he was hidden in Alban’s house. And when

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the soldiers came to look for him there, Alban knew their errand, and put on the priest’s dress, sothat the soldiers seized him and carried him before the judge. The judge found that they had broughtthe wrong man, and, in his rage at the disappointment, he told Alban that he must himself endurethe punishment which had been meant for the other. Alban heard this without any fear, and onbeing questioned, he declared that he was a Christian, a worshipper of the one true God, and thathe would not sacrifice to idols which could do no good. He was put to the torture, but bore it gladlyfor his Saviour’s sake, and then, as he was still firm in professing his faith, the judge gave ordersthat he should be beheaded. And when he had been led out to the place of execution, which was alittle grassy knoll that rose gently on one side of the town, the soldier, who was to have put him todeath, was so moved by the sight of Alban’s behaviour, that he threw away his sword, and desiredto be put to death with him. They were both beheaded, and the town of Verulam, where theysuffered, has since been called St. Alban’s, from the name of the first British martyr.

This martyrdom took place early in the persecution; but, (as we have seen) Constantius afterwardsprotected the British Christians, and his son Constantine, who succeeded to his share in the empire,treated them with yet greater favour. In the year 312, Constantine marched against Maxentius, whohad usurped the government of Italy and Africa. Constantine seems to have been brought up by hisfather to believe in one God, although he did not at all know who this God was, nor how He hadrevealed Himself in Holy Scripture. But as he was on his way to fight Maxentius, he saw in the skya wonderful appearance, which seemed like the figure of a cross, with words around it—“By thisconquer!” He then caused the cross to be put on the standards (or colours) of his army; and whenhe had defeated Maxentius, he set up at Rome a statue of himself, with a cross in its right hand,

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and with an inscription which declared that he owed his victory to that saving sign. About the sametime that Constantine overcame Maxentius, Licinius put down Maximin in the East. The twoconquerors now had possession of the whole empire, and they joined in publishing laws by whichChristians were allowed to worship God freely according to their conscience (AD 313).

CHAPTER X: CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (AD 313–337)

It was a great thing for the Church that the emperor of Rome should give it liberty; andConstantine, after sending forth the laws which put an end to the persecution, went on to makeother laws in favour of the Christians. But he did not himself become a Christian all at once, althoughhe built many churches and gave rich presents to others, and although he was fond of keepingcompany with bishops, and of conversing with them about religion. Licinius, the emperor of theEast, who had joined with Constantine in his first laws, afterwards quarrelled with him, andpersecuted the eastern Christians cruelly, but Constantine defeated him in battle (AD 324), and thewhole empire was once more united under one head.

After his victory over Licinius, Constantine declared himself a Christian, which he had notdone before; and he used to attend the services of the Church very regularly, and to stand all thetime that the bishops were preaching, however long their sermons might be. He used even himselfto write a kind of discourses something like sermons, and he read them aloud in the palace to allhis court; but he really knew very little of Christian doctrine, although he was very fond of talkingpart in disputes about it. And, although he professed to be a Christian, he had not yet been made a

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member of Christ by baptism, for in those days, people had so high a notion of the grace of baptismthat many of them put off their baptism until they supposed that they were on their deathbed, forfear lest they should sin after being baptized, and so should lose the benefit of the sacrament. Thiswas of course wrong; for it was a sad mistake to think that they might go on in sin so long as theywere not baptized. God, we know, might have cut them off at any moment in the midst of all theirsins, and even if they were spared, there was a great danger that, when they came to beg for baptismat last, they might not have that true spirit of repentance and faith without which they could not befit to receive the grace of the sacraments. And therefore the teachers of the Church used to warnpeople against putting off their baptism out of a love for sin; and when any one had received“clinical” baptism, as it was called (that is to say, baptism on a sick-bed), if he afterwards got wellagain, he was thought but little of in the Church.

But to come back to Constantine. He had many other faults besides his unwillingness to takeon himself the duties of a baptized Christian; and, although we are bound to thank God for havingturned his heart to favour the Church, we must not be blind to the emperor’s faults. Yet, with allthese faults, he really believed the Gospel, and meant to do what he could for the truth.

It took a long time to put down heathenism; for it would not have been safe or wise to forcepeople to become Christians before they had come to see the falsehood of their old religion.

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Constantine, therefore, only made laws against some of its worst practices, and forbade any sacrificesto be offered in the name of the empire; but he did not hinder the heathens from sacrificing on theirown account if they liked.

Soon after professing himself a Christian, the emperor began to build a new capital in the East.There had been a town called Byzantium on the spot before; but the new city was far grander, and

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he gave it the name of Constantinople, which means the City of Constantine. It was meant to bealtogether Christian,—unlike Rome, which was full of temples of heathen gods. And the emperors,from this time, usually lived at Constantinople, or at some other place in the East.

There will be more to say about Constantine in the next chapter. In the mean time, let us lookat the progress of the Gospel.

It had, by this time, made its way into many countries beyond the bounds of the empire. Therewere Christians in Scotland and in India; there had long been great numbers of Christians in Persiaand Arabia. Many of the Goths, who then lived about the Danube, had been converted by captiveswhom they carried off in their plundering expeditions, during the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus(about AD 260), and other roving tribes had been converted by the same means. About the end ofthe third century, Gregory, who is called the Enlightener, had gone as a missionary bishop intoArmenia, where he persuaded the king, Tiridates, to receive the Gospel, and to establish it as thereligion of his country: so that Armenia had the honour of being the first Christian kingdom. TheGeorgians were converted in the reign of Constantine; and about the same time, the Ethiopians orAbyssinians (who live to the south of Egypt) were brought to the knowledge of the truth in a veryremarkable way.

There was a rich Christian of Tyre, named Meropius, who was a philosopher, and wished tomake discoveries in the countries towards India, which were then but little known. So he set outin a ship of his own, sailed down the Red Sea, and made a voyage to the East. On his way back,he and his crew landed at a place on the coast of Ethiopia, in search of fresh water, when the peopleof the country fell on them, and killed all but two youths named Aedesius and Frumentius, whowere relations of Meropius. These lads were taken to the king’s court, where, as they were bettereducated than the Ethiopians, they soon got into great favour and power. The king died after a time,

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leaving a little boy to succeed him; and the two strangers were asked to carry on the governmentof the country until the prince should be old enough to take it into his own hands. They did thisfaithfully, and stayed many years in Ethiopia; and they used to look out for any Christian sailorsor merchants who visited the country, and to hold meetings with such strangers and others forworship, although they were distressed that they had no clergy to minister to them. At length theyoung prince grew up to manhood, and was able to govern his kingdom for himself; and thenAedesius and Frumentius set out for their own country, which they had been longing to see for somany years. Aedesius got back to Tyre, where he became a deacon of the Church. But Frumentiusstopped at Alexandria, and told his tale to the bishop, the great St. Athanasius (of whom we shallhear more by-and-by), and he begged that a bishop might be sent into Ethiopia to settle and governthe Church there. Athanasius, considering how faithful and wise Frumentius had shown himself in

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all his business, how greatly he was respected and loved by the Ethiopians, and how much he haddone to spread the gospel in the land of his captivity, said that no one was so fit as he to be bishop;and he consecrated Frumentius accordingly. To this day the chief bishop of the Abyssinian Church,instead of being chosen from among the clergy of the country, is always a person sent by theEgyptian bishop of Alexandria, and thus the Abyssinians still keep up the remembrance of the wayin which their Church was founded, although the bishopric of Alexandria is now sadly fallen fromthe height at which it stood in the days of Athanasius and Frumentius.

Constantine used his influence with the king of Persia, whose name was Sapor, to obtain goodtreatment for the Christians of that country; and the Gospel continued to make progress there. Butthis naturally raised the jealousy of the magi, who were the priests of the heathen religion of Persia,and they looked out for some means of doing mischief to the Christians. So a few years after the

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death of Constantine, when a war broke out between Sapor and the next emperor, Constantius,these magi got about the king, and told him that his Christian subjects would be ready to betrayhim to the Romans, from whom they had got their religion. Sapor then issued orders that allChristians should pay an enormous tax, unless they would worship the gods of the Persians. Theirchief bishop, whose name was Symeon, on receiving this order, answered that the tax was morethan they could pay, and that they worshipped the true God alone, who had made the sun, whichthe Persians ignorantly adored.

Sapor then sent forth a second order, that the bishops, priests, and deacons of the Christiansshould be put to death, that their churches should be destroyed, and that the plate and ornamentsof the churches should be taken for profane uses, and he sent for Symeon, who was soon broughtbefore him. The bishop had been used to make obeisance to the king, after the fashion of the country;but on coming into his presence now, he refused to do so, lest it should be taken as a sign of thatreverence which he was resolved to give to God alone. Sapor then required him to worship the sun,and told him that by doing so he might deliver himself and his people. But the bishop answered,that if he had refused to do reverence to the king, much more must he refuse such honour to thesun, which was a thing without reason or life. On this, the king ordered that he should be throwninto prison until next day.

As he was on his way to prison, Symeon passed an old and faithful servant of the king, namedUthazanes, who had brought up Sapor from a child, and stood high in his favour. Uthazanes, seeingthe bishop led away in chains, fell on his knee and saluted him in the Persian fashion. But Symeonturned away his head, and could not look at him; for Uthazanes had been a Christian, and had latelydenied the faith. The old man’s conscience was smitten by this, and he burst out into lamentation—“Ifmy old and familiar friend disowns me thus, what may I expect from my God whom I have denied!”

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His words were heard, and he was carried before the king, who tried to move him both by threatsand by kindness. But Uthazanes stood firm against everything, and, as he could not be shaken inhis faith, he was sentenced to be beheaded. He then begged the king, for the sake of the love whichhad long been between them, to grant him the favour that it might be proclaimed why he died—thathe was not guilty of any treason, but was put to death only for being a Christian. Sapor was very

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willing to allow this, because he thought that it would frighten others into worshipping his gods.But it turned out as Uthazanes had hoped; for when it was seen how he loved his faith better thanlife itself, other Christians were encouraged to suffer, and even some heathens were brought overto the Gospel. Bishop Symeon was put to death after having seen a hundred of his clergy sufferbefore his eyes; and the persecution was renewed from time to time throughout the remainder ofSapor’s long reign.

CHAPTER XI: THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA (AD 325)

We might expect to find that, when the persecutions by the heathen were at an end within theRoman empire, Christians lived together in peace and love, according to their Lord’s commandment;but it is a sad truth that they now began to be very much divided by quarrels among themselves.There had, indeed, been many false teachers in earlier times; but now, when the emperor had becomea Christian, the troubles caused by such persons reached much further than before. The emperorstook part in them, and made laws about them, and the whole empire was stirred by them.

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Constantine was, as I have said (p. 40), very fond of taking a part in Church matters, withoutknowing much about them. Very soon after the first law by which he gave liberty to the Christians,he was called in to settle a quarrel; which had been raised in Africa by the followers of one Donatus,who separated from the Church and set up bishops of their own, because they said that the bishopsof Carthage and some others had not behaved rightly when the persecutors required them to deliverup the Scriptures. I will tell you more about these Donatists (as they are called) by-and-by (seeChapter XXI, parts 3, 4, and 5), and I mention them now only because it was they who first incitedthe emperor to judge in a dispute about religion.

When Constantine put down Licinius and got possession of the East (as has been said), he foundthat a dispute of a different kind from the quarrel of the Donatists was raging there. One Arius, apresbyter (or priest) of Alexandria, had begun some years before this time to deny that our blessedLord was God from everlasting. Arius was a crafty man, and did all that he could to make hisopinion look as well as possible; but, try as he might, he was obliged to own that he believed ourLord to be a “creature”. And the difference between the highest of created beings and God, themaker of all creatures, is infinite; so that it mattered little how Arius might smooth over his shockingopinion, so long as he did not allow our Lord to be truly God from all eternity.

The bishop of Alexandria, whose name was Alexander, excommunicated Arius for his impiety;that is to say, he solemnly turned him out of the Church, so that no faithful Christian should haveanything to do with him in religious matters. Thus Arius was obliged to leave Egypt, and he livedfor a while at Nicomedia, with a bishop who was an old friend of his. And while he was there, hemade a set of songs to be sung at meals, and others for travellers, sailors, and the like. He hoped

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that people would learn these songs, without considering what mischief was in them, and that sohis heresy would be spread.

When Constantine first heard of these troubles, he tried to quiet them by advising Alexanderand Arius not to dispute about trifles. But he soon found that this would not do, and that the questionwhether our Lord and Saviour were God or a creature was so far from being a trifle, that it was oneof the most serious of all questions. In order, therefore, to get this and some other matters settled,he gave orders for a general council to meet. Councils of bishops within a certain district had longbeen common. In many countries they were regularly held once or twice a year; and, besides theseregular meetings, others were sometimes called together to consider any business which wasparticularly pressing Some of these councils were very great; for instance, the bishop of Alexandercould call together the bishops of all Egypt, and the bishop of Antioch could call together all thebishops of Syria and some neighbouring countries. But there was no bishop who could call a councilof the whole Church, because there was no one who had any power over more than a part of it. Butnow, Constantine, as he had become a Christian, thought that he might gather a council from allquarters of his empire, and this was the first of what are called the general councils.

It met in the year 325, at Nicaea (or Nice), in Bithynia, and 318 bishops attended it. A numberof clergy and other persons were also present; even some heathen philosophers went out of curiosityto see what the Christians were to do. Many of the bishops were very homely and simple men, whohad not much learning; but their great business was only to say plainly what their belief had alwaysbeen, so that it might be known whether the doctrines of Arius agreed with this or no; and thus thegood bishops might do their part very well, although they were not persons of any great learningor cleverness. One of these simpler bishops was drawn into talk by a philosopher, who tried to

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puzzle him about the truth of the Gospel. The bishop was not used to argue or to dispute much, andmight have been no match for the philosopher in that way, but he contented himself with sayinghis Creed; and the philosopher was so struck with this, that he took to thinking more seriously ofChristianity than he had ever thought before, and he ended in becoming a Christian himself.

There was a great deal of arguing about Arius and his opinions, and the chief person who spokeagainst him was Athanasius, a clergyman of Alexandria, who had come with the bishop, Alexander.Athanasius could not sit as a judge in the council, because he was not a bishop, but he was allowedto speak in the presence of the bishops, and pointed out to them the errors which Arius tried to hide.So at last Arius was condemned, and the emperor banished him with some of his chief followers.And, in order to set forth the true Christian faith beyond all doubt, the council made that creedwhich is read in the Communion-service in our churches—all but some of the last part of it, whichwas made at a later time, as we shall see. It is called the Nicene Creed, from the name of the placewhere the council met; and the great point in it is that it declares our blessed Lord to be “Very Godof Very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance” (that is to say, of the same nature) “withthe Father.” For this truth, that our Lord has the same nature with the Almighty Father—this truththat He is really God from everlasting—was what the Arians could not be brought to own.

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The emperor attended the council during the latter part of its sittings; and a story is told of himand a bishop named Acesius, who belonged to the sect of Novatianists. You will remember thatthis sect broke off from the Church in St. Cyprian’s days, because Novatian and others thought thatSt. Cyprian and the Church were too easy with those who repented after having sacrificed in timeof persecution (see page 27); and, from having begun thus, it came to be hard in its notions as to

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the treatment of all sorts of penitents. But, as it had been only about the treatment of persons whohad behaved weakly in persecution that the Novatianists at first differed from the Church, and aspersecution by the heathens was now at an end, Constantine hoped that, perhaps, they might bepersuaded to return to the Church; so he invited some bishops of the sect to attend the councils andAcesius among them. When the creed had been made, Acesius declared that it was all true, andthat it was the same faith which he had always believed; and he was quite satisfied with the ruleswhich the council made as to the time of keeping Easter, and as to some other things. “Why, then,”asked Constantine, “will you not join the Church?” Acesius said that he did not think the Churchstrict enough in dealing with penitents. “Take a ladder, then,” said the emperor, “and go up toheaven by yourself!”

CHAPTER XII: ST. ATHANASIUS,

PART I (AD 325–337)

Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria by whom Arius had been excommunicated, died soon afterreturning home from the Council of Nicaea; and Athanasius, who was then about thirty years ofage, was chosen in his stead, and governed the Alexandrian Church for six-and-forty years. Everyone knows the name of St. Athanasius, from the creed which is called after it. That creed, indeed,was not made by St. Athanasius himself; but, as the Prayer-book says, it is “commonly called” his,because it sets forth the true Christian faith, of which he was the chief defender in his day. And weare bound to honour this learned and holy bishop, as the man by whom especially God was pleasedthat His truth should be upheld and established against all the craft of Arius and his party, and evenagainst all the power of the emperors of Rome.

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For, although Arius had been sent into banishment, he soon managed to get into favour at theemperor’s court. One of his friends, a priest, gained the ear of Constantine’s sister, and this princess,when she was dying, recommended the priest to the emperor. Neither Constantine nor his sisterunderstood enough of the matter to be on their guard against the deceits of the Arian, who was ableto persuade the emperor that Arius had been ill-used, and that he did not really hold the opinionsfor which the council had condemned him. Arius, then, was allowed to return from banishment,and Constantine desired Athanasius to receive him back into the Church, saying that he was notguilty of the errors which had been laid to his charge. But Athanasius knew that this was only atrick; and he answered that, as Arius had been condemned by a council of the whole Church, hecould not be restored by anything less than another such council.

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The Arians, on finding that they could not win Athanasius over, resolved to attack him. Theycontrived that all sorts of charges against him should be carried to the emperor; and in the year 335,a council was held at Tyre for his trial. One story was, that he had killed an Egyptian bishop, namedArsenius, that he had cut off his hand, and had used it for magical purposes (for, among other things,Athanasius was said by his enemies to be a sorcerer!), and the dried hand of a man was shown,which was said to be that of Arsenius. But when the time came for examining this charge, whatwas the confusion of the accusers at seeing Arsenius himself brought into the council! He wasdressed in a long cloak, and Athanasius lifted it up, first on one side, and then on the other, so asto show that the man was not only alive, but had both his hands safe and sound. The leaders of theArians had known that Arsenius was not dead, but they had hoped that he would not appear. But,happily for Athanasius, one of his friends had discovered Arsenius, and had kept him hidden untilthe right moment came for producing him.

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Athanasius was able to answer the other charges against him, as well as that about Arsenius;and the Arians, seeing that they must contrive some new accusation, sent some of his bitterestenemies into Egypt, to rake up all the tales that they could find. Athanasius knew what he mightexpect from people who could act so unfairly; he therefore resolved not to wait for their return, butgot on board a ship which was bound for Constantinople. On arriving there, he posted himself ina spot outside the city, where he expected the emperor to pass in returning from a ride; and whenConstantine came up, he threw himself in his way. The emperor was startled; but Athanasius toldhim who he was, and entreated him, by the thought of that judgment in which princes as well assubjects must one day appear, to order that the case should be tried before himself, instead of leavingit to judges from whom no justice was to be looked for. The emperor agreed to this, and was veryangry with those who had behaved so unjustly in the council at Tyre. But after a time some of theArians got about him and told him another story—that Athanasius had threatened to stop the sailingof the fleet which carried corn from Alexandria to Constantinople. This was a charge which touchedConstantine very closely, because Constantinople depended very much on the Egyptian corn forfood, and he thought that the bishop, who had so much power at Alexandria, might perhaps be ableto stop the fleet, and to starve the people of the capital, if he pleased. And—whether the emperorbelieved the story, or whether he wished to shelter Athanasius for a while from his persecutors byputting him out of the way—he sent him into banishment at Treves, on the banks of the Moselle,in a part of Gaul which is now reckoned to belong to Germany. Except for the separation from hisflock, this banishment would have been no great hardship for Athanasius, for he was treated withgreat respect by the bishop of Treves, and by the emperor’s eldest son, who lived there, and allgood men honoured him for his stedfastness in upholding the true faith.

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But, although Athanasius was removed, the Alexandrian Church would not admit Arius. So,after a while, the emperor resolved to have him admitted at Constantinople, and a council of bishopsagreed that it should be so. The bishop of Constantinople, whose name was Alexander, and whowas almost a hundred years old, was grievously distressed at this; he desired his people to entreatGod, with fasting and prayer, that it might not come to pass, and he threw himself under the altar,

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and prayed very earnestly that the evil which was threatened might be somehow turned away: orthat, at least, he himself might not live to see it.

At length, on the evening before the day which had been fixed for receiving Arius into theChurch, he was going through the streets of Constantinople, in high spirits, and talking with somefriends of what was to take place on the morrow. But all at once he felt himself ill, and went intoa house which was near, and in a few minutes he was dead! His death, taking place at such a timeand in such a way, made a great impression, and people were ready enough to look on it as a directjudgement of God on his impiety. But Athanasius, although he felt the awfulness of the unhappyman’s sudden end, did not take it on himself to speak in this way; and we too shall do well not topronounce judgment in such cases, remembering what our Lord said as to the Galileans who wereslain by Pilate, and as to the men who were killed by the falling of the tower of Siloam (St. Lukexiii. 1–5). While we abhor the errors of Arius, let us leave the judgment of him to God

Although Constantine in his last years was very much in the hands of the Arians, we must notsuppose that he meant to favour their heresy. For these people (as I have said already, and shallhave occasion to say again) were very crafty, and took great pains to hide the worst of their opinions.They used words which sounded quite right, except to the few persons who, like Athanasius, werequick enough to understand what bad meanings might be disguised under these fair words. And

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whenever they wished to get one of the faithful bishops turned out, they took care not to attack himabout his faith, but about some other things, as we have seen in the case of Athanasius. Thus theymanaged to blind the emperor, who did not know much about the matter, so that, while they wereusing him as a tool, and were persuading him to help them with all his power, he all the whilefancied that he was firmly maintaining the Nicene faith.

Constantine, after all that he had done in religious disputes, was still unbaptized. Perhaps hewas a “catechumen”, which (as has been explained before, see page 18) was the name given topersons who were supposed to be in a course of training for baptism; but it is not certain that hewas even so much as a catechumen. At last, shortly after the death of Arius, the emperor felt himselfvery sick, and believed that his end was near. He sent for some bishops, and told them that he hadput off his baptism because he had wished to receive it in the river Jordan, like our Lord Himself;but as God had not granted him this, he begged that they would baptize him. He was baptizedaccordingly, and during the remaining days of his life he refused to wear any other robes than thewhite dress which used then to be put on at baptism, by way of signifying the cleansing of the soulfrom sin. And thus the first Christian emperor died at a palace near Nicomedia, on Whitsunday inthe year 337.


At Constantine’s death, the empire was divided among his three sons. The eldest of them, whosename was the same as his father’s, and the youngest, Constans, were friendly to the true faith. Butthe second son, Constantius, was won over by the Arians; and as, through the death of his brothers,he got possession of the whole empire within a few years, his connexion with that party led to greatmischief. All through his reign, there were unceasing disputes about religion. Councils were almost

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Luke.13.html#Luke.13.1


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continually sitting in one place or another, and bishops were posting about to one of them afteranother at the emperor’s expense. Constantius did not mean ill, but he went even further than hisfather in meddling with things which he did not understand.

The Arians went on in the same cunning way as before. I may mention, by way of example,the behaviour of Leontius, bishop of Antioch. The Catholics (that is to say, those who held the faithwhich the Church throughout all the world held (the word “Catholic”, which means “Universal”,is not to be confounded with “Roman-Catholic”)), used to sing in church, as we do— “Glory be tothe Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost;” but the Arians sang, “Glory be to the Father,by the Son, in the Holy Ghost”—for they did not allow the Second and Third Persons to be of thesame nature with the First. Leontius, then, who was an Arian, and yet did not wish people to knowexactly what he was, used to mumble his words, so that nobody could make them out, until he cameto the part in which all parties agreed; and then he sang out loudly and clearly— “As it was in thebeginning, is now, and ever shall be, world without end. Amen.” He was an old man, and sometimeshe would point to his white hair, and say, “When this snow melts, there will be a great deal of mud,”meaning that after his death the two parties would come to open quarrels, which he had tried toprevent during his lifetime by such crafty behaviour as that which has just been mentioned.

The three young emperors met shortly after their father’s death. It was agreed between themthat Athanasius should be allowed to return to Alexandria; and for this favour he was chieflyindebted to young Constantine, who had known him during his banishment at Treves. The bishopreturned accordingly, and was received with great rejoicing by his flock. But in about three yearshis enemies contrived that he should be again turned out (AD 341), and he was in banishment eight

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years. He was then restored again (AD 349); but his enemies watched their time and spared nopains to get rid of him. One by one, they contrived to thrust out all the chief bishops who wouldhave been inclined to take part with him; and at length, in the beginning of 356, Constantius senta general named Syrianus to Alexandria, with orders to drive out Athanasius. The Alexandrianswere so much attached to their great bishop that there was a fear lest they might prevent any openattempt against him. But Syrianus contrived to throw them off their guard, and one night, whileAthanasius was keeping watch with many of his clergy and people, in one of the churches (as theChristians of those days used to do before their great festivals and at other times), Syrianus suddenlybeset the church with a great number of soldiers, and a multitude made up of Arians, Jews and theheathen rabble of the city. When Athanasius heard the noise outside the church, he sat down calmlyon his throne, and desired the congregation to chant the hundred and thirty-sixth psalm, in whichGod’s deliverances of His people in old times are celebrated; and the whole congregation joinedin the last part of every verse—“For His mercy endureth for ever.” The doors were shut, but thesoldiers forced them open and rushed in; and it was a fearful sight to see their drawn swords andtheir armour flashing by the lamplight in the house of God. As they advanced up the church, manyof the congregation were trodden down or crushed to death, or pierced through with their darts.Athanasius stood calm in the midst of all the terrible din. His clergy, when they saw the soldierspushing on towards the sanctuary (as the part of the church was called that was railed off for the

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clergy), entreated him to save himself by flight; but he declared that he would not go until his peoplewere safe, and waited until most of them had made their escape through doors in the upper part ofthe church. At last, when the soldiers were pressing very close to the sanctuary, the clergy closedround their bishop, and hurried him away by a secret passage. And when they had got him out ofthe church, they found that he had fainted; for although his courage was high, his body was weak

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and delicate, and the dreadful scene had overcome him. But he escaped to the deserts of Egypt,where he lived in peace among the monks for six years, until the death of Constantius. His enemiesthought that he might perhaps, seek a refugee in Ethiopia, and Constantius wrote to beg that theprinces of that country should not shelter him, and that the bishop, Frumentius (see page 41), mightbe sent to receive instruction in the faith from the Arian bishop who was put into the see ofAlexandria. But Athanasius was safe elsewhere, and Frumentius wisely stayed at home.

The new Arian bishop of Alexandria was a Cappadocian named George. He was a coarse,ignorant, and violent man, and behaved with great cruelty to Athanasius’s friends—even puttingmany of them to death. But Athanasius from his quiet retreat, kept a watch over all that was doneas to the affairs of the Church, both at Alexandria and elsewhere; and from time to time he wrotebooks, which reached places where he himself could not venture to appear. So that, although hewas not seen during these years, he made himself felt, both to the confusion of the Arians, and tothe comfort and encouragement of the faithful.

PART III: (AD 361–371)

Constantius had no children, and after the death of Constans (AD 350), his nearest male relationwas a cousin named Julian. The emperor gave his sister in marriage to this cousin, and also gavehim the government of a part of the empire; but he always treated him with distrust and jealousy,so that Julian never loved him. And this was not the worst of it; for Julian, who had lost his fatherwhen he was very young, and had been brought up under the direction of Constantius, took a strongdislike to his cousin’s religion, which was forced on him in a way that a lively boy could not well

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be expected to relish. He was obliged to spend a great part of his time in attending the services ofthe Church, and was even made a reader, (which was one of the lowest kinds of ministers in theChurch of those times,) and, unfortunately, the end of all this was, that instead of being trulyreligious, he learned to be a hypocrite. When he grew older, and was left more to himself, he fellinto the hands of the heathen philosophers, who were very glad to get hold of a prince who mightone day be emperor. So Julian’s mind was poisoned with their opinions, and he gave up all beliefin the Gospel, although he continued to profess himself a Christian for nine years longer. On accountof his having thus forsaken the faith he is commonly called the “Apostate.”

At length, when Julian was at Paris, early in the year 361, Constantius sent him some orderswhich neither he nor his soldiers were disposed to obey. The soldiers lifted him up on a shield andproclaimed him emperor; and Julian set out at their head to fight for the throne. He marched boldlyeastward, until he came to the Danube; then he embarked his troops and descended the great riverfor many hundreds of miles into the country which is now called Hungary. Constantius left Antioch,

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and was marching to meet Julian’s army, when he was taken ill, and died at a little town in Cilicia.Like his father, he was baptized only a day or two before his death.

Julian now came into possession of the empire without further dispute; and he did all that hecould to set heathenism up again. But in many parts of the empire, Christianity had taken such rootthat very few of the people held to the old religion, or wished to see it restored. Thus, we are toldthat once, when the emperor went to a famous temple near Antioch, on a great heathen festival, inthe hope of finding things carried on as they had been before Constantine’s time, only one old priestwas to be seen; and, instead of the costly sacrifices which had been offered in the former days ofheathenism, the poor old man had nothing better than a single goose to offer.

Julian knew that in past times Christians had always been ready to suffer for their faith, and

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that the patience of the martyrs had always led to the increase of the Church. He did not think itwise, therefore, to go to work in the same way as the earlier persecuting emperors, but he contrivedto annoy the Christians very much by other means, and sometimes great cruelties were committedagainst them under his authority. Yet, with all this, he pretended to allow them the exercise of theirreligion, and he gave leave to those who had been banished by Constantius to return home,—notthat he really meant to do them any kindness, but because he hoped that they would all fall toquarrelling among themselves, and that he should be able to take advantage of their quarrels. Butin this hope he was happily disappointed, for they had learnt wisdom by suffering, and were disposedto make peace with each other as much as possible, while they were all threatened by the enemiesof the Saviour’s very name.

The first thing that the heathens of Alexandria did when they heard of the death of Constantiushad been to kill the Arian bishop, George; for he had behaved in such a way that the heathens hatedhim even more than the Catholics did. Another Arian bishop was set up in his place; but whenJulian had given leave for the banished to return, Athanasius came back, and the Arian was turnedout.

The Alexandrians received Athanasius with great joy and he did all that was in his power toreconcile the parties of Christians among themselves. For, although no one could be more earnestthan he in maintaining every particle of the faith necessary for a true Christian, he was careful notto insist on things which were not necessary. He knew, too, that people who really meant alikewere often divided from each other by not understanding one another’s words; and he was alwaysready to make allowance for them, as far as he could do so without giving away the truth. But Julianwas afraid to let him remain at Alexandria, and was greatly provoked at hearing that he had convertedand baptized some heathen ladies of rank. So the emperor wrote to the Alexandrians, telling them

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that, although they might choose another bishop for themselves, they must not let Athanasius remainamong them, and banishing the bishop from all Egypt. Athanasius, when he heard of this, said tohis friends, “Let us withdraw; this is but a little cloud which will soon pass over;” and he set offup the river Nile in a boat. After a while, another boat was seen in pursuit of him; but Athanasiusthen told his boatmen to turn round, and to sail down the river again; and when they met the otherboat, from which they had not been seen until after turning, they answered the questions of its crew

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in such a way that they were allowed to pass without being suspected of having the bishop on board.Thus Athanasius got safe back to the city, and there he lay hid securely while his enemies weresearching for him elsewhere. But after a little time he withdrew to the deserts, where he waswelcomed and sheltered by his old friends the monks.

In his hatred of Christianity, Julian not only tried to restore heathenism, but also showed favourto the Jews. He sent for some of them, and asked why they did not offer sacrifice as their law hadordered? They answered that it was not lawful to sacrifice except in the temple of Jerusalem, whichwas now in ruins, and did not belong to them, so that they could no longer fulfil the duty ofsacrificing. Julian then gave them leave to build the temple up again, and the Jews came togetherin vast numbers from the different countries into which they had been scattered. Many of them hadgot great wealth in the lands of their banishment, and it is said that even the women laboured at thework, carrying earth in their rich silken dresses, and that tools of silver were used in the building.The Jews were full of triumph at the thought of being restored to their own land, and of reviving

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the greatness of David and Solomon. But it was not to be. An earthquake scattered the foundationswhich had been laid; balls of fire burst forth from the ground, scorching and killing many of theworkmen; their tools were melted by lightning; and stories are told of other fearful sights, whichput an end to the attempt. Julian indeed, meant to set about it once more after returning from a warwhich he had undertaken against the Persians. But he never lived to do so. Athanasius was notmistaken when he said that his heathen emperor’s tyranny would be only as a passing cloud, forJulian’s reign lasted little more than a year and a half in all. He led his army into Persia in the springof 363, and in June of that year he was killed in a skirmish by night.

Julian left no child to succeed him in the empire, and the army chose as his successor a Christiannamed Jovian, who soon undid all that Julian had done in matters of religion. The new emperorinvited Athanasius to visit him at Antioch, and took his advice as to the restoration of the true faith.But Jovian’s reign lasted only eight months, and Valentinian, who was then made emperor, gavethe empire of the East to his brother Valens, who was a furious Arian, and treated the Catholicswith great cruelty. We are told, for instance, that when eighty of their bishops had carried a petitionto him, he put them on board a ship, and when it had got out to sea, the sailors, by his orders, setit on fire, and made their escape in boats, leaving the poor bishops to be burned to death.

Valens turned many “orthodox” bishops (that is to say, bishops “of the right faith”) out of theirsees, and meant to turn out Athanasius, who hid himself for a while in his father’s tomb. But thepeople of Alexandria begged earnestly that their bishop might be allowed to remain with them, andthe emperor did not think it safe to deny their request, lest there should be some outbreak in thecity. And thus, while the faith of which Athanasius had so long been the chief defender, and for

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the sake of which he had borne so much, was under persecution in all other parts of the easternempire, the great bishop of Alexandria was allowed to spend his last years among his own flockwithout disturbance. He died in the year 373, at the age of seventy-six.

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CHAPTER XIII: THE MONKS.

In the story of St. Athanasius, monks have been more than once mentioned, and it is now timeto give some account of these people and of their ways.

The word “monk” properly means one who leads a “lonely” life; and the name was given topersons who professed to withdraw from the world and its business that they might give themselvesup to serve God in religious thoughts and exercises. Among the Jews there had been whole classesof people who practised this sort of retirement: some, called “Essenes”, lived near the Red Sea;and others, called “Therapeutae,” in Egypt, where a great number of Jews had settled. Among theheathens of the East, too, a like manner of living had been common for ages, as it still continuesto be; and many of them carry it to an excessive strictness, as we are told by travellers who havevisited India, Thibet, and other countries of Asia.

Nothing of the kind, however, is commanded for Christians in the New Testament; and whenScripture warrant for the monkish life was sought for, the great patterns who were produced wereElijah and St John the Baptist—the one of them an Old Testament prophet; the other, a holy manwho lived, indeed, in the days when our Lord Himself was on the earth, but who was not allowedto enter into His Church, or to see it fully established by the coming of the Holy Ghost at the day

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of Pentecost. But still it was very natural that the notion of a life of strict poverty, retirement fromthe world, and employment in spiritual things, should find favour with Christians, as a means offulfilling the duties of their holy calling, and so it seems that some of them took to this way of lifevery early. But the first who is named as a “hermit” (that is to say, a dweller in the wilderness) wasPaul, a young man of Alexandria, who, in the year 251, fled from the persecution of Decius intothe Egyptian desert, where he is said to have lived ninety years. Paul, although he afterwards becamevery famous, spent his days without being known, until, just before his death, he was visited byanother great hermit, St. Antony. But Antony himself was a person of great note and importancein his own lifetime.

He was born in the district of Thebes, in Egypt, in the very same year that Paul withdrew fromthe world. While a boy, he was thoughtful and serious. His parents died before he had reached theage of twenty, and left him considerable wealth. One day, when in church, he was struck by hearingthe story of the rich young man who was charged to sell all that he had, give to the poor, and followour Lord (St. Luke xviii. 18–22). At another time he was moved by hearing the charge to “take nothought for the morrow” (St. Matt. vi. 34). And in order to obey these commands (as he thought),Antony parted with all that belonged to him, bade farewell to his only sister, and left his home,with the intention of living in loneliness and devotion. He carried on this life for many years, andseveral times changed his abode, that he might seek out some place still wilder and more remotethan the last. But he grew so famous that people flocked even into the depths of the wilderness tosee him. A number of disciples gathered around him, and hermits or monks began to copy his wayof life in other parts of Egypt. Antony’s influence became very great; he made peace betweenenemies, comforted mourners, and gave advice to all who asked him as to spiritual concerns; and

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when he took the part of any oppressed person who applied to him, his interference was always

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successful. Affairs of this kind sometimes obliged him to leave his cell (as the dwellings of themonks were called); but he always returned as soon as possible, for he used to say that “a monkout of his solitude is like a fish out of water.” Even the emperors, Constantine and his sons, wroteto him with great respect, and asked him to visit their courts. He thanked them, but did not accepttheir invitation, and he wrote more than once to them in favour of St. Athanasius, whom he steadilysupported in his troubles on account of the faith. On two great occasions he visited Alexandria, forthe purpose of strengthening his brethren in their sufferings for the truth. The first of these visitswas while the last heathen persecution, under Maximin, was raging (see page 36). Antony stoodby the martyrs at their trials and in their death, and took all opportunities of declaring himself aChristian; but the persecutors did not venture to touch him: and, after waiting till the heat of thedanger was past, he again withdrew to the wilderness. The second visit was in the time of the Ariandisturbances, when his appearance had even a greater effect than before. The Catholics wereencouraged by his exhortations, and a great number of conversions took place in consequence.Antony died, at the age of a hundred and five, in the year 356, a few days before the great bishopof Alexandria was driven to seek a refuge in the desert. (see page 54)

Antony, as we have seen, was a hermit, living in the wilderness by himself. But by-and-by otherkinds of monks were established, who lived in companies together. Sometimes they were lodgedin clusters of little cells, each of them having his separate cell, or two or three living together;sometimes the cells were all in one large building, called a monastery. The head of each monastery,or of each cluster of cells, was called “abbot”, which means “father”. And in some cases there weremany monasteries belonging to one “order”, so that they were all considered as one society, and

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there was one chief abbot over all. Thus the order founded by Pachomius, on an island in the Nile,soon spread, so that before his death it had eight monasteries, with three thousand monks amongthem; and about fifty years later, it had no fewer than fifty thousand monks.

These monks of Pachomius lived in cells, each of which contained three. Each cluster of cellshad its abbot; the head of the order, who was called the “archimandrite” (which means chief of asheepfold), went round occasionally to visit all the societies which were under him, and the wholeorder met every year at the chief monastery for the festival of Easter, and a second time in themonth of August. The monks of St. Pachomius prayed many times a day. They fasted everyWednesday and Friday, and communicated every Sunday and Saturday. They took their mealstogether and sang psalms before each. They were not allowed to talk at table, but sat with theirhoods drawn over their faces, so that no one could see his neighbours, or anything but the foodbefore him. Their dress was coarse and plain; the chief article of it was a rough goat-skin, in imitationof the prophet Elijah. They slept with their clothes on, not in beds, but in chairs, which were ofsuch a shape as to keep them almost standing. They spent their time not only in prayers and otherreligious exercises, but in various kinds of simple work, such as labouring in the fields, weavingbaskets, ropes, and nets, or making shoes. They had boats in which they sent the produce of their

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labour down the Nile to Alexandria; and the money which they got by selling it was not only enoughto keep them, but enabled them to redeem captives, and to do such other acts of charity.

This account of the monks of St. Pachomius will give some notion of the monkish life in general,although one order differed from another in various ways. All that the monks had was consideredto belong to them in common, after the pattern of the first Christians, as was supposed (Acts ii. 34;iv. 32); and no one was allowed to have anything of his own. Thus we are told that when a monkwas found at his death to have left a hundred pieces of silver, which he had earned by weaving

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flax, his brethren, who were about three thousand in number, met to consider what should be donewith the money. Some were for giving it to the Church; some, to the poor. But the fathers of thesociety quoted St. Peter’s words to Simon the sorcerer, “Thy money perish with thee” (Acts viii.20), and on the strength of this text (which in truth had not much to do with the matter), they orderedthat it should be buried with its late owner. St. Jerome, who tells the story, says that this was notdone out of any wish to condemn the dead monk, but in order that others might be deterred fromhoarding.

These different kinds of monks were first established in various parts of Egypt; but their wayof life was soon taken up in other countries; and societies of women, who were called “nuns” (thatis to say “mothers”), were formed under the same kind of rules.

One thing which had much to do with making monkish life so common was, that whenpersecution by the heathen was at an end, many Christians felt the want of something which mightassure them that they were separate from the world, as Christ’s true people ought to be. It was nolonger enough that they should call themselves Christians; for the world had come to call itselfChristian too. Perhaps we may think that it would have been better if those who wished to livereligiously had tried to go on doing their duty in the world, and to improve it by the example andthe influence of holy and charitable lives, instead of running away from it. And they were certainlymuch mistaken if they fancied that by hiding themselves in the desert they were likely to escapetemptations. For temptations followed them into their retreats, and we have only too many proofs,in the accounts of famous monks, that the effect of this mistake was often very sad indeed. Andwe may be sure that if the good men who in those days were active in recommending the life ofmonks had been able to foresee how things would turn out, they would have been much morecautious in what they said of it.

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It was not every one who was fit for such a life, and many took it up without rightly consideringwhether they were fit for it. The kind of work which was provided for them was not enough tooccupy them thoroughly, and many of them suffered grievously from temptations to which theiridleness laid them open. It was supposed, indeed, that they might find the thoughts of heavenlythings enough to fill their minds; and, when a philosopher asked Antony how he could live withoutbooks, he answered that for him the whole creation was a book, always at hand, in which he couldread God’s word whenever he pleased. But it was not every one who could find such delight in thatgreat book, and many of the monks, for want of employment, were tormented by all sorts of evilthoughts, nay, some of them were even driven into madness by their way of life.

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The monks ran into very strange mistakes as to their duty towards their kindred. Even Antonyhimself, although he was free from many of the faults of spiritual pride and the like, which becametoo common among his followers, thought himself bound to overcome his love for his young sister.And, as another sample of the way in which monks were expected to deaden their natural affections,I may tell you how his disciple Pior behaved. Pior, when a youth, left his father’s house, and vowedthat he would never again look on any of his relations—which was surely a very rash and foolishand wrong vow. He went into the desert, and had lived there fifty years, when his sister heard thathe was still alive. She was too infirm to go in search of him, but she contrived that the abbot, underwhose authority he was, should order him to pay her a visit. Pior went accordingly, and, when hehad reached her house, he stood in front of it, and sent to tell her that he was there. The poor oldwoman made all haste to get to him; her heart was full of love and delight at the thoughts of seeingher brother again after so long a separation. But as soon as Pior heard the door opening, he shut hiseyes, and he kept them shut all through the meeting. He refused to go into his sister’s house, and

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when he had let her see him for a short time in this way, without showing her any token of kindness,he hurried back to the desert.

In later times monks were usually ordained as clergy of the Church. But at first it was notintended that they should be so, and in each monastery there were only so many clergy as wereneeded for the performance of Divine Service and other works of the ministry. And in those earlydays, many monks had a great fear of being ordained clergymen or bishops, because they thoughtthat the active business in which bishops and other clergy were obliged to engage, would hindertheir reaching to the higher degrees of holiness. Thus a famous monk, named Ammonius, on beingchosen for a bishopric, cut off one of his ears, thinking that this blemish would prevent his beingmade a priest, as it would have done under the law of Moses (Lev. xxi. 17–23), and when he wastold that it was not so in the Christian Church, he threatened to cut out his tongue.

It was not long before the sight of the great respect which was paid to the monks led manyworthless people to call themselves monks for the sake of what they might get by doing so. Thesefellows used to go about, wearing heavy chains, uncouthly dressed, and behaving roughly, and theytold outrageous stories of visions and of fights with devils which they pretended to have had. Bysuch tricks they got large sums of money from people who were foolish enough to encourage them;and they spent it in the most shameful ways.

But besides these vile hypocrites, many monks who seem to have been sincere enough ran intovery strange extravagances. There was one kind of them called “Grazers”, who used to live amongmountains, without any roof to shelter them, browsing, like beasts, on grass and herbs, and bydegrees growing much more like beasts than men. And in the beginning of the fifth century, oneSymeon founded a new sort of monks, who were called “Stylites” (that is to say, pillar saints), from

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a Greek word, which means a pillar. Symeon was a Syrian, and lived on the top of one pillar afteranother for seven-and-thirty years. Each pillar was higher than the one before it; the height of thelast of them was forty cubits (or seventy feet), and the top of it was only a yard across. ThereSymeon was to be seen, with a heavy iron chain round his neck, and great numbers of people flocked

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to visit him; some of them even went all the way from our own country. And when he was dead,a monk named Daniel got the old cowl which he had worn, and built himself a pillar nearConstantinople, where he lived three-and-thirty years. The high winds sometimes almost blew himfrom his place, and sometimes he was covered for days with snow and ice, until the emperor Leomade him submit to let a shed be built round the top of his pillar. The fame and influence whichthese monks gained were immense. They were supposed to have the power of prophecy and ofmiracles; they were consulted even by emperors and kings, in the most important matters; andsometimes, on great occasions, when a stylite descended from his pillar, or some famous hermitleft his cell, and appeared among the crowds of a city, he was able to make everything bend to hiswill.

We must not be blind to the serious errors of monkery; but we are bound also to own that Godwas pleased to make it the means of great good. The monks did much for the conversion of theheathen, and when the ages of darkness came on, after the overthrow of the Roman empire in theWest, they rendered inestimable service in preserving the knowledge of learning and religion,which, but for them, might have utterly perished from the earth.

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CHAPTER XIV: ST. BASIL AND ST. GREGORY OF NAZIANZUM;COUNCIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE,

PART I (AD 373–381)

Although St. Athanasius was now dead, God did not fail to raise up champions for the truefaith. Three of the most famous of these were natives of Cappadocia—namely, Basil, his brotherGregory of Nyssa, and his friend Gregory of Nazianzum. But although Gregory of Nyssa was avery good and learned man, and did great service to the truth by his writings, there was nothingremarkable in the story of his life; so I shall only tell you about the other two.

Basil and Gregory of Nazianzum were both born about the year 329. Basil was of a nobleChristian family. Gregory’s father had belonged to a strange sect called Hypsistarians, whosereligion was a mixture of Jewish and heathen notions, but he had been converted from it by hiswife, Nonna, who was a very pious and excellent woman, and, before his son’s birth, he had risento be bishop of Nazianzum.

The two youths became acquainted at school in Cappadocia, and, when they were afterwardssent to the famous schools of Athens, they grew into the closest friendship. They lived and readand walked together: Gregory says that they had all things common, and that it was as if they hadonly one soul in two bodies. Athens was an excellent place for learning all that the wise men ofthis world could teach, and therefore students flocked to it from distant countries. But it was adangerous place for Christian young men; for the teachers were heathen philosophers, and knewwell how to entangle them in arguments, so that many of the pupils, who did not rightly understand

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the grounds of their faith, were deceived into giving it up. Thus, at the very time when Basil andGregory were at Athens, Julian was also there, sucking up the heathen notions which led to so muchevil when he afterwards became emperor. But the two Cappadocians kept themselves clear fromall the snares of “philosophy and vain deceit” (Coloss. ii. 8); and although they were the foremostof all the students in Athens for learning, and might have hoped to make a great figure in the worldby their talents, they resolved to give up all worldly ambition, and to devote themselves to theministry of the Church.

So they were both ordained to be clergymen, and their friendship continued as warm as ever.(Gregory did many kind offices to Basil, and at length, when the archbishopric of Caesarea, thechief city of Cappadocia, fell vacant, Gregory had a great share in getting his friend chosen to it.Basil was now in a very high office, with many bishops under him; and he had become noted asone of the chief defenders of the Catholic faith. And when the emperor Valens set up Arianism inall other parts of his dominions, Basil remained at his post, and kept the Church of Caesarea freefrom the heresy. Valens came into Cappadocia, and was angry that, while his wishes were obeyedeverywhere else, Basil should hold out against them: so he sent an officer named Modestus toCaesarea, and ordered him to require the archbishop to submit, on pain of being turned out. Modestustold Basil his errand, and threatened him with loss of his property, torture, banishment, and evendeath, in case of his refusal. But Basil was not at all daunted. “Think of some other threat,” he said,“for these have no influence on me. As for loss of property, I run no risk, for I have nothing to loseexcept these mean garments and a few books. Nor does a Christian care for banishment, since hehas no home upon earth, but makes every country his own, or rather, he looks on the whole worldas God’s, and on himself as God’s pilgrim upon earth. Neither can tortures harm me, for my bodyis so weak that the first blow would kill me; and death would be a gain, for it would but send me

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the sooner to Him for whom I live and labour, and to whom I have long been journeying.”Modestus returned to his master with an account of what had been said, and Valens himself

soon after came to Caesarea. But when he went to the cathedral on the festival of the Epiphany,and saw Basil at the head of his clergy, and witnessed their solemn service, he was struck with awe.He wished to make an offering, as the custom was, but none of the clergy went to receive his gift,and he almost fainted at the thought of being thus rejected from the Church, as if he had no part orlot in it. He afterwards sent for Basil, and had some conversation with him, and the end of the affairwas, that he not only left Basil in possession of his see, but bestowed a valuable estate on a hospitalwhich the archbishop had lately founded.

While Basil had risen, by Gregory’s help, to be an archbishop, Gregory himself was still apresbyter. He would not have taken even this office but that his father ordained him to it almost byforce; and he had a great dread of being raised to the high and difficult office of a bishop. But Basil,for certain reasons, wished to establish a bishop in a little town called Sasima, and he fixed on hisold friend, without, perhaps, thinking so much as he ought to have thought, whether the place andthe man were likely to suit each other. The old bishop of Nazianzum did all that he could to overcome

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his son’s unwillingness, and Gregory was consecrated; but he thought himself unkindly used, andcomplained much of Basil’s behaviour in the matter.

After a time, Basil and other leaders of the “orthodox” (that is, of those who “held the rightfaith”) urged Gregory to undertake a mission to Constantinople, and he agreed to go, in the hopeof being able to do some good (AD 378). The bishopric of that great city had been in the hands ofArians for nearly forty years, and although there were many people of other sects there, the orthodoxwere but a handful. Gregory, when he began his labours, found that there was a strong feeling

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against him and his doctrine. He could not get the use of any church, and was obliged to hold hisservice in a friend’s house. He was often attacked by the Arian mob; he was stoned; he was carriedbefore the magistrates on charges of disturbing the peace; the house which he had turned into achapel was broken into by night, and shocking outrages were committed in it. But the good Gregoryheld on notwithstanding all this, and, after a while, his mild and grave character, his eloquent andinstructive preaching, and the piety of his life, wrought a great change, so that his little place ofworship became far too small to hold the crowds which flocked to it. While Gregory was thusemployed, Basil died, in the year 380.

PART II

Both parts of the empire were now again under orthodox princes. Valens had lost his life inwars without leaving any children (AD 378), so that Valentinian’s sons, Gratian and Valentinianthe Second, were heirs to the whole. But Gratian felt the burden of government too much for himself,a lad of nineteen, and for his little brother, who was but seven years old; and he gave up the Eastto a brave Spaniard, named Theodosius, in the hope that he would be able to defend it.

Theodosius came to Constantinople in the year 380, and found things in the state which hasjust been described. He turned the Arian bishop and his clergy out of the churches, and gave Gregorypossession of the cathedral. Gregory knew that the emperor wished to help the cause of the truefaith, and he did as Theodosius wished; but he was very sad and uneasy at being thus thrust on aflock of which the greater part as yet refused to own him.

Theodosius then called a council, which met at Constantinople in the year 381, and is reckonedas the second General Council (the Council of Nicaea having been the first). One act of this council

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was to add to the Nicene Creed some words about the Holy Ghost, by way of guarding against theerrors of a party who were called Macedonians after one Macedonius, who had been bishop ofConstantinople, for these people denied the true doctrine as to the Holy Ghost, although they hadgiven up the errors of Arius as to the Godhead of our blessed Lord.

But afterwards, some of the bishops who attended the council fell to disputing about the choiceof a bishop for Antioch; and Gregory, who tried to persuade them to agree, found that, instead ofheeding his advice, they all fell on him, and they behaved so shamefully to him that he gave up hisbishopric, which, indeed, he had before wished to do. Theodosius was very sorry to lose so gooda man from that important place; but Gregory was glad to get away from its troubles and anxietiesto the quiet life which he best loved. He took charge of the diocese of Nazianzum (which had beenvacant since his father’s death, some years before), until a regular bishop was appointed to it; and

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he spent his last days in retirement, soothing himself with religious poetry and music. One of theholiest men of our own Church, Bishop Ken (the author of the Morning and Evening Hymns), usedoften to compare himself with St. Gregory of Nazianzum; for Bishop Ken, too, was driven fromhis bishopric in troubled times, and, in the poverty, sickness, and sorrow of his last years, he, too,used to find relief in playing on his lute, and in writing hymns and other devout poems.

Theodosius was resolved to establish the right faith, according as the council had laid it down.But it seems that at one time some of the bishops were afraid lest an Arian, named Eunomius,should get an influence over his mind, and should persuade him to favour the Arians. And there isa curious story of the way in which one of these bishops who was a homely old man, from someretired little town, tried to show the emperor that he ought not to encourage heretics. On a day whena number of bishops went to pay their respects at court, this old man, after having saluted the

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emperor very respectfully, turned to his eldest son, the young emperor Arcadius, and stroked hishead as if he had been any common boy. Theodosius was very angry at this behaviour, and orderedthat the bishop should be turned out. But as the officers of the palace were hurrying him towardsthe door, the old man addressed the emperor, and told him that as he was angry on account of theslight offered to the prince, even so would the Heavenly Father be offended with those who shouldrefuse to His Son the honours which they paid to Himself. Theodosius was much struck by thisspeech; he begged the bishop’s forgiveness, and showed his regard for the admonition by keepingEunomius and the rest of the Arians at a distance.

The emperor then made some severe laws, forbidding all sorts of sects to hold their worship,and requiring them to join the Catholic Church. Now this was, no doubt, a great mistake; for it isimpossible to force religious belief on people; and although Christian princes ought to support thetrue faith by making laws in favour of it, it is wrong to make men pretend a belief which they donot feel in their hearts. But Theodosius had not had the same opportunities which we have sincehad of seeing how useless such laws are, and what mischief they generally do; so that, instead ofblaming him, we must give him credit for acting in the way which he believed most likely to promotethe glory of God and the good of his subjects. And, although some of his laws seem very severe,there is reason to think that these were never acted on.

But about the same time, in another part of the empire, which had been usurped by one Maximus,an unhappy man, named Priscillian, and some of his companions, were put to death on account ofheresy. Such things became sadly too common afterwards; but at the time the punishment ofPriscillian struck all good men with horror. St. Martin, Bishop of Tours, who was called “TheApostle of the Gauls”, did all that he could to prevent it. St. Ambrose (of whom you will hear more

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in the next chapter; would not, on any account, have to do with the bishops who had been concernedin it; and the chief of these bishops was afterwards turned out of his see, and died in banishment.We may do well to remember that this first instance of punishing heresy with death, was under thegovernment of an usurper, who had made his way to power by rebellion and murder.

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CHAPTER XV: ST. AMBROSE (AD 374–397)

The greatest bishop of the West in these times was St. Ambrose, of Milan. He was born aboutthe year 340, and thus was ten or twelve years younger than St. Basil and St. Gregory of Nazianzum.His father had held a very high office under the emperors; Ambrose himself was brought up as alawyer, and had risen to be governor of Liguria, a large country in the north of Italy, of which Milanwas the chief city.

The bishop of Milan, who was an Arian, died in the year 374, and then a great dispute arosebetween the orthodox and the Arians as to choosing a new bishop, so that it seemed as if they mighteven come to blows about it. When both parties were assembled in the cathedral for the election,the governor, Ambrose, went and made them a speech, desiring them to manage their businesspeaceably, and it is said that, as soon as be had done, a little child’s voice was heard crying out“Ambrose bishop!” All at once, the whole assembly caught up the words, which seemed to havesomething providential in them; and they insisted that the governor should be the new bishop. Nowalthough Ambrose had been brought up as a Christian, he was still only a catechumen, and had

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never thought of being a bishop, or a clergyman of any kind; and he was afraid to undertake sohigh and holy an office. He therefore did all that he could to get himself excused. He tried to makethe people of Milan think that his temper was too severe, but they saw through his attempts. Hethen escaped from the town more than once, but he was brought back. Valentinian, who was thenemperor, approved the choice of a bishop; and Ambrose was first baptized, and a few days afterwardshe was consecrated.

He now studied very hard, in order to make up for his want of preparation for his office. Hewas very active in all sorts of pious and charitable works, and he soon became famous as a preacher.His steady firmness in maintaining the orthodox faith was especially shown when Valentinian’swidow, Justina, who was an Arian, wished to take one of the churches of Milan from the Catholicsand to give it to her own sect; and after a hard struggle, Ambrose got the better of her. He afterwardsgained a very great influence both over Justina’s son, Valentinian II, and over his elder brotherGratian. And when Gratian had been murdered by the friends of Maximus (the same Maximus whoput Priscillian to death), and Theodosius came into the West to avenge his murder (AD 388),Ambrose had no less power with Theodosius than he had had with the younger emperors.

Theodosius took up his abode for a time at Milan after he had defeated and slain the usurperMandamus. Soon after his arrival in the city, he went to service at the cathedral, and was going toseat himself in the part of it nearest to the altar, as at Constantinople the emperor’s seat was in thatpart of the church. But Ambrose stopped him, and told him that none but the clergy were allowedto sit there; and he begged the emperor to take a place at the head of the people outside the altar-rails.Theodosius was so far from being angry at this, that he thanked the bishop, and explained to himhow it was that he had made the mistake of going within the rails, and when he got back to

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Constantinople, he astonished his courtiers by ordering that his seat should be removed to a placeanswering to that in which he had sat at Milan, for that, he said, was much more seemly and proper.

There are other stories about Ambrose’s dealings with Theodosius, but I shall mention onlyone, which is the most famous of all. One day when there was to be a great chariot race atThessalonica, it happened that a famous charioteer, who was a favourite with the people of thetown, had been put in prison by the governor on account of a very serious crime. On this a mobwent to the governor, and demanded that the man should be set at liberty. The governor refused;and thereupon the mob grew furious, and murdered him, with a number of his soldiers and otherpersons. The emperor might have been excused for showing hearty displeasure at this outrage; butunhappily the great fault of his character was a readiness to give way to violent fits of passion; andon hearing what had been done, his anger knew no bounds. Ambrose, who was afraid lest someserious mischief should follow, did all that he could to soothe the emperor, and got a promise fromhim that the Thessalonians should be spared. But some other advisers afterwards got aboutTheodosius, and again inflamed his mind against the offenders, so that he gave orders for a fearfulact of cruel and treacherous vengeance. The people of Thessalonica were invited in the emperor’sname to some games in the circus or amphitheatre, which was a building open to the sky, and largeenough to hold many thousands. And when they were all gathered together in the place, instead ofthe amusement which had been promised them, they were fallen on by soldiers, who for three hourscarried on a savage butchery, sparing neither old men, women, nor children, and making nodifference between innocent and guilty, Thessalonian or stranger. Among those who had come tosee the games there was a foreign merchant, who had had no concern in the outrage of the mob,which was punished in this frightful way. He had two sons with him, and he offered his own life,with all that he had, if the soldiers would but spare one of them. The soldiers were willing to agree

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to this, but the poor father could not make up his mind which of the sons he should choose; andthe soldiers, who were too much enraged by their horrid work to make any allowance for his feelings,stabbed both the youths before his eyes at the same moment. The number of persons slain in themassacre is not certain; there were at least as many as seven thousand, and some writers say thatthere were fifteen thousand.

When Ambrose heard of this shocking affair, he was filled with grief and horror, for he hadrelied on the emperor’s promise to spare the Thessalonians, and great care had been taken that heshould not know anything of the orders which had been afterwards sent off. He wrote a letter toTheodosius, exhorting him to repent, and telling him that, unless he did so, he could not be admittedto the Holy Communion. This letter brought the emperor to feel that he had done very wrongly;but Ambrose wished to make him feel it far more. As Theodosius was about to enter the cathedral,the bishop met him in the porch, and, laying hold on his robe, desired him to withdraw, becausehe was a man stained with innocent blood. The emperor said that he was deeply grieved for hisoffence; but Ambrose told him that this was not enough—that he must show some more publicproofs of his repentance for so great a sin. The emperor withdrew accordingly to his palace, wherehe shut himself up for eight months, refusing to wear his imperial robes, and spending his time in

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sadness and penitence. At length, when Christmas was drawing near, he went to the bishop, andhumbly begged that he might be admitted into the Church again. Ambrose desired him to give somesubstantial token of his sorrow, and the emperor agreed to make a law by which no sentence ofdeath should be executed until thirty days after it had been passed. This law was meant to preventany more such sad effects of sudden passion in princes as the massacre of Thessalonica. The emperorwas then allowed to enter the church, where he fell down on the pavement, with every appearance

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of the deepest grief and humiliation; and it is said that from that time he never spent a day withoutremembering the crime into which his passion had betrayed him.

Theodosius was the last emperor who kept up the ancient glory of Rome. He is called “theGreat”, and in many respects was well deserving of the name. He died in 395, and St. Ambrosedied within two years after, on Easter eve, in the year 397.

CHAPTER XVI: THE TEMPLE OF SERAPIS (AD 391)

In the account of Constantine, it was mentioned that the emperors after their conversion didnot try to put down heathenism by force, or all at once (page 39). For the wise teachers of theChurch knew that this would not be the right way of going to work, but that it would be more likelyto make the heathens obstinate than to convert them. Thus St. Augustine (of whom we shall havemore to tell you by-and-by) says in one of his sermons—“We must first endeavour to break theidols in their hearts. When they themselves become Christians, they will either invite us to the goodwork of destroying their idols, or they will be beforehand with us in doing so. And in the meanwhile, we must pray for them, not be angry with them.”

But in course of time, as the people were more and more brought off from heathenism, and asthe belief of the Gospel worked its way more thoroughly among all classes of them, laws were sentforth against offering sacrifices, burning incense, and the like, to the heathen gods. These laws wereby degrees made stricter and stricter, until, in the reign of Theodosius, it was forbidden to do any

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act of heathen worship. And I may now tell you what took place as to the idols of Egypt in thisreign.

It was in the year 391 that an old heathen temple at Alexandria was given up to the bishop ofthe city, who wished to build a church on the spot. In digging out the foundation for the church,some strange and disgusting things, which had been used in the heathen worship, were found; andsome of the Christians carried these about the streets by way of mocking at the religion of theheathens. The heathen part of the inhabitants were enraged; a number of them made an uproar,killed some Christians, and then shut themselves up in the temple of one of their gods called Serapis,whom they believed to be the protector of Alexandria. This temple was surrounded by the housesof the priests and other buildings; and the whole was so vast and so magnificent, that it was countedas one of the wonders of the world.

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The rioters, who had shut themselves up in the temple, used to rush out from it now and then,killing some of the Christians who fell in their way, and carrying off others as prisoners. Theseprisoners were desired to offer sacrifice; if they refused, they were cruelly tortured, and some ofthem were even crucified. A report of these doings was sent to Theodosius, and he ordered that allthe temples of Alexandria should be destroyed. The governor invited the defenders of the templeof Serapis to attend in the market-place, where the emperor’s sentence was to be read; and, onhearing what it was, they fled in all directions, so that the soldiers, who were sent to the temple,found nobody there to withstand them.

The idol of Serapis was of such vast size that it reached from one side of the temple to the other.It was adorned with jewels, and was covered with plates of gold and silver; and its worshippersbelieved that, if it were hurt in any way, heaven and earth would go to wreck. So when a soldiermounted a ladder, and raised his axe against it, the heathens who stood by were in great terror, and

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even some of the Christians could not help feeling a little uneasiness as to what might follow. Butthe stout soldier first made a blow which struck off one of the idol’s cheeks, and then dashed hisaxe into one of his knees. Serapis, however, bore all this quietly, and the bystanders began to drawtheir breath more freely. The soldier worked away manfully, and, after a while, the huge head ofthe idol came crashing down, and a swarm of rats, which had long made their home in it, rushedforth, and scampered off in all directions. Even the heathens who were in the crowd, on seeing this,began to laugh at their god. The idol was demolished, and the pieces of it were carried into thecircus, where a bonfire was made of them; and, in examining the temple, a number of tricks bywhich the priests had deceived the people were found out, so that many heathens were convertedin consequence of having thus seen the vanity of their old religion, and the falsehood of the meansby which it was kept up.

Egypt, as you perhaps know, does not depend on rain for its crops, but on the rising of the riverNile, which floods the country at a certain season; and the heathens had long said that the Christianswere afraid to destroy the idols of Egypt, lest the gods should punish them by not allowing thewater to rise. After the destruction of Serapis, the usual time for the rising of the river came, butthere were no signs of it; and the heathens began to be in great delight, and to boast that their godswere going to take vengeance. Some weak Christians, too, began to think that there might be sometruth in this, and sent to ask the emperor what should be done. “Better,” he said, “that the Nileshould not rise at all, than that we should buy the fruitfulness of Egypt by idolatry!” After a whilethe Nile began to swell; it soon mounted above the usual height of its flood, and the Pagans werenow in hopes that Serapis was about to avenge himself by such a deluge as would punish theChristians for the destruction of the idol; but they were again disappointed by seeing the waterssink down to their proper level.

The emperor’s orders were executed by the destruction of the Egyptian temples and their idols.

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But we are told that the bishop of Alexandria saved one image as a curiosity, and lest people shouldafterwards deny that their forefathers had ever been so foolish as to worship such things. Some say

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that this image was a figure of Jupiter, the chief of the heathen gods; others say that it was the figureof a monkey; for even monkeys were worshipped by the Egyptians!

CHAPTER XVII: CHURCH GOVERNMENT.

By this time the Gospel had not only been firmly settled as the religion of the great Romanempire, but had made its way into most other countries of the world then known. Here, then, wemay stop to take a view of some things connected with the Church; and it will be well, in doing so,to remember what is wisely said by our own Church, in her thirty-fourth article, which is about“the Traditions of the Church” (that is to say, the practices handed down in the Church) —“It isnot necessary that traditions and ceremonies be in all places one, and utterly alike; for at all timesthey have been divers” (that is, they have differed in different parts of Christ’s Church), “and theymay be changed according to the diversities of countries, times, and men’s manners, so that nothingbe ordained against God’s Word.”

First, then, as to the ministers of the Church. The three orders which had been from thebeginning,—bishops, presbyters (or priests), and deacons (page 6), were considered to stand bythemselves, as the only orders necessary to a church. But early in the third century a number ofother orders were introduced, all lower than that of deacons. These were the “sub-deacons”, who

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helped the deacons in the care of the poor, and of the property belonging to the church; the “acolytes”,who lighted the lamps, and assisted in the celebration of the sacraments; the “exorcists”, who tookcharge of persons suffering from afflictions resembling the possession by devils which is spokenof in the New Testament; the “readers”, whose business it was to read the Scriptures in church; andthe “doorkeepers”. All these were considered to belong to the clergy; just as if among ourselvesthe organist, the clerk, the sexton, the singers, and the bell-ringers of a church were to be reckonedas clergy, and were to be appointed to their offices by a religious ceremony or ordination. But thesenew orders were not used everywhere, and, as has been said, the persons who were in these orderswere not considered to be clergy in the same way as those of the three higher orders which hadbeen ever since the days of the Apostles.

There were also, in the earliest times, women called deaconesses, such as Phoebe, who ismentioned in the Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 1.). These deaconesses (who were often pious widows)were employed among Christians of their own sex, for such works of mercy and instruction as werenot fit for men to do (or, at least, were supposed not to be so according to the manners of the Greeks,and of the other ancient nations). But the order of deaconesses does not seem to have lasted long.

All bishops, as I have said already, are of one order (page 6). But in course of time, it was foundconvenient for the government of the Church, that some of them should be placed higher thanothers; and the way in which this was settled was very natural. The bishops of a country found itdesirable to meet sometimes, that they might consult with each other, as we are told that the Apostlesdid at Jerusalem (Acts xv); and in most countries these meetings (which were called “synods” or

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Acts..html#Acts..

“councils”) came to be regularly held once or twice a year. The chief city of each district wasnaturally the place of meeting; and the bishop of this city was naturally the chairman or president

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of the assembly— just as we read that, in the council of the Apostles, St. James who was bishopof Jerusalem, where it was held, spoke with the greatest authority, after all the rest, and that his“sentence” was given as the judgment of the assembly. These bishops, then, got the title of“metropolitans”, because each was bishop of the metropolis (or mother-city) of the country in whichthe council was held; and thus they came to be considered higher than their brethren. And, of course,when any messages or letters were to be sent to the churches of other countries, the metropolitanwas the person in whose name it was done.

And, as all this was the natural course of things in every country, it was also natural that thebishops of very great cities should be considered as still higher than the ordinary metropolitans.Thus the bishoprics of Rome, of Alexandria, and of Antioch, which were the three greatest citiesof the empire, were regarded as the chief bishoprics, and as superior to all others. Those of Romeand Antioch were both supposed to have been founded by St. Peter, and Alexandria was believedto have been founded by St. Mark, under the direction of St. Peter. Hence it afterwards came to bethought that this was the cause of their greatness; and the bishops of Rome, especially, liked tohave this believed, because they could then pretend to claim some sort of especial power, whichthey said that our Lord had given to St. Peter above the other Apostles, and that St. Peter had leftit to his successors. But such claims were quite unfounded, and it is clear that the real reason whythese three churches stood higher than others was that they were in the three greatest cities of thewhole empire.

But the Church of Rome had many advantages over Alexandria and Antioch, as well as overevery other. It was the greatest and the richest of all, so that it could send help to distressed Christiansin all countries. No other church of the West had an Apostle to boast of, but Rome could boast ofthe two great Apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, who had laboured in it, and had given their blood for

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the faith of the Gospel in it. Most of the western nations had received their knowledge of the Gospelthrough the Roman Church, and on this account they looked up with respect to it as a mother. Andas people from all parts of the empire were continually going to Rome and returning, the Churchof the great capital kept up a constant intercourse with other churches in all quarters. Thus thebishops of Rome were naturally much respected everywhere, and, so long as they did not take toomuch upon themselves, great regard was paid to their opinion; but when they tried to interfere withthe rights of other bishops, or to lord it over other churches, they were firmly withstood, and weredesired to keep within their proper bounds, as Stephen of Rome was by St. Cyprian of Carthage(page 29).

Another thing must be mentioned as creditable to the Roman Church, and as one which didmuch to raise the power of its bishops. The heresies which we have read of all began in the East,where the people were more sharp-witted and restless in their thoughts than those of the West. TheRomans, on the other hand, had not the turn of mind which led to these errors, but rather attendedto practical things. Hence they were disposed to hold to the faith which had come down to them

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from their fathers, and to defend it against the new opinions which were brought forward from timeto time. This steadiness, then, gave them a great advantage over the Christians of the East, whowere frequently changing from one thing to another. It gained for the Roman Church much creditand authority, and when the great Arian controversy arose, the effects of the difference betweenthe Eastern and the Western character were vastly increased. The Romans (except for a short time,when a bishop named Liberius was won over by the Arians) kept to their old faith. The Easternparties looked to the bishop of Rome as if he had the whole Western Church in his hands. Theyconstantly carried their quarrels to him, asking him to give his help, and he was the strongest friend

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that they could find anywhere. And when the side which Rome had always upheld got the victoryat last, the importance of the Roman bishops rose in consequence. But even after all this, if thebishop of Rome tried to meddle with other churches, his right to do so was still denied. Many“canons” (that is to say, rules of the Church) were made to forbid the carrying of any quarrel forjudgment beyond the country in which it began; and, however glad the churches of Africa and ofthe East were to have the bishop of Rome for a friend, they would never allow him to assume theairs of a master.

And from the time when Constantinople was built in the place of Byzantium, a new great Churcharose. Byzantium had been only a common bishopric, and for a time Constantinople was not calledanything more than a common bishopric; but in real importance it was very much more, so thateven a bishop of Antioch, the third see in the whole Christian world, thought himself advancedwhen he was made bishop of Constantinople instead. But the second General Council (which aswe have seen (page 70) was held at Constantinople in the year 381) made a canon by whichConstantinople was placed next to Rome, “because,” as the canon said, “it is a new Rome.” Thisraised the jealousy, not only of Antioch, and still more of Alexandria, at having an upstart bishopric(as they considered it) put over their heads; but it gave great offence to the bishops of Rome, whocould not bear such a rivalry as was now threatened, and were besides very angry on account ofthe reason which was given for placing Constantinople next after Rome. For the council, when itsaid that Constantinople was to be second among all Churches, because of its being “ a new Rome,”meant to say that the reason why Rome itself stood first was nothing more than its being the oldcapital of the empire, whereas the bishops of Rome wished it to be thought that their power wasfounded on their being the successors of St. Peter.

We shall by-and-by see something of the effects of these jealousies.

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CHAPTER XVIII: CHRISTIAN WORSHIP,

PART I

In the early days of the Gospel, while the Christians were generally poor, and when they wereobliged to meet in fear of the heathen, their worship was held in private houses and sometimes inburial-places under-ground. But after a time buildings were expressly set apart for worship. It has

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been mentioned that in the years of quiet, between the death of Valerian and the last persecution(A D. 261–303) these churches were built much more handsomely than before, and were furnishedwith gold and silver plate and other rich ornaments (page 32). And after the conversion ofConstantine, they became still finer and costlier. The clergy then wore rich dresses at service, themusic was less simple and the ceremonies were multiplied. Some of the old heathen temples wereturned into churches, but temples were not built in a shape very suitable for Christian worship andthe pattern of the new churches was rather taken from the halls of justice, called “Basilicas”, whichwere to be found in every large town. These buildings were of an oblong shape, with a broad middlepart, and on each side of it an aisle, separated from it by a row of pillars. This lower part of thebasilica was used by merchants who met to talk about their business, and by all sorts of loungerswho met to tell and hear the news. But at the upper end of the oblong there was a half circle, withits floor raised above the level of the rest; and in the middle of this part the judge of the city sat.Now if you will compare this description with the plan of a church, you will see that the broadmiddle part of the basilica answers to what is called the “body” or “nave” of the church; that the

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side aisles are alike in each; and that the further part of the basilica, with its raised floor, answersto the “chancel” of a church; while the holy table, or “altar”, stands in the place answering to thejudge’s seat in the basilica. Same of these halls were given up by the emperors to be turned intochurches, and the plan of them was found convenient as a pattern in the building of new churches.

On entering a church, the first part was the Porch, in which there were places for the catechumens(that is to say, those who were preparing for baptism); for those who were supposed to be possessedwith devils, and who were under the care of the exorcists (page 81), and for the lowest kinds ofthose who were undergoing penance. Beyond this porch were the “Beautiful Gates”, which openedinto the “Nave” of the church. Just within these gates were those penitents whose time of penancewas nearly ended; and the rest of the nave was the place for the “faithful”—that is to say, for thosewho were admitted to all the privileges of Christians. At the upper end of the nave, a place calledthe “Choir” was railed in for the singers; and then, last of all, came the raised part or “chancel”,which has been spoken of. This was called the “Sanctuary”, and was set apart for the clergy only.The women sat in church apart from the men; sometimes they were in the aisles, and sometimesin galleries. Churches generally had a court in front of them or about them, in which were thelodgings of the clergy, and a building for the administration of baptism, called the “Baptistery”.

In the early times, churches were not adorned with pictures or statues; for Christians were atfirst afraid to have any ornaments of the kind, lest they should fall into idolatry like the heathen.No such things as images or pictures of our Lord, or of His saints, were known among them; andin their every-day life, instead of the figures of gods, with which the heathens used to adorn theirhouses, their furniture, their cups, and their seals, the Christians made use of emblems only. Thus,

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instead of pretending to make a likeness of our Lord’s human form, they made a figure of a shepherdcarrying a lamb on his shoulders, to signify the Good Shepherd who gave his life for his sheep (St.John x. 11). Other ornaments of the same kind were—a dove signifying the Holy Ghost, a ship,signifying the Church, the ark of salvation, sailing towards heaven; a fish, which was meant to

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remind them of their having been born again in the water at their baptism; a musical instrumentcalled a lyre, to signify Christian joy; and an anchor, the figure of Christian hope. About the year300, the Council of Elvira, in Spain, made a canon forbidding pictures in church, which shows thatthe practice had then begun, and was growing; and also that, in Spain, at least, it was thought to bedangerous (as indeed it too surely proved to be). And a hundred years later, Epiphanius, a famousbishop of Salamis, in the island of Cyprus, tore a curtain which he found hanging in a church, witha figure of our Lord, or of some saint, painted on it. He declared that such things were altogetherunlawful, and desired that the curtain might be used to bury some poor man in, promising to sendthe church a plain one instead of it.

Christians used to sign themselves with the sign of the cross on many occasions, and figuresof the cross were early set up in churches. But crucifixes (which are figures of our Lord on thecross, although ignorant people sometimes call the cross itself a crucifix) were not known untilhundreds of years after the time of which we are now speaking.

PART II

The church-service of Christians was always the same as to its main parts, although there werelittle differences as to order and the like. Justin Martyr, who lived (as we have seen) about themiddle of the second century (see Chapter III), describes the service as it was in his time. It began,he says, with readings from the Scriptures; then followed a discourse by the chief clergyman who

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was present; and there was much singing, of which a part was from the Old Testament psalms,while a part was made up of hymns on Christian subjects. The discourses of the clergy were generallymeant to explain the Scripture lessons which had been read. At first these discourses were veryplain, and as much as possible like ordinary talk; and from this they got the name of “homilies”,which properly meant nothing more than “conversations”. But by degrees they grew to be morelike speeches, and people used to flock to them, just as many do now, from a wish to hear somethingfine, rather than with any notion of taking the preacher’s words to heart, and trying to be madebetter by them. And in the fourth century, when a clergyman preached eloquently, the people usedto cheer him on by clapping their hands, waving their handkerchiefs, and shouting out, “Orthodox!”“Thirteenth apostle!” or other such cries. Good men, of course, did not like to be treated in thisway, as if they were actors at a theatre; and we often find St. Chrysostom and St Augustine (of bothof whom you will hear by-and-by; objecting to it in their sermons, and begging their hearers notto show their admiration in such foolish and unseemly ways. But it seems that the people went onwith it nevertheless; and no doubt there must have been some preachers who were vain enough andsilly enough to be pleased with it.

In the time of the Apostles the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper was celebrated in the evening,as it had been by our blessed Lord Himself on the night in which He was betrayed. Thus it was,for instance, when the disciples at Troas “came together upon the first day of the week (Sunday)to break bread” (that is, to celebrate the Lord’s Supper), and “Paul preached unto them, and continuedhis speech until midnight” (Acts xx. 7). In the service for this sacrament there was a thanksgivingto God for His bounty in bestowing the fruits of the earth. The congregation offered gifts of bread

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and wine, and from these the elements which were to be consecrated were taken. They also brought

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gifts of money, which was used for the relief of the poor, for the support of the clergy, and for othergood and religious purposes. Either before or after the sacrament, there was a meal called thelove-feast, for which all the members of the congregation brought provisions, according as theycould afford. All of them sat down to it as equals, in token of their being alike in Christ’sBrotherhood; and it ended with psalm-singing and prayer. But even in very early days (as St. Paulshows us in his first epistle to the Corinthians, xi. 21f), there was sad misbehaviour at these meals;and besides this, such religious feasts gave the heathen an excuse for their stories that the Christiansmet to feed on human flesh and to commit other abominations in secret (see page 7). For thesereasons, after a time, the love-feast was separated from the holy Communion, and at length it wasentirely given up.

In the second century, the administration of the Lord’s Supper, instead of being in the eveningas at first, was added on to the morning service, and then a difference was made between the twoparts of the service. At the earlier part of it the catechumens and penitents might be present, butwhen the Communion office was going to begin, a deacon called out, “Let no one of the catechumensor of the hearers stay.” After this none were allowed to remain except those who were entitled tocommunicate, which all baptized Christians did in those days, unless they were shut out from theChurch on account of their misdeeds. The “breaking of bread” in the Lord’s Supper was at firstdaily, as we know from the early chapters of the Acts (ii. 46); but this practice does not seem tohave lasted beyond the time when the faith of the Christians was in its first warmth, and it becameusual to celebrate the holy Communion on the Lord’s day only. When Christianity became thereligion of the empire, and there was now no fear of persecution, the earlier part of the service wasopen not only to catechumens and penitents, but to Jews and heathens; and in the fifth century,

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when the Church was mostly made up of persons who had been baptized and trained in Christianityfrom infancy, the distinction between the “service of the catechumens” and the “service of thefaithful” was no longer kept up.

The length of time during which converts were obliged to be catechumens before being admittedto baptism differed in different parts of the Church. In some places it was two years, in some threeyears; but if during this time they fell sick and appeared to be in danger of death, they were baptizedwithout waiting any longer.

At baptism, those who received it professed their faith, or their sponsors did so for them, andfrom this began the use of creeds, containing, in few words, the chief articles of the Christian faith.The sign of the cross was made over those who were baptized “in token that they should not beashamed to confess the faith of Christ crucified, and manfully to fight under His banner againstsin, the world, and the devil, and to continue Christ’s faithful soldiers and servants unto their life’send.” The kiss of peace was given to them in token of their being taken into spiritual brotherhood;white robes were put on them, to signify their cleansing from sin; and a mixture of milk and honeywas administered to them, as if to give them a foretaste of their heavenly inheritance, of which theearthly Canaan, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. iii. 8, etc.) had been a figure. Other

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Exod.3.html#Exod.3.8

ceremonies were added in the fourth century, such as the use of salt and lights, and an anointingwith oil in token of their being “made kings and priests to God” (Rev. i. 6; 1 Pet. ii. 5–9), besidesthe anointing with a mixture called “chrism” at confirmation, which had been practised in earliertimes.

The usual time of baptism was the season from Easter-eve to Whitsuntide; but in case of danger,persons might be baptized at any time.

PART III

During the fourth century there was a growth of superstitions and corruptions in the Church.

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Great numbers of converts came into it, bringing their old heathen notions with them, and not wellknowing what they might expect, but with an eager desire to find as much to interest them in theworship and life of Christians as they had found in the ceremonies and shows of their formerreligion. And in order that such converts might not be altogether disappointed, the Christian teachersof the age allowed a number of things which soon began to have very bad effects; thus, as we aretold in the preface to our own Prayer-book, St. Augustine complained that in his time (which wasabout the year 400) ceremonies “were grown to such a number that the estate of Christian peoplewas in worse case concerning that matter than were the Jews.” Among the corruptions which werenow growing, although they did not come to a head until afterwards, one was an excess of reverencefor saints, which led to the practices of making addresses to them, and of paying superstitioushonours to their dead bodies. Another corruption was the improper use of paintings or images,which even in St. Augustine’s time had gone so far that, as he owns with sorrow, many of theignorant were “worshippers of pictures.” Another was the fashion of going on pilgrimage to theHoly Land, in which Constantine’s mother, Helena, set an example which was soon followed bythousands, who not only fancied that the sight of the places hallowed by the great events of Scripturewould kindle or heighten their devotion, but that prayers would be especially pleasing to God ifthey were offered up in such places. And thus great numbers flocked to Palestine from all quarters,and even from Britain, among other countries, and on their return they carried back with them waterfrom the Jordan, earth from the Redeemer’s sepulchre, or what they believed to be chips of the truecross, which was supposed to have been found during Helena’s visit to Jerusalem. The mischiefsof this fashion soon showed themselves. St. Basil’s brother, Gregory of Nyssa, wrote a little bookexpressly for the purpose of persuading people not to go on pilgrimage. He said that he himself

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had been neither better nor worse for a visit which he had paid to the Holy Land; but that such apilgrimage might even be dangerous for others because the inhabitants of the country were sovicious that there was more likelihood of getting harm from them than good from the sight of theholy places. “We should rather try,” he said, “to go out of the body than to drag it about from placeto place.” Another very learned man of the same time, St. Jerome, although he had taken up hisown abode at Bethlehem, saw so much of the evils which arose from pilgrimages that he gave veryearnest warnings against them. “It is no praise,” he says, “to have been at Jerusalem but to havelived religiously at Jerusalem. The sight of the places where our Lord died and rose again areprofitable to those who bear their own cross and daily rise again with Him. But for those who say,

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Rev.1.html#Rev.1.6

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.iPet.2.html#iPet.2.5

‘The temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord,’ (Jerem. vii. 4), let them hear the Apostle’s words,‘Ye are the temple of God and the Spirit of God dwelleth in you,’ (1 Cor. iii. 16) The court ofheaven is open to approach from Jerusalem and from Britain alike; ‘for the kingdom of God iswithin you'” (St. Luke xvii. 21).

There were, indeed, some persons who rose up to oppose the errors of which I have beenspeaking. But unhappily they mixed up the truths which they wished to teach with so many errorsof their own, and they carried on their opposition so unwisely, that, instead of doing good, they didharm, by setting people against such truth as they taught on account of the error which was joinedwith it, and of the strong way which they took of teaching it. By such opposition the growth ofsuperstition was not checked, but advanced and strengthened.

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CHAPTER XIX: ARCADIUS AND HONORIUS (AD 395–423)

The great emperor Theodosius was succeeded in 395 by his two sons, Arcadius, who waseighteen years of age, and Honorius, who was only eleven. Arcadius had the East, and Honoriusthe West; and after this division, the empire was never again united in anything like the full extentof its old greatness. The reigns of these princes were full of misfortunes, especially in the westernempire, where swarms of barbarians poured down from the north, and did a vast deal of mischief.One of these barbarous nations, the Goths, whose king was named Alaric, thrice besieged Romeitself. The first time, Alaric was bought off by a large sum of money. After the second siege, heset up an emperor of his own making; and after the third siege, the city was given up to his soldiersfor plunder. Rude as these Goths were, they had been brought over to a kind of Christianity, althoughit was not the true faith of the Church. There had, indeed, been Christians among the Goths nearly150 years before this time, for many of them had been converted by Christian captives, whom theycarried off in the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, about the year 260; and a Gothic bishop, namedTheophilus, had sat at the council of Nicaea. But great changes had since been wrought amongthem by a remarkable man named Ulfilas, who was consecrated as their bishop in the year 348. Hefound that they did not know the use of letters, so he made an alphabet for them, and translated theScriptures into their language, and he taught them many useful arts. Thus he got such an influenceover them, that they received all his words as law, and he was called “the Moses of the Goths.”

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But, unhappily, Ulfilas was drawn into Arianism, and this was the doctrine which he taught to hispeople, instead of the sound faith which had before been preached to them by Theophilus andothers. But still, although their Christianity was not of the right kind, it had good effects on theserough people; and so it appeared when Rome was given over by the conqueror Alaric to his soldiers.Although they destroyed temples, they paid great respect to churches; and they did not commitsuch terrible acts of cruelty and violence as had been usual when cities were taken by heathenarmies.

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I need not say more about these sad times; but I must not forget to tell what was done by amonk, named Telemachus, in the reign of Honorius. In the year 403, one of the emperor’s generalsdefeated Alaric in the north of Italy; and the Romans, who in those days were not much used tovictories, made the most of this one, and held great games in honour of it. Now the public gamesof the Romans were generally of a cruel kind. We have seen how, in former days, they used to letwild beasts loose against the Christian martyrs in their amphitheatres (page 9); and another of theirfavourite pastimes was to set men who were called gladiators (that is, swordsmen) to fight and killeach other in those same places. The love of these shows of gladiators was so strong in the peopleof Rome, that Constantine had not ventured to do away with them there, although he would notallow any such things in the new Christian capital which he built. And the custom of setting mento slaughter one another for the amusement of the lookers on had lasted at Rome down to the timeof Honorius.

Telemachus, then, who was an eastern monk, was greatly shocked that Christians should takepleasure in these savage sports, and when he heard of the great games which were preparing, heresolved to bear his witness against them. For this purpose, therefore, he went all the way to Rome,and got into the amphitheatre, close to the arena (as the place where the gladiators fought was

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called); and when the fight had begun, he leaped over the barrier which separated him from thearena, rushed in between the gladiators, and tried to part them. The people who crowded the vastbuilding grew furious at being baulked of their amusement; they shouted out with rage, and threwstones, or whatever else they could lay their hands on, at Telemachus, so that he was soon peltedto death. But when they saw him lying dead, their anger suddenly cooled, and they were struckwith horror at the crime of which they had been guilty, although they had never thought of thewickedness of feasting their eyes on the bloodshed of gladiators. The emperor said that the deathof Telemachus was really a martyrdom, and proposed to do away with the shows of gladiators, andthe people, who were now filled with sorrow and shame, agreed to give up their cruel diversions.So the life of the brave monk was not thrown away, since it was the means of saving the lives ofmany, and of preserving multitudes from the sin of sacrificing their fellowmen for their sport.

CHAPTER XX: ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM (AD 347–407)

PART I

At this time lived St. John Chrysostom, whose name is known to us all from the prayer in ourservice which is called “A Prayer of St. Chrysostom.”

He was born at Antioch about the year 347. While he was still a little child, he lost his father;but his mother, Anthusa, who was left a widow at the age of twenty, remained unmarried, anddevoted herself to the training of her son. During his early years, she brought him up with religious

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care, and he was afterwards sent to finish his education under a famous heathen philosopher. I havealready had occasion to tell you that Christian youths, while in the schools of such teachers, ran agreat risk of being turned from the Gospel, and that many of them fell away (p 67); but John waspreserved from the danger by daily studying the Scriptures, and thus his faith was kept fresh andwarm. The philosopher had such a high notion of his talents, that he long after spoke of John asthe best of all the pupils he had ever had, and said that he would have been the worthiest to succeedhim as a teacher, “if the Christians had not stolen him.”

When he left this master, John studied law; but, after trying it for a time, he found that therewere things about the business of an Antioch lawyer which went against his conscience; so heresolved to give up the law, and to become a monk. But his mother thought that he might lead areally Christian life without rushing away into the wilderness and leaving his natural duties behindhim. She took him by the hand, led him into her chamber, and made him sit down beside her onthe bed. Then she burst into tears: she reminded him of all the kindness which she had shown him,and of the cares and troubles which she had borne for his sake. She told him that it had been herchief comfort to look on his face, which put her in mind of the husband whom she had lost. “Makeme not once more a widow,” she said: “Wait only for my death, which may, perhaps, not be faroff. When you have laid me in the grave, then you may go where you will—even beyond the sea,if such be your wish, but so long as I live, bear to stay with me, and do not offend God by afflictingyour mother.” The young man yielded to these entreaties, and remained in his mother’s house,although he gave up all worldly business, and lived after the strict manner of the monks. But whenthe good Anthusa was dead, he withdrew to the mountains, near Antioch, in which a great number

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of monks dwelt. There he spent four years in a monastery, and two as a hermit in a cave. But atlast his hard life made him very weak and ill, so that he was obliged to return to Antioch; and soonafter this he was ordained to be one of the clergy, and was appointed chief preacher of the city (AD386).

Of all the great men of the ancient Church, John was the most famous for eloquence; and fromthis it was that he got the name of “Chrysostom,” which means “golden-mouthed”. His sermons(of which hundreds still remain) were not mere displays of fine words, but were always meant toinstruct and to improve those who heard them. And, while he was chief preacher at Antioch, hehad a very remarkable opportunity of using his gifts of speech. An outbreak had taken place in thecity, on account of a new tax which Theodosius, who was then emperor, had laid on the people(AD 387). The statues of the emperor and of his family, which stood in public places, were throwndown, and were dragged about the streets with all sorts of mockery and insult. But the riot waseasily put down, and then the inhabitants began to be in great anxiety and terror as to the punishmentwhich Theodosius might inflict on them. For although the frightful massacre of Thessalonica (p75) had not at that time taken place, they knew that the emperor was not to be trifled with, and thathis fits of anger were terrible. They expected that they might be given up to slaughter, and theircity to destruction. For a time, few of them ventured out of their houses, and those few slunk alongthe streets as if they were afraid of being seized. Many were imprisoned, and were cruelly tortured

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or put to death; others ran away, leaving all that they had behind them; and the public amusements,of which the people of Antioch were excessively fond, were, for a time, quite given up.

The bishop, Flavian, who was a very aged man, in bad health and infirm, left the bedside of hissister (who was supposed to be dying) to set out for Constantinople and implore the emperor’s

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mercy. And while he was absent Chrysostom took the lead among the clergy. He preached everyday in a solemn and awakening tone; he tried to turn the terrors of the people to their lasting good,by directing their thoughts to the great judgment, in which all men must hereafter appear, urgingthem, whatever their present fate might be, to strive after peace with God, and a share in his mercy,through Christ, in that awful day. The effect of his preaching was wonderful;—day after day, vastcrowds flocked to listen to it, forgetting every thing else: even many heathens were among them.

The news of the disturbances at Antioch had reached Constantinople long before Flavian; andthe bishop, as he was on his way, met two commissioners, who had been sent by the emperor todeclare his sentence to the people. The buildings of the city were to be spared; but it was to loseits rank among the cities of the empire. The baths, which in those countries were reckoned almostas a necessary of life, were to be shut up, and all public amusements were to be at an end. Theofficers, after reaching Antioch, and publishing this sentence, set about inquiring who had taken apart in the tumult. Judgment was to be executed without mercy on all whose guilt could be proved;and the anxiety of the people became extreme. A number of monks and hermits came down fromthe mountains, and busied themselves in trying to comfort those who were in distress. One of thesemonks, Macedonius, a man of rough and simple appearance, but of great note for holiness, met theemperor’s commissioners as they were riding through the market-place, whereupon he laid holdof one of them by the cloak, and desired them both to dismount. At first they were angry; but, onbeing told who he was, they alighted and fell on their knees before him; for, in those days, monksfamous for their holiness were looked on much as if they had been prophets. And Macedoniusspoke to them in the tone of a prophet:—“Go,” he said, “say to the emperor: ‘You are a man; yoursubjects too are men, made in the image of God. You are enraged on account of images of brass;

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but a living and reasonable image is of far higher worth than these. Destroy the brazen images, andit is easy to make others; but you cannot restore a single hair of the heads of the men whom youhave put to death.’” The commissioners were much struck with the way in which Macedoniusuttered this, although they did not understand what he said (as he spoke in the Syrian language);and when his words were explained to them in Greek, they agreed that one of them should go tothe emperor, to tell him how things were at Antioch, and to beg for further instructions.

In the mean time, Bishop Flavian had made his way to the emperor’s presence. Theodosiusreceived him with kindness, and spoke calmly of the favour which he had always shown to Antioch,and of the base return which the citizens had made for it. The bishop wept bitterly when he heardthis. He owned that his flock had deserved the worst of punishments; but, he said, no punishmentcould be so severe as undeserved mercy. He told the emperor that, instead of the statues which hadbeen thrown down, he had now the opportunity of setting up far better monuments in the hearts ofhis people, by showing them forgiveness. He urged the duty of forgiveness in all the ways that he

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could think of, he drew a moving picture of the misery of the inhabitants of Antioch, which hecould not bear to see again; and he declared that, unless he gained the favour which he had cometo beg for, he would never return to his city.

Theodosius was moved almost to tears by the old man’s words. “What wonder is it,” he said,“if I, who am but a man, should pardon my fellow men, when the Maker of the world has come onearth, and has submitted to death, for the forgiveness of mankind?” and he pressed Flavian to returnto Antioch with all speed, for the comfort of his people. The bishop, on reaching home, found thathis sister, whom he had not hoped to see any more in this world, was recovered; and we may wellimagine that his flock were full of gratitude to him for what he had done. But he refused all thanks

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or credit on account of the success of his mission. “It was not my doing,” he said “it was God whosoftened the emperor’s heart.”

PART II

When Chrysostom had been chief preacher of Antioch about twelve years, the bishopric ofConstantinople fell vacant (AD 397); and there was so much strife for it, that at length the people,as the only way of settling the matter quietly, begged the emperor Arcadius to name a bishop forthem. Now it happened that the emperor’s favourite counsellor, Eutropius, had been at Antioch ashort time before, and had been very much struck with Chrysostom’s preaching; so he advised theemperor to choose him. Chrysostom was appointed accordingly; and, as he was so much belovedby the people of Antioch that they might perhaps have made a disturbance rather than part withhim, he was decoyed outside the city, and was then secretly sent off to Constantinople. Eutropiuswas so worthless a man that we can hardly suppose him to have acted from quite pure motives inthis affair. Perhaps he wished to get credit with the people for making so good a choice. Perhaps,too, he may have hoped that he might be able to do as he liked with a bishop of his own choosing.But if he thought so, he was much disappointed; for Chrysostom behaved as a faithful and truepastor, without any fear of man.

The new bishop’s preaching was as much admired at Constantinople as it had been at Antioch,and he soon gained great influence among his flock. And besides attending diligently to his workat home, he set on foot missions to some heathen nations, and also to the Goths, who, as we haveseen (p 93), were Arians. But besides the Goths at a distance, there were then a great number ofthe same people at Constantinople; for the Greeks and Romans of those days were so much fallen

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away from the bravery of their forefathers, that the emperors were obliged to hire Gothic soldiersto defend their dominions. Chrysostom, therefore, took great pains to bring over these Goths atConstantinople to the Church. He ordained clergy of their own station for them, and set apart achurch for them. And he often went himself to this church, and preached to them in Greek, whilean interpreter repeated his words to then in their own language.

But unhappily he soon made enemies at Constantinople. For he found the church there in a verybad state and, by trying to set things right, he gave offence to many people of various kinds, andalthough he was indeed an excellent man, perhaps he did not always act with such wisdom andsuch calmness of temper as might have been wished. The last bishop, Nectarius, was a man of high

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rank, who had never dreamt of being a bishop or any such thing, until at the council of Constantinoplehe was suddenly chosen instead of the good Gregory (p 71). At that time Nectarius was not evenbaptized; so that he had first to receive baptism, and then within a week he was consecrated asbishop of the second church in the whole Christian world. And it proved that he was too old tochange his ways very much. He continued to live in a costly style, as he had done all his life before;and he let the clergy go on much as they pleased, so that they generally fell into easy and luxurioushabits, and some of them were even quite scandalous in their conduct. Now Chrysostom’s waysand notions were quite opposite to all this. He sold the rich carpets and other valuable furniturewhich he found in the bishop’s palace; nay, he even sold some of the church ornaments, that hemight get money for building hospitals and for other charitable purposes. He did not care forcompany, and his health was delicate; and for these reasons he always took his meals by himself,and did not ask bishops who came to Constantinople to lodge in his palace or to dine with him, as

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Nectarius had done. This does not seem to be quite according to St Paul’s saying, that a bishopshould be “given to hospitality” (1 Tim. iii. 2); but Chrysostom thought that among the Christiansof a great city like Constantinople the strange bishops could be at no loss for entertainment, andthat his own time and money might be better spent than in entertaining them. But many of themwere very much offended, and it is said that one, Acacias, of Berrhoea, in Syria, declared in anger,“I will cook his pot for him!”

Chrysostom’s reforms also interfered much with the habits of his clergy. He made them performservice at night in their churches for people who were too busy to attend during the day; and manyof them were very unwilling to leave their homes at late hours and to do additional work. Some ofthem, too, were envious of him because he was so famous as a preacher, and they looked eagerlyto find something in his sermons which might be turned against him. And besides all these enemiesamong the clergy, he provoked many among the courtiers and the rich people of Constantinople,by plainly attacking their vices.

Although Chrysostom had chiefly owed his bishopric to Eutropius, he was afterwards drawninto many disputes with him. For in that age and in that country things were very different fromwhat they happily are among ourselves, and a person in power like Eutropius might commit greatacts of tyranny and oppression, while the poor people who suffered had no means of redress. Butmany of those whom Eutropius meant to plunder or to imprison took refuge in churches, wheredebtors and others were then considered to be safe, as it was not lawful to seize them in the holybuildings. Eutropius persuaded the emperor to make a law by which this right of shelter (or“Sanctuary”, as it was called) was taken away from churches. But soon after he himself fell intodisgrace, and in his terror he rushed to the cathedral, and laid hold of the altar for protection. Somesoldiers were sent to seize him; but Chrysostom would not let them enter; and next day, when the

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church was crowded by a multitude of people who had flocked to see what would become ofEutropius, the bishop preached on the uncertainty of all earthly greatness. While Eutropius laycrouching under the holy table, Chrysostom turned to him and reminded him how he had tried totake away that very privilege of churches from which he was now seeking protection; and he desired

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the people to beg both God and the emperor to pardon the fallen favourite. By all this he did notmean to insult the wretched Eutropius, but to turn the rage of the multitude into pity. It was said,however, by some that he had triumphed over his enemy’s misfortunes; and he also got into troublefor giving Eutropius shelter, and was carried before the emperor to answer for doing so. But thebishop boldly upheld the right of the Church to protect the defenceless, and Eutropius was, for thetime, allowed to go free.

PART III

Thus there were many at Constantinople who were ready to take part against Chrysostom, ifan opportunity should offer, and it was not long before they found one.

The bishop of Alexandria at this time was a bold and bad man, named Theophilus. He wasjealous of the see of Constantinople, because the second general council had lately placed it abovehis own (p 84); he disliked the bishop because he had hoped to put one of his own clergy into theplace, and had seen enough of Chrysostom at his first meeting to know that he could not make atool of him; and although he had been obliged by the emperor and Eutropius to consecrateChrysostom as bishop, it was with a very bad grace that he did so.

There were then great quarrels as to the opinions of the famous Origen, who had lived twohundred years before (Chapter VII). Some of his opinions were really wrong, and others were verystrange, if they were not wrong too. But besides these, a number of things had been laid to his

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charge of which he seems to have been quite innocent. If Theophilus really cared at all about thematter, he was in his heart favourable to Origen. But he found it convenient to take the oppositeside; and he cruelly, persecuted such of the Egyptian monks as were said to be touched with Origen’serrors. The chief of these monks were four brothers, called the “long” or “tall brothers”. One ofthem was that same Ammonias who cut off his ear, and was ready to cut out his tongue, rather thanbe a bishop (p 65). Theophilus had made much of these brothers, and had employed two of themin managing his accounts. But these two found out such practices of his in money-matters as quiteshocked them, and as, after this, they refused to stay with the bishop any longer, he charged themand their brothers with Origenism (as the following of Origen’s opinions was called). They deniedthat they held any of the errors which Theophilus laid to their charge; but he went with soldiersinto the desert, hunted out the brothers, destroyed their cells, burnt a number of books, and evenkilled some persons. The tall brothers and some of their friends fled into the Holy Land, but theirenemy had power enough to prevent their remaining there, and they then sought a refuge atConstantinople.

On hearing of their arrival in his city, Chrysostom inquired about them, and, finding that theybore a good character, he treated them kindly; but he would not admit them to communion untilhe knew what Theophilus had to say against them. Theophilus, however, was told that Chrysostomhad admitted them, and he wrote a furious letter to him about it. The brothers were very muchalarmed lest they should be turned away at Constantinople as they had been in the Holy Land, andone day when the empress Eudoxia was in a church, they went to her and entreated her to get theemperor’s leave that a council might be held to examine their case.

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Theophilus was summoned to appear before this council, and give an account of his behaviour

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to the brothers; but when he got to Constantinople, he acted as if, instead of being under a chargeof misbehaviour himself, he had been called to judge the bishop of the capital. He would havenothing to do with Chrysostom. He spent large sums of money in bribing courtiers and others tofavour his own side; and, when he thought he had made all sure, he held a meeting of six and thirtybishops, at a place called the Oak, which lay on the Asiatic shore, opposite to Constantinople (AD403). A number of trumpery charges were brought against Chrysostom, and, as he refused to appearbefore such a meeting, which was almost entirely made up of Egyptian bishops, and had no rightwhatever to try him, they found him guilty of various offences, and, among the rest, of high treason!The emperor and empress had been drawn into taking part against him, and he was condemned tobanishment. But on the night after he had been sent across the Bosphorus (the strait which dividesConstantinople from the Asiatic shore), the city was shaken by an earthquake. The empress in herterror supposed this to be a judgment against the injustice which had been committed, and hastilysent off a messenger to beg that the bishop would return. And when it was known next day that hewas on his way back, so great was the joy of his flock that the Bosphorus was covered with vessels,carrying vast multitudes of people, who eagerly crowded to welcome him.

PART IV

Within a few months after his return, Chrysostom again got into trouble for finding fault withsome disorderly and almost heathenish rejoicings which were held around a new statue of theempress, close to the door of his cathedral. Theophilus had returned to Egypt, and did not againappear at Constantinople, but directed the proceedings of Chrysostom’s other enemies who wereon the spot. Another council was held, and, of course, found the bishop guilty of whatever was laidto his charge. He did not mean to desert his flock, unless he were forced to do so; he, therefore,

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kept possession of the cathedral and of the episcopal house for some months. During this time hewas often disturbed by his enemies; nay, more than once, attempts were even made to murder him.At last, on receiving an order from the emperor to leave his house, he saw that the time was comewhen he must yield to force. His flock guarded the cathedral day and night, and would have resistedany attempt to seize him; but he did not think it right to risk disorder and bloodshed. He, thereforetook a solemn leave of his chief friends, giving good advice and speaking words of comfort to each.He begged them not to despair for the loss of him, but to submit to any bishop who should be chosenby general consent to succeed him. And then, while, in order to take off the people’s attention, hismule was held at one door of the church, as if he might be expected to come out there, he quietlyleft the building by another door, and gave himself up as a prisoner, declaring that he wished hiscase to be fairly tried by a council (AD 404).

He was first carried to Nicaea, where he remained nearly a month. During this time he pressedfor a fresh inquiry into his conduct, but in vain; and neither he nor his friends could obtain leavefor him to retire to some place where he might live with comfort. He was sentenced to be carriedto Cucusus, among the mountains of Taurus—a name which seemed to bode him no good, as an

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earlier bishop of Constantinople, Paul, had been starved and afterwards strangled there, in the timeof the Arian troubles (AD 351).

On his way to Cucusus, he was often in danger from robbers who infested the road, and stillmore from monks of the opposite party, who were furious against him. When he arrived at theplace, he found it a wretched little town, where he was frozen by cold in winter, and parched byexcessive heat in summer. Sometimes he could hardly get provisions; and when he was ill (as oftenhappened), he could not get proper medicines. Sometimes, too, the robbers, from the neighbouring

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country of Isauria, made plundering attacks, so that Chrysostom was obliged to leave Cucusus inhaste, and to take refuge in a castle called Arabissus.

But, although there was much to distress him in his banishment, there was also much to comforthim. His great name, his sufferings, and his innocence were known throughout all Christian churches.Letters of consolation and sympathy poured in on him from all quarters. The bishop of Romehimself wrote to him as to an equal, and even the emperor of the West, Honorius, interceded forhim, although without success. The bishop of Cucusus, and his other neighbours, treated him withall respect and kindness, and many pilgrims made their way over the rough mountain roads to seehim, and to express their reverence for him. His friends at a distance sent him such large sums ofmoney that he was able to redeem captives and to support missions to the Goths and to the Persians,and, after all, had to desire that they would not send him so much, as their gifts were more than hecould use. In truth, no part of his life was so full of honour and of influence as the three years whichhe spent in exile.

At length the court became jealous of the interest which was so generally felt in Chrysostom,and he was suddenly hurried off from Cucusus, with the intention of removing him to a still wilderand more desolate place at the farthest border of the empire. He had to travel rapidly in the heightof summer, and the great heat renewed the ailments from which he had often suffered. At lengthhe became so ill that he felt his end to be near, and desired the soldiers who had the charge of himto stop at a town called Comana. There he exchanged his mean travelling dress for the best whichhe possessed; he once more received the sacrament of his Saviour’s body and blood; and, afteruttering the words “Glory be to God for all things,” with his last breath he added “Amen!”(September 14th, 407).

Thirty years after this, Chrysostom’s body was removed to Constantinople. When the vessel

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which conveyed it was seen leaving the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, a multitude, far greaterthan that which had hailed his first return from banishment, poured forth from Constantinople, inshipping and boats of all kinds, which covered the narrow strait. And the emperor, Theodosius II,son of Arcadius and Eudoxia, bent humbly over the coffin, and lamented with tears the guilt of hisparents in the persecution of the great and holy bishop.

CHAPTER XXI: ST. AUGUSTINE (AD 354–430)

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PART I

The church in the north of Africa has hardly been mentioned since the time of St. Cyprian(Chapter VIII). But we must now look towards it again, since in the days of St. Chrysostom itproduced a man who was perhaps the greatest of all the old Christian fathers—St. Augustine.

Augustine was born at Thagaste, a city of Numidia, in the year 354. His mother, Monica, wasa pious Christian, but his father, Patricius, was a heathen, and a man of no very good character.Monica was resolved to bring up her son in the true faith: she entered him as a catechumen of theChurch when a little child, and carefully taught him as much of religious things as a child couldlearn. But he was not then baptized, because (as has been mentioned already—p 39) people wereaccustomed in those days to put off baptism, out of fear lest they should afterwards fall into sin,and so should lose the blessing of the sacrament. This, as we know, was a mistake: but it was avery common practice nevertheless.

When Augustine was a boy, he was one day suddenly taken ill, so that he seemed likely to die.

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Remembering what his mother had taught him, he begged that he might be baptized, and preparationswere made for the purpose; but all at once he began to grow better, and the baptism was put off forthe same reason as before.

As he grew up, he gave but little promise of what he was afterwards to become. Much of histime was spent in idleness; and through idleness he fell into bad company, and was drawn into sinsof many kinds. When he was about seventeen, his father died. The good Monica had been muchtroubled by her husband’s heathenism and misconduct, and had earnestly tried to convert him fromhis errors. She went about this wisely, not lecturing him or arguing with him in a way that mighthave set him more against the Gospel, but trying rather to show him the beauty of Christian faithby her own loving, gentle, and dutiful behaviour. And at length her pains were rewarded by seeinghim before his death profess himself a believer, and receive Christian baptism.

Monica was left rather badly off at her husband’s death. But a rich neighbour was kind enoughto help her in the expense of finishing her son’s education, and the young man himself now beganto show something of the great talents which God had been pleased to bestow on him. Unhappily,however, he sank deeper and deeper in vice, and poor Monica was bitterly grieved by his ways. Abook which he happened to read led him to feel something of the shamefulness and wretchednessof his courses; but, as it was a heathen book (although written by one of the wisest of the heathens,Cicero), it could not show him by what means he might be able to reach to a higher life. He lookedinto Scripture, in the hope of finding instruction there but he was now in that state of mind to which,as St. Paul says (1 Cor. i. 23), the preaching of Christ sounds like “foolishness,” so that he fanciedhimself to be above learning anything from a book so plain and homely as the Bible then seemedto him, and he set out in search of some other teaching. And a very strange sort of teaching he metwith.

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About a hundred years before this time, a man named Manes appeared in Persia (AD 270), andpreached a religion which he pretended to have received from Heaven, but which was really madeup by himself, from a mixture of Christian and heathen notions. It was something like the doctrines

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which had been before taught by the Gnostics, and was as wild nonsense as can well be imagined.He taught that there were two gods—a good god of light, and a bad god of darkness. And he dividedhis followers into two classes, the lower of which were called “hearers,” while the higher werecalled “elect”. These elect were supposed to be very strict in their lives. They were not to eat fleshat all;—they might not even gather the fruits of the earth, or pluck a herb with their own hands.They were supported and were served by the hearers, and they took a very odd way of showingtheir gratitude to these; for it is said that when one of the elect ate a piece of bread, he made thisspeech to it:—“It was not I who reaped or ground or baked thee; may they who did so be reapedand ground and baked in their turn!” And it was believed that the poor “hearers” would after deathbecome corn, and have to go through the mill and the oven, until they should have suffered enoughto clear away their offences and make them fit for the blessedness of the elect.

The Manichaeans (as the followers of Manes were called) soon found their way into Africa,where they gained many converts; and, although laws were often made against their heresy by theemperors, it continued to spread secretly; for they used to hide their opinions, when there was anydanger, so that persons who were really Manichaeans pretended to be Catholic Christians, and therewere some of them even among the monks and clergy of the Church.

In the humour in which Augustine now was, this strange sect took his fancy; for the Manichaeanspretended to be wiser than any one else, and laughed at all submission to doctrines which had been

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settled by the Church. So Augustine at twenty became a Manichaean, and for nine years was oneof the hearers,—for he never got to be one of the elect, or to know much about their secrets. Butbefore he had been very long in the sect, he began to notice some things which shocked him in thebehaviour of the elect, who professed the greatest strictness. In short, he could not but see that theirstrictness was all a pretence, and that they were really a very worthless set of men. And he foundout, too, that, besides bad conduct, there was a great deal very bad and disgusting in the opinionsof the Manichaeans, which he had not known of at first. After learning all this, he did not knowwhat to turn to, and he seems for a time to have believed nothing at all,—which is a wretched stateof mind indeed, and so he found it.

PART II

Augustine now set up as a teacher at Carthage, the chief city of Africa; but among the studentsthere he found a set of wild young men who called themselves “Eversors”—a name which meantthat they turned everything topsy-turvy; and Augustine was so much troubled by the behaviour ofthese unruly lads, that he resolved to leave Carthage and go to Rome. Monica, as we may easilysuppose, had been much distressed by his wanderings, but she never ceased to pray that he mightbe brought round again. One day she went to a learned bishop, who was much in the habit of arguingwith people who were in error, and begged that he would speak to her son; but the good manunderstood Augustine’s case, and saw that to talk to him while he was in such a state of mind wouldonly make him more self-wise than he was already. “Let him alone awhile,” he said, “only prayGod for him, and he will of himself find out by reading how wrong the Manichaeans are, and howimpious their doctrine is.” And then he told her that he had himself been brought up as a Manichaean,

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but that his studies had shown him the error of the sect and he had left it. Monica was not satisfied

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with this, and went on begging, even with tears, that the bishop would talk with her son. But hesaid to her, “Go thy ways, and may God bless thee, for it is not possible that the child of so manytears should perish.” And Monica took his words as if they had been a voice from Heaven, andcherished the hope which they held out to her.

Monica was much against Augustine’s plan of removing to Rome; but he slipped away andwent on shipboard while she was praying in a chapel by the seaside, which was called after thename of St. Cyprian. Having got to Rome, he opened a school there, as he had done at Carthage;but he found that the Roman youth, although they were not so rough as those of Carthage, hadanother very awkward habit— namely, that, after having heard a number of his lectures, theydisappeared without paying for them. While he was in distress on this account, the office of a publicteacher at Milan was offered to him, and he was very glad to take it. While at Rome, he had a badillness, but he did not at that time wish or ask for baptism as he had done when sick in his childhood.

The great St. Ambrose was then Bishop of Milan. Augustine had heard so much of his fame,that he went often to hear him, out of curiosity to know whether the bishop were really as fine apreacher as he was said to be; but by degrees, as he listened, he felt a greater and greater interest.He found, from what Ambrose said, that the objections by which the Manichaeans had set himagainst the Gospel were all mistaken; and, when Monica joined him, after he had been some timeat Milan, she had the delight of finding that he had given up the Manichaean sect, and was oncemore a catechumen of the Church.

Augustine had still to fight his way through many difficulties. He had learnt that the best andhighest wisdom of the heathens could not satisfy his mind and heart; and he now turned again toSt. Paul’s epistles, and found that Scripture was something very different from what he had supposedit to be in the pride of his youth. He was filled with grief and shame on account of the vileness of

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his past life; and these feelings were made still stronger by the accounts which a friend gave himof the strict and self-denying ways of Antony and other monks. One day, as he lay in the gardenof his lodging, with his mind tossed to and fro by anxious thoughts, so that he even wept in hisdistress, he heard a voice, like that of a child, singing over and over, “Take up and read! take upand read!” At first he fancied that the voice came from some child at play; but he could not thinkof any childish game in which such words were used. And then he remembered how St. Antonyhad been struck by the words of the Gospel which he heard in church (p 60); and it seemed to himthat the voice, wherever it might come from, was a call of the same kind to himself. So he eagerlyseized the book of St. Paul’s Epistles, which was lying by him, and, as he opened it, the first wordson which his eyes fell were these, —“Let us walk honestly, as in the day; not in rioting anddrunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put ye on the LordJesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh, to fulfil the lusts thereof.” (Rom. xiii. 13f) And,as he read, the words all at once sank deeply into his heart, and from that moment he felt himselfanother man. As soon as he could do so without being particularly noticed, he gave up his officeof professor and went into the country, where he spent some months in the company of his mother

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and other friends; and at the following Easter (AD 387), he was baptized by St. Ambrose. The goodMonica had now seen the desire of her heart fulfilled; and she soon after died in peace, as she wason her way back to Africa, in company with her son.

Augustine, after her death, spent some time at Rome, where he wrote a book against theManichaeans, and then, returning to his native place Thagaste, he gave himself up for three yearsto devotion and study. In those days, it was not uncommon that persons who were thought likely

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to be useful to the Church should be seized on and ordained, whether they liked it or not; and ifthey were expected to make very strong objections, their mouths were even stopped by force. NowAugustine’s fame grew so great, that he was afraid lest something of this kind should be done tohim; and he did not venture to let himself be seen in any town where the bishopric was vacant, lesthe should be obliged to become bishop against his will. He thought, however, that he was safe inaccepting an invitation to Hippo, because it was provided with a bishop named Valerius. But, ashe was one day listening to the bishop’s sermon, Valerius began to say that his church was in wantof another presbyter, whereupon the people laid hold of Augustine, and presented him to the bishop,who ordained him without heeding his objections (AD 391). And four years later (AD 395), he wasconsecrated a bishop, to assist Valerius, who died soon after.

Augustine was bishop of Hippo for five-and-thirty years, and, although there were many othersees of greater importance in Africa, his uncommon talents, and his high character, made him theforemost man of the African church. He was a zealous and exemplary bishop, and he wrote a greatnumber of valuable books of many kinds. But the most interesting of them all is one which maybe read in English, and is of no great length—namely, the “Confessions”, in which he gives anaccount of the wanderings through which he had been brought into the way of truth and peace, andhumbly gives thanks to God, whose gracious providence had guarded and guided him.

PART III

Augustine had a great many disputes with heretics and others who separated from the Church,or tried to corrupt its doctrine. But only two of his controversies need be mentioned here. One ofthese was with the Donatists, and the other was with the Pelagians.

The sect of the Donatists had arisen soon after the end of the last heathen persecution, and was

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now nearly a hundred years old. We have seen that St. Cyprian had a great deal of trouble withpeople who fancied that, if a man were put to death, or underwent any other considerable suffering,for the name of Christ, he deserved to be held in great honour, and his wishes were to be attendedto by other Christians, whatever his character and motives might have been (p 27). The same spiritwhich led to this mistake continued in Africa after St Cyprian’s time; and thus, when the persecutionbegan there under Diocletian and Maximian (AD 303—see Chap. IX), great numbers rushed intodanger, in the hope of being put to death, and of so obtaining at once the blessedness and the gloryof martyrdom. Many of these people were weary of their lives, or in some other respect were notof such character that they could be reckoned as true Christian martyrs. The wise fathers of theChurch always disapproved of such foolhardy doings, and would not allow people who acted in a

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way so unlike our Lord and His apostle St. Paul to be considered as martyrs; and Mensurius, whowas the bishop of Carthage, stedfastly set his face against all such things.

One of the ways by which the persecutors hoped to put down the Gospel, was to get hold of allthe copies of the Scriptures, and to burn them; and they required the clergy to deliver them up. Butmost of the officers who had to execute the orders of the emperors did not know a Bible from anyother book; and it is said that, when some of them came to Mensurius, and asked him to deliver uphis books, he gave them a quantity of books written by heretics, which he had collected (perhapswith the intention of burning them himself), and that all the while he had put the Scriptures safelyout of the way, until the tyranny of the heathens should be overpast. When the persecution was atan end, some of the party whom he had offended by setting himself against their wrong notions asto martyrdom, brought up this matter against the bishop. They said that his account of it was false,

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that the books which he had given up were not what he said, but that he had really given up theScriptures; and that, even if his story were true, he had done wrong in using such deceit. They gavethe name of “traditors” (or, as we should say, “traitors,” from a Latin word meaning someone whohands something over) to those who confessed that they had been frightened into giving up theScriptures; and they were for showing no mercy to any traditor, however much he night repent ofhis weakness.

This severe party, then, tried to get up an opposition to Mensurius. They found, however, thatthey could make nothing of it. But when he died, and then Caecilian, who had been his archdeaconand his righthand man, was chosen bishop in his stead, these people made a great outcry, and setup another bishop of their own against him. All sorts of people who had taken offence at Caecilianor Mensurius thought this a fine opportunity for having their revenge; and thus a strong party wasformed. It was greatly helped by the wealth of a lady named Lucilla, whom Caecilian had reprovedfor the superstitious habit of kissing a bone, which she supposed to have belonged to some martyr,before communicating at the Lord’s table. The first bishop of the party was one Majorinus, whohad been a servant of some sort to Lucilla; and, when Majorinus was dead, they set up a secondbishop, named Donatus, after whom they were called Donatists. This Donatus was a clever and alearned man, and lived very strictly; but he was exceedingly proud and ill-tempered, and used veryviolent language against all who differed from him, and his sect copied his pride and bitterness.Many of them, however, while they professed to be extremely strict, neglected the plainer andhumbler duties of Christian life.

The Donatists said that every member of their sect must be a saint: whereas our Lord himselfhad declared that evil members would always be mixed with the good in His Church on earth, like

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tares growing in a field of wheat, or bad fishes mixed with good ones in a net; and that the separationof the good from the bad would not take place until the end of the world (St. Matt. xiii 24–30,36–43, 47–50). And they said that their own sect was the only true Church of Christ, although theyhad no congregations out of Africa, except one which was set up to please a rich lady in Spain, andanother at Rome. Whenever they made a convert from the Church, they baptized him afresh, as ifhis former baptism were good for nothing. They pretended to work miracles, and to see visions;

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and they made a very great deal of Donatus himself, so as even to pay him honours which oughtnot to have been given to any child of man; for they sang hymns to him, and swore by his greyhairs.

Shortly after Constantine got possession of Africa by his victory over Maxentius, and declaredliberty of religion to the Christians (AD 311–313, p 37), the Donatists applied to him against theCatholics (p 44),— and it was curious that they should have been the first to call in the emperor asjudge in such a matter, because they were afterwards very violent against the notion of an earthlysovereign’s having any right to concern himself with the management of religious affairs. Constantinetried to settle the question by desiring some bishops to judge between the parties; and these bishopsgave judgment in favour of the Catholics. The Donatists were dissatisfied, and asked for a newtrial, whereupon Constantine gathered a council for the purpose at Arles, in France (AD 314). Thiswas the greatest council that had at that time been seen: there were about two hundred bishops atit, and among them were some from Britain. Here again the decision was against the Donatists,and they thereupon begged the emperor himself to examine their case; which he did, and once morecondemned them (AD 316). Some severe laws were then made against them; their churches were

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taken away; many of them were banished, and were deprived of all that they had; and they wereeven threatened with death, although none of them suffered it during Constantine’s reign.

The emperor, after a while, saw that they were growing wilder and wilder, that punishment hadno effect on them, except to make them more unmanageable, and that they were not to be treatedas reasonable people. He then did away with the laws against them, and tried to keep them quietby kindness, and in the last years of his reign his hands were so full of the Arian quarrels nearerhome that he had little leisure to attend to the affairs of the Donatists.

PART IV

After the death of Constantius, Africa fell to the share of his youngest son, Constans, who sentsome officers into the country with orders to make presents to the Donatists, in the hope of thusbringing them to join the Church. But Donatus flew out into a great fury when he heard ofthis—“What has the emperor to do with the Church?” he asked; and he forbade the members ofhis sect (which was what he meant by “the Church”) to touch any of the money that was offeredto them.

By this time a stranger set of wild people called “Circumcellions” had appeared among theDonatists. They got their name trom two Latin words which mean “around the cottages”; because,instead of maintaining themselves by honest labour, they used to go about, like sturdy beggars, tothe cottages of the country people, and demand whatever they wanted. They were of the poorestclass, and very ignorant, but full of zeal for their religion. But, instead of being “pure and peaceable”,(St. James iii. 17), this religion was fierce and savage and allowed them to go on without any check,in drunkenness and all sorts of misconduct. Their women, whom they called “sacred virgins,” wereas bad as the men, or worse. Bands of both sexes used to rove about the country, and keep the

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peaceable inhabitants in constant fear. As they went along, they sang or shouted “Praises be toGod!” and this song, says St. Augustine, was heard with greater dread than the roaring of a lion.At first they thought that they must not use swords, on account of what our Lord had said to Peter(St. Matt. xxvi. 52.); so they carried heavy clubs, which they called “Israels”, and with these theyused to beat people, and often so severely as to kill them. But afterwards the Circumcellions gotover their scruples, and armed themselves not only with swords, but with other weapons of steel,such as spears and hatchets. They attacked and plundered the churches of the Catholics, and thehouses of the clergy; and they handled any clergyman whom they could get hold of very roughly.Besides this, they were fond of interfering in all sorts of affairs. People did not dare to ask for thepayment of debts, or to reprove their slaves for misbehaviour, lest the Circumcellions should becalled in upon them. And things got to such a pass, that the officers of the law were afraid to dotheir duty.

But the Circumcellions were as furious against themselves as against others. They used to courtdeath in all manner of ways. Sometimes they stopped travellers on the roads, and desired to bekilled, threatening to kill the travellers if they refused. And if they met a judge going on his rounds,they threatened him with death if he would not hand them over to his officers for execution. Onejudge whom they assailed in this way played them a pleasant trick. He seemed quite willing tohumour them, and told his officers to bind them as if for execution; and when he had thus madethem harmless and helpless, instead of ordering them to be put to death, he turned them loose,leaving them to get themselves unbound as best they could. Many Circumcellions drownedthemselves, rushed into fire, or threw themselves from rocks and were dashed to pieces; but theywould not put an end to themselves by hanging, because that was the death of the “traditor” (or“traitor”) Judas. The Donatists were not all so mad as these people, and some of their councils

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condemned the practice of self-murder. But it went on nevertheless, and those who made awaywith themselves, or got others to kill them in such ways as have been mentioned, were honouredas martyrs by the more violent part of the sect.

Constans made three attempts to win over the Donatists by presents, but they held out againstall; and when the third attempt was made, in the year 347, by means of an officer named Macarius,the Circumcellions broke out into rebellion, and fought a battle with the emperor’s troops. In thisbattle the Donatists were defeated, and two of their bishops, who had been busy in stirring up therebels, were among the slain. Macarius then required the Donatists to join the Church, and threatenedthem with banishment if they should refuse, but they were still obstinate: and it would seem thatthey were treated hardly by the government, although the Catholic bishops tried to prevent it.Donatus himself and great numbers of his followers were sent into banishment; and for a time thesect appeared to have been put down.

PART V

Thus they remained until the death of the emperor Constantius (AD 361), and Donatus had diedin the mean time. Julian, on succeeding to the empire, gave leave to all whom Constantius hadbanished on account of religion to return to their homes (p 56). But the Donatists were not the better

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for this, as they had not been banished by Constantius, but by Constans, before Constantius gotpossession of Africa: so they petitioned the emperor that they might be recalled from banishment;and in their petition they spoke of Julian in a way which disagreed strangely with their generaldefiance of governments, and which was especially ill-suited for one who had forsaken the Christianfaith and was persecuting it at that very time. Julian granted their request, and forthwith they returnedhome in great triumph, and committed violent outrages against the Catholics. They took possession

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of a number of churches, and, professing to consider everything that had been used by the Catholicsunclean, they washed the pavement, scraped the walls, burnt the communion tables, melted theplate, and cast the holy sacrament to the dogs. They soon became strong throughout the whole northof Africa, and in one part of it, Numidia, they were stronger than the Catholics. After the death ofJulian, laws were made against them from time to time, but do not seem to have been carried out.And although the Donatists quarrelled much among themselves, and split up into a number ofparties, they were still very powerful in Augustine’s day. In his own city of Hippo he found thatthey were more in number than the Catholics; and such was their bitter and pharisaical spirit thatthe bishop of the sect at Hippo would not let any of his people so much as bake for their Catholicneighbours.

Augustine did all that he could to make something of the Donatists, but it was mostly in vain.He could not get their bishops or clergy to argue with him. They pretended to call themselves “thechildren of the martyrs” on account of the troubles which their forefathers had gone through in thereign of Constans, and they said that the children of the martyrs could not stoop to argue withsinners and traditors. Although they professed that their sect was made up of perfect saints, theytook in all sorts of worthless converts for the sake of swelling their numbers, whereas Augustinewould not let any Donatists join the Church without inquiring into their characters, and, if he foundthat they had done anything for which they had been condemned by their sect to do penance, heinsisted that they should go through a penance before being admitted into the Church.

But, notwithstanding the difficulties which he found in dealing with them, he and otherssucceeded in drawing over a great number of Donatists to the Church. And this made theCircumcellions so furious that they fell on the Catholic clergy whenever they could find them, andtried to do them all possible mischief. They beat and mangled some of them cruelly; they put out

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the eyes of some by throwing a mixture of lime and vinegar into their faces; and, among otherthings, they laid a plan for waylaying Augustine himself, which, however, he escaped, through theprovidence of God. Many reports of these savage doings were carried to the emperor, Honorius,and some of the sufferers appeared at his court to tell their own tale: whereupon the old laws againstthe sect were revived, and severe new laws were also made. In these even death was threatenedagainst Donatists who should molest the Catholics; but Augustine begged that this penalty mightbe withdrawn, because the Catholic clergy, who knew more about the sect than any one else, wouldnot give information against it, if the punishment of the Donatists were to be so great. And he andhis brethren requested that the emperor would appoint a meeting to be held between the parties, inorder that they might talk over their differences, and, if possible, might come to some agreement.

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The emperor consented to do so; and a meeting took place accordingly, at Carthage, in 411, inthe presence of a commissioner named Marcellinus. Two hundred and eighty-six Catholic bishopsfound their way to the city by degrees. But the Donatists, who were two hundred and seventy-ninein number, entered it in a body, thinking to make all the effect that they could by the show of agreat procession. At the conference (or meeting), which lasted three days, the Donatists behavedwith their usual pride and insolence. When Marcellinus begged them to sit down, they refused,because our Lord had stood before Pilate. On being again asked to seat themselves, they quoted atext from the Psalms, “I will not sit with the wicked” (Ps. xxvi. 5); meaning that the Catholics werethe wicked, and that they themselves were too good to sit in such company. And when Augustinecalled them “brethren,” they cried out in anger that they did not own any such brotherhood. Theytried to throw difficulties in the way of arguing the question fairly; but on the third day their shifts

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would serve them no longer. Augustine then took the lead among the Catholics, and showed atgreat length both how wrongly the Donatists had behaved in the beginning of their separation fromthe Church, and how contrary to Scripture their principles were.

Marcellinus, who had been sent by the emperor to hear both parties, gave judgment in favourof the Catholics. Such of the Donatist bishops and clergy as would join the Church were allowedto keep possession of their places; but the others were to be banished. Augustine had at first beenagainst the idea of trying to force people in matters of religion. But he saw that many were broughtby these laws to join the Church, and after a time he came to think that such laws were good anduseful; nay, he even tried to find a Scripture warrant for them in the text, “Compel them to comein” (St. Luke xiv. 23). And thus, unhappily, this great and good man was led to lend his name tothe grievous error of thinking that force, or even persecution, may be used rightly, and with goodeffect, in matters of religion. It was one of the mistakes to which people are liable when they formtheir opinions without having the opportunity of seeing how things work in the long run, and on alarge scale. We must regret that Augustine seemed in any way to countenance such means; buteven although he erred in some measure as to this, we may be sure that he would have abhorredthe cruelties which have since been done under pretence of maintaining the true religion, and ofbringing people to embrace it.

While some of the Donatists were thus brought over to the Church, others became moreoutrageous than ever. Many of them grew desperate, and made away with themselves. One of theirbishops threatened that, if he were required by force to join the Catholics, he should shut himselfup in a church with his people, and that they would then set the building on fire and perish in theflames. There were many among the Donatists who would have been mad enough to do a thing ofthis kind; but it would seem that the bishop was not put to the trial which he expected.

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The Donatists dwindled away from this time, and were little heard of after Augustine’s days,although there were still some in Africa two hundred years later, as we learn from the letters of StGregory the Great.

PART VI

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Of all the disputes in which Augustine was engaged, that with the Pelagians was the mostfamous. The leader of these people, Pelagius, was a Briton. His name would mean, either in Latinor in Greek, a “man of the sea,” and it is said that his British name was Morgan— meaning thesame as the Greek or Latin name. Pelagius was the first native of our own island who gained fameas a writer or as a divine; but his fame was not of a desirable kind, as it arose from the errors whichhe ran into. He was a man of learning, and of strict life; and at Rome, where he spent many years,he was much respected, until in his old age he began to set forth opinions which brought him intothe repute of a heretic. At Rome he became acquainted with a man named Celestius, who is saidby some to have been an Italian, while others suppose him an Irishman. It is not known whetherCelestius learnt his opinions from Pelagius, or whether each of them had come to think in the sameway before they knew one another. But, however this may be, they became great friends, and joinedin teaching the same errors.

Augustine, as we have seen, had passed through such trials of the spirit that he thoroughly feltthe need of God’s gracious help in order to do, or even to will, any good thing. Pelagius, on thecontrary, seems to have always gone on steadily in the way of his religion. Now this was really areason why he should have thanked that grace and mercy of God which had spared him the dangersand the terrible sufferings which others have to bear in the course of their spiritual life. But unhappilyPelagius overlooked the help of grace. He owned, indeed, that all is from God; but, instead of

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understanding that the power of doing any good, or of avoiding any sin, is the especial gift of theHoly Spirit, he fancied that the power of living without sin was given to us by God as a part of ournature. He saw that some people make a wrong use of the doctrine of our natural corruption. Hesaw that, instead of throwing the blame of their sins on their own neglect of the grace which isoffered to us through Christ, they spoke of the weakness and corruption of their nature as if thesewere an excuse for their sins. This was, indeed, a grievous error, and one which Pelagius wouldhave done well to warn people against. But, in condemning it, he went far wrong in an oppositeway: he said that man’s nature is not corrupt; that it is nothing the worse for the fall of our firstparents; that man can be good by his own natural power, without needing any higher help; that menmight live without sin, and that many have so lived. These notions of his are mentioned and arecondemned in the ninth Article of our own Church, where it is said that “Original sin standeth notin the following of Adam, as the Pelagians do vainly talk” [that is to say, original sin is not merelythe actual imitation of Adam’s sin]; “but it is the fault and corruption of the nature of every manthat naturally is engendered of the offspring of Adam; whereby man is very far gone from originalrighteousness” [that is, he is very far gone from that righteousness which Adam had at the first].And then it is said in the next Article—“The condition of man, after the fall of Adam, is such thathe cannot turn and prepare himself by his own natural strength and good works to faith and callingupon God. Wherefore we have no power to do good works, pleasing and acceptable to God, withoutthe grace of God by Christ preventing us [or “going before” us], that we may have a good will, andworking with us when we have that good will.” Thus at every step there is a need of grace fromabove to help us on the way of salvation.

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After Rome had been taken by the Goths, in the year 410 (p 93), Pelagius and Celestius passed

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over into Africa, from which Pelagius, after a short stay, went into the Holy Land. Celestius triedto get himself ordained by the African church; but objections were made to him, and a council washeld which condemned and excommunicated him. Augustine was too busy with the Donatists toattend this council; but he was very much alarmed by the errors of the new teachers, and soon tookthe lead in writing against them, and in opposing them by other means.

Pelagius was examined by some councils in the Holy Land, and contrived to persuade themthat there was nothing wrong in his doctrines. He and Celestius even got a bishop of Rome, Zosimus,to own them as sound in the faith, and to reprove the African bishops for condemning them. Thesecret of this was, that Pelagius used words in a crafty way, which neither the synods in the HolyLand nor the bishop of Rome suspected. When be was charged with denying the need of grace, hesaid that he owned it to be necessary; but, instead of using the word grace in its right meaning, tosignify the working of the Holy Spirit on the heart, he used it as a name for other means by whichGod helps us; such as the power which Pelagius supposed to be bestowed on us as a part of ournature; the forgiveness of our sins in baptism; the offer of salvation, the knowledge and instructiongiven to us through Holy Scripture, or in other ways. By such tricks the Pelagians imposed on thebishop of Rome and others; but the Africans, with Augustine at their head, stood firm. They steadilymaintained that Pelagius and Celestius were unsound in their opinions; they told Zosimus that hehad no right to meddle with Africa, and that he had been altogether deceived by the heretics. So,after a while, the bishop of Rome took quite the opposite line, and condemned Pelagius with hisfollowers; and they were also condemned in several councils, of which the most famous was theGeneral Council of Ephesus, held in the year 431. Augustine did great service in opposing thesedangerous doctrines; but in doing so, he said some things as to God’s choosing of his elect, and

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predestinating them (or “marking them out beforehand”) to salvation, which are rather startling,and might lead to serious error. But as to this deep and difficult subject, I shall content myself withquoting a few words from our Church’s seventeenth Article—“We must receive God’s promisesin such wise as they be generally set forth to us in Holy Scripture; and in our doings, that will ofGod is to be followed, which we have expressly declared to us in the word of God.”

PART VII

Augustine was still busied in the Pelagian controversy when a fearful calamity burst upon hiscountry. The commander of the troops in Africa, Boniface, had been an intimate friend of his, andhad been much under his influence. A rival of Boniface, Aetius, persuaded the empress, Placidia,who governed in the name of her young son, Valentinian the Third, to recall the general from Africa;and at the same time he persuaded Boniface to disobey her orders, telling him that his ruin wasintended. Boniface, who was a man of open and generous mind, did not suspect the villainy ofAetius; and, as the only means of saving himself, he rebelled against the emperor, and invited theVandals from Spain to invade Africa. These Vandals were a savage nation, which had overrun partof Spain about twenty years before. They now gladly accepted Boniface’s invitation, and passedin great numbers into Africa, where the Moors joined them, and the Donatists eagerly seized the

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opportunity of avenging themselves on the Catholics, by assisting the invaders. The country waslaid waste, and the Catholic clergy were treated with especial cruelty, both by the Vandals (whowere Arians) and by the Donatists.

Augustine had urged Boniface to return to his duty as a subject of the empire. Boniface, whowas disgusted by the savage doings of the Vandals, and had discovered the tricks by which Aetius

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had tempted him to revolt, begged the Vandal leader Genseric to return to Spain; but he found thathe had rashly raised a power which he could not manage, and the barbarians laughed at his entreaties.As he could not prevail with them by words, he fought a battle with them; but he was defeated, andhe then shut himself up in Augustine’s city, Hippo.

During all these troubles Augustine was very active in writing letters of exhortation to hisbrethren, and in endeavouring to support them under their trials. And when Hippo was crowdedby a multitude of all kinds, who had fled to its walls for shelter, he laboured without ceasing amongthem. In June, 430, the Vandals laid siege to the place, and soon after, the bishop fell sick inconsequence of his labours. He felt that his end was near, and he wished, during his short remainingtime, to be free from interruption in preparing for death. He therefore would not allow his friendsto see him, except at the hours when he took food or medicine. He desired that the penitentialpsalms—(the seven Psalms which are read in church on Ash Wednesday, and which especiallyexpress sorrow for sin)— should be hung up within his sight, and he read them over and over,shedding floods of tears as he read. On the 28th of August, 430, he was taken to his rest, and in thefollowing year Hippo fell into the hands of the Vandals, who thus became masters of the whole ofnorthern Africa.

CHAPTER XXII: COUNCILS OF EPHESUS AND CHALCEDON (AD 431–451)

Augustine died just as a great council was about to be held in the East. In preparing for thiscouncil, a compliment was paid to him which was not paid to any other person; for, whereas it was

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usual to invite the chief bishop only of each province to such meetings, and to leave him to choosewhich of his brethren should accompany him, a special invitation was sent to Augustine, althoughhe was not even a metropolitan (p 82), but only bishop of a small town. This shows what fame hehad gained, and in what respect his name was held, even in the Eastern Church.

The object of calling the council was to inquire into the opinions of Nestorius, bishop ofConstantinople. It would have been well for it if it had enjoyed the benefit of the great and goodAugustine’s presence; for its proceedings were carried on in such a way that it is not pleasant toread of them But, whatever may have been the faults of those who were active in the council it laiddown clearly the truth which Nestorius was charged with denying—that (as is said in the Athanasiancreed) our blessed Lord, “although He be God and man, yet is He not two, but one Christ;” andthis council which was held at Ephesus in the year 431, is reckoned as the third general council.

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Some years after it, a disturbance arose about a monk of Constantinople, named Eutyches, whohad been very zealous against Nestorius, and now ran into errors of an opposite kind. Anothercouncil was held at Ephesus in 449; but Dioscorus, bishop of Alexandria, and a number of disorderlymonks who were favourable to Eutyches, behaved in such a furious manner at this assembly, that,instead of being considered as a general council, it is known by the name “Latrocinium,” whichmeans a meeting of robbers. But two years later, when a new emperor had succeeded to thegovernment of the East, another general council was held at Chalcedon (pronounced kal-SEE-don)(AD 451); and there the doctrines of Eutyches were condemned, and Dioscotus was deprived ofhis bishopric. This council, which was the fourth of the general councils, was attended by sixhundred and thirty bishops. It laid down the doctrine that our Lord is “One, not by conversion [orturning] of the Godhead into flesh, but by taking of the manhood into God: One altogether, not by

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confusion of substance, but by unity of person; for, as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man, soGod and man is one Christ.”

According, then, to these two councils, which were held against Nestorius and Eutyches, weare to believe that our blessed Lord is really God and really man. The Godhead and the manhoodare not mixed together in Him, so as to make something which would be neither the one nor theother (which is what the creed means by “confusion of substance”); but they are in Him distinctfrom each other, just as the soul and the body are distinct in man, and yet they are not two persons,but are joined together in one Person, just as the soul and the body are joined in one man. All thismay perhaps be rather hard for young readers to understand, but the third and fourth general councilsare too important to be passed over, even in a little book like this; and, even if what has been saidhere should not be quite understood, it will at least show that all those distinctions in the Athanasiancreed mean something, and that they were not set forth without some reason, but in order to meeterrors which had actually been taught.

I may mention here two other things which were settled by the Council of Chalcedon—that itgave the bishops of Constantinople authority over Thrace, Asia, and Pontus; and that it raisedJerusalem, which until then had been only an ordinary bishopric, to have authority of the same kindover the Holy Land. These chief bishops are now called “patriarchs”, and there were thus fivepatriarchs—namely, the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.The map will show you how these patriarchates were divided, but there were still some Christiancountries which did not belong to any of them.

Having thus mentioned the title of patriarchs, I may explain here the use of another title which

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we hear much oftener—I mean the title of “pope”. The proper meaning of it is “father”; in short,it is nothing else than the word “papa,” which children among ourselves use in speaking to theirfathers. This title of pope (or father), then, was at first given to all bishops; but, by degrees, it cameto be confined in its use; so that, in the East, only the bishops of Rome and Alexandria were calledby it, while in the West it was given to the bishop or patriarch of Rome alone.

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CHAPTER XXIII: FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE (AD 451–476)

The empire of the West was now fast sinking. One weak prince was at the head of it afteranother, and the spirit of the old Romans, who had conquered the world, had quite died out. Immensehosts of barbarous nations poured in from the North. The Goths, under Alaric, who took Rome bysiege, in the reign of Honorius, have been already mentioned (p 93). Forty years later, Attila, kingof the Huns, who was called “The scourge of God,” kept both the East and the West in terror. Inthe year 451, he advanced as far as Orleans, and, after having for some time besieged it, he madea breach in the wall of the city. The soldiers of the garrison, and such of the citizens as could fight,had done their best in the defence of the walls; those who could not bear arms betook themselvesto the churches, and were occupied in anxious prayer. The bishop, Anianus, had before earnestlybegged that troops might be sent to the relief of the place; and he had posted a man on a tower,with orders to look out in the direction from which succour might be hoped for. The watchmantwice returned to the bishop without any tidings of comfort; but the third time he said that he had

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noticed a little cloud of dust as far off as he could see. “It is the aid of God!” said the bishop andthe people who heard him took up the words, and shouted, “It is the aid of God!” The little cloud,from being “like a man’s hand” (1 Kings xviii. 44), grew larger and drew nearer; the dust wascleared away by the wind, and the glitter of spears and armour was seen; and just as the Huns hadbroken through the wall, and were rushing into the city, greedy of plunder and bloodshed, an armyof Romans and allies arrived and forced them to retreat. After having been thus driven from Orleans,Attila was defeated in a great battle near Chalons, on the river Marne, and withdrew into Germany.

In the following year (452), Attila invaded Italy, where he caused great consternation. But whenthe bishop of Rome, Leo the Great, went to his camp near Mantua, and entreated him to spare thecountry, Attila was so much struck by the bishop’s venerable appearance and his powerful words,that he agreed to withdraw on receiving a large sum of money. A few months later he suddenlydied, and his kingdom soon fell to pieces

By degrees, the Romans lost Britain, Gaul, Spain, and Africa; and Italy was all that was left ofthe western empire.

Genseric, who, as has been mentioned (p 127), had led the Vandals into Africa, long kept theMediterranean in constant dread of his fleets. Three years after the invasion of Italy by Attila, heappeared at the mouth of the Tiber (AD 455), having been invited by the empress Eudoxia, whowished to be revenged on her husband, in consequence of his having told her that he had been thecause of her former husband’s death. As the Vandals approached the walls of Rome, the bishop,Leo, went forth at the head at his clergy. He pleaded with Genseric as he had before pleaded withAttila, and he brought him to promise that the city should not be burnt, and that the lives of the

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inhabitants should be spared, but Genseric gave up the place for fourteen days to plunder, and thesufferings of the people were frightful. The Vandal king returned to Africa with a vast quantity ofbooty, and with a great number of captives, among whom were the unfortunate empress and hertwo daughters. On this occasion the bishop of Carthage, Deogratias, behaved with noble charity;—he

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sold the gold and silver plate of the church, and with the price he redeemed some of the captives,and relieved the sufferings of others. Two of the churches were turned into hospitals. The sick werecomfortably lodged, and were plentifully supplied with food and medicines; and the good bishop,old and infirm as he was, visited them often, by night as well as by day, and spoke words of kindnessand of Christian consolation to them.

This behaviour of Deogratias was the more to his honour, because his own flock was sufferingseverely from the oppression of the Vandals, who, as we have already seen (p 127), were Arians.Genseric treated the Catholics of Africa very tyrannically, his son and successor, Hunneric, wasstill more cruel to them; and, as long as the Vandals held possession of Africa, the persecution, inone shape or another, was carried on almost without ceasing.

The last emperor of the West, Augustulus, was put down in the year 476, and a barbarian princenamed Odoacer became king of Italy.

CHAPTER XXIV: CONVERSION OF THE BARBARIANS; CHRISTIANITY IN BRITAIN.

As the old empire of Rome disappears, the modern kingdoms of Europe begin to come to view;and we may now look at the progress of the Gospel among the nations of the West.

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The barbarians who got possession of France, Spain, South Germany, and other parts of theempire, were soon converted to a sort of Christianity; but, unfortunately, it was not the true Catholicfaith. I have told you (p 93) that Ulfilas, “the Moses of the Goths,” led his people into the errors ofArianism. As it was from the Goths that the missionaries generally went forth to convert the othernorthern nations, these nations, too, for the most part, became Arians; while some of them, afterhaving been converted by Catholics, afterwards fell into Arianism. It is curious to observe howopposite the course of conversion was among these nations from what it had been in earlier times.In the Roman empire, the Gospel worked its way up from the poor and simple people who werethe first to believe it, until the emperor himself became at length a convert. But among the nationswhich now overran the western empire, the missionaries usually began by making a convert of theprince; when the prince was converted, his subjects followed him to the font, and if he changedfrom Catholicism to Arianism, or from Arianism to Catholicism, the people did the same. In thecourse of time, all the nations which had professed Arianism were brought over to the true faith.The last who held out were the Goths in Spain, who gave up their errors at a great council whichwas held at Toledo in 589; and the Lombards, in the north of Italy, who were converted in the earlypart of the following century.

Our own island was little troubled by Arianism, and St. Athanasius bears witness to the firmnessof the British bishops in the right faith. But Pelagius, as we have seen (p 124), was himself a Briton;and, although he did not himself try to spread his errors here, one of his followers, named Agricola,brought them into Britain, and did a great deal of mischief (AD 429). The Britons had been longunder the power of the Romans; but, as the empire grew weaker, the Romans found that they could

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not afford to keep up an army here; and they had given up Britain in the year 409. But after this,when the Picts and Scots of the north invaded the southern part of the island (or what we now callEngland), the Britons in their alarm used to beg the assistance of the Romans against them. And itwould seem as if the British clergy had come to depend on the help of others in much the sameway; for when they found what havoc the Pelagian Agricola was making among their people, theysent over into Gaul, and begged that the bishops of that country would send them aid against him.

Two bishops, German of Auxerre, and Lupus of Troyes, were sent accordingly by a council towhich the petition of the Britons had been made. These two could speak a language which wasnear enough to the British to be understood by the Britons, it was something like the Welsh, or theIrish, or like the Gaelic, which is spoken in the Highlands of Scotland (for all these languages aremuch alike). Their preaching, had a great effect on the people, and their holy lives preached stillbetter than their sermons; they disputed with the Pelagian teachers at Verulam, the town where St.Alban was martyred (p 37), and which now takes its name from him, and they succeeded for thetime in putting down the heresy.

It is said that while German and Lupus were in this country, the Picts and Saxons joined ininvading it; and that the Britons, finding their army unfit to fight the enemy, sent to beg the assistanceof the two Gaulish bishops. So German and Lupus went to the British army, and joined it just beforeEaster. A great number of the soldiers were baptized at Easter, and German put himself at theirheads. The enemy came on, expecting an easy victory, but the bishops thrice shouted “Hallelujah!”and all the army took up the shout, which was echoed from the mountains again and again, so that

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the pagans were struck with terror, and expected the mountains to fall on them. They threw downtheir arms, and ran away, leaving a great quantity of spoil behind them, and many of them rushedinto a river, where they were drowned. The place where this victory is said to have been gained isstill pointed out in Flintshire, and is known by a Welsh name, which means, “German’s Field.”Pelagianism began to revive in Britain some years later, but St. German came over a second time,and once more put it down.

But soon after this, the Saxons came into Britain. It is supposed that Hengist and Horsa landedin Kent in the year 449; and other chiefs followed, with their fierce heathen warriors. There was astruggle between these and the Britons, which lasted a hundred years, until at length the invadersgot the better, and the land was once more overspread by heathenism, except where the Britonskept up their Christianity in the mountainous districts of the West,—Cumberland, Wales, andCornwall. You shall hear by-and-by how the Gospel was introduced among the Saxons.

CHAPTER XXV: SCOTLAND AND IRELAND

The only thing which seems to be settled as to the religious history of Scotland in these times,is that a bishop named Ninian preached among the Southern Picts between the years 412 and 432,and established a see at Whithorn, in Galloway. But in the Year of St. Ninian’s death, a far more

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famous missionary, St. Patrick, who is called “the Apostle of Ireland,” began his labours in thatisland.

It is a question whether Patrick was born in Scotland, at a place called Kirkpatrick, near theriver Clyde, or in France, near Boulogne. But wherever it may have been, his birth took place aboutthe year 387. His father was a deacon of the church, his grandfather was a presbyter, and thus

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Patrick had the opportunities of a religious training from his infancy. He did not, however, usethese opportunities so well as he might have done; but it pleased God to bring him to a better mindby the way of affliction.

When Patrick was about sixteen years old, he was carried off by some pirates (or sea-robbers),and was sold to a heathen prince in Ireland, where he was set to keep cattle, and had to bear greathardships. But “there,” says he, “it was that the Lord brought me to a sense of the unbelief of myheart, that I might call my sins to remembrance, and turn with all my heart to the Lord, who regardedmy low estate, and, taking pity on my youth and ignorance, watched over me before I knew Himor had sense to discern between good and evil, and counselled me and comforted me as a fatherdoth a son. I was employed every day in feeding cattle, and often in the day I used to betake myselfto prayer; and the love of God thus grew stronger and stronger, and His faith and fear increased inme, so that in a single day I could utter as many as a hundred prayers, and in the night almost asmany, and I used to remain in the woods and on the mountains, and would rise for prayer beforedaylight, in the midst of snow and ice and rain, and I felt no harm from it, nor was I ever unwilling,because my heart was hot within me. I was not from my childhood a believer in the only God, butcontinued in death and in unbelief until I was severely chastened; and in truth I have been humbledby hunger and nakedness, and it was my lot to go about in Ireland every day sore against my will,until I was almost worn out. But this proved rather a blessing to me, because by means of it I havebeen corrected of the Lord, and He has fitted me for being what it once seemed unlikely that Ishould be, so that I should concern myself about the salvation of others, whereas I used to have nosuch thoughts even for myself.”

After six years of captivity, Patrick was restored to his own country. It is said that he then

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travelled a great deal; and he became a presbyter of the Church. He was carried off captive a secondtime, but this captivity did not last long, and he afterwards lived with his parents, who begged himnever to leave them again. But he thought that in a vision or dream he saw a man inviting him toIreland, as St Paul saw in the night a man of Macedonia, saying to him, “come over into Macedoniaand help us” (Acts xvi. 9). And Patrick was resolved to preach the Gospel in the land where he hadbeen a captive in his youth. His friends got about him, and entreated him not to cast himself amongthe savage and heathen Irish. One of them, who was most familiar with him, when there seemedno hope of shaking his purpose, went so far as to tell of some sin which Patrick had committed inhis boyhood, thirty years before. It was hoped that when this sin of his early days was known(whatever it may have been) it would prevent his being consecrated as a bishop. But Patrick brokethrough all difficulties, and was consecrated bishop of the Irish in the year 432.

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There had already been some Christians in that country, and a missionary named Palladius hadlately attempted to labour there, but had allowed himself to be soon discouraged, and had withdrawn.But Patrick had more zeal and patience than Palladius, and gave up all the remainder of his life tothe Irish, so that he would not even allow himself the pleasure of paying a visit to his native country.He was often in great danger, both from the priests of the old Irish heathenism, and from thebarbarous princes who were under their influences. But he carried on his work faithfully, and hadthe comfort of seeing it crowned with abundant success. His death took place on the 17th of March,493.

The greater number of the Irish are now Romanists, and fancy that St. Patrick was so too, andthat he was sent by the Pope to Ireland. But he has left writings which clearly prove that this isquite untrue. And moreover, although the bishops of Rome had been advancing in power, and

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although corruptions were growing in the Church in his time, yet neither the claims of these bishops,nor the other corruptions of the Roman Church, had then reached anything like their present height.Let us hope and pray that God may be pleased to deliver our Irish brethren of the Romish communionfrom the bondage of ignorance and error in which they are now unhappily held!

The Church continued to flourish in Ireland after St Patrick’s death, and learning found a homethere, while wars and conquests banished it from most other countries of the West. In the year 565,the Irish Church sent forth a famous missionary named Columba, who, with twelve companions,went into Scotland. He preached among the Northern Picts, and founded a monastery in one of theWestern Islands, which from him got the name of Icolumbkill (that is to say, the Island of Columbaof the Churches). From that little island the light of the Gospel afterwards spread, not only overScotland, but far towards the south of England, and many monasteries, both in Scotland and inIreland, were under the rule of its abbot.

For hundreds of years the schools of Ireland continued to be in great repute. Young men flockedto them from England, and even from foreign lands, and many Irish missionaries laboured in variouscountries abroad. The chief of these who fall within the time to which this little book reaches, wasColumban (a different person from Columba, although their names are so like). He left Ireland withtwelve companions, in the year 589, preached in the East of France for many years, and afterwardsin Switzerland and all Italy, and died in 615, at the monastery of Bobbio, which he had foundedamong the Apennine mountains. One of his disciples, Gall, is styled “The Apostle of Switzerland,”and founded a great monastery, which from him is called St. Gall.

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CHAPTER XXVI: CLOVIS (AD 496)

The most famous and the most important of all the conversions which took place about thistime was that of Clovis, king of the Franks. From being the chief of a small, though brave people,on the borders of France and Belgium, he grew by degrees to be the founder of the great Frenchmonarchy. His queen, Clotilda, was a Christian, and long tried in vain to bring him over to her

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faith. “The gods whom you worship,” she said, “are nothing, and can profit neither themselves norothers; for they are graven out of stone, or wood, or metal, and the names which you give themwere not the names of gods but of men. But He ought rather to be worshipped who by His wordmade out of nothing the heavens and the earth, the sea and all that in them is.” Clovis does notseem to have cared very much about the truth, one way or the other, but he had the fancy (whichwas common among the heathens, and which is often mentioned in the Old Testament), that ifpeople did not prosper in this world, the god whom they served could not have the power to protectthem and give them success. And, as he lived in the time when the Roman empire of the West cameto an end, the fall of the empire, which had now been Christian for more than a hundred and fiftyyears, seemed to him to prove that the Christian religion could not be true.

Clotilda persuaded her husband to let their eldest son be baptized. But the child died within afew days after, and Clovis said that his baptism was the cause of his death. When another princewas born, however, he allowed him too to be baptized. Clotilda continued to press her husband

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with all the reasons that she could think of in order to bring him over to the Gospel. Some of herreasons were true and good; some of them were drawn from the superstitious opinions of thesetimes, such as stories about miracles wrought at the tomb of St. Martin at Tours. Perhaps the badreasons were more likely than the good ones to have an effect on a rough barbarian prince such asClovis; but Clotilda could make nothing of him in any way.

At length, in the year 496, he was engaged in battle with a German tribe, at a place calledTolbiac, near Cologne, and found himself in great danger of being defeated. He called on his owngods, but without success, and at last he bethought himself of the God to whose worship Clotildahad so long been trying to convert him. So, in his anxiety, he stretched out his arms towards thesky, and called on the name of Christ, promising that, if the God of Clotilda would help him in hisstrait, he would become a Christian. A victory followed, which Clovis ascribed to the effect of hisprayer. He then put himself under the instruction of St. Remigius, bishop of Rheims, that he mightget a knowledge of Christian doctrine, and at the following Christmas he was baptized in Rheimscathedral, where the kings of France were afterwards crowned for centuries, down to the unfortunateCharles X, in 1824. Remigius caused it to be decked for the occasion with beautiful carpets andhangings. A vast number of tapers shed their bright light over the building, while all without wascovered by the darkness of a December evening; and we are told that the sweet perfume of incenseseemed to those who were there like the air of paradise. As Clovis entered the church, and heardthe solemn chant of psalms, he was overcome with awe. Turning to Remigius, who led him by thehand, he asked, “Is this the kingdom of heaven which you have promised me?” “No,” answeredthe bishop; “but it is the beginning of the way to it.” When they had reached the font, Remigiusaddressed the king by a name on which the noblest among the Franks pridedthemselves,—“Sicambrian, gently bow thy neck, worship that which thou hast burnt, and burn that

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which thou hast worshipped.” Three thousand of the Frankish warriors were forthwith baptized, inimitation of their leader.

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Remigius had much influence over Clovis as to religious things, and instructed him as he foundopportunity. One day, as he was reading to the king the story of our Lord’s sufferings, Clovis wasso much moved by it that he started up in anger and cried out—“If I had been there with my Franks,I would have avenged His wrongs!”

From what has been said, it will be understood that the religion of Clovis was not of anenlightened kind; and there was much in his character and actions which did not become his Christianprofession. Yet his conversion, such as it was, appears to have been sincere. As his conquestsspread, he put down Arianism wherever he found it, and planted the Catholic faith instead of it.And from the circumstance that Clovis was converted to Catholic Christianity at a time when allthe other princes of the West were Arians, and when the emperor of the East favoured the heresyof Eutyches (p 129), the kings of France got the title of “Eldest Son of the Church.”

CHAPTER XXVII: JUSTINIAN (AD 527–565)

It would be wearisome to follow very particularly the history of the Church in the East for thenext century and a half after the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451).

The most important reign during this time was that of the Emperor Justinian, which lastedeight-and-thirty years, from 527 to 565. Under him the Vandals were conquered in Africa, and theGoths in Italy. Both these countries became once more parts of the empire, and Arianism was putdown in both.

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Justinian also, in the year 529, put an end to the old heathen philosophy, by ordering that theschools of Athens, in which St. Basil, St. Gregory of Nazianzum, and the emperor Julian had studiedtogether two hundred years before (p 68), should be shut up. The philosophers, who had continuedto teach their heathen notions there (although they had been obliged to treat the religion of theempire with outward respect), were in great distress at finding their trade taken away from them.They thought it unsafe to remain in Justinian’s dominions, and made their way into Persia, wherethe king was a heathen, and was said to be a friend of learned men. The king received them kindly;but the Persian heathenism was very different from their own, and the ways of the country werealtogether strange to them; so that they felt themselves very uncomfortable in Persia, and becameso home-sick as to be willing to risk even their lives for the sake of getting back to their own country.Happily for them, the Persian king was able to intercede for them in making a peace with Justinian,and it was agreed that they might live within the empire as they liked, without being troubled bythe laws, if they would only remain quiet, and not try to draw Christian youths away from the faith.The philosophers were too glad to return on such terms. I wish I could tell that they becameChristians themselves: but all that is said of them is, that when they died, there were no more ofthe kind, and that heathen philosophy no longer stood in the way of the Gospel.

Justinian spent vast sums of money on buildings, especially on churches; but it is said that muchof what he spent in this way had been got by oppressive taxes and by other bad means, so that we

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cannot think much the better of him for it. The grandest of all his buildings was the cathedral ofConstantinople. The church had been founded by Constantine the Great, but was once burnt down

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after the banishment of St. Chrysostom, and a second time in this reign. Justinian rebuilt it at a vastexpense, and, as he cast his eyes around it on the day of the consecration, after expressing histhankfulness to God for having been allowed to accomplish so great a work, he gave vent to thepride of his heart in the words: “I have beaten thee, O Solomon!” The cathedral was afterwardspartly destroyed by an earthquake, but Justinian again restored it, and caused it to be once moreconsecrated, about two years before his death. We learn from one of his laws that this church hadsixty priests, a hundred deacons, forty deaconesses, ninety subdeacons, a hundred and ten readers,five-and-twenty singers, and a hundred doorkeepers. And (which we should perhaps not haveexpected to hear) the law was made for the purpose of preventing the number of clergy connectedwith the cathedral from increasing beyond this, lest it should not have wealth enough to maintaina greater number! This great building is still standing (although it is now in the hands of theMahometan Turks); and it is regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It was dedicated to theEternal Wisdom, and is now commonly known by the name of St. Sophia (“sophia” being the Greekword for “wisdom”).

CHAPTER XXVIII: NESTORIANS AND MONOPHYSITES.

From the time of the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), to the end of Justinian’s reign, the EasternChurch was vexed by controversies which arose out of the opinions of Eutyches (Chap. XXII). Onaccount of these quarrels, the Churches of Rome and Constantinople would have no intercoursewith each other for five-and-thirty years (AD 484–519). The party which had at first been called

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Eutychians (after Eutyches) afterwards got the name of “Monophysites”, (that is to say, “maintainersof one nature only”)—because they said that after Our Blessed Lord had taken on Him the natureof man, His Godhead and His manhood made up but one nature; whereas the Catholics held thatHis two natures remain perfect and distinct in Him. The party split up into a number of divisions,the very names of which it is difficult to remember. And other quarrels arose out of the greatcontroversy with the Eutychians. The most noted of these was the dispute as to what were calledthe “Three Articles.” It was not properly a question respecting the faith, but whether certain writings,then a hundred years old, were or were not favourable to Nestorianism. But it was thought soimportant, that a council, which is reckoned as the fifth general council, was held on account of itat Constantinople in the year 553.

Notwithstanding all their quarrels among themselves, the Monophysites grew very strong invarious countries. In Egypt they were more in number than the Catholics. The Abyssinian Church(which, as we saw in a former chapter (Chap X), was considered as a daughter of the EgyptianChurch) took up these opinions. The Nubians were converted from heathenism by Monophysite

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missionaries; and in Armenia the church exchanged the Catholic doctrine for the Monophysite inthe sixth century.

But the most remarkable man of this sect was a Syrian named Jacob. He found his party sufferingand greatly weakened, in consequence of the laws which the emperors had made against it; andmost of the bishops and clergy had been removed by banishment imprisonment, or other means.Being resolved to preserve the sect, if possible, from dying out, Jacob went to Constantinople, madehis way into the prison where some of the Monophysite bishops were confined, and was secretlyconsecrated by them as a bishop, with authority to watch over all the congregations of their

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communion throughout Syria and the East. For nearly forty (AD 541–578) he laboured in carryingout the work which he had undertaken, with a zeal and a stedfastness which we cannot but admire,although we must regret that they were employed in the cause of heresy. In order that he might notbe known, as there were severe laws against spreading his opinions, he dressed himself as a beggar,and thence got the dance of “The Ragged”. In this disguise, he travelled, without ceasing, overSyria and Mesopotamia. His secret was faithfully kept by the members of his party. He stirred uptheir spirit, ordained bishops and clergy to minister among them in private, and at his death, in 578,he left the sect large and flourishing. From this Jacob, the Monophysites of other countries, as wellas of his own, got the name of Jacobites, in return for which they called the Catholics“Melchites,”—that is to say, followers of the emperor’s religion. And by these names of Melchitesand Jacobites, the remnants of the old Christian parties in the East are known to this day. (TheseJacobites of the East must not be confounded with the Jacobites of English history, who were thefriends of James II, and of his family, after the Revolution of 1688.)

The Nestorians also continued to be a strong body. Both they and the Monophysites were veryactive in missions—more active, indeed, than the eastern Catholics. The Nestorians, in particular,made great numbers of converts in Persia (where the heathen kings would allow no other kind ofChristianity than Nestorianism), in India, and in other parts of Asia. And in the seventh century(which is somewhat beyond the bounds of this little book) their missionaries made their way evento China, where they preached with great success.

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CHAPTER XXIX: ST. BENEDICT

PART I (AD 480–529)

Let us now look again at the monks. Their way of life was at first devised as a means of eitherpractising repentance for sin, or rising to such a height of holiness as was supposed to be beyondthe reach of persons busied in the affairs of this world. But in course of time a change took place.As the life of monks grew more common, it grew less strict; indeed, it would seem that wheneverany way of life which professes to be very strict becomes common, its strictness will pretty surelybe lessened, or given up altogether. People at first turned monks because they felt that such meansof holy living as they had been used to did not make them so good as they ought to be, and because

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they hoped to do better in this new kind of life. But when the monkish life was no longer new,monks neglected its rules, just as those before them had neglected the rules which holy Scriptureand the Church had laid down for all Christians.

In the unhappy days which had now come on, the monasteries of the West had in great measureescaped the evils of war and conquest which laid waste everything around them. The barbarians,who overwhelmed the empire, generally respected them; and now the life of monks, instead ofbeing chosen for its hardships, as it had been at first, came to be regarded as the easiest and thesafest life of all. It was sought after as one which would free people from the dangers to which theywould be liable if they remained in the world, and took the common share of the world’s risks andtroubles.

Another important matter was this—that monkery had taken its rise in Egypt and in Syria, where

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the climate and the habits of the people were very different from those of the western countries.And a great part of the monkish rules were fitted only for the particular circumstances and characterof the eastern nations;—for instance, they could do with less food than the people of the West, sothat a writer of the fifth century said, “A large appetite is gluttony in the Greeks, but in the Gaulsit is nature.” Again, the Egyptians and the Syrians, in their hot climate, did not need activeemployment in the same way as the western nations do, in order to keep their minds and their bodieshealthful. They could spend their hours and their days in calmly thinking of spiritual things, or ofnothing at all, in a way which the more active mind of Europeans cannot bear. And again, manyrules as to dress, which are suitable for one sort of climate, are quite unfit for a different sort.

Now the earlier rules for monks had been drawn up either in the East or after eastern patterns.And although, when they were brought into the West, people for a time obeyed them as well asthey could, it was found that they would not obey them any longer when the first heat of zeal formonkery had passed away. Hence it followed, that, throughout the monasteries of the West, therewas a general neglect of the rules by which they professed to be governed; and it was high timethat there should be some reformation.

A reformer arose in the sixth century. This was Benedict, who was born near Nursia, in Italy,in the year 480. At the age of twelve he was sent to school at Rome, under the care of a nurse, asseems to have been usual in those days. He worked hard at his studies, but the bad behaviour ofthe other boys and young men at Rome so shocked him, that, when he had been there two years,he resolved to bear it no longer. He therefore suddenly ran away from the city, and, after his nursehad gone a considerable distance with him, he left her, and made his way into a rough and lonelycountry near Subiaco, where he took up his abode in a cave. Here he was found out by a monk of

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a neighbouring house, named Romanus, who used daily to save part of his own allowance of food,and to carry it to his young friend. The cave opened from the face of a lofty rock, and the way thatRomanus took of conveying the food to Benedict was by letting it down at the end of a string fromthe top of the rock.

Benedict had lived in this manner for three years when he was discovered by some shepherds,who at first took him for some wild animal; but they soon found that he was something very different.

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He taught them and others to whom they made his abode known, and his character came to be somuch respected in the neighbourhood that he was chosen abbot of a monastery. He warned themonks that they would probably not like him, but they were resolved to have him nevertheless.Their habits, however, were so bad, that Benedict felt himself obliged to check them rather sharply;and the monks then attempted to get rid of him by mixing poison in his drink. But he found outtheir wicked design, and the only reproof which he gave them was by reminding them how he hadwarned them not to make him their abbot. With this he left them to themselves, and went quietlyback to his cave.

His name now grew more and more famous. Great multitudes of people flocked to see him,and even persons of high rank sent their sons to be trained under him. He built twelve monasteries,each for an abbot and twelve monks. But there was a spiteful monk, named Florentius, who wouldnot allow him any peace so long as they were near each other; so Benedict thought it best to giveway, and in 528 he left Subiaco, with some companions, and, after some wanderings, arrived atMount Cassino. There he found that the country people still worshipped some of the old heathengods, and that there was a grove which was held sacred to these gods. But he set boldly to work,and, notwithstanding all that could be done to oppose him, he cut down the grove, destroyed theidols, and built a little chapel, from which in time grew up a great and famous monastery, which

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still exists. And at Mount Cassino he drew up his Rule in the year 529; so that the beginning of themonks of St. Benedict was in the very same year in which heathen philosophy came to its end bythe closing of the schools of Athens (p 143).


Benedict had seen the mischief which arose from too great strictness of rules. He saw how itled to open disobedience and carelessness in some, and to hypocritical pretence in others; andtherefore he meant to guard against these faults by making his rule milder than those of the East.It was to be such that Europeans might keep it without danger to their health, and he allowed it tobe varied according to the circumstances of the different countries in which it might be established.

Every Benedictine monastery was to be under an abbot, who was to be chosen by the monks.The brethren were to obey the abbot in everything, while the abbot was charged not to be haughtyor tyrannical in using his authority. Next to the abbot there might either be a “provost,” or (whichBenedict liked better) there might be a number of “elders” or “deans,” who were to help and advisethe abbot in the government of his monasteries. Any one who wished to join the order was toundergo trial for a year before admission. Those who were admitted into it were required to givein a written vow that they would continue in it, that they would amend their lives, and that theywould obey those who were set over them. Every monk was obliged to give up all his property tothe order; nobody was allowed to have anything of his own, but all things were common to thebrethren. The monks might not receive any presents or letters, even from their nearest relations,without the abbot’s knowledge and leave, and if a present were sent for one of them, the abbot hadthe power to keep it from him, and to give it to any other monk.

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It was one important part of the rule that the monks should have sufficient employment providedfor them. They were to get up at two o'clock in the morning; they were to attend eight services aday, or, if they happened to be at a distance from their monastery, they were to observe the hoursof the services by prayer; and they were to work seven hours. Portions of time were allowed forlearning psalms by heart, and for reading the Scriptures, lives of holy men, and other edifyingbooks. At meals the monks were not to talk, but some book was to be read aloud to them. Theirfood was to be plain and simple; no flesh was allowed, except to the sick. But all such matters wereto be settled by the abbot, according to the climate and the season, to the age, the health, and theemployment of the monks. Their dress was to be coarse, but was to be varied according tocircumstances. They were to sleep by ten or twenty in a room, each in a separate bed, and withouttaking off their clothes. A dean was to have the care of each room, and a light was to be kept burningin each. No talking was to be allowed after the last service of the day.

The monks were never to go beyond the monastery without leave, and, in order that there mightbe little occasion for their going out, it was to contain within its walls the garden, the well, the mill,the bakehouse, and other such necessary things. The abbot was to set every monk his work; if itwere found that any one was inclined to pride himself on his skill in any art or trade, he was not tobe allowed to practise it, but was obliged to take up some other employment.

Benedict died in 543, and by that time his order had made its way into France, Spain, and Sicily.It soon drew into itself all the monks of the West, and was divided into a number of branches, whichall looked up to Benedict as their founder; and, although it would be a sad mistake to wish for anyrevival of monkery in our own days, we ought, in justice, to see and to acknowledge that throughGod’s providence these monks became the means of great benefits to mankind. Not only were their

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services important for the maintenance of the Gospel where it was already planted, and for thespreading of it among the heathen, but they cleared forests, brought waste lands into tillage, anddid much to civilize the rude nations among whom they laboured. After a time, learning began tobe cultivated among them, and during the troubled ages which followed, it found a refuge in themonasteries. The monks taught the young; they copied the Scriptures and other ancient books (forprinting was as yet unknown); they wrote histories of their times, and other books of their own. Tothem, indeed, it is that we are mainly indebted for preserving the knowledge of the past throughmany centuries.

CHAPTER XXX: END OF THE SIXTH CENTURY

PART I

We must not suppose that the conversion of the western barbarians was of any very perfectkind. They mixed up a great deal of their own barbarism with their Christianity, and, besides this,they took up many of the vices of the old and worn-out nations, whose countries they had conqueredand occupied. Much heathen superstition lingered among them: it was even a common saying in

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Spain, that “if a man has to pass between heathen altars and God’s Church, it is no harm if he payhis respects to both.” The clergy were very wealthy and prosperous, but did not venture to interferewith the vices of the great and powerful; or, if they did, it was at their peril. For instance, when abishop of Rouen had offended the Frankish queen Fredegund, she caused him to be murdered inhis own cathedral, at the most solemn service of Easter-day.

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Religion became a protection to crime; murderers were allowed to take refuge in churches, andmight not be dragged out until after an oath had been made that their lives should be safe. It hadbeen the ancient custom of the Germans to let all crimes be atoned for by the payment of money:if, for example, a person had killed another, he had no more to do than to pay a certain sum to thedead man’s relations. And this way of making up for misdeeds was now brought into the Church:it was thought that men might make satisfaction for their sins by paying money, and that the effectwould be the same if others paid for them after their death. We may understand how this workedfrom another story of queen Fredegund, who seems to have been a perfect monster of wickedness.She set two of her pages to murder a king, named Sigebert; and, by way of encouraging them, shesaid that she would honour them highly, if they came off with their lives; but that, if they wereslain, she would lay out a great deal of money in alms for the good of their souls!

As might naturally have been expected among such people, it came to be very commonlythought that the observance of outward worship and ceremonies was all that religion required.Pretended miracles were wrought in great numbers, for the purpose of imposing on the ignorant;and all, from the king downwards, were then ignorant enough to be deceived by them. Thesuperstitions which had begun in the fourth century (p 90) continued to grow on the Church; suchas the reverence paid to saints, and especially to the Blessed Virgin, so that people allowed thema part of the honour which ought to have been kept for God alone. Among other such corruptionswere the reverence for the “relics” of saints (that is, for parts of their bodies, or for things whichhad belonged to them), and the religious honour paid to images and pictures. These and other evilsincreased more and more, until, at length, they could be borne no longer, and, in many countries,they caused the great religious change which is called the “Reformation”.

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But nearly a thousand years had to pass before the time of the Reformation; and, in themeanwhile, although much was amiss in the Christianity which prevailed, it yet was the means ofblessing and of salvation. And there were never wanting good men who, although there were manydefects and errors in their opinions, firmly held and clearly taught the necessity of a real living faithin Christ, and of a thoroughly earnest endeavour to obey God’s holy will.

PART II

The state of Italy towards the end of the sixth century was very wretched. Vast numbers of itspeople had perished in the course of the wars by which Justinian’s generals had wrested the countryfrom the Goths, and had again united it to the empire; multitudes of others had been destroyed byfamine and pestilence. The Lombards, who had crossed the Alps in the year 568, had obliged theemperors to yield the North, and part of the middle, of Italy to them; and they continually threatenedthe portions which still remained to the empire. No help against them was to be got from

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Constantinople; and the governors whom the emperors sent to manage their Italian dominions,instead of directing and leading the people to resist the Lombards, only hindered them from takingtheir defence into their own hands.

The land was left uncultivated, partly through the loss of inhabitants, and partly because thosewho remained were disheartened by the miseries of the time. They had not the spirit to bestow theirlabour on it, when there was almost a certainty that their crops would be destroyed or carried offby the Lombard invaders; and the soil, when left to itself, had in many places become sounwholesome, that it was not fit to live on. Italy had in former times been so thickly peopled, that

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it had been necessary to get supplies of corn from Sicily and from Africa. But now such foreignsupplies were wanted for a very different reason—that the inhabitants of Italy could not, or did not,grow corn for themselves. The city of Rome had suffered from storms, and from repeated floodsof the river Tiber, which did a great deal of damage to its buildings, and sometimes washed awayor spoiled the stores of corn which were laid up in the granaries. The people were kept in terror bythe Lombards, who often advanced to their very walls, so that it was unsafe to venture beyond thegates.

The condition of the Church too was very deplorable. The troubles of the times had produceda general decay of morals and order both among the clergy and among the people. The Lombardswere Arians, and religious enmity was added to the other causes of dislike between them and theRomans. In Istria, there was a division which had begun after the fifth general council (p 145), andwhich kept the Church of that country separate from the communion of Rome for a hundred andfifty years. The sunken condition of Christianity in Gaul (or France) has been described in thebeginning of this chapter. Spain was just recovered from Arianism (p 134), but there was much tobe done before the Catholic faith could be considered as firmly established there. In Africa, the oldsect of the Donatists began again to lift up its head, and took courage from the confusions of thetime to vex the Church. The Churches of the East were torn by quarrels as to Eutychianism andNestorianism. And the patriarchs at Constantinople seemed likely, with the help of the emperor’sfavour, to be dangerous rivals to the popes of Rome.

Such was the state of things when Gregory the Great became pope or bishop of Rome, in theyear 590.

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CHAPTER XXXI: ST GREGORY THE GREAT (AD 540–604)

PART I

Gregory was born at Rome, of a noble and wealthy family, in the year 540. In his youth heengaged in public business, and he rose to be proctor of Rome, which was one of the chief officesunder the government. In this office he was much beloved and respected by the people. But aboutthe age of thirty-five, a great change took place in his life. He resolved to forsake the pursuit ofworldly honours, and spent all his wealth in founding seven monasteries. He gave up his family

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house at Rome to be a monastery, in which he became at first a simple monk, and was afterwardschosen abbot. A pope, named Pelagius, showed him great favour, by making him his secretary, andemploying him for some years as a sort of ambassador at the emperor’s court at Constantinople.And when Pelagius was carried off by a plague, in the year 589, the nobles, the clergy, and thepeople of Rome all agreed in choosing Gregory to succeed him.

Gregory was afraid to undertake the office. It was necessary that the emperor should consentto his appointment; and he wrote to beg that the emperor would refuse his consent. But the governorof Rome stopped the letter, and all the other attempts which Gregory made to escape the honourintended for him were baffled; so that in the end he was obliged to submit, and was consecrated asbishop of Rome in September, 590.

Gregory felt all the difficulties of his new place. He compares his Church to an old ship, shatteredby winds and waves, decayed in its timbers, full of leaks, and in continual danger of going to wreck.

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The vast quantity and variety of business which he went through appears to us from the collectionof his letters, of which about eight hundred and fifty still remain. We see from these how he stroveto strengthen his Church in all quarters, and what steps he took for the government of it. Some ofthe letters are addressed to emperors and kings, and treat about the greatest affairs of Church orState. And then all at once we find him passing from such high matters to direct that some poortenant on one of his estates should be excused from paying a part of his rent, or that relief shouldbe given to some widow or orphan who had written from a distance to ask his help.

The bishops of Rome had by degrees become very rich. They had estates, not only in Italy andSicily, but in Africa, in France, and even in Asia. And the people who managed these estates wereemployed by Gregory to carry on his other business in the same countries, and to report the stateof the Church to him from all quarters. Very little of his large income was spent on himself. Wemay have some notion of the plain way in which the great bishop lived from one of his letters tothe steward of his estates in Sicily. “You have sent me,” says Gregory, “one wretched horse, andfive good asses. I cannot ride the horse because he is wretched, nor the good beasts, because theyare but asses.” He lived chiefly in the company of monks and clergy, employing himself in studywith them. And, in the midst of all the business which took up his time, he wrote a number of books,of which some are very valuable. He was also famous as a preacher. Among his sermons are a setof twenty-two on the prophet Ezekiel, which he had meant to carry further. But he was obliged tobreak off by the attacks of the Lombards, as he told his people in the end of the last sermon—“Letno one blame me,” he says, “if after this discourse I stop, since, as you all see, our troubles aremultiplied on us. On every side we are surrounded with swords; on every side we dread the dangerof death which is close at hand. Some come back to us with their hands out off; we hear of some

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as being taken prisoners, and of others as slain. I am forced to withhold my tongue from expounding,since my soul is weary of my life (Job x. 1). How can I, who am forced daily to drink bitter things,draw forth sweet things to you? What remains for us, but that in the chastisement which we aresuffering because of our misdeeds, we should give thanks with weeping to Him who made us, andwho hath bestowed on us the spirit of adoption (Rom. viii. 15)—to Him who sometimes nourisheth

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His children with bread, and sometimes correcteth them with a scourge—who, by benefits and bysufferings alike, is training us for an eternal inheritance?”

Gregory laboured zealously in improving the education of the clergy, and in reforming suchdisorders as he found in his Church. He founded a school for singing, and established a new wayof chanting, which from him has the name of the “Gregorian Chant”, and is used to this day. Weare told that the whip with which he used to correct his choristers was kept at Rome as a relic forhundreds of years.

His charities were very great. On the first day of every month he gave out large quantities ofprovisions to the people of Rome. The old nobility had suffered so much by the wars, and by theloss of their estates in countries which had been torn from them by the barbarians, that many ofthem were glad to come in for a share of the good pope’s bounty. Every day he sent relief to anumber of poor persons in all parts of the city; and he used to send dishes from his own table tothose whom he knew to be in distress, but ashamed to ask for assistance. Once when a poor manwas found dead in the streets, Gregory denied himself the holy communion for some days, becauseit seemed to him that he must be in some measure to blame. He used to receive strangers andwanderers at his own table, out of regard for our Lord’s words—“Inasmuch as ye have done it untoone of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto Me.” (St. Matt. xxv. 40).

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PART II

Having thus seen something of Gregory’s life at home, we must now look at his proceedingsin other quarters.

He had a sharp dispute with a bishop of Constantinople, on account of the title of “UniversalBishop”, which the patriarchs of the eastern capital had for some time taken to themselves. Whenwe hear such a title, we may naturally fancy that it signified a claim to authority over the wholeChurch on earth. But, as it was then used, it really had no such meaning. The Greeks were fond oflofty and sounding titles, which seemed to mean much more than they were really understood tomean. This fondness appears in the titles of the emperors and of the officers of their empire, and itwas by it that the patriarchs were led to style themselves “Universal Bishop.” If the title had beenintended as a claim to authority over all Churches, it could only have been given to one person ata time, but we find that the emperor Justinian gave it to the bishops both of Constantinople and ofRome, and that he styled each of them “Head of all the Churches”; and, whatever the patriarchs ofConstantinople may have meant by it, they certainly did not make any claim to authority over Romeor the western Church.

But there was an old jealousy between the sees of Rome and Constantinople, ever since thetime when the second general council in 381 gave the bishop of Constantinople the second placeof honour in the whole Church (p 84). This jealousy had grown greater in late times, when therewas no very kindly feeling between the emperors and their Italian subjects, and when it seemednot impossible that the bishop of the new capital, backed by the emperor, might even try to disputethe first place with the bishop of Rome. And Gregory, who did not understand the Greek language,

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or how little the Greeks meant by their fine titles, was ready to take offence at the name of “UniversalBishop.” So, when a bishop of Constantinople, John the Faster, styled himself so on an importantoccasion, Gregory objected strongly,—he wrote to John, to the emperor, and to the bishops ofAlexandria and of Antioch, declaring that the title was proud and foolish, that it came from thedevil, and was a token of Antichrist’s approach, and that it was unfit for any Christian bishop touse. The emperor, however, would not help him against the patriarch. John would not yield, andthe other eastern patriarchs (partly from a wish to be at peace, and partly because the words did notseem offensive to them, as they did to Gregory), were little disposed to take up his quarrel. Aftera time, another emperor, who had special reasons for wishing to stand well with Gregory; forbadethe successor of John to call himself “Universal;” but the title was soon restored by the emperorsto the bishops of Constantinople, although not until after the death of Gregory. The most curiouspart of the story, however, is this—that Gregory’s successors in the popedom have taken up thevery title which he condemned so strongly; and that, instead of using it in the harmless meaningwhich it had in the East, they have intended it as a claim to power over the whole Church,— thatclaim of which the very notion filled Gregory with such horror and indignation, and which hedeclared to be unfit for any bishop whatever to make.

PART III

Gregory did much to bring over the Lombards from their Arianism, and he succeeded in part,although the work was not completed until after his time. He also laboured earnestly to revive theChurch in France and in other countries. But instead of dwelling on these things, I shall contentmyself with telling of the chief work which he did in spreading the Gospel; and it is one whichvery much concerns ourselves.

In those days slavery was common throughout all the known world, and, although the gospel

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had wrought a great improvement in the treatment of slaves, by making the masters feel that theyand their slaves were brethren in Christ, it yet had not forbidden slavery. But there was a feelingof pity for those who fell into this sad condition by the chances of war or otherwise. It was a commonact of charity for good Christians to redeem captives and to set them at liberty. This, indeed, wasthought so holy a work, and so agreeable to the words of Scripture—“I will have mercy, and notsacrifice” (Hos. vi. 6; St. Matt. ix. 13) that bishops often broke up and sold even the consecratedplate of their churches in order that they might get the means of ransoming captives whom theyheard of. And, although slavery was still allowed by the laws of Christian kingdoms, those lawstook care that Christian slaves should not be under Jews, or masters of any other than their ownreligion. Gregory, then, while he was yet a monk, went one day into the market at Rome, just afterthe arrival of some merchants with a large cargo of slaves for sale. Some of these poor creatures,perhaps, had been taken in war; others had probably been sold by their own parents for the sake ofthe price which they fetched; for we are told that this shocking practice was not uncommon amongsome of the ruder nations. As Gregory looked at them, his eyes fell on some boys with whoseappearance he was greatly struck. Their skin was fair, unlike the dark complexions of the Italiansand other southern nations whom he had been used to see, their features were beautiful, and they

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had long light flowing hair. He asked the merchants from what land these boys had been brought.“From Britain,” they said; and they told him that the bright complexion which he admired so muchwas common among the people of that island. Perhaps Gregory had never thought of Britain before.It was nearly two hundred years since the Roman troops had been withdrawn from it, and itshabitants had been left to themselves. And since that time the pagan Saxons had overrun it; the

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Romans had lost the countries which lay between them and it; and Britain had quite disappearedfrom their knowledge. Gregory, therefore, was obliged to ask whether the people were Christiansor heathens, and he was told that they were still heathens. The good monk sighed deeply. “Alas,and woe!” said he, “that people with such faces of light should belong to the author of darkness,and that so goodly an outward favour should be void of inward grace.” He asked what was thename of their nation, and was told that they were “Angles”. “It is well,” he said, “for they haveangels’ faces, and such as they ought to be joint-heirs with the angels in heaven.—What is the nameof the province from which they come?” He was told that it was Deira (a Saxon kingdom, whichstretched along the eastern side of Britain, from the Humber to the Tyne). The name of Deirasounded to Gregory’s ears like two Latin words, which mean “from wrath.” “Well, again,” he said,“they are delivered from the wrath of God, and are called to the mercy of Christ.—What is thename of the king of that country?” “Aella,” was the answer. “Alleluiah!” (“Praise to God!”)exclaimed Gregory, “the praises of God their maker ought to be sung in that kingdom.”

He went at once to the pope, and asked leave to go as a missionary to the heathens of Britain.But, although the pope consented, the people of Rome were so much attached to Gregory that theywould not allow him to set out, and he was obliged to give up the plan. Yet he did not forget theheathens of Britain, and when he became pope, although he could not himself go to them, he wasable to send others for the work of their conversion.

An opening had been made by the marriage of Ethelbert, king of Kent, the Saxon kingdomwhich lay nearest to the continent, with Bertha, daughter of Charibert, a Frankish king, whosecapital was Paris (AD 570). As Charibert and his family were Christians, it had been agreed thatthe young queen should be allowed freely to practise her religion, and a French bishop, namedLuidhard, came to England with her, and acted as her chaplain. Ethelbert by degrees became much

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more powerful than he was at the time of his marriage, and in 593 he was chosen “Bretwalda,”which was the title given to the chief of the Saxon kings. This office gave him much influence overmost of the other kingdoms; so that, if his favour could be gained, it was likely to be of very greatadvantage for recommending the Gospel to others. But Ethelbert was still a heathen, after havingbeen married to Bertha about five-and-twenty years, although we may well suppose that she hadsometimes spoken to him of her religion, and had tried to bring him over to it. And perhaps Berthamay have had a share in sending Gregory the reports which he mentions, that the Saxons in Englandwere ready to receive the Gospel, and in begging him to take pity on them.

PART IV

In the year 596 Gregory sent off a party of monks as missionaries to the English Saxons. Thehead of them was Augustine, who had been provost (that is, the highest person after the abbot—p

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150) of the monastery to which the pope himself had formerly belonged. And, at the same time,Gregory directed the manager of his estates in France to buy up a number of captive Saxon youths,and to place them in monasteries, that they might learn the Christian faith, and might afterwardsbecome missionaries to their own countrymen.

When Augustine and his brethren had got as far as the south of France, they heard many terriblestories of the English, so they took fright at the thought of going among such savages, whose verylanguage was unknown to them; and Augustine went back to Rome to beg that they might beallowed to give up their undertaking. But Gregory would not consent to this. He encouraged themto go on, and he gave Augustine letters to some French kings and bishops, desiring them to assist

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the missionaries, and to supply them with interpreters who understood the language of the Saxons.Augustine, therefore, returned to the place where he had left his companions. They made their wayacross France, and in 597 he landed, with about forty monks, in the Isle of Thanet.

Ethelbert lived at Canterbury, the capital of the Kentish kingdom, at no great distance from theplace where the missionaries had landed. On receiving notice of their arrival, he sent to desire thatthey would remain where they were until he should visit them; and within a few days he went tothem. The meeting was held in the open air; for Ethelbert had a superstitious fear that they mightdo him some mischief by magical arts, if he were to trust himself under a roof with them. Themissionaries advanced in procession, with a silver cross borne before them, and displaying a pictureof the crucified Saviour; and, as they slowly moved onwards, they chanted a prayer for their ownsalvation and that of the people to whom they had been sent. Ethelbert received them courteously,and desired them to sit down: and then Augustine made a speech, telling the king that they werecome to preach the word of life to him and to his subjects. “These are indeed fair words and promiseswhich you bring with you,” said Ethelbert; “but, because they are new and uncertain, I cannot atonce take up with them, and leave the faith which I and all my people have so long observed. Butas you have come from far and as I think you wish to give us a share in things which you believeto be true and most profitable, we will not show you unkindness, but rather will receive youhospitably, and not hinder you from converting as many as you can to your religion.”

He then granted them a lodging in his capital, and ordered that they should be supplied with allthat they might need. As they drew near to Canterbury, they again displayed the silver cross, andthe banner on which the Saviour was painted; and they entered the city in procession, chanting alitany which Gregory had made for the people of Rome, during the great plague which carried offpope Pelagius.

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A little way outside the city they found a small church which had been built in the days of theold British Christianity, and in which Luidhard had since held his service for Queen Bertha andthe Christians of her court. It was called by the name of St. Martin; for even before the Saxoninvasion his name had become so famous that many churches were called after it; and we may wellbelieve that Queen Bertha, on arriving from France, was glad to find that the church in which shewas to worship had long ago been named in honour of the great saint of her own land. ThereAugustine and his brethren now held their service; and the sight of their holy, gentle, and self-denying

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lives soon drew many to receive their instructions. Ethelbert himself was baptized on Whitsunday,597, and, although he would not force his people to profess the Gospel, he declared himself desirousof their conversion.

Gregory had desired Augustine, if he met with success in the beginning of his mission, to returnfrom Britain into France and be consecrated as a bishop. He now obeyed this direction, and wasconsecrated at Arles; and without any delay he again crossed the sea, and renewed his laboursamong the Saxons. Such was his progress in the work of conversion, that at Christmas of the yearin which he first landed in Britain ten thousand persons were baptized in one day. Four years later,Gregory made him an archbishop; and he sent him a fresh body of clergy to help him, with a largesupply of books, vestments, and other things for the service of the Church. He also gave himinstructions how to proceed, so as to advance the true faith without giving needless offence to theprejudices of the heathen.

Augustine’s chief difficulties, indeed, were not with the Saxons, but with the clergy of theancient British Church, whom he could not succeed in bringing to an agreement. We must not laythe blame wholly on either side; if the Britons were somewhat jealous and obstinate, Augustine

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seems to have taken too much upon himself in his way of dealing with them. But, whatever hisfaults may have been, we are bound to hold his memory in honour for the zealous and successfullabours by which the Gospel was a second time introduced into the southern part of this island.Before his death, in 604, he had established a second bishop for Kent, in the city of Rochester, andone at London, which was then the capital of the kingdom of Essex. And by degrees, partly by thefollowers of St. Augustine, and partly by the Scottish monks of Icolumbkill (p 139), all the Saxonkingdoms of England were converted to the Christian faith.

In the same year with Augustine, Gregory also died, after a long and severe illness, whichobliged him for years to keep his bed, but could not check his activity in watching over the interestsof religion.

Gregory had intended that Augustine should be archbishop of London, because in the old Romandays London had been the chief city of Britain; and it might seem natural that the chief bishop ofour Church should now take his title from the capital of all England. But when Gregory sent forthhis missionaries he did not know that England had been divided by the Saxons into several kingdoms.In consequence of this division of the country, Augustine, instead of becoming archbishop ofLondon, fixed himself in the capital of Kent, the first kingdom which he converted, and then themost powerful of all. Hence it is that his successors, the primates of all England, to this day, arenot archbishops of London but of Canterbury.

And, although Canterbury be not now a very large town, it is a very interesting place, and isfull of memorials of its first archbishop. The noble cathedral, called Christ Church, stands in thesame place with an ancient Roman-British church which Augustine recovered from heathen usesand consecrated in honour of the Saviour. Close to it are the remains of the archbishop’s palace,

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built on the same ground with the palace of Ethelbert, which he gave up to the missionaries. A littlechurch of St. Martin still stands on a rising ground outside the city, on the spot where Bertha andLuidhard had worshipped before the arrival of Augustine, and where he and his brethren celebratedtheir earliest services. And, although it has been rebuilt since then, we may still see in its walls anumber of bricks which by their appearance are known to be Roman,— the very same materialsof which the little church was built at first, while the Romans were yet in Britain, fourteen centuriesand a half ago; nay, it is even supposed that some part of the masonry is Roman, too. Between St.Martin’s and the cathedral lay the great monastery of St Peter and St. Paul, which Augustine beganto build. He died before it was finished; but, as soon as it was ready, his body was removed to it,and in it Queen Bertha and her husband were afterwards buried. After a time the name of themonastery was changed to St. Augustine’s, and for hundreds of years it was the chief monasteryof all England. The Reformation in the sixteenth century put an end to monasteries; and the buildingsof St. Augustine’s went through many changes until in the year 1844 the place was turned to apurpose similar to that which Augustine and Gregory had at heart when they undertook theconversion of England; for it is now a college for training missionaries. And, as Gregory wishedthat Saxon boys should be brought up with a view to converting their countrymen, so there are nowat St. Augustine’s College young men from distant heathen nations, receiving an education whichmay fit them hereafter to become missionaries of the Church of England to their brethren. (Amongthose who were at the College when this volume was first printed was Kalli, the Esquimaux, ofwhom an account has since been written by the Rev. T. B. Murray, and published by the Societyfor Promoting Christian Knowledge. He afterwards went to the diocese of Newfoundland, wherehe died of consumption.) Nor is the good Gregory forgotten in the city which owes so much to him;

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for within the last few years a beautiful little church called by his name has been built, close to thecollege of St. Augustine.

Here this little book must close. It ends with the replanting of the Gospel in our own land. And,if hereafter the story should be carried further, some of its brightest pages will be filled by thelabours of the missionaries who went forth from England to preach the faith of Christ in Germanyand the adjoining countries.

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PART II

CHAPTER I: MAHOMETANISM; IMAGE-WORSHIP (AD 612–794)

Within a few years after the death of Gregory the Great, a new religion was set up by an Arabiannamed Mahomet, who seems to have been honest, although mistaken, at first, but grew less honestas he went on, and as he became more successful and powerful. His religion was made up partlyfrom the Jewish, partly from the Christian, and partly from other religions which he found aroundhim; but he gave out that it had been taught him by visions and revelations from heaven, and thesepretended revelations were gathered into a book called the Koran, which serves Mahomet’s followersfor their Bible. This new religion was called Islam, which means submission to the will of God;and the sum of it was declared to be that “there is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.”

One point in the new religion was, that every faithful Mahometan (or Mussulman, as they werecalled) was required once in his life to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, a city which was Mahomet’sbirthplace, and was considered to be especially holy; and to this day it is visited every year by greatcompanies of pilgrims. Another remarkable thing was, that he commanded his followers to spreadtheir religion by force [NOTE: this is denied by many moslem scholars—check other references];and this was done with such success, that within about sixty years after Mahomet’s death they hadconquered Syria and the Holy Land, Egypt, Persia, parts of Asia Minor, and all the north of Africa.

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A little later, they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, and got possession of Spain, where their kingdomat Granada lasted until 1492, nearly eight hundred years. In the countries which the Mussulmanssubdued, Christians were allowed to live and to keep up their religion; but they had to pay a heavytribute, and to bear great hardships and disgraces at the hands of the conquerors.

I have mentioned that before Gregory the Great’s time almost all Europe had been overrun bythe rude nations of the North (Part I, Chapter XXIII). Learning nearly died out, and what remainedof it was kept up by the monks and clergy only. There is but little to tell of the history of thosetimes; for, although in the Greek empire there were great disputes about some doctrines and practices,these matters were such as you would not care to know about, nor would you be much the wiser ifyou did know.

I may, however, mention that one of these disputes was about images, to which the Christiansof those ages, and especially the Greeks, had come by degrees to pay a sort of reverence which St.Augustine and other fathers of older days would have looked on with horror. It had become usualto fall down before images, to pray to them, to kiss them, to burn lights and incense in their honour,to adorn them with gold, silver, and precious stones, to lay the hand on them in taking oaths, andeven to use them as godfathers or godmothers for children in baptism. Those who defend the useof images would tell us that the honour is not given to them, but to Almighty God, to the Saviour,and to the saints, through the images. But when we find, for instance, that people paid more honourto one image of the blessed Virgin than to another, and that they supposed their prayers to have agreater hope of being heard when they were said before one image than when they were said before

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another, we cannot help thinking that they believed the images themselves to have some particularvirtue in them.

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There were, then, some of the Greek emperors who tried to put down the superstitious regardfor images, and they were the more set on this because the Mahometans, who abhorred images,reproached the Christians for using them. These emperors, wishing to do away with the groundsfor such reproaches, caused the figures of stone or metal to be broken, and the sacred pictures tobe smeared over; and they persecuted very cruelly those who were foremost in defending them.Then came other emperors who were in favour of images; or widowed empresses, who governedduring the boyhood of their sons, and took up the cause of images with great zeal; and thus thefriends and the enemies of images succeeded each other by turns on the throne, so that the battlewas fought, backwards and forwards, for a long time, until at length an agreement was come towhich has ever since continued in the Greek Church. By this agreement, it was settled that thefigures made by carving in stone or wood, or by casting metal into a mould, should be forbidden,but that the rise of religious pictures (which were also called by the name of images) should beallowed. Hence it is said that the Greeks may not worship anything of which one can take the tipof the nose between his finger and his thumb. But in the Latin Church the carved or molten imagesare still allowed; and among the poorer and less educated people there is a great deal of superstitionconnected with them.

CHAPTER II: THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND AD 604–734.

While the light of the Gospel was darkened by the Mahometan conquests in some parts of theworld where it had once shone brightly, it was spreading widely among the nations which had gotpossession of western Europe.

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In England, successors of St. Augustine converted a large part of the Anglo-Saxons by theirpreaching, and much was also done by missionaries from the island of Iona, on the west of Scotland.There, as we have seen (p139), an Irish abbot, named Columba, had settled with some companionsabout the year 565, and from Iona their teaching had been carried all over the northern part ofBritain. These missionaries from Iona to England found a home in the island of Lindisfarne, on theNorthumbrian coast, which was given up to them by Oswald, king of Northumbria, and from themgot the name of Holy Island. Oswald himself had been converted while an exile in Scotland; and,as he had learnt the language of the country there, he often helped the missionaries in their laboursby interpreting what they said into the language of his own subjects who listened to them. TheScottish missionaries carried their labours even as far south as the river Thames; and their modestand humble ways gained the respect and love of the people so much that, as we are told by theVenerable Bede, wherever one of them appeared, he was joyfully received as the servant of God.Even those who met them on the road used eagerly to ask their blessing, and, whenever one of themcame to any village, the inhabitants flocked to hear from him the message of the Gospel.

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But these Scottish missionaries differed in some respects from the clergy who were connectedwith St. Augustine; and after a time a great meeting was held at Whitby, in Yorkshire, to settle thequestions between them and the Roman Church. We must not suppose that these differences wereof any real importance; for they were only about such small matters as the reckoning of the day onwhich Easter should he kept, and the way in which the hair of the clergy should be clipped orshaven. But, although these were mere trifles, the two parties were each so set on their own ways

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that no agreement could be come to; and the end was, that the Scottish missionaries went back totheir own country, and did no more work for spreading the Gospel in England, although after awhile the Scottish clergy, and those of Ireland too, were persuaded to shave their hair and to reckontheir Easter in the same way as the other clergy of the West.

In those dark times some of the most learned and famous men were English monks. Amongthem I shall mention only Bede, who is commonly called the Venerable, and to whose care we owealmost all our knowledge of the early history of the Church in this land. Bede was born about theyear 673, near Jarrow, in Northumberland, and at the age of seven he entered the monastery ofJarrow, where the rest of his life was spent. He tells us of himself that he made it his pleasure everyday “either to learn or to teach or to write something;” and, after having written many preciousbooks during his quiet life in his cell at Jarrow, he died on the eve of Ascension-day in the year734, just as he had finished a translation of St. John’s Gospel.

CHAPTER III: ST. BONIFACE (AD 680–755)

Although the Church of Ireland was in a somewhat rough state at home, many of its clergyundertook missionary work on the Continent; and by them and others much was done for theconversion of various tribes in Germany and in the Netherlands. But the most famous missionaryof those times was an Englishman named Winfrid, who is styled the Apostle of Germany.

Winfrid was born near Crediton, in Devonshire, about the year 680. He became a monk at an

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early age, and perhaps it was then that he took the name of Boniface, by which he is best known.He might probably have risen to a high place in the church of his own country if he had wished todo so; but he was filled with a glowing desire to preach the Gospel to the heathen. He thereforerefused all the tempting offers which were made to him at home, crossed the sea, and began tolabour in Friesland and about the lower part of the Rhine. For three years he assisted another famousEnglish missionary, Willibrord, bishop of Utrecht, who wished to make Boniface his successor;but Boniface thought that he was bound rather to labour in some country where his work was moreneeded; so, leaving Willibrord, he went into Hessia, where he made and baptized many thousandsof converts. The pope, Gregory the Second, on hearing of this success, invited him to Rome,consecrated him as a bishop, and sent him back with letters recommending him to the princes andpeoples of the countries in which his work was to lie (AD 723).

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The government of the Franks was then in a very odd state. There were kings over them; butthese kings, instead of carrying on the government for themselves, and leading their nation in war,were shut up in their palaces, except that once in the year they were brought out in a cart drawn bybullocks to appear at the national assemblies.

These poor “do-nothings” (as the kings of the old French race are called) were without anystrength or spirit. From their way of life, they allowed their hair to grow without being shorn; andthe Greeks, who lived far away from them, and knew of them only by hearsay, believed, not onlythat their hair was long, but that it grew down their backs like the bristles of a hog. And, while thekings had sunk into this pitiable state, the real work of the kingly office was done, and the kinglypower was really enjoyed, by great officers who were called “mayors of the palace”.

At the time which I am speaking of, the mayor of the palace was Charles, who was afterwardsknown by the name of Martel, or “The Hammer.” Charles had done a great service to Christendom

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by defeating a vast army of Mahometans, who had forced their way from Spain into the heart ofFrance, and driving the remains of them back across the Pyrenees. It is said that they lost 375,000men in the battle which they fought with Charles near Poitiers (AD 732); and, although this numberis no doubt beyond the truth, it is certain that the infidels were so much weakened that they neverventured to attempt any more conquests in western Europe. But, although Charles had thus donevery great things for the Christian world, it would seem that he himself did not care much forreligion; and, although he gave Boniface a letter of protection, he did not help or encourage himgreatly in his missionary labours. But Boniface was resolved to carry on bravely what he believedto be God’s work. He preached in Hessia and Thuringia, and made many thousands of converts.He built churches and monasteries, and brought over from England large numbers of clergy to helphim in preaching and in the Christian training of his converts, for which purpose he also obtainedsupplies of books from his own country. He founded bishoprics, and held councils of clergy andlaymen for the settlement of the Church’s affairs. Finding that the Hessians paid reverence to anold oak-tree, which was sacred to one of their gods, he resolved to cut it down. The heathens stoodaround, looking fiercely at him, cursing and threatening him, and expecting to see him and hiscompanions struck dead by the vengeance of their gods. But when he had only just begun to attackthe oak we are told that a great wind suddenly arose, and struck it so that it fell to the ground infour pieces. The people, seeing this, took it for a sign from heaven, and consented to give up theirold idolatry; and Boniface turned the wood of the huge old oak to use by building a chapel with it.

In some places Boniface found a strange mixture of heathen superstitions with Christianity,and he did all that he could to root them out. He had also much trouble with missionaries fromIreland, whose notions of Christian doctrine and practice differed in some things from his; and

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perhaps he did not always treat them with so much of wisdom and gentleness as might have beenwished. But after all he was right in thinking that the sight of more than one kind of Christianreligion, different from each other and opposed to each other; must puzzle the heathen and hindertheir conversion; so that we can understand his jealousy of these Irish missionaries, even if wecannot wholly approve of it.

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In reward of his labours and success, Boniface was made an archbishop by Pope Gregory IIIin 732; and, although at first he was not fixed in any one place, he soon brought the German Churchinto such a state of order that it seemed to be time for choosing some city as the seat of its chiefbishop, just as the chief bishop of England was settled at Canterbury. Boniface himself wished tofix himself at Cologne; but at that very time the bishop of Mentz got into trouble by killing a Saxon,who, in a former war, had killed the bishop’s father. Although it had been quite a common thingin those rough days for bishops to take a part in fighting, Boniface and his councils had made rulesforbidding such things, as unbecoming the ministers of peace; and the case of the bishop of Mentz,coming just after those rules had been made, could not well be passed over. The bishop, therefore,was obliged to give up his see; and Mentz was chosen to be the place where Boniface should befixed as archbishop and primate of Germany, having under him five bishops, and all the nationswhich had received the Gospel through his preaching.

When Boniface had grown old, he felt himself again drawn to Frisia, where, as we have seen(p 174), he had laboured in his early life; and at the age of seventy-five he left his archbishopric,with all that invited him to spend his last days there in quiet and honour, that he might once morego forth as a missionary to the barbarous Frieslanders. Among them he preached with much success;but on Whitsun Eve, 755, while he was expecting a great number of his converts to meet, that they

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might receive confirmation from him, he and his companions were attacked by an armed party ofheathens, and the whole of the missionaries, fifty-two in number, were martyred. But althoughBoniface thus ended his active and useful life by martyrdom at the hands of those whom he wishedto bring into the way of salvation, his work was carried on by other missionaries, and the conversionof the Frisians was completed within no long time. Boniface’s body was carried up the Rhine, andwas buried at Fulda, a monastery which he had founded amidst the loneliness of a vast forest, andthere the tomb of the “Apostle of the Germans” was visited with reverence for centuries.

CHAPTER IV: PIPIN AND CHARLES THE GREAT (AD 741–814)

PART I

Towards the end of St. Boniface’s life, a great change took place in the government of theFranks. Pipin, who had succeeded his father, Charles Martel, as mayor of the palace, grew tired ofbeing called a sergeant white he was really the master; and the French sent to ask the pope, whosename was Zacharias, whether the man who really had the kingly power ought not also to have thetitle of king. Zacharias, who had been greatly obliged to the Franks for helping him against hisenemies the Lombards, answered them in the way that they seemed to wish and to expect; andaccordingly they chose Pipin as their king. And while, according to the custom in such cases, Pipinwas lifted up on a shield and displayed to the people, while he was anointed and crowned, the lastof the poor old race of “do-nothing” kings was forced to let his long hair be shorn until he lookedlike a monk, and was then shut up in a monastery for the rest of his days.

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Pipin afterwards went into Italy for the help of the pope, and bestowed on the Roman Churcha large tract of country which he had taken from the Lombards. And this “donation” (as it wascalled) or gift, was the first land which the popes possessed in such a way that they were countedas the sovereigns of it.

Pipin died in 768, and was succeeded by his son Charles who is commonly called Charlemagne(or Charles the Great). Under Charles the connexion between the Franks and the Popes becamestill closer than before; and when Charles put down the Lombard kingdom in Italy (AD 774), thepopes came in for part of the spoil.

But the most remarkable effect of this connexion was at a later time, when Pope Leo III hadbeen attacked in a Roman street by some conspirators, who tried to blind him and to cut out histongue. But they were not able to do their work thoroughly, and Leo recovered the use both of histongue and of his eyes. He then went into Germany to ask Charles to help him against his enemies;and on his return to Rome he was followed by Charles. There, on Christmas Day, AD 800, whena vast congregation was assembled in the great church of St. Peter, the pope suddenly placed agolden crown on the king’s head, while the people shouted, “Long life and victory to our emperorCharles!” So now, after a long time, an emperor was set up again in the West; and, although thesenew emperors were German, they all styled themselves Emperors of the Romans. The popesafterwards pretended that they had a right to bestow the empire as they liked, and that Leo hadtaken it from the Greeks, and given it to the Germans. But this was quite untrue. Charles seems tohave made up his mind to be emperor, but he was very angry with the pope for giving him thecrown by surprise, instead of letting him take his own way about it; and, if he had been left tohimself, he would have taken care to manage the matter so that the pope should not appear to doanything more than to crown him in form after he had been chosen by the Roman people.

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PART II

Charles was really a great man, although he had very serious faults, and did many blameablethings. He carried his conquests so far that the Greeks had a proverb, “Have the Frank for thy friend,but not for thy neighbour,”— meaning that the Franks were likely to try to make their neighbours’lands their own. He thought it his duty to spread the Christian faith by force, if it could not be donein a gentler way; and thus, when he had conquered the Saxons in Germany, he made them bebaptized and pay tithes to the Church. But I need hardly say that people’s belief is not to be forcedin this way; and many of those who submitted to be baptized at the conqueror’s command had nobelief in the Gospel, and no understanding of it. There is a story told of some who came to bebaptized over and over again for the sake of the white dresses which were given to them at theirbaptism; and when one of these had once got a dress which was coarser than usual, he declaredthat such a sack was fitter for a swineherd than for a warrior, and that he would have nothing to dowith it or with the Christian religion. The Saxons gave Charles a great deal of trouble, for his warwith them lasted no less than thirty-three years; and at one time he was so much provoked by theirfrequent revolts that he had the cruelty to put 4,500 Saxon prisoners to death.

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But there are better things to be told of Charles. He took very great pains to restore learning,which had long been in a state of decay. He invited learned men from Italy and from England tosettle in his kingdom; and of all these, the most famous was a Northumbrian named Alcuin. Alcuingave him wise and good advice as to the best way of treating the Saxons in order to bring them tothe faith; and when Charles was on his way to Rome, just before he was crowned as emperor,Alcuin presented him with a large Latin Bible, written expressly for his use; for we must remember

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that printing was not invented until more than six hundred years later, so that all books in Charles’sdays were “manuscript” (or written by hand). Some people have believed that an ancient manuscriptBible which is now to be seen in the great library at Paris is the very one which Alcuin gave toCharles.

We are told that when Charles found himself at a loss for help in educating his people, he saidto Alcuin that he wished he might have twelve such learned clerks as Jerome and Augustine; andthat Alcuin answered, “The maker of heaven and earth has had only two such, and are you sounreasonable as to wish for twelve?”

Alcuin was made master of the palace school, which moved about wherever the court was, andin which the pupils were Charles’s own children and the sons of his chief nobles; and besides this,care was taken for the education of the clergy and of the people in general. Charles himself triedvery hard to learn reading and writing when he was already in middle age; but although he becameable to read, and used to keep little tablets under his pillow, in order that he might practise writingwhile lying awake in bed, he never was able to write easily. Many curious stories are told of theway in which he overlooked the service in his chapel, where he desired that everything should bedone as well as possible. He would point with his finger or with his staff at any person whom hewished to read in chapel, and when he wished any one to stop he coughed; and it was expected thatat these signals each person would begin or stop at once, although it might be in the middle of asentence.

During this time the question of images, which I have already, mentioned (p 170), came upagain in the Greek Church. A council was held in 787 at Nicaea, where the first general councilhad met in the time of Constantine, more than four centuries and a half before (PART I, Chap. xi.),and in this second Nicene council images were approved of. In the West, the popes were also for

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them; but they were condemned in a council at Frankfort, and a book was written against them inthe name of Charles. It is supposed that this book was mostly the work of Alcuin, but that Charles,besides allowing it to go forth with his name and authority, had really himself had a share in makingit.

Charles the Great died in the year 814. A short time before his death, he sent for his son Lewis,and in the great church at Aix-la-Chapelle, which was Charles’s favourite place of abode, he tookfrom the altar a golden crown, and with his own hands placed it on the head of Lewis. By this hemeant to show that he did not believe the empire to depend on the pope’s will, but considered it tobe given to himself and his successors by God alone.

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CHAPTER V: DECAY OF CHARLES THE GREAT'S EMPIRE (AD 814–887)

Lewis, the son of Charles the Great, was a prince who had very much of good in him, so thathe is commonly called the Pious. But he was of weak character, and his reign was full of troubles,mostly caused by the ambition of his own sons, who were helped by a strong party among theclergy, and even by Pope Gregory the Fourth. At one time he was obliged to undergo public penance,and some years later he was deprived of his kingdom and empire, although these acts caused sucha shock to the feelings of men that he found friends who helped him to recover his power. Andafter his death (AD 840) his children and grandchildren continued to quarrel among themselves aslong as any of them lived.

Besides these quarrels among their princes, the Franks were troubled at this time by enemiesof many kinds.

First of all I may mention the Northmen, who poured down by sea on the coasts of the more

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civilized nations. These were the same who in our English history are called Danes, with whomthe great Alfred had a long struggle, and who afterwards, under Canute, got possession of ourcountry for a time. They had light vessels— serpents, as they were called—which could sail uprivers; and so they carried fire and sword up every river whose opening invited them, making theirway to places so far off the sea as Mentz, on the Rhine; Treves, on the Moselle; Paris, on the Seine;and even Auxerre, on the Yonne. They often sacked the wealthy trading cities which lay open totheir attacks; they sailed on to Spain, plundered Lisbon, passed the Straits of Gibraltar, and laidwaste the coasts of Italy.

After a time they grew bolder, and would leave their vessels on the rivers, while they struckacross the country to plunder places which were known to be wealthy. They made fortified camps,often on the islands of the great rivers, and did all the mischief they could within a large circlearound them. These Northmen were bitter enemies of Christianity, and many of them had lost theirhomes because they or their fathers would not be converted at Charlemagne’s bidding; so that theyhad a special pleasure in turning their fury against churches and monasteries. Wherever they came,the monks ran off and tried to save themselves, leaving their wealth as a prey to the strangers.People were afraid to till the land, lest these enemies should destroy the fruits of their labours.Famines became common; wolves were allowed to multiply and to prey without check; and suchwere the distress and fear caused by the invaders, that a prayer for the deliverance “from the furyof the Northmen” was added to the service-books of the Frankish Church.

Another set of enemies were the Mahometan Saracens, who got possession of the great islandsof the Mediterranean and laid waste its coasts. It is said that some of them sailed up the Tiber andcarried off the altar which covered the body of St. Peter. One party of Saracens settled on the banks

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of a river about halfway between Rome and Naples; others in the neighbourhood of Nice, and onthat part of the Alps which is now called the Great St. Bernard; and they robbed pilgrims andmerchants, whom they made to pay dearly for being let off with their lives.

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Europe also suffered much from the Hungarians, a very rude, heathen people, who about theyear 900 poured into it from Asia. We are told that they hardly looked human, that they lived likebeasts, that they ate men’s flesh and drank their blood. They rode on small active horses, so thatthe heavy-armed cavalry of the Franks could not overtake them; and if they ran away before theirenemies, they used to stop from time to time, and let fly their arrows backwards. From the Elbe tothe very south of Italy these barbarians filled Europe with bloodshed and with terror.

The Northmen at length made themselves so much feared in France, that King Charles III, whowas called the Simple, gave up to them, in 911, a part of his kingdom, which from them got thename of Normandy. There they settled down to a very different sort of life from their old habits ofpiracy and plunder, so that before long the Normans were ahead of all the other inhabitants ofFrance; and from Normandy, as I need hardly say, it was that William the Conqueror and hiswarriors came to gain possession of England.

The princes of Charles the Great’s family, by their quarrels, broke up his empire altogether;and nobody had anything like the power of an emperor until Otho I, who became king of Germanyin 936, and was crowned emperor at Rome in 962.

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CHAPTER VI: STATE OF THE PAPACY (AD 891–1046)

All this time the papacy was in a very sad condition. Popes were set up and put down continually,and some of them were put to death by their enemies. The body of one pope named Formosus, afterit had been some years in the grave, was taken up by order of one of his successors (Stephen VI),wasdressed out in the full robes of office, and placed in the papal chair; and then the dead pope wastried and condemned for some offence against the laws of the Church. It was declared that theclergy whom he had ordained were not to be reckoned as clergy; his corpse was stripped of thepapal robes; the fingers which he had been accustomed to raise in blessing were cut off; and thebody, after having been dragged about the city, was thrown into the Tiber (AD 896).

Otho the Great, who has been mentioned as emperor, turned out a young pope, John XII, whowas charged with all sorts of bad conduct (AD 963); and that emperor’s grandson, Otho III, put intwo popes, one after another (AD 996, 999). The second of these popes was a very learned andclever Frenchman, named Gerbert, who as pope took the name of Sylvester II. He had studied underthe Arabs in Spain (for in some kinds of learning the Arabs were then far beyond the Christians);and it was he who first taught Christians to use the Arabic figures (such as 1, 2, and 3) instead ofthe Roman letters or figures (such as I, II, and III). He also made a famous clock; and on accountof his skill in such things people supposed him to be a sorcerer, and told strange stories about him.Thus it is said that he made a brazen head, which answered “Yes” and “No” to questions. Gerbert

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asked his head where he should die, and supposed from the answer that it was to be in the city ofJerusalem. But one day as he was at service in one of the Roman churches which is called “HolyCross in Jerusalem,” he was taken very ill; and then he understood that that church was the Jerusalem

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in which he was to die. We need not believe such stories; but yet it is well to know about them,because they show what people were disposed to believe in the time when the stories were made.

The troubles of the papacy continued, and at one time there were no fewer than three popes,each of whom had one of the three chief churches of Rome, and gave himself out for the only truepope. But this state of things was such a scandal that the emperor, Henry III, was invited fromGermany to put an end to it, and for this purpose he held a council at Sutri, not far from Rome, in1046. Two of the popes were set aside, and the third, Gregory VI, who was the best of the three,was drawn to confess that he had given money to get his office, because he wished to use the powerof the papacy to bring about some kind of reform. But on this he was told that he had been guiltyof simony—a sin which takes its name from Simon the sorcerer, in the Acts of the Apostles (chviii.), and which means the buying of spiritual things with money. This had never struck Gregorybefore; but when told of it by the council he had no choice but to lay aside his papal robes, and theemperor put one of his own German bishops into the papacy.

CHAPTER VII: MISSIONS OF THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES

It will be pleasanter to tell you something about the missions of those times; for a great deal ofmissionary work was then carried on.

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(1.) The Bulgarians, who had come from Asia in the end of the seventh century, and had settledin the country which still takes its name from them, were converted by missionaries of the GreekChurch. It is said that, when some beginning of the work had been made, and the king himself hadbeen baptized by the patriarch of Constantinople (AD 861), the king asked the Greek emperor tosend him a painter to adorn the walls of his palace; and that a monk named Methodius was sentaccordingly, for in those times monks were the only persons who practised such arts as painting.The king desired him to paint a hall in the palace with subjects of a terrible kind, by which he meantthat the pictures should be taken from the perils of hunting. But, instead of such subjects, Methodiuspainted the last judgment, as being the most terrible of all things; and the king, on seeing the pictureof hell with its torments, and being told that such would be the future place of the heathen, was soterrified that he gave up the idols which he had kept until then, and that many of his subjects werealso moved to seek admission into the Church.

Although the conversion of Bulgaria had been the work of Greek missionaries, the popesafterwards sent some of their clergy into the country, and claimed it as belonging to them; and thiswas one of the chief causes why the Greek and the Latin Churches separated from each other sothat they have never since been really reconciled.

(2.) It is not certain whether the painter Methodius was the same as a monk of that name, who,with his brother named Cyril, brought about the conversion of Moravia (AD 863). These missionarieswent about their work in a different way from what was common; for it had been usual for theGreek clergy to use the Greek language, and for the Western clergy to use the Latin, in their church

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service and in other things relating to religion; but instead of this, Cyril and Methodius learnt thelanguage of the country, and translated the church-services, with parts of the holy Scriptures, into

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it: so that all might be understood by the natives. In Moravia, too, there was a quarrel between theGreek and the Latin clergy; but, although the popes usually insisted that the services of the Churchshould be either in Latin or in Greek (because these were two of the languages which were writtenover the Saviour’s cross), they were so much pleased with the success of Cyril and Methodius, thatthey allowed the service of the Moravian Church to be still in the language of the country.

(3.) Soon after the conversion of the Moravians, the duke of Bohemia paid a visit to their king,Swatopluk, who received him with great honour, but at dinner set him and his followers to sit onthe floor, as being heathens. Methodius, who was at the king’s table, spoke to the duke, and saidthat he was sorry to see so great a prince obliged to feed as if he were a swineherd. “What shouldI gain by becoming a Christian,” he replied, and when Methodius told him that the change wouldraise him above all kings and princes, he and his thirty followers were baptized.

A story of the same kind is told as to the conversion of the Carinthians, which was broughtabout in the end of the eighth century by a missionary named Ingo, who asked Christian slaves toeat at his own table, while he caused food to be set outside the door for their heathen masters, asif they had been dogs. This led the Carinthian nobles to ask questions; and in consequence of whatthey heard they were baptized, and their example was followed by their people generally.

The second bishop of Prague, the chief city of Bohemia, Adalbert, is famous as having goneon a mission to the heathens of Prussia, by whom he was martyred on the shore of the Frische Haffin 997.

(4.) In the north of Germany, in Denmark, and in Sweden, Anskar, who had been a monk atCorbey, on the Weser, laboured for thirty-nine years with earnest devotion and with great success(AD 826–865). In addition to preaching the Gospel of salvation, he did much in such charitableworks as the building of hospitals and the redemption of captives; and he persuaded the chief men

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of the country north of the Elba to give up their trade in slaves, which had been a source of greatprofit to them, but which Anskar taught them to regard as contrary to the Christian religion. Anskarwas made archbishop of Hamburg and Bremen, and is styled “The Apostle of the North.” But hehad to suffer many dangers and reverses in his endeavours to do good. At one time, when Hamburgwas burnt by the Northmen, he lost his church, his monastery, his library, and other property; buthe only said, with the patriarch Job, “The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be thename of the Lord!” Then he set to work again, without being discouraged by what had befallenhim, and he even made a friend of the heathen king who had led the attack on Hamburg. Anskardied in the year 865. It is told that when some of his friends were talking of miracles which he wassupposed to have done, he said, “If I were worthy in my Lord’s sight, I would ask of Him to grantme one miracle—that He would make me a good man.”

(5.) The Russians were visited by missionaries from Greece, from Rome, and from Germany,so that for a time they wavered between the different forms of the Christian religion which wereoffered to them; but at length they decided for the Greek Church. When their great prince (who at

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his baptism took the name of Basil) had been converted (AD 988), he ordered that the idol of thechief god who had been worshipped by the Russians should be dragged at a horse’s tail throughthe streets of the capital, Kieff, and should be thrown into the river Dnieper. Many of the peopleburst into tears at the sight; but when they were told that the prince wished them to be baptized,they said that a change of religion must be good if their prince recommended it; and they werebaptized in great numbers. “Some,” we are told, “stood in the water up to their necks, others up totheir breasts, holding their young children in their arms; and the priests read the prayers from thebank of the river, naming at once whole companies by the same name.”

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(6.) I might give an account of the spreading of the Gospel in Poland, Hungary, and othercountries; but let us keep ourselves to the north of Europe. Although Anskar had given up his wholelife to missionary work among the nations near the Baltic Sea, there was still much to be done, andsometimes conversion was carried on in ways which to us seem very strange. As an instance ofthis, I may give some account of a Norwegian king named Olave, the son of Tryggve.

Olave was at first a heathen, and had long been a famous sea-rover, when he was convertedand baptized in one of the Scilly islands (AD 994). He took up his new religion with a great desireto spread it among his people, and he went about from one part of Norway to another, everywheredestroying temples and idols, and requiring the people to he baptized whether they were willing ornot. At one place he found eighty heathens, who were supposed to be wizards. He first tried toconvert them in the morning when they were sober, and again in the evening when they wereenjoying themselves over their horns of ale; and as he could not persuade them, whether they weresober or drunk, he burnt their temple over their heads. All the eighty perished except one, whomade his escape; and this man afterwards fell into the king’s hands, and was thrown into the sea.

At another time, Olave fell in with a young man named Endrid, who agreed to become a Christianif any one whom the king might appoint should beat him in diving, in archery, and in sword-play.Olave himself undertook the match, and got the better of Endrid in all the trials; and then Endridgave in, and allowed himself to be converted and baptized. These were strange ways of spreadingthe Gospel; but they seem to have had their effect on the rough men of the North.

At last, Olave was attacked by some of his heathen neighbours, and was beaten in a greatsea-fight (AD 1000). It was generally believed that he had perished in the sea; but there is a story

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of a Norwegian pilgrim who, nearly fifty pears later, lost his way among the sands of Egypt, andlighted on a lonely monastery, with an old man of his own country as its abbot. The abbot put manyquestions to him, and asked him to carry home a girdle and a sword and to give them with a messageto a warrior who had fought bravely beside King Olave in his last battle; and on receiving them theold warrior was assured that the Egyptian abbot could be no other than his royal master, who hadbeen so long supposed to be dead.

Somewhat later than Olave the son of Tryggve (AD 1015), Norway had another king Olave,who was very zealous for the spreading of the Gospel among his people, and, like the elder Olave,was willing to do so by force if he could not manage the matter otherwise. On his visiting a placecalled Dalen, a bishop named Grimkil, who accompanied him, set forth the Christian doctrine, but

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the heathens answered that their own god was better than the God of the Christians, because hecould be seen. The king spent the greater part of the night in prayer, and next morning at daybreakthe idol of the northern god Thor was brought forward by his worshippers. Olave pointed to therising sun, as being a witness to the glory of its Maker; and, while the heathens were gazing on itsbrightness, a tall soldier, to whom the king had given his orders beforehand, lifted up his club anddashed the idol to pieces. A swarm of loathsome creatures, which had lived within the idol’s hugebody, and had fattened on the food and drink which were offered to it, rushed forth, as in the caseof the image of Serapis, hundreds of years before (Part I, Chap. XVI); whereupon the men of Dalenwere convinced of the falsehood of their old religion, and consented to be baptized. King Olavewas at length killed in battle against his heathen subjects (AD 1030), and his memory is regardedas that of a saint.

(7.) From Norway the Gospel made its way to the Norwegian settlements in Iceland, and even

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in Greenland, where it long flourished, until, in the middle of the fifteenth century, ice gathered onthe shores so as to make it impossible to land on them. About the same time a great plague, whichwas called the Black Death, carried off a large part of the settlers, and the rest were so few and soweak that they were easily killed by the natives.

It seems to be certain that some of the Norwegians from Greenland discovered a part of theAmerican continent, although no traces of them remained there when the country was againdiscovered by Europeans, hundreds of years later.

CHAPTER VIII: POPE GREGORY THE SEVENTH

PART I

In the times of which I have been lately speaking, the power of the popes had grown far beyondwhat it was in the days of Gregory the Great.

I have told you Gregory was very much displeased because a patriarch of Constantinople hadstyled himself “Universal Bishop” (p 159). But since that time the popes had taken to callingthemselves by this very title, and they meant a great deal more by it than the patriarchs ofConstantinople had meant; for people in the East are fond of big words, so that, when a patriarchcalled himself “Universal Bishop,” he did not mean anything in particular, but merely to givehimself a title which would sound grand. And thus, although he claimed to be universal, he wouldhave allowed the bishops of Rome to be universal too. But when the popes called themselves“Universal Bishops,” they meant that they were bishops of the whole Church, and that all otherbishops were under them.

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They had friends, too, who were ready to say anything to raise their power and greatness. Thus,about the year 800, when the popes had begun to get some land of their own, through the gifts ofPipin and Charlemagne (p 178), a story was got up that the first Christian emperor, Constantine,when he built his city of Constantinople, and went to live in the East, made over Rome to the pope,

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and gave him also all Italy, with other countries of the West, and the right of wearing a goldencrown. And this story of Constantine’s gift (or “Donation”, as it was called), although it was quitefalse, was commonly believed in those days of ignorance.

About fifty years later another monstrous falsehood was put forth, which helped the popesgreatly. Somebody, who took the name of Isidore, a famous Spanish bishop who had been deadmore than two hundred years, made a collection of Church law and of popes’ letters; and he mixedup with the true letters a quantity which he had himself forged, but which pretended to have beenwritten by bishops of Rome from the very time of the Apostles. And in these letters it was madeto appear that the pope had been appointed by our Lord Himself to be head of the whole Church,and to govern it as he liked; and that the popes had always used this power from the beginning.This collection of laws is known by the name of the “False Decretals”; but nobody in those timeshad any notion that they were false, and so they were believed by every one, and the pope got allthat they claimed for him.

But in course of time the popes would not he contented even with this. In former ages nobodycould be made pope without the emperor’s consent, and we have seen how Otho the Great, hisgrandson, Otho III, and afterwards Henry III, had thought that they might call popes to account fortheir conduct; now these emperors brought some popes before councils for trial, and turned themout of their office when they misbehaved (p 184f). But just after Henry III, as we have read, had

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got rid of three popes at once, a great change began, which was meant to set the popes above theemperors. The chief mover in this change was Hildebrand, who is said to have been the son of acarpenter in a little Tuscan town and was born between the years 1010 and 1020.

PART II

Hildebrand became a monk of the strictest kind, and soon showed a wonderful power of swayingthe minds of other men. Thus, when a German named Bruno, bishop of Toul, had been chosen aspope by Henry III, to whom he was related and as he was on his way to Rome that he might takepossession of his office, his thoughts were entirely changed by some talk with Hildebrand, whomhe happened to meet. Hildebrand told him that popes, instead of being appointed by emperors,ought to be freely chosen by the Roman clergy and people; and thereupon Bruno, putting off hisfine robes, went on to Rome in company with Hildebrand, whose lessons he listened to all the way,so that he took up the monk’s notions as to all matters which concerned the Church. On arrivingat Rome, he told the Romans that he did not consider himself to be pope on account of the emperor’sfavour, but that if they should think fit to choose him he was willing to be pope. On this he waselected by them with great joy, and took the name of Leo IX (AD 1048). But, although Leo wascalled pope, it was Hildebrand who really took the management of everything.

When Leo died (AD 1054), the Romans wished to put Hildebrand into his place; but he did notyet feel himself ready to take the papacy, and instead of this he contrived to get one after anotherof his party elected, until at length, after having really directed everything for no less thanfive-and-twenty years, and under the names of five popes in succession, he allowed himself to bechosen in 1073, and styled himself Gregory VII.

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The empire was then in a very sad state. Henry III had died in 1056, leaving a boy less than sixyears old to succeed him; and this poor boy, who became Henry IV, was very badly used by thosewho were about him. One day, as he was on an island in the river Rhine, Hanno, archbishop ofCologne, gave him such an account of a beautiful new boat which had been built for the Archbishop,that the young prince naturally wished to see it; and as soon as he was safe on board, Hanno carriedhim off to Cologne, away from his mother, the empress Agnes. Thus the poor young Henry has inthe hands of people who meant no good by him; and, although he was naturally a bright clever,amiable lad, they did what they could to spoil him, and to make him unfit for his office, by educatinghim badly, and by throwing in his way temptations to which he was only too ready to yield. Andwhen they had done this, and he had made himself hated by many of his people on account of hismisbehaviour, the very persons who had done the most to cause his faults took advantage of them,and tried to get rid of him as king of Germany, and emperor. In the meantime Hildebrand (orGregory, as we must now call him) and his friends had been well pleased to look on the troublesof Germany; for they hoped to turn the discontent of the Germans to their own purpose.

Gregory had higher notions as to the papacy than any one who had gone before him. He thoughtthat all power of every kind belonged to the pope; that kings had their authority from him; that allkingdoms were held under him as the chief lord; that popes were as much greater than kings oremperors as the sun is greater than the moon; that popes could make or unmake kings just as theypleased; and although he had asked the emperor to confirm his election, as had been usual, he wasresolved that such a thing should never again be asked of an emperor by any pope in the time tocome.

PART III

One way in which Gregory tried to increase his power was by forcing the clergy to live

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unmarried, or, if they were married already, to put away their wives. This was a thing which hadnot been required either in the New Testament or by the Church in early times. But by degrees anotion had grown up that single life was holier than married life; and many “canons” (or laws ofthe Church) had been made against the marriage of the clergy. But Gregory carried this further thanany one before him, because he saw that to make the clergy different from other men, and to cutthem off from wife and children and the usual connexions of family, was a way to unite them moreclosely into a body by themselves. He saw that it would bind them more firmly to Rome; that itwould teach them to look to the pope, rather than to their national sovereign, as their chief; andthat he might count on such clergy as sure tools, ready to be at the pope’s service in any quarrelwith princes. He therefore sent out his orders, forbidding the marriage of the clergy, and he set thepeople against their spiritual pastors by telling them to have nothing to do with the married clergy,and not to receive the sacraments of the Church from them. The effects of these commands wereterrible: the married clergy were insulted in all possible ways, many of them were driven by violencefrom their parishes, and their unfortunate wives were made objects of scorn for all mankind. Sogreat and scandalous were the disorders which arose, that many persons, in disgust at the evils

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which distracted the Church, and at the fury with which parties fought within it, forsook it andjoined some of the sects which were always on the outlook for converts from it.

Another thing on which Gregory set his heart, as a means of increasing the power of the popes,was to do away with what was called “Investiture.” This was the name of the form by which princesgave bishops possession of the estates and other property belonging to their sees. The custom hadbeen that princes should put the pastoral staff into the hands of a new bishop, and should place aring on one of his fingers; but now fault was found with these acts, because the staff meant that the

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bishop had the charge of his people as a shepherd has of his flock; and the ring meant that he wasjoined to his Church as a husband is joined to his wife in marriage. For now it was said to be wrongto use things which are signs of spiritual power, when that which the prince gives is not spiritualpower, but only a right to the earthly possessions of the see. Gregory, therefore, ordered that nobishop should take investiture from any sovereign, and that no sovereign should give investiture;and out of this grew a quarrel which lasted fifty years, and was the cause of grievous troubles inthe Church.

Gregory had also quarrels with enemies at home. One of these, a tough and lawless man namedCencius, went so far as to seize him when he was at a service about midnight on Christmas Eve,and carried him off to a tower, where the pope was exposed all night to the insults of a gang ofruffians, and of Cencius himself, who even held a sword to his naked throat, in the hope offrightening him into the payment of a large sum as ransom. But Gregory was not a man to beterrified by any violence, and held out firmly. A woman who took pity on him bathed his wounds,and a man gave him some furs to protect him against the cold; and in the morning he was deliveredby a party of his friends, by whom Cencius and his ruffians were overpowered, and frightened intogiving up their prisoner.

PART IV

In Germany many of the princes and people threw off their obedience to Henry. They destroyedhis castles and reduced him to great distress; they held meetings against him and were strong enoughto make him give up his power of government for a time, and leave all questions between him andhis subjects to be settled by the pope. Henry was so much afraid of losing his kingdom altogetherthat, in order to beg the pope’s mercy, he crossed the Alps, with his queen and a few others, in the

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midst of a very hard winter, running great risks among the snow and ice which covered the loftymountains over which his road lay. In the hope of getting the pope’s forgiveness, he hastened toCanossa, a castle among the Apennines, at which Gregory then was; but Gregory kept the emperorstanding three days outside the gate, dressed as a penitent, and pierced through and through by thebitter cold of that terrible winter, before he would allow himself to be seen. When at last Henrywas admitted, the pope treated him very hardly; some say that he even tried to make him take theholy sacrament of our Lord’s body, by way of proving whether he were innocent or guilty of thecharges which his enemies brought against him. And, after all that Henry had gone through, nopeace was made between him and his enemies. The troubles of Germany continued: the other party

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set up against Henry a king of their own choosing, named Rudolf; and Henry, in return for this, setup another pope in opposition to Gregory.

After a time, Henry was able to put down his enemies in Germany, and he led a large army intoItaly, where he got almost all Rome into his hands; and on Easter Day, 1084, he was crowned asemperor, in St. Peter’s Church, by Clement III, the pope of his party. Gregory entreated the helpof Robert Guiscard, the chief of some Normans who had got possession of the south of Italy; andGuiscard, who was glad to have such an opportunity for interfering, speedily came to his relief anddelivered him. But in fighting with the Romans in the streets, these Normans set the city on fire,and a great part of it was destroyed, so that within the walls of Rome there are even in our own daylarge spaces which were once covered with buildings, but are now given up to cornfields orvineyards. Gregory felt himself unable to bear the sight of his ruined city, and, when the Normanswithdrew, he went with them to Salerno, where he died on the 25th of May, 1085. It is said thathis last words were, “I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity; therefore I die in exile;” andthe meaning seems to be, that by these words he wished to claim the benefit of our Lord’s saying,

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“Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness’ sake; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.”Of all the popes, Gregory VII was the one who did most to increase the power of the papacy.

No doubt he was honest in his intentions: and thought that to carry them out would be the best thingfor the whole Church, as well as for the bishops of Rome. But he did not care whether the meanswhich he used were fair or foul; and if his plans had succeeded, they would have brought all mankindinto slavery to Rome.

CHAPTER IX: THE FIRST CRUSADE (AD 1095–1099)

PART I

The popes who came next after Gregory VII carried things with a high hand, following theexample which he had set them. They got the better of Henry IV, but in a way which did them nocredit. For when Henry had returned from Italy to his own country, and had done his best, by manyyears of good government, to heal the effects of the long, troubles of Germany, the popes encouragedhis son Conrad, and after Conrad’s death, his younger son Henry, to rebel against him. The youngerHenry behaved very treacherously to his father, whom he forced to give up his crown, and at lastHenry IV died broken-hearted in 1106. When Henry was thus out of the way, his son, Henry V,who, until then, had seemed to be a tool of the pope and the clergy, showed what sort of man hereally was by imprisoning Pope Paschal II and his cardinals for nine weeks, until he made the popegrant all that he wanted. But at length this emperor was able to settle for a time the great quarrelof investitures, by an agreement made at the city of Worms, on the Rhine, in 1123.

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But before this time, and while Henry IV was still emperor, the popes had got a great additionto their power and importance by the Crusades,—a word which means wars undertaken for thesake of the Cross. I have told you already how, from the fourth century, it became the fashion for

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Christians to flock from all countries into the Holy Land, that they might warm their faith (as theythought) by the sight of the places where our Blessed Lord had been born, and lived, and died, andwhere most of the other things written in the Scripture history had taken place (p 91). Very often,indeed, this pilgrimage was found to do more harm than good to those who went on it, for manyof them had their minds taken up with anything rather than the pious thoughts which they professed;but the fashion of pilgrimage grew more and more, whether the pilgrims were the better or theworse for it.

When the Holy Land had fallen into the hands of the Mahometans, as I have mentioned (p 169),these often treated the Christian pilgrims very badly, behaving cruelly to them, insulting them, andmaking them pay enormously for leave to visit the holy places. And when Palestine was conqueredby the Turks, who had taken up the Mahometan religion lately, and were full of their new zeal forit (AD 1076), the condition of the Christians there became worse than ever. There had often beenthoughts among the Christians of the West as to making an attempt to get back the Holy Land fromthe unbelievers; but now the matter was to be taken up with a zeal which had never before beenfelt.

A pilgrim from the north of France, called Peter the Hermit, on returning from Jerusalem, carriedto Pope Urban II a fearful tale of the tyranny with which the Mahometans there treated both theChristian inhabitants and the pilgrims: and the pope gave him leave to try what he could do to stirup the Christians of the West for the deliverance of their brethren. Peter was a small, lean, dark

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man, but with an eye of fire, and with a power of fiery speech; and Wherever he went, he foundthat people of all classes eagerly thronged to hear him; they even gathered up the hairs which fellfrom the mule on which he rode, and treasured them up as precious relics. On his bringing back tothe pope a report of the success which he had thus far met, Urban himself resolved to proclaim thecrusade, and went into France, as being the country where it was most likely to be welcomed. There,in a great meeting at Clermont, AD 1095, where such vast numbers attended that most of themwere forced to lodge in tents because the town itself could not hold them, the pope, in stirringwords, set forth the reasons for the holy war, and invited his hearers to take part in it. While he wasspeaking, the people broke in on him with shouts of “God wills it!”—words which from that timebecame the cry of the Crusaders; and when he had done, thousands enlisted for the crusade byfixing little crosses on their dress.

All over Europe everything was set into motion; almost every one, whether old or young, strongor feeble, was eager to join; women urged their husbands or their sons to take the cross, and anyone who refused was despised by all. Many of those who enlisted would not wait for the time whichhad been fixed for starting. A large body set out under Peter the Hermit and two knights, of whomone was called Walter the Pennyless. Other crowds followed, which were made up, not of fightingmen only; but of poor, broken-down old men, of women and children who had no notion how veryfar off Jerusalem was, or what dangers lay in the way to it. There were many simple country folks,who set out with their families in carts drawn by oxen; and, whenever they came to any town, theirchildren asked, “Is this Jerusalem?” And besides these poor creatures, there were many bad people,

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who plundered as they went on, so as to make the crusade hated even by the Christian inhabitantsof the countries through which they passed.

These first swarms took the way through Hungary to Constantinople, and then across the

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Bosphorus into Asia Minor. Walter the Pennyless, who, although his pockets were empty, seemsto have been a brave and good soldier, was killed in battle near Nicaea, the place where the firstgeneral council had been held (p 45), but which had now become the capital of the Turks; and thebones of his followers who fell with him were gathered into a great heap, which stood as a monumentof their rashness. It is said that more than a hundred thousand human beings had already perishedin these ill-managed attempts before the main forces of the Crusaders began to move.

PART II

When the regular armies started at length, AD 1096, part of them marched through Hungary,while others went through Italy, and there took ship for Constantinople. The chief of their Leaderswas Godfrey of Bouillon, a brave and pious knight; and among the other commanders was Robert,duke of Normandy, whom we read of in English history as the eldest son of William the Conqueror,and brother of William Rufus. When they reached Constantinople, they found that the Greekemperor, Alexius, looked on them with distrust and dislike rather than with kindness; and he wasglad to get rid of them by helping them across the strait to Asia.

In passing through Asia Minor, the Crusaders had to fight often, and to struggle with manyother difficulties. The sight of the hill of bones near Nicaea roused them to fury; and, in order toavenge Walter the Pennyless and his companions, they laid siege to the city, which they took atthe end of six weeks. After resting there for a time they went on again and reached Antioch, whichthey besieged for eight months (Oct. 1097—June 1098). During this siege they suffered terribly.Their tents were blown to shreds by the winds, or were rotted by the heavy rains which turned the

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ground into a swamp; and, as they had wasted their provisions at the beginning of the siege (notexpecting that it would last so long), they found themselves in great distress for food, so that theywere obliged to eat the flesh of horses and camels, of dogs and mice, with grass and thistles, leather,and the bark of trees. Their horses had almost all sunk under the hardships of the siege, and themen were thinned by disease and by the assaults of their enemies.

At length Antioch was betrayed to them; but they made a bad use of their success. They slewall of the inhabitants who refused to become Christians. They wasted the provisions which theyfound in the city, or which were brought to them from other quarters; and when a fresh Mahometanforce appeared, which was vastly greater than their own, they found themselves shut in between itand the garrison of the castle, which they had not been able to take when they took the city.

Their distress was now greater than before, and their case seemed to be almost hopeless, whentheir spirits were revived by the discovery of something which was supposed to be the lance bywhich our blessed Lord’s side was pierced on the Cross. They rushed, with full confidence, to attackthe enemy on the outside; and the victory which they gained over these was soon followed by thesurrender of the castle. But a plague which broke out among them obliged them to remain nearlynine months longer at Antioch.

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Having recruited their health, they moved on towards Jerusalem, although their numbers werenow much less than when they had reached Antioch. When at length they came in sight of the holycity, a cry of “Jerusalem! Jerusalem! God wills it!” ran through the army, although many were somoved that they were unable to speak and could only find vent for their feelings in tears and sighs.All threw themselves on their knees and kissed the sacred ground (June, 1099). The siege ofJerusalem lasted forty days, during which the Crusaders suffered much from hunger, and still more

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from thirst; for it was the height of summer, when all the brooks of that hot country are dried up;the wells, about which we read so much in holy Scripture, were purposely choked with rubbish,and the cisterns were destroyed or poisoned. Water had to be fetched from a distance of six miles,and was sold very dear; but it was so filthy that many died after drinking it. The besiegers foundmuch difficulty in getting wood to make the engines which were then used in attacking the wallsof cities; and when they had at length been able to build such machines as they wanted, the defenderstried to upset them, and threw at them showers of burning pitch or oil, and what was called theGreek fire, in the hope that they might set the engines themselves in flames, or at least might scaldor wound the people in them. We are even told that two old women, who were supposed to bewitches, were set to utter spells and curses from the walls; but a stone from an engine crushed thepoor old wretches, and their bodies tumbled down into the ditch which surrounded the city. TheCrusaders were driven back in one assault, and were all but giving way in the accord; but Godfreyof Bouillon thought that he saw in the sky a bright figure of a warrior beckoning him onwards; andthe Crusaders pressed forward with renewed courage until they found themselves masters of theholy city (July 15, 1099). It was noted that this was at three o'clock on a Friday afternoon—thesame day of the week, and the same hour of the day, when our Blessed Lord was crucified.

I shall not tell you of the butchery and of the other shocking things which the Crusaders wereguilty of when they got possession of Jerusalem. They were, indeed, wrought up to such a statethat they were not masters of themselves. At one moment they were throwing themselves on theirknees with tears of repentance and joy; and then again they would start up and break loose intosome frightful acts of cruelty and plunder against the conquered enemy, sparing neither old man,nor woman, nor child.

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PART III

Eight days after the taking of Jerusalem, the Crusaders met to choose a king. Robert of Normandywas one of those who were proposed; but the choice fell on Godfrey of Bouillon. But the piousGodfrey said that he would not wear a crown of gold where the King of Kings had been crownedwith thorns; and he refused to take any higher title than that of Defender and Baron of the HolySepulchre.

Godfrey did not live long to enjoy his honours, and his brother, Baldwin, was chosen in hisroom. The kingdom of Jerusalem was established, and pilgrims soon began to stream afresh towardsthe sacred places. But, although we might have expected to find that this recovery of the Holy Landfrom the Mahometans by the Christians of the West would have led to union of the Greek and Latin

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Churches, it unhappily turned out quite otherwise. The popes set up a Latin patriarch, with Latinbishops and clergy, against the Greeks, and the two Churches were on worse terms than ever.

This crusade was followed by others, as we shall see by-and-by; but meanwhile, I may say that,although the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was never strong, and soon showed signs of decay, thesecrusades brought the nations of the West, which fought side by side in them, to know more of eachother; that they served to increase trade with the East, and so to bring the produce of the Easterncountries within the reach of Europeans; and, as I have said, already (p 199), they greatly helpedto increase the power of the popes, who had seen their way to take the direction of them, and thusget a stronger hold than before on the princes and people of Western Christendom.

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CHAPTER X: NEW ORDERS OF MONKS; MILITARY ORDERS

In the times of which I have lately been speaking, the monks did much valuable service to theChurch and to the world in general. It was mostly through their labours that heathen nations wereconverted to the Gospel, that their barbarous roughness was tamed, and that learning, although ithad greatly decayed, was not altogether lost. Often, where monks had built their houses in lonelyplaces, little clusters of huts grew up round them, and in time these clusters of huts became largeand important towns. Monks were very highly thought of, and sometimes it was seen that kingsand queens would leave all their worldly grandeur, and would withdraw to spend their last yearsunder the quiet roof of a monastery. But it was found, at the same time, that monks were apt to fallaway from the strict rules by which they were bound, so that reforms were continually neededamong them.

As the popes became more powerful, they found the monks valuable friends and allies, andthey gave exemptions to many monasteries; that is to say, they took it on themselves to set thosemonasteries free from the control which the bishops had held over them, so that the monks of theseexempt places did not own any bishop at all, and would not allow that any one but the pope wasover them.

I have already told you of the rule which was drawn up for monks by St. Benedict of Nursia (p150). Some other rules were afterwards made, such as that of Columban, an Irish abbot, who formany years (AD 589–615) laboured in France, Switzerland, and the north of Italy. Columban wentmore into little matters than Benedict had done, and laid down exact directions in cases where

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Benedict had left the abbots of monasteries to settle things as they should think fit. Thus Columban’srule laid down that any monk who should call anything his own should receive six strokes, andappointed the same punishment for everyone who should omit to say “Amen” after the abbot’sblessing, or to make the sign of the cross over his spoon or his candle; for every one who shouldtalk at meals, or should cough at the beginning of a psalm. There were ten strokes for striking thetable with a knife, or for spilling beer on it; and for heavier offenses the punishment sometimes

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rose as high as two hundred: besides that, other punishments were used, such as fasting on breadand water, psalm-singing, humble postures, and long times of silence.

Still, however, Benedict’s rule was that by which the greater part of the Western monks weregoverned. But, although they were under the same rule, they had no other connection with eachother; each company of monks stood by itself, having no tie outside its own walls. There was notas yet, in the West, anything like the society which St. Pachomius had long before established inEgypt (p 62), where all the monasteries were supposed to be as so many sisters, and all owned themother-monastery as their head. It was not until the tenth century that anything of this kind wasset on foot in the Western Church.

(1.) In the Year 912, an abbot named Berno founded a new society at Cluny, in Burgundy. Hebegan with only twelve monks; but by degrees the fame of Cluny spread, and the pattern whichhad been set there was copied far and wide, until at length more than two thousand monasterieswere reckoned as belonging to the “Congregation” (as it was called) or Order of Cluny; and allthese looked up to the great abbot of the mother-monastery as their chief. The early abbots of Clunywere very remarkable men, and took a great part in the affairs both of the Church and of kingdoms:some of them even refused the popedom; and bishops placed themselves under them, as simplemonks of Cluny, for the sake of their advice and teaching.

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The founders of the Cluniac order added many precepts to the rule or St. Benedict. Thus themonks were required to swallow all the crumbs of their bread at the end of every meal; and whensome of them showed a wish to escape this duty, they were frightened into obedience by an awfultale that a monk, when dying, saw at the end of his bed a great sack of the crumbs which he hadleft on the table rising up as a witness against him. The monks were bound to keep silence at times;and we are told that, rather than break this rule, one of them allowed his horse to be stolen, andanother let himself be carried off as a prisoner by the Northmen. During these times of silence theymade use of a set of signs, by which they were able to let each other know what they wanted.

This congregation of Cluny, then, was the first great monkish order in the West, and otherssoon followed it. They were mostly very strict at first—some of them so strict that they not onlyforbade all luxury in the monks, but would not allow any fine buildings, or any handsome furniturein their churches. But in general the monks soon got over this by saying that, as their buildings andtheir services were not for themselves, but for God, their duty was to honour Him by giving Himof the best that they could.

These orders were known from each other by the difference of their dress: thus the Benedictineswere called Black Monks, the Cistercians were called White Monks, and at a later time we findmention of Black Friars, White Friars, Grey Friars, and so forth.

(2.) About the time of Gregory VII, several new orders were founded; and of these the mostfamous were the Carthusians and the Cistercians.

As to the beginning of the Carthusian order, a strange story is told. The founder, Bruno, is saidto have been studying at Paris, where a famous teacher, who had been greatly respected for hispiety, died. As his funeral was on its way to the grave, the corpse suddenly raised itself from the

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bier, and uttered the words, “By God’s righteous judgement I am accused!” All who were aroundwere struck with horror, and the burial was put off until the next day. But then, as the mournerswere again moving toward the grave, the dead man rose up a second time, and groaned out, “ByGod’s righteous judgement I am judged!” Again the service was put off; but on the third day, thegeneral awe was raised to a height by his lifting up his head and saying, “By God’s righteousjudgment I am condemned!” And it is said that on this discovery as to the real state of a man whohad been so highly honoured for his supposed goodness, Bruno was so struck by a feeling of thehollowness of all earthly judgment that he resolved to hide himself in a desert.

I have given this story as a sample of the strange tales which have been told and believed; butnot a word of it is really true, and Bruno’s reasons for withdrawing from the world were of quitea different kind. It is, however, true that he did withdraw into a wild and lonely place, which is nowknown as the Great Chartreuse, among rough and awful rocks, near Grenoble, and there an extremelysevere rule was laid down for the monks of his order (AD 1084). They were to wear goatskins nextto the flesh, and their dress was altogether to be of the coarsest and roughest sort. On three days ofeach week their food was bread and water; on the other days they were allowed some vegetables;but even their highest fare on holidays was cheese and fish, and they never tasted meat at all. Oncea week they submitted to be flogged, after confessing their sins. They spoke on Sundays and festivalsonly, and were not allowed to use signs like the Cluniacs. It is to be said, to the credit of theCarthusians, that, although their order grew rich and built splendid monasteries and churches, theyalways kept to their hard way of living, more faithfully, perhaps, than any other order.

(3.) The Cistercian order, which I have mentioned, was founded by Robert of Molesme (AD1098), and took its name from its chief monastery, Citeaux, or, in Latin, Cistercium, The rule was

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very strict. From the middle of September to Easter they were to eat but one meal daily. Theirmonasteries were not to be built in towns, but in lonely places. They were to shun pomp and pridein all things. Their services were to be plain and simple, without any fine music. Their vestmentsand all the furniture of their churches were to be coarse and without ornament. No paintings, norsculptures, nor stained glass were allowed. The ordinary dress of the monks was to be white.

At first it seemed as if the hardness of the Cistercian rule prevented people from joining. Butthe third abbot of Citeaux, an Englishman named Stephen Harding, when he was distressed at theslow progress of the order, was comforted by a vision in which he saw a multitude washing theirwhite robes in a fountain; and very soon the vision seemed to be fulfilled. In 1113 Bernard (ofwhom we shall hear more presently) entered the monastery of Citeaux, and by-and-by the orderspread so wonderfully that it equalled the Cluniac congregation in the number of houses belongingto it. These were not only connected together like the Cluniac monasteries, but had a new kind oftie in the general chapters, which were held every year. For these general chapters every abbot ofthe order was required to appear at Citeaux, to which they all looked up as their mother. Those whowere in the nearer countries were bound to attend every year; those who were further off, once inthree, or five, or seven years, according to distance. Thus the smaller houses were allowed to have

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a share in the management of the whole; and the plan was afterwards imitated by Carthusians andother orders.

(4.) I need not mention any more of the societies of monks which began about the same time,but I must not omit to say that the Crusades gave rise to what are called “military orders”, of whichthe first and most famous were the Templars and the Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John.

These orders were governed by rules which were much like those of the monks; but the membersof them were knights, who undertook to defend the Holy Land against the unbelievers. The

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Hospitallers were at first connected with a hospital which had been founded at Jerusalem for thebenefit of pilgrims by some Italian merchants, and took its name from St. John, an archbishop ofAlexandria, who was called the Almsgiver. They had a black dress, with a white cross on the breast,and, from having been at first employed in nursing the sick and relieving the poor, they becamewarriors who fought against the Mussulmans.

The Templars, who wore a white dress, with a red cross on the breast, were even more famousas soldiers than the Hospitallers. The knights of both these orders were bound by their rules toremain unmarried, to be regular and frequent in their religious exercises, to live plainly, to devotethemselves to the defence of the Christian faith and of the Holy Land; and for the sake of this workemperors, kings, and other wealthy persons bestowed lands and other gifts on them, so that theyhad large estates in all the countries of Europe. But as they grew rich, they forgot their vows ofpoverty and humility, and, although they kept up their character for bravery, they were generallydisliked for their pride and insolence.

We shall see by-and-by how it was that the order of the Temple came to ruin. But the Hospitallerslasted longer. When the Christians were driven out of the Holy Land, the knights of this orderremoved first to Cyprus, then to Rhodes: and, last of all, to Malta, where they continued even untilquite late times.

Other military orders were founded after the pattern of the Templars and the Hospitallers. Themost famous of them were the Teutonic (or German) knights, who fought the heathens on the shoresof the Baltic Sea, and got possession of a large country, which afterwards became the kingdom ofPrussia; and the order of St. James, which belonged to Spain, and there carried on a continual warwith the Mahometan Moors, whose settlement in that country has already been mentioned (p 170).

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CHAPTER XI: ST. BERNARD (AD 1091–1153)

PART I

St. Bernard was mentioned a little way back (p 209), when we were speaking of the Cistercianorder. But I must now tell you something more specially about him; for Bernard was not onlyfamous for his piety and for his eloquent speech, but by means of these he gained such power andinfluence that he was able to direct the course of things in the Church in such a way as no otherman ever did.

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Bernard, then, was born near Dijon, in Burgundy, in the year 1091. His father was a knight; hismother, Aletha, was a very religious woman, who watched carefully over his childhood, and prayedearnestly and often that he might be kept from the dangers of an evil world. As Bernard was passingfrom boyhood to youth, the good Aletha died. We are told that even to her last breath she joinedin the prayers and psalm-singing of the clergy who stood round her bed; and he afterwards fanciedthat she appeared to him in visions, warning him lest he should run off in pursuit of worldly learningso as to forget the importance of religion above all things.

After a time, Bernard was led to resolve on becoming a monk. But before doing so he contrivedto bring his father, his uncle, his five brothers, and his sister to the same mind, and when he askedleave to enter the Cistercian order, it was at the head of a party of more than thirty. It is said that,as they were setting out, the eldest brother saw the youngest at play, and told him that all the family

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property would now fall to him. “Is it heaven for you, and earth for me?” said the boy; “that is nota fair division;” and he followed Bernard with the rest.

We have seen that, although the Cistercian order had been founded some years, people wereafraid to join it because the rule was so strict (p 209). But the example of Bernard and his companionshad a great effect, and so many others were thus led to enter the order, that the mother-monasterywas far too small to hold them. Bernard was chosen to be head of one of the swarms which wentforth from Citeaux. The name of his new monastery was Clairvaux, which means “The BrightValley.” When he and his party first settled there, they had to bear terrible hardships. They sufferedfrom cold and from want of clothing. For a time they had to feed on porridge made of beech-leaves;and even when the worst distress was over, the plainness and poverty of their way of living astonishedall who saw it.

Bernard himself went so far in mortification that he made himself very ill, and would mostlikely have died, if a bishop, who was his friend, had not stepped in and taken care of him for atime. Bernard afterwards understood that he had been wrong in carrying things so far; but the peoplewho saw how he had worn himself down by fasting and frequent prayers were willing to letthemselves be led to anything that so saintly a man might recommend to them. It was even believedthat he had the gift of doing miracles; and this added much to the admiration which he raisedwherever he went.

Perhaps there never was a man who had greater influence than Bernard; for, although he didnot rise to be anything more than Abbot of Clairvaux, and refused all higher offices, he was able,by the power of his speech and by the fame of his saintliness, to turn kings and princes, popes andemperors, and even whole assemblies of men in any way that he pleased. When two popes hadbeen chosen in opposition to each other, Bernard was able to draw all the chief princes of

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Christendom into siding with that pope whose cause he had taken up; and when the other pope’ssuccessor had been brought so low that he could carry on his claims no longer, he went to Bernard,entreating him to plead for him with the successful pope, Innocent II, and was led by the abbot tothrow himself humbly as a penitent at Innocent’s feet.

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Some years after this, one of Bernard’s old pupils was chosen as pope, and took the name ofEugenius II. Eugenius was much under the direction of his old master, and Bernard, like a truefriend, wrote a book “On Consideration,” which he sent to Eugenius, showing him the chief faultswhich were in the Roman Church, and earnestly exhorting the pope to reform them.

PART II

Bernard was even the chief means of getting up a new crusade. When tidings came from theEast that the Christians in those parts had suffered heavy losses (AD 1145), he travelled over agreat part of France and along the river Rhine in order to enlist people for the holy war. He gatheredmeetings, at which he spoke in such a way as to move all hearts, and stirred up his hearers to suchan eagerness for crusading that they even tore the clothes off his back in order to divide them intolittle bits, which might serve as crusaders’ badges. And he drew in the emperor Conrad and kingLewis VII of France, besides a number of smaller princes, to join the expedition, although it wasso hard to persuade Conrad, that, when at last he was brought over, it was regarded as a miracle.

It had been found, at the time of the first crusade, that many people were disposed to fall onthe Jews of their own neighbourhood, as being enemies of Christ no less than the Mahometans ofthe Holy Land, and the same was repeated now. But Bernard strongly set his face against this kindof cruelty, and was not only the means of saving the lives of many Jews, but brought the chiefpreacher of the persecution to own with sorrow and shame that he had been utterly wrong.

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Although, however, a vast army was raised for the recovery of the Holy Land, and althoughboth the emperor and the French king went at the head of it, nothing came of the crusade exceptthat vast numbers of lives were sacrificed without any gain; and even Bernard’s great fame as asaint was not enough to protect him from blame on account of the part which he had taken in gettingup this unfortunate attempt.

These were some of the most remarkable things in which Bernard’s command over men’s mindswas shown; and he was able also to get the better of some persons who taught wrong or doubtfulopinions, even although they may have been men of sharper wits and of greater learning thanhimself.

In short, Bernard was the leading man of his age. No doubt he believed many things which weshould think superstitious or altogether wrong; and in his conduct we cannot help noticing sometokens of human frailty—especially a jealous love of the power and influence which he had gained.But, although he was not without his defects, we cannot fail to see in him an honest, hearty, andlaborious servant of God, and we shall not wish to grudge him the title of saint, which was grantedto him by a pope in 1173, and has ever since been commonly attached to his name. Bernard diedin 1153.

CHAPTER XII: ADRIAN IV; ALEXANDER III; BECKET; THE THIRD CRUSADE; (AD1153–1192)

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In the year of Bernard’s death, Adrian IV was chosen pope; and he is especially to be noted byus because he was the only Englishman who ever held the papacy. His name at first was Nicolas

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Breakspeare; and he was born near St. Albans, where, in his youth, he asked to be received intothe famous abbey as a monk. But the monks of St. Albans refused him; and he then went to seekhis fortune abroad, where he rose step by step, until at length the poor Hertfordshire lad, who wouldhave had no chance of any great place in his own country (for he was of Saxon family, and theNormans, after the Conquest, kept all the good places for themselves), was chosen to be the headof Christendom (AD. 1154).

Adrian had a high notion of the greatness and dignity of his office. When the emperor FrederickI (who is called Barbarossa, or Redbeard) went from Germany into Italy, and was visited in hiscamp by the pope, Adrian required that the emperor should hold his stirrup as he mounted his horse,and said that such had been the custom from the time of the great Constantine. Frederick had neverheard of such a thing before, and was not willing to submit; but on inquiry he found that a lateemperor, Lothair III, had held a pope’s stirrup, and then he agreed to do the like. But he took careto do it so awkwardly that every one who saw it began to laugh; and thus he made his submissionappear like a joke.

Frederick Redbeard carried on a long struggle with the popes. When, at Adrian’s death, tworival popes had been chosen (AD 1159), the emperor required them to let him judge between theirclaims; and, as one of them, Alexander III, refused to admit any earthly judge, Frederick took partwith the other, who called himself Victor IV. And when Victor was dead, Frederick set up threemore antipopes, one after another, to oppose Alexander.

But Alexander had the kings of France and England on his side, and at last he not only gothimself firmly settled, but brought Frederick to entreat for peace with him, and with some cities ofNorth Italy, which had formed themselves into what was called the Lombard League (AD 1177).But we must not believe a story that, when this treaty was concluded in the great church of St. Mark

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at Venice, the pope put his foot on the emperor’s neck, and the choir chanted the words of the 91stPsalm, “Thou shalt go upon the lion and the adder:” for this story was not made up until long after,and has no truth at all in it.

It was in Alexander III’s time that the great quarrel between Henry II of England and ArchbishopThomas Becket took place. Becket had been raised by the king’s favour to be his chancellor andafterwards to be archbishop of Canterbury and head of all the English clergy (AD 1162). But,although until then he had done everything just as the king wished, no sooner had he becomearchbishop than he turned round on Henry. He claimed that any clergyman who might be guilty ofcrimes should not be tried by the king’s judges, but only in the Church’s courts. He was willing toallow that, if a clergyman were found guilty of a great crime in these courts, he might bedegraded—that is to say, that he should be turned out of the ranks of the clergy—and that, whenhe had thus become like other men, he might be tried like any other man for any fresh offenceswhich he might commit. But for the first crime Becket would allow no other punishment thandegradation at the utmost. The king said that in such matters clergy and laity ought to be alike; and

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about this chiefly the two quarrelled, although there were also other matters which helped to stirup the strife.

In order to get out of the king’s way, the archbishop secretly left England (AD 1164), and forsix years he lived in France, where King Lewis treated him with much kindness, partly becausethis seemed a good way to annoy the king of England. But at length peace was made, and Beckethad returned to England, when some new acts of his provoked the king to utter some hasty wordsagainst him; whereupon four knights, who thought to do Henry a service, took occasion to try toseize the archbishop, and, as he refused to go with them, murdered him in his own cathedral (AD1170). But as you must have read the story of Becket in the history of England, I need not spendmuch time in repeating it.

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In 1185, when Urban III was pope, tidings reached Europe that Jerusalem had been taken bythe great Mussulman hero and conqueror, Saladin; and at once all Western Christendom was stirredup to make a grand attempt for the recovery of the Holy City. The lion-hearted Richard of England,Philip Augustus of France, and the emperor Frederick Redbeard, who had lately made his peacewith the pope, were all to take part, but very little came of it. Frederick, after having successfullymade his way by Constantinople into Asia Minor, was drowned in the river Cydnus, in Cilicia.Richard, Philip, and other leaders, after reaching the Holy Land quarrelled among themselves; andthe Crusaders, after a vast sacrifice of life, returned home without having effected the deliveranceof Jerusalem. You will remember how Richard, in taking his way through Austria, fell into thehands of the emperor Henry VI, the son of Frederick Redbeard, and was imprisoned in Germanyuntil his subjects were able to raise the large sum which was demanded for his ransom.

CHAPTER XIII: INNOCENT THE THIRD (AD 1198–1216)

PART I

The popes were continually increasing their power in many ways, although they were oftenunable to hold their ground in their own city, but were driven out by the Romans, so that they wereobliged to seek a refuge in France, or to fix their court for a time in some little Italian town. Theyclaimed the right of setting up and plucking down emperors and kings. Instead of asking the emperorto confirm their own election to the papacy, as in former times, they declared that no one could be

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emperor without their consent. They said that they were the chief lords over kingdoms; they requiredthe emperors to hold their stirrup as they mounted on horseback, and the rein of their bridle as theyrode. And while such was their treatment of earthly princes, they also steadily tried to get into theirown hands the powers which properly belonged to bishops, so that the bishops should seem to haveno rights of their own, but to hold their office and to do whatever they did only through the pope’sleave and as his servants. They contrived that whenever any difference arose in the Church of anycountry, instead of being settled on the spot, it should be carried by an appeal to Rome, that thepope might judge it. They declared themselves to be above any councils of bishops, and claimed

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the power of assembling general councils, although in earlier times this power had belonged to theemperors, as was seen in the case of the first great council of Nicaea. They interfered with theelection of bishops, and with the appointment of clergy to offices, in every country; and they sentinto every country their ambassadors, or “legates” (as they were called), whom they charged peopleto respect and obey as they would respect and obey the pope himself. These legates usually madethemselves hated by their pride and greediness; for they set themselves up far above the archbishopsand bishops of any country that they might be sent into, and they squeezed out from the clergy ofeach country which they visited the means of keeping up their pomp and splendour.

The popes who followed Gregory VII all endeavoured to act in his spirit, and to push the claimsof their see further and further. And of these popes, by far the strongest and most successful wasInnocent III, who was only thirty-seven years old when he was elected in 1198. I have told youhow Gregory said that the papacy was as much greater than any earthly power as the sun is thanthe moon. And now Innocent carried out this further by saying that, as the lesser light (the moon)borrows of the greater light (the sun), so the royal power is borrowed from the priestly power.

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Innocent pretended to a right of judging between the princes who claimed the empire and thekingdom of Germany, and of making an emperor by his own choice. He forced the king of France,Philip Augustus, to do justice to a virtuous Danish princess, whom he had married and had afterwardsput away. And he forced John of England to accept Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury,although Langton was appointed by the pope without any regard to the rights of the clergy or ofthe sovereign of England. Both in France and in England, Innocent made use of what was calledan interdict to make people submit to his will. By this sentence (which had first come into use aboutthree hundred years before), a whole country was punished at once, the bad and the good alike; allthe churches were closed, all the bells there silenced, all the outward signs of religion were takenaway. There was no blessing for marriage, there were no prayers at the burial of the dead; thebaptism of children and the office for the dying were the only services of the Church which wereallowed while the interdict lasted. And it was commonly found, that, although a king might nothimself care for any spiritual threats or sentences which the pope might utter, he was unable to holdout against the general feeling of his people, who could not bear to be without the rites of religion,and cried out that the innocent thousands were punished for the sake of one guilty person.

John was completely subdued to the papacy, and agreed to give up his crown to the pope’scommissioner, Pandulf; after which he received it again from Pandulf’s hands, and promised tohold the kingdoms of England and Ireland under the condition of paying a yearly tribute as anacknowledgment that the pope was his lord.

Archbishop Langton, although he had been forced on the English Church by the pope, yetafterwards took a different line from what might have been expected. For when John, by his tyranny,provoked his barons to rise against him, the archbishop was at the head of those who wrung fromthe king the Great Charter as a security for English liberty; and, although the pope was violently

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angry, and threatened to punish the archbishop and the barons severely, Langton stood firmly bythe cause which he had taken up.

PART II

While Innocent was thus carrying things with a high hand among the Christians of the West,he could not but feel distress about the state of affairs in the East. There, countries which had oncebeen Christian, and among them the Holy Land, where the Saviour had lived and died, had falleninto the hands of unbelievers, and all the efforts which had been made to recover them had hithertobeen vain. The pope’s mind was set on a new crusade, and in order to raise money for it he gavemuch out of his own purse, stinted himself as to his manner of living, obliged the cardinals andothers around him to do the like, and caused collections to be gathered throughout WesternChristendom. Eloquent preachers were sent about to stir people up to the great work, and the chiefbeginning was made at a place called Ecry, in the north of France. It so happened that the mostfamous of the preachers, whose name was Fulk, arrived there just as a number of nobles and knightswere met for a tournament (which was the name given to the fights of knights on horseback, whichwere regarded as sport, but very often ended in sad earnest). Fulk, by the power of his speech,persuaded most of these gallant knights at Ecry to take the cross; and, as the number of Crusadersgrew, some of them were sent to Venice, to provide means for their being carried by sea to Egypt,which was the country in which it was thought that the Mahometans might be attacked with thebest hope of success.

When these envoys reached Venice, which was then the chief trading city of Europe, they foundthe Venetians very willing to supply what they wanted. It was agreed that for a certain sum ofmoney the Venetians should prepare ships and provisions for the number of Crusaders which was

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expected; and they did so accordingly. But when the Crusaders came, it was found that their numbersfell short of what had been reckoned on; for many had chosen other ways of going to the East; and,as the Venetians would take nothing less than the sum which they had bargained for, the Crusaders,with their lessened numbers, found themselves unable to pay. In this difficulty, the Venetiansproposed that, instead of the money which could not be raised, the Crusaders should give themtheir help against the city of Zara, in Dalmatia, with which Venice had a quarrel. The Crusaderswere very unwilling to do this; because the pope, in giving his consent to their enterprise, hadforbidden them to turn their arms against any Christians. But they contrived to persuade themselvesthat the pope’s words were not to be understood too exactly; and at a meeting in the great churchof St. Mark, Henry Dandolo, the doge or duke of Venice, took the cross, and declared to the vastmultitude of citizens and Crusaders who crowded the church that, although he was ninety-fouryears of age, and almost or altogether blind, he himself would be the leader.

A fleet of nearly five hundred vessels sailed from Venice accordingly (Oct. 1202), and Zarawas taken after a siege of six days, although the inhabitants tried to soften the feelings of thebesiegers by displaying crosses and sacred pictures from the walls, as tokens of their brotherhoodin Christ. After this success, the Crusaders were bound by their engagement to go on to Egypt orthe Holy Land; but a young Greek prince, named Alexius, entreated them to restore his father, who

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had been dethroned by a usurper, to the empire of the East; and although the French were unwillingto undertake any work that might interfere with the recovery of the Holy Land, the Venetians, whocared little for anything but their own gain, persuaded them to turn aside to Constantinople.

When the Crusaders came in sight of the city, they were so astonished at the beauty of its loftywalls and towers, of its palaces and its many churches, that (as we are told) the hearts of the boldest

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among them beat with a feeling which could not be kept down, and many of them even burst intotears. They found the harbour protected by a great chain which was drawn across the mouth of it;but this chain was broken by the force of a ship which was driven against it with the sails swollenby a strong wind. The blind old doge, Henry Dandolo, stood in the prow of the foremost ship, andwas the first to land in the face of the Greeks who stood ready to defend the ground. Constantinoplewas soon won, and the emperor, who had been deposed and blinded by the usurper, was broughtfrom his dungeon, and was enthroned in the great church of St. Sophia, while his son Alexius wasanointed and crowned as a partner in the empire.

But quarrels soon arose between the Greeks and the Latins. Alexius was murdered by a newusurper; his father died of grief: and the Crusaders found themselves drawn on to conquer the cityafresh for themselves. This conquest was disgraced by much cruelty and unchecked plunder; andthe religion of the Greeks was outraged by the Latin victors as much as it could have been byheathen barbarians.

The Crusaders set up an emperor and a patriarch of their own, and the Greek clergy were forcedto give way to Latins. The pope, although he was much disappointed at finding that his plan forthe recovery of the Holy Land had come to nothing, was yet persuaded by the greatness of theconquest to give a kind of approval to it. But the Latin empire of the East was never strong; andafter about seventy years it was overthrown by the Greeks, who drove out the Latins and restoredtheir own form of Christian religion.

Innocent did not give up the notion of a crusade, and at a later time he sent about preachers tostir up the people of the West afresh; but nothing had come of this when the pope died. I must,however, mention a strange thing which arose out of this attempt at a crusade.

A shepherd boy, named Stephen, who lived near Vendome, in the province of Orleans, gave

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out that he had seen a vision of the Saviour, and had been charged by Him to preach the cross. Bythis tale Stephen gathered some children about him, and they set off for the crusade, displayingcrosses and banners, and chanting in every town or village through which they passed, “Lord, helpus to recover Thy true and holy cross!” When they reached Paris, there were no less than 15,000of them, and as they went along their numbers became greater and greater. If any parents tried tokeep back their children from joining them, it was of no use; even if they shut them up, it wasbelieved that the children were able to break through bars and locks in order to follow Stephen andhis companions. Ignorant people fancied that Stephen could work miracles, and treasured up threadsof his dress as precious relics. At length the company, whose numbers had reached 30,000, arrivedat Marseilles, where Stephen entered the city in a triumphal car, surrounded on all sides by guards.Some shipowners undertook to convey the child-crusaders to Egypt and Africa for nothing; but

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these were wretches who meant to sell them as slaves to the Mahometans; and this was the fate ofsuch of the children as reached the African coast, after many of them had been lost by shipwreckon the way.

Innocent, although he had nothing to do with this crusade, or with one of the same kind whichwas got up in Germany, declared that the zeal of the children put to shame the coldness of theirelders, whom he was still labouring, with little success, to enlist in the cause of the Holy Land.

PART III

A war of a different kind, but which was also styled a crusade, was carried on in the south ofFrance while Innocent was pope. In that country there were great numbers of persons who did notagree with the Roman Church, and who are known by the names of Waldenses and Albigenses.

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The opinions of these two parties differed greatly from each other. The Waldenses, whose namewas given to them from Peter Waldo of Lyons, who founded the party about the year 1170, werea quiet set of people, something like the Quakers of our own time. They dressed and lived plainly,they were mild in their manners, and used some rather affected ways of speech; they thought allwar and all oaths wrong, they did not acknowledge the claims of the clergy, and, although theyattended the services of the Church, it is said that they secretly mocked at them. They were fondof reading the Holy Scripture in their own language, while the Roman Church could only allow itto be read in Latin, which was understood by few except the clergy, and not by all of them. Andso eager were the Waldenses to bring people to their own way of thinking, that we are told of oneof them, a poor man, who, after his day’s work, used to swim across a river on wintry nights, thathe might reach a person whom he wished to convert.

The Albigenses, on whom the persecution chiefly fell, held something like the doctrines ofManes, whom I mentioned a long way back (p 110), so that they could not properly be consideredas Christians at all. But, although we cannot think well of their doctrines, the treatment of thesepeople was so cruel and so treacherous as to raise the strongest feelings of anger and horror in allwho read the accounts of it. Tens of thousands were slain, and their rich and beautiful country wasturned into a desert.

The chief leader of the crusade in the south of France was Simon de Montfort, father of thatEarl Simon who is famous in the history of England. Innocent, although he seems to have beenmuch deceived by those who reported matters to him, was grievously to blame for having giventoo much countenance to the cruelties and injustice which were practised against the unhappyAlbigenses.

Among the clergy who accompanied the Crusaders into southern France and tried to bring over

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the Albigenses and Waldenses to the Roman Church was a Spaniard named Dominic, who afterwardsbecame famous as the founder of an order of mendicant friars (that is to say, “begging brothers”).He also founded the Inquisition, which was a body intended to search out and to put down allopinions differing from the doctrines of the Catholic Church. But the cruelty, darkness, and treacheryof its proceedings were so shocking, that, although Dominic was certainly its founder, we need notsuppose that he would have approved of all its doings. [NOTE by transcriber: Dominic opposed

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all coercion against heretics. He proposed to convert them by reasoned argument and example oflife.]

The Waldenses and Albigenses had been used to reproach the clergy of the Church for theirhabits of pomp and luxury; and Dominic had done what he could to meet these charges by theplainness and hardness of the life which he and his companions led while labouring in the south ofFrance. And when he resolved to found a new order of monks, he carried the notion of poverty toan extreme. His followers were to be not only poor, but beggars. They were to live on alms, andfrom day to day, refusing any gifts of money so large as to give the notion of a settled provisionfor their needs.

PART IV

About the same time another great begging order was founded by Francis, who was born in1182 at Assisi, a town in the Italian duchy of Spoleto. The stories as to his early days are verystrange; indeed, it would seem that, when he was struck with a religious idea, he could not carry itout without such oddities of behaviour as in most people would look like signs of a mind notaltogether right. When Francis heard in church our Lord’s charge to His apostles, that they shouldgo forth without money in their purses, or a staff or scrip, or shoes, or changes of raiment (St. Matt.x. 9f), he went before the bishop of Assisi, and, stripping off all his other clothes, he set forth topreach repentance without having anything on him but a rough grey woollen frock, with a rope tied

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round his waist. He fancied that he was called by a vision to repair a certain church; and he setabout gathering the money for this purpose by singing and begging in the streets. He felt an especialcharity for lepers, who, on account of their loathsome disease, were shut out from the company ofmen, and were subject to miseries of many kinds; and, although many hospitals had already beenfounded in various countries for these unfortunate people, the kindness which Francis showed tothem had a great effect in lightening their lot, so far as human fellow-feeling could do so.

Francis wished his followers to study humility in all ways. They were to seek to be despised,and were told to be uneasy if they met with usage of any other kind. They were not to let themselvesbe called “brethren” but “little brethren”; they must try to be reckoned as less than any other persons.They were especially to be on their guard against the pride of learning; and, in order to preservethem from the danger of this, Francis would hardly allow them even a book of the Psalms. But, intruth, all these things might really be turned the opposite way, and in making such studied showsof humility it was quite possible that the Franciscans might fall under the temptations of pride.

Francis was very fond of animals, which he treated as reasonable creatures, speaking to themby the names of brothers and sisters. He used to call his own body Brother Ass, on account of theheavy burdens and the hard usage which it had to bear. He kept a sheep in church, and it is saidthat the creature, without any training, used to take part in the services by kneeling and bleating atproper times. He preached to flocks of birds on the duty of thanking their Maker for His goodnessto them; nay, he preached to fishes, to worms, and even to flowers.

Perhaps the oddest story of this kind is one about his dealing with a wolf which infested theneighbourhood of Gubbio. Finding that every one in the place was overcome by fear of this fierce

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beast, Francis went out boldly to the forest where the wolf lived, and, meeting him, began to talk

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to him about the wickedness of killing, not only brute animals, but men; and he promised that, ifthe wolf would give up such evil ways, the citizens of Gubbio should maintain him. He then heldout his right hand; whereupon the wolf put his paw into it as a sign of agreement, and allowed thesaint to lead him into the town. The people of Gubbio were only too glad to fulfil the promise whichFrancis had made for them; and they kept the wolf handsomely, giving him his meals by turns,until he died of old age, and in such general respect that he was lamented by all Gubbio.

There is a strange story that Francis, towards the end of his life, received in his body what arecalled the “stigmata” (that is to say, the marks of the wounds which were made in our Lord’s bodyat the crucifixion). And a great number of other superstitious tales became connected with his name;but with such things we need not here trouble ourselves.

When Dominic and Francis each applied to Pope Innocent for his approval of their designs tofound new orders, he was not forward to give it; but, on thinking the matter over, he granted themwhat they asked. Each of them soon gathered followers, who spread into all lands. The Franciscans,especially, made converts from heathenism by missions; and these orders, by their rough and plainhabits of life, made their way to the hearts of the poorest classes in a degree which had never beenknown before. And the influence which they thus gained was all used for the papacy, which foundthem the most active and useful of all its servants.

In the year 1215, Innocent held a great council at Rome, what is known as the fourth LateranCouncil, and is to be remembered for two of its canons; by one of which the doctrine of the RomanChurch as to the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper (what they call “transubstantiation”) was, for thefirst time, established; and by the other, it was made the duty of every one in the Roman Churchto confess to the priest of his parish at least once a year.

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CHAPTER XIV: FREDERICK II; ST. LEWIS OF FRANCE (AD 1220–1270)

PART I

The popes still tried to stir up the Christians of the West for the recovery of the Holy Land; andthere were crusading attempts from time to time, although without much effect. One of thesecrusades was undertaken in 1228 by Frederick II, an emperor who was all his life engaged instruggles against one pope after another. Frederick had taken the cross when he was very young;but when once any one had done so, the popes thought that they were entitled to call on him tofulfil his promise at any time they pleased, no matter what other business he might have on hishands. He was expected to set off on a crusade whenever the pope might bid him, although it mightbe ruinous to him to be called away from his own affairs at that time.

In this way, then, the popes had got a hold on Frederick, and when he answered their summonsby saying that his affairs at home would not just then allow him to go on a crusade, they treatedthis excuse as if he had refused altogether to go; they held him up to the world as a faithless man,

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and threatened to put his lands under an interdict (p 219), and to take away his crown. And whenat last Frederick found himself able to go to the Holy Land, the pope and his friends set themselvesagainst him with all their might, saying that he was not hearty in the cause, and even that he wasnot a Christian at all. So that, although Frederick made a treaty with the Mahometans by which agreat deal was gained for the Christians, it came to little or nothing, because the popes would notconfirm it.

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I need not say much more about Frederick II. There was very much in him that we cannotapprove of or excuse, but he met with hard usage from the popes, and after his death (AD 1250)they pursued his family with constant hatred, until the last heir, a spirited young prince namedConradin, who boldly attempted to recover the dominions of his family in Southern Italy, was madeprisoner and executed at Naples in 1268.

PART II

At the same time with Frederick lived a sovereign of a very different kind, Lewis IX of France,who is commonly called St. Lewis, and deserves the name of saint better than very many personsto whom it is given. There was a great deal in the religion of Lewis that we should call superstition;but he laboured very earnestly to live up to the notions of Christian religion which were commonlyheld in his time. He attended several services in church every day, and when he was told that hisnobles found fault with this, he answered, that no one would have blamed him if he had spent twiceas much time in hunting or in playing at dice. He was diligent in all other religious exercises, herefrained from all worldly sports and pastimes, and, as far as could be, he shunned the pomp ofroyalty. He was very careful never to use any words but such as were fit for a Christian. He paidgreat respect to clergy and monks, and said that if he could divide himself into two, he would giveone half to the Dominicans and the other half to the Franciscans. It is even said that at one time hewould himself have turned friar, if his queen had not persuaded him that he would do better byremaining a king and studying to govern well and to benefit the Church.

But with all this, Lewis took care that the popes should not get more power over the FrenchChurch than he thought due to them. And if any bishop had tried to play the same part in France

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which Becket played in English history, we may be sure that St. Lewis would have set himselfsteadily against him.

In 1244 Jerusalem was taken by the Mongols, a barbarous heathen people, who had none ofthat respect which the Mahometans had shown for the holy places of the Jewish and Christianreligions; thus these holy places were now profaned in a way which had not been known before,and stories of outrages done by the new conquerors, with cries for help from the Christians of theHoly Land, reached the West.

Soon after this King Lewis had a dangerous illness, in which his life was given over. He hadbeen for some time speechless, and was even supposed to be dead, when he asked that the crossmight be given to him, and as soon as he had thus engaged himself to the crusade he began torecover. His wife, his mother, and others tried to persuade him that he was not bound by his promise,because it had been made at a time when he was not master of himself; but Lewis would not listen

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to such excuses, and resolved to carry it out faithfully. The way which he took to enlist companionsseems very curious. On the morning of Christmas-day, when a very solemn service was to be heldin the chapel of his palace (a chapel which is still to be seen, and is among the most beautifulbuildings in Paris), he caused dresses to be given to the nobles as they were going in; for this wasthen a common practice with kings at the great festivals of the Church. But when the French lords,after having received their new robes in a place which was nearly dark, went on into the chapelwhich was bright with hundreds of lights, each of them found that his dress was marked with across, so that, according to the notions of the time, he was bound to go to the Holy Land.

PART III

The king did what he could to raise troops, and appointed his mother, Queen Blanche, to govern

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the kingdom during his absence; and, after having passed a winter in the island of Cyprus, hereached Damietta, in Egypt, on the 5th of June, 1249. For a time all went well with the Crusaders;but soon a change took place, and everything seemed to turn against them. They lost some of theirbest leaders; a plague broke out and carried off many of them; they suffered from famine, so thatthey were even obliged to eat their horses; and the enemy, by opening the sluices of the Nile, letloose on them the waters of the river, which carried away a multitude. Lewis himself was very ill,and at length he was obliged to surrender to the enemy, and to make peace on terms far worse thanthose which he had before refused.

But even although he was a prisoner, his saintly life made the Mahometans look on him withreverence; so that when the Sultan to whom he had become prisoner was murdered by his ownpeople, they thought of choosing the captive Christian king for their chief. Lewis refused to makeany treaty for his deliverance unless all his companions might have a share in it; and, although hemight have been earlier set free, he refused to leave his captivity until all the money was made upfor the ransom of himself and his followers. On being at length free to leave Egypt, he went intothe Holy Land, where he visited Nazareth with deep devotion. But, although he eagerly desired tosee Jerusalem, he denied himself this pleasure, from a fear that the crusading spirit might die outif the first of Christian kings should consent to visit the holy city without delivering it from theunbelievers.

After an absence of six years, Lewis was called back to France by tidings that his mother, whomhe had left as regent of the kingdom, was dead (AD 1254). But he did not think that his crusadingvow was yet fulfilled; and sixteen years later he set out on a second attempt, which was still moreunfortunate than the former. On landing at Tunis, he found that the Arabs, instead of joining him,as he had expected, attacked his force; but these were not his worst enemies. At setting out, the

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king had been too weak to wear armour or to sit on horseback; and after landing he found that thebad climate, with the want of water and of wholesome food, spread death among his troops. Oneof his own sons, Tristan, who had been born during the king’s captivity in Egypt, fell sick and died.Lewis himself, whose weak state made him an easy victim to disease, died on the 25th of August,1270, after having shown in his last hours the piety which had throughout marked his life. And,although his eldest son, Philip, recovered from an attack which had seemed likely to be fatal, the

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Crusaders were obliged to leave that deadly coast with their number fearfully lessened, and withouthaving gained any success. Philip, on his return to France, had to carry with him the remains of hisfather, of his brother, of one of his own children, and of his brother-in-law, the king of Navarre.Such was the sad end of an expedition undertaken by a saintly king for a noble purpose, but withoutheeding those rules of prudence which, if they could not have secured success, might at least havetaught him to provide against some of the dangers which were fatal to him.

CHAPTER XV: PETER OF MURRONE (AD 1294)

In that age the papacy was sometimes long vacant, because the cardinals, who were the highestin rank of the Roman clergy, and to whom the choice of a pope belonged, could not agree. In orderto get over this difficulty, rules were made for the purpose of forcing the cardinals to make a speedychoice. Thus, at a council which was held by Pope Gregory X at Lyons, in 1274 (chiefly for thesake of restoring peace and fellowship between the Greek and Latin Churches), a canon was made

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for the election of popes. This canon directed that the cardinals should meet for the choice of a newpope within ten days after the last pope’s death; that they should all be shut up in a large room,which, from their being locked in together, was called the “conclave” (“Con” meaning “together”and “clave” meaning “a key”); that they should have no means of speaking or writing to any personoutside, or of receiving any letters; that their food should be supplied through a window; that, ifthey did not make their choice within three days, their provisions should be stinted, and if theydelayed five days more, nothing should be given them but bread and water. By such means it wasthought that the cardinals might be brought to settle the election of a pope as quickly as possible.

We can well believe that the cardinals did not like to be put under such rules. They contrivedthat later popes should make some changes in them, and tried to go on as before, putting off theelection so long as seemed desirable for the sake of their own selfish objects. At one time, whenthere had been no pope for six months, the people of Viterbo confined the cardinals in the publichall of their city until an election should be made. At another time, the cardinals were shut up in aRoman monastery, where six of them died of the bad air. But one cardinal, who was more knowingthan the rest, drove off the effect of the air by keeping up fires in all his rooms, even through thehottest weather; and at length he was chosen pope.

On the death of this pope, Nicolas IV (AD 1292), his office was vacant for two years and aquarter; and when the cardinals then met, it seemed as if they could not fix on any successor. Butone day one of them told the rest that a holy man had had a vision, threatening heavy judgmentsunless a pope were chosen within a certain time; and he gave such an account of this holy man thatall the cardinals were struck at once with the idea of choosing him for pope. His name was Peter

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of Murrone. He lived as a hermit in a narrow cell on a mountain; and there he was found by certainbishops who were sent by the cardinals to tell of his election. He was seventy-two years of age;roughly dressed, with a long white beard, and thin from fasting and hard living. He could speak no

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other tongue than the common language of the country-folks around, and he was quite unused tobusiness of any kind, so that he allowed himself to be led by any one who would take the trouble.The fame of Peter’s holiness had been widely spread, and he was even supposed to do miracles;so that his election was welcomed by multitudes. Two hundred thousand persons flocked to seehis coronation, where the old man appeared in the procession riding on an ass, with his reins heldby the king of Naples on one side and by the king’s son on the other (AD 1294).

This king of Naples, Charles II, got the poor old pope completely into his power. He made himtake up his abode at Naples, where Celestine V (as he was now called) tried to carry on his old wayof life by getting a cell built in his palace, just like his old dwelling on the rock of Fumone; andinto this little place he would withdraw for days, leaving all the work of his office to be done bysome cardinals whom he trusted.

Other stories are told which show that Celestine was quite unfit for his office. The cardinalssoon came to think that they had made a great mistake in choosing him; and at length the poor oldman came to think so too. One of the cardinals, Benedict Gaetani, who had gained a great influenceover his mind, persuaded him that the best thing he could do was to resign; and, after having beenpope about five months, Celestine called the cardinals together and read to them a paper, in whichhe said that he was too old and too weak to bear the burden of his office; that he wished to returnto his former life of quiet and contemplation. He then put off his robes, took once more the roughdress which he had worn as a hermit, and withdrew to his old abode. But the jealousy of his successordid not allow him to remain there in peace. It was feared that the reverence in which the old hermit

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was held by the common people might lead to some disturbance; and to prevent this he was shutup in close confinement, where he lived only about ten months. The poorer people had all mannerof strange notions about his holiness and his supposed miracles; and about twenty years after hisdeath he was admitted into the Roman list of saints.

CHAPTER XVI: BONIFACE VIIIAD 1294–1303.

PART I

In Celestine’s place was chosen Benedict Gaetani, who, although even older than the worn-outand doting late pope, was still full of strength, both in body and in mind. Benedict (who took thename of Boniface VIII) is said to have been very learned, especially in matters at law; but his prideand ambition led him into attempts which ended in his own ruin, and did serious harm to the papacy.

In the year 1300 Boniface set on foot what was called the Jubilee. You will remember theJubilee which God in the Law of Moses commanded the Israelites to keep (Leviticus xxv.). Butthis new Jubilee had nothing to do with the law of Moses, and was more like some games whichwere celebrated every hundredth year by the ancient Romans. Nothing of the sort had ever beforebeen known among Christians; but when the end of the thirteenth century was at hand, it was found

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http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bible/asv.Lev..html#Lev..

that people’s minds were full of a fancy that the year 1300 ought to be a time of some greatcelebration. Nay, they were even made to believe that such a way of keeping every hundredth yearhad been usual from the beginning of the Church, although (as I have said} there was no ground

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whatever for this notion; and one or two lying old men were brought forward to pretend that whenchildren they had attended a former jubilee a hundred years before!

How the expectation of the jubilee was got up we do not know. Most likely Boniface hadsomething to do with it; at all events, he took it up and reaped the profits of it. He sent forth lettersoffering extraordinary spiritual benefits to all who should visit Rome and the tombs of St. Peterand St. Paul during the coming year; and immense numbers of people flocked together from allparts of Europe. It is said that all through the year there were two hundred thousand strangers inRome; for as some went away, others came to fill up their places. The crowd is described to us asif, in the streets and on the bridge leading to the great church of St. Peter’s, an army were marchingeach way.

It is said that Boniface appeared one day in the robes of a pope, and next day in those of anemperor, with a sword in his hand, and that he declared to some ambassadors that he was both popeand emperor. And after all this display of his pride and grandeur, he found himself much enrichedby the offerings which the pilgrims had made; for these were so large, that in one church alone (aswe are told,) two of the clergy were employed day and night in gathering them in with long rakes.If this be anything like the truth, the whole amount collected from the pilgrims at the jubilee musthave been very large indeed.

PART II

Boniface got into serious quarrels with princes and others; but the most serious of them all wasa quarrel with Philip IV of France, who is called “The Fair” on account of his good looks—not thatthere was any fairness in his character, for it would not be easy to name any one more utterly unfair.If Boniface wished to exalt himself above princes, Philip, who was a thoroughly hard, cold, selfishman, was no less desirous to get the mastery over the clergy; and it was natural that between two

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such persons unpleasant differences should arise. I need not mention the particulars, except thatBoniface wrote letters which seemed to forbid the clergy of any kingdom to pay taxes and such-likedues to their sovereign, and to claim for the pope a right to dispose of the kingdoms of the earth.Philip, provoked by this, held meetings of what were called the estates of France,—clergy, nobles,and commons,—and charged the pope with all sorts of vices and crimes, even with disbelief of theChristian faith. The estates declared against the pope’s claims; and when Boniface summoned acouncil of bishops from all countries to meet at Rome, Philip forbade the French bishops to obey,and all but a few stayed away. One of the pope’s letters to the king was cut in pieces and throwninto the fire, and the burning was proclaimed through the streets of Paris with the sound of thetrumpet.

The pope was greatly enraged by Philip’s conduct. He prepared a bull by which the king wasdeclared to be excommunicated and to be deprived of his crown; and it was intended to publishthis bull on the 8th of September, 1303, at Anagni, Boniface’s native place. Here he was spending

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the summer months. But on the day before, something took place which hindered the carrying outof the pope’s design.

Early in his reign Boniface had been engaged in a quarrel with the Colonnas, one of the mostpowerful among the great princely families of Rome. He had persecuted them bitterly, had deprivedthem of their estates and honours, and, after having got possession of a fortress belonging to themby treachery, he had caused it to be utterly destroyed, and the ground on which it stood to beploughed up and sown with salt. The Colonnas were scattered in all quarters, and it is said that oneof them, named James, who was a very rough and violent man, had been for a time in captivityamong pirates, and was delivered from this condition by the money of the French king, who wishedto make use of him.

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On the 7th of September, 1303, this James Colonna, with other persons in King Philip’s service,appeared at Anagni with an armed force, and made their way to the pope’s palace. Boniface sentto ask what they wanted; and in answer they required that he should give up his office, shouldrestore the Colonnas to all that they had lost, and should put himself into the hands of James Colonna.On his refusal, they set fire to the doors of a church which adjoined the palace, and rushed in throughthe flames. Boniface heard the forcing of the doors which were between them and the room inwhich he was, and as one door after another gave way with a crash, he declared himself resolvedto die as became a pope. He put on the mantle of his office, with the imperial crown which borethe name of Constantine; he grasped his pastoral staff in one hand and the keys of St. Peter in theother, and, taking his seat on his throne, he awaited the approach of his enemies. On entering theroom, even these rude and furious men were awed for a moment by his venerable and dauntlesslook; but James Colonna, quickly overcoming this feeling, required him to resign the papacy.“Behold my neck and my head,” answered Boniface: “if I have been betrayed like Christ, I amready to die like Christ’s vicar.” Colonna savagely dragged him from the throne, and is said to havestruck him on the face with his mailed hand, so as to draw blood. Others of the party poured forthtorrents of reproaches. The pope was hurried into the streets, was paraded about the town on avicious horse, with his face toward the tail, and was then thrown into prison, while the ruffiansplundered the palaces and churches of Anagni.

The citizens, in their surprise and alarm, had allowed these things to pass without any check.But two days later they took heart, and with the help of some neighbours got the better of the pope’senemies and delivered him from prison. He was brought out on a balcony in the market-place,where his appearance raised the pity of all, for he had tasted nothing since his arrest. The old manbegged that some good woman would save him from dying by hunger. On this the crowd burst out

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into cries of, “Life to you, holy father!” and immediately people hurried away in all directions, andcame back with abundance of food and drink for his relief. The pope spoke kindly to all who werenear him, and pronounced forgiveness of all but those who had plundered the Church.

Boniface was soon afterwards removed to Rome. But the sufferings which he had gone throughhad been too much for a man almost ninety years old to bear. His mind seems to have given way;and there are terrible stories (although we cannot be sure that they are true) about the manner of

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his death, which took place within a few days after he reached the city (Nov. 22, 1303). It was saidof him, “He entered like a fox, he reigned like a lion, he went out like a dog;” and although thissaying was, no doubt, made up after his end, it was commonly believed to have been a prophecyuttered by old Pope Celestine, to whom he had behaved so treacherously and so harshly.

CHAPTER XVII: THE POPES AT AVIGNON; THE RUIN OF THE TEMPLARS (AD1303–1312)

PART I

The next pope, Benedict XI, wished to do away with the effects of Boniface’s pride and ambition,and especially to soothe the king of France, whom Boniface had so greatly provoked. But Benedictdied within about seven months (June 27, 1304) after his election, and it was not easy to fill up hisplace. At last, about a year after Benedict’s death (June 5, 1305), Bertrand du Got, archbishop ofBordeaux, was chosen. It was said that he had held a secret meeting with King Philip in the depths

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of a forest, and that, in order to get the king’s help towards his election, he bound himself to dofive things which Philip named and also a sixth thing, which was not to be spoken of until the timeshould come for performing it. But this story seems to have been made up because the pope wasseen to follow Philip’s wishes in a way that people could not understand, except by supposing thathe had bound himself by some special bargain.

For some years Clement V (as he was called) lived at the cost of French cathedrals andmonasteries, which he visited one after another; and then (AD 1310) he settled at Avignon, a cityon the Rhone, where he and his successors lived for seventy years—about the same length of timethat the Jews spent as captives in Babylon. Hence this stay of the popes at Avignon has sometimesbeen spoken of as the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Church. Although there were some good popesin the course of those seventy years, the court of Avignon was usually full of luxury and vice, andthe government of the Church grew more and more corrupt.

Philip the Fair was not content with having brought Boniface to his end, but wished to persecuteand disgrace his memory. He caused all sorts of shocking charges to be brought against the deadpope, and demanded that he should be condemned as a heretic, and that his body should be takenup and burnt. By these demands Pope Clement was thrown into great distress. He was afraid tooffend Philip, and at the same time he wished to save the memory of Boniface, for if a pope wereto be condemned in the way in which Philip wished, it must tell against the papacy altogether. Andbesides this, if Boniface had not been a lawful pope (as Philip and his party said), the cardinalswhom he had appointed were not lawful cardinals, and Clement, who had been partly chosen bytheir votes, could have no right to the popedom. He was therefore willing to do much in order toclear Boniface’s memory; and Philip craftily managed to get the pope’s help in another matter on

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condition that the charges against Boniface should not be pressed. This is supposed to have been

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the secret article which we have heard of in the story of the meeting in the forest.

PART II

I have already mentioned the order of Knights Templars, which was formed in the Holy Landsoon after the first crusade (p 210). These soldiers of the cross showed at all times a courage worthyof their profession; but they also showed faults which were beyond all question. As they grew rich,they grew proud, and, from having at first been very strict in their way of living, it was believedthat they had fallen into habits of luxury. They despised all men outside of their own order; theyshowed no respect for the kings of Jerusalem, or for the patriarchs, and were, indeed, continuallyquarrelling with them.

At this time the number of the Templar Knights was about fifteen thousand—the finest soldiersin the world; and the whole number of persons attached to the order was not less than a hundredthousand. About half of these were Frenchmen, and all the masters or heads of the order had beenFrench.

But, although the charges which I have mentioned were enough to make the Templars generallydisliked, they were not the worst charges against them. It was said that during the latter part of theirtime in the Holy Land they had grown friendly with the unbelievers, whom they were bound tooppose in arms to the uttermost; that from such company they had taken up opinions contrary tothe Christian faith, and vices which were altogether against their duty as soldiers of the Cross, oras Christians at all; that they practised magic and unholy rites; that when any one was admittedinto the order, he was required to deny Christ, to spit on the cross and trample on it, and to worshipan idol called Baphomet (a name which seems to have meant the false prophet Mahomet).

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Philip the Fair was always in need of money for carrying on his schemes, and at one time, whensome tricks which he had played on the coin of his kingdom had provoked the people of Paris torise against him, he took refuge in the house of the Templars there. This house covered a vast spaceof ground with its buildings, and was finer and stronger than the royal palace; and it was perhapsthe sight which Philip then got of the wealth and power of the Templars that led him to attack them,in the hope of getting their property into his own hands.

Philip set about this design very craftily. He invited the masters of the Templars and of theHospitallers (whom you will remember as the other great military order) (p 209) into France, as ifhe wished to consult them about a crusade. The master of the Hospital was unable to obey thesummons; but the master of the Temple, James de Molay, who had been in the order more thanforty years, appeared with a train so splendid that Philip’s greed was still more whetted by the sightof it. The master was received with great honour; but, in the meantime, orders were secretly sentto the king’s officers all over the kingdom, who were forbidden to open them before a certain day,and when these orders were opened, they were found to require that the Templars should everywherebe seized and imprisoned without delay. Accordingly, at the dawn of the following day, the Templarsall over France, who had had no warning and felt no suspicion, were suddenly made prisoners,without being able to resist.

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Next day, which was Sunday, Philip set friars and others to preach against the Templars in allthe churches of Paris; and inquiries were afterwards carried on by bishops and other judges as tothe truth of the charges against them. While the trials were going on, the Templars were very hardlyused. All that they had was taken away from them, so that they were in grievous distress. Theywere kept in dungeons, were loaded with chains, ill fed and ill cared for in all ways. They were

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examined by tortures, which were so severe that many of them were brought, by the very pain, toconfess everything that they were charged with, although they afterwards said that they had beendriven by their sufferings to own things of which they were not at all guilty. Many were burnt incompanies from time to time; at one time no fewer than fifty-four were burnt together at Paris; andsuch cruelties struck terror into the rest.

Some of the Templars on their trials told strange stories. They said, for instance, that some menon being admitted to the order were suddenly changed, as if they had been made to share in somefearful secrets; that, from having been jovial and full of life, delighting in horses and hounds andhawks, they seemed to be weighed down by a deep sadness, under which they pined away. It is noteasy to say what is to be made of all these stories. As to the ceremonies used at admitting members,it seems likely enough that the Templars may have used some things which looked strange andshocking, but which really meant no harm, and were properly to be understood as figures or actedparables.

The pope seems, too, not to have known what to make of the case; but, as we have seen, he hadbound himself to serve King Philip in the matter of the Templars, in order that Pope Boniface’smemory might be spared. At a great council held under Clement, at Vienne, in 1312, it was decreedthat the order of the Temple should be dissolved; yet it was not said that the Templars had beenfound guilty of the charges against them, and the question of their guilt or innocence remains topuzzle us as it puzzled the Council of Vienne.

The master of the Temple, James de Molay, was kept in prison six years and a half, and wasoften examined. At last, he and three other great officers of the order were condemned toimprisonment for life, and were brought forward on a platform set up in front of the cathedral ofParis that their sentence might be published. A cardinal began to read out their confessions; but

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Molay broke in, denying and disavowing what he had formerly said, and; declaring himself worthyto die for having made false confessions through fear of death and in order to please the king. Oneof his companions took part with him in this; but the other two, broken down in body and in spiritby their long confinement, had not the courage to join them. Philip, on hearing what had takenplace, gave orders that James de Molay and the other who took part with him should be burntwithout delay; and on the same day they were led forth to death on a little island in the river Seine(which runs through Paris), while Philip from the bank watched their sufferings. Molay beggedthat his hands might be unbound; and, as the flames rose around him and his companion, they firmlydeclared the soundness of their faith, and the innocence of the order.

Within nine months after this, Philip died at the age of forty-six (AD 1314); and within a fewyears his three sons, of whom each had in turn been king of France, were all dead. Philip’s family

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was at an end, and the crown passed to one of his nephews. And while the clergy supposed thosemisfortunes to be the punishment of Philip’s doings against Pope Boniface, the people in generalregarded them as brought on by his persecution of the Templars. It is not for us to pass suchjudgments at all; but I mention these things in order to show the feelings with which Philip’s actionsand his calamities were viewed by the people of his own time.

In other countries, such as England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, and Spain, the Templars werearrested and brought to trial; and, rightly or wrongly, the order was dissolved. Its members wereleft to find some other kind of life; and its property was made over to the order of the Hospital, orto some other military order. In France, however, Philip contrived to lay his hands on so much thatthe Hospitallers for a time were rather made poorer than richer by this addition to their possessions.

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CHAPTER XVIII: THE POPES AT AVIGNON (continued) (AD 1314–1352)

Pope Clement V died a few months before Philip (April, 1314), and was succeeded by JohnXXII, a Frenchman, who was seventy years old at the time of his election, and lived to ninety. Themost remarkable thing in John’s papacy was his quarrel with Lewis of Bavaria, who had beenchosen emperor by some of the electors, while others voted for Frederick of Austria. For the choiceof an emperor (or rather of a king of the Romans) had by this time fallen into the hands of sevenGerman princes, of whom four were laymen and three were the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne,and Treves. And hence it is that at a later time we find that some German princes had “elector” fortheir title, as the Electors of Hanover and the Electors of Brandenburg; and even that the threeclerical electors were more commonly called electors than archbishops. It is not exactly knownwhen this way of choosing the kings of the Romans came in; but, as I have said, it was quite settledbefore the time of which we are now speaking.

There was, then, a disputed election between Lewis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria, andPope John was well pleased to stand by and watch their quarrel, so long as they only weakenedeach other without coming to any settlement of the question. But when Lewis had got the better ofFrederick, then John stepped in and told him that it was for the pope to judge in such a case whichof the two ought to be king of the Romans. And he forbade all people to obey Lewis as king, anddeclared that whatever he might have done as king should be of no effect. But people had becomeused to such sentences, so that they would not mind them unless they thought them just; and thus

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Pope John’s thunder was very little heeded. Although he excommunicated Lewis, the sentence hadno effect, and by this and other things (especially a quarrel which John had with a part of theFranciscan order), people were set on inquiring into the rights of the papacy in a way which wasquite new, so that their thoughts took a direction which was very dangerous to the power of thepopes.

Lewis answered the pope by setting up an antipope against him. But this was a thing which hadnever succeeded; and so it was that John’s rival was obliged to submit, and, in token of the humblest

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repentance, appeared with a rope round his neck at Avignon, where the rest of his life was spentin confinement.

The pope on his part set up a rival emperor, Charles of Moravia, son of that blind King Johnof Bohemia whose death at the battle of Cressy is known to us from the history of England. ButCharles found little support in Germany so long as Lewis was alive.

The next pope, Benedict XII (AD 1334–1342), although of himself he would have wished tomake peace with Lewis, found himself prevented from doing so by the king of France, and hissuccessor, Clement VI. (AD 1342–1352), who had once been tutor to Charles of Moravia, stronglysupported his old pupil. Lewis died excommunicate in 1347, and was the last emperor who had tobear that sentence. But, although he suffered much on account of it, he had yet kept his title ofemperor as long as he lived; and he left a strong party of supporters, who were able to make goodterms for themselves before Charles was allowed to take peaceable possession of the empire.

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CHAPTER XIX: RELIGIOUS SECTS AND PARTIES

While the popes were thus trying to lord it over all men, from the emperor downwards, therewere many who hated their doctrines and would not allow their authority. The Albigenses andWaldenses, although persecuted as we have seen, still remained in great numbers, and held theopinions which had drawn so much suffering on them. The Albigenses, indeed, were but a part ofa greater body, the Cathari, who were spread through many countries, and had an understandingand fellowship with each other which were kept up by secret means. And there were other sects,of which it need only be said here that in general their opinions were very wild and strange, andunlike, not only to the papal doctrines, but to the Christianity of the Bible and of the early Church.Whenever any of the clergy, from the pope downwards, gave an occasion by pride or ambition, orworldly living, or neglect of duty, or any other fault, these sects took care to speak of the wholeChurch as having fallen from the faith, and to gain converts for themselves by pointing out theblemishes which were allowed in it.

On the other hand, as I have mentioned (p 225), the Inquisition was set on foot for the discoveryand punishment of such doctrines as the Roman Church condemned; and it was worked with asecrecy, an injustice, and a cruelty which made men quake with fear wherever it was established.It is a comfort to know that in the British islands this hateful kind of tyranny never found a footing.

There were large numbers of persons called Mystics, who thought to draw near to God, and togive up their own will to His will, in a way beyond what ordinary believers could understand.

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Among these was a society which called itself the Friends of God; and these friends belonged tothe Church at the same time that they had this closer and more secret tie of union among themselves.There is a very curious story how John Tauler, a Dominican friar of Strasburg, was converted bythe chief of this party, Nicolas of Basel. Tauler had gained great fame as a preacher, and had reachedthe age of fifty-two, when Nicolas, who had been one of his hearers, visited him, and convinced

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him that he was nothing better than a Pharisee. In obedience to the direction of Nicolas, Tauler shuthimself up for two years, without preaching or doing any other work as a clergyman, and evenwithout studying. When, at the end of that time, he came forth again to the world, and first tried topreach, he burst into tears and quite broke down; but on a second trial, it was found that he preachedin a new style, and with vastly more of warmth and of effect than he had ever done before. Taulerwas born in 1294, and died in 1361.

In these times many were very fond of trying to make out things to come from the propheciesof the Old Testament and of the Revelation, and some people of both sexes supposed themselvesto have the gift of prophecy. And in seasons of great public distress, multitudes would break outinto some wild sort of religious display, which for a time carried everything before it, and seemedto do a great deal of good, although the wiser people looked on it with distrust; but after a while itpassed away, leaving those who had taken part in it rather worse than better than before. Amongthe outbreaks of this kind was that of the “Flagellants”, which showed itself several times in variousplaces. The first appearance of it was in 1260, when it began at Perugia, in the middle of Italy, andspread both southwards to Rome and northwards to France, Hungary, and Poland. In every city,large companies of men, women, and children moved about the streets, with their faces covered,but their bodies naked down to the waist. They tossed their limbs wildly, they dashed themselves

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down on the ground in mud or snow, and cruelly “flagellated” (or flogged) themselves with whips,while they shouted out shrieks and prayers for mercy and pardon.

Again, after a terrible plague called the Black Death, which raged from Sicily to Greenlandabout 1349 (p 191), parties of flagellants went about half naked, singing and scourging themselves.Whenever the Saviour’s sufferings were mentioned in their hymns, they threw themselves on theground like logs of wood, with their arms stretched out in the shape of a cross, and remainedprostrate in prayer until a signal was given them to rise.

These movements seemed to do good at first by reconciling enemies and by forcing the thoughtsof death and judgment on ungodly or careless people. But after a time they commonly took the lineof throwing contempt on the clergy and on the sacraments and other usual means of grace. Andwhen the stir caused by them was over, the good which they had appeared to do proved not to belasting.

CHAPTER XX: JOHN WYCLIF (AD c1324–1384)

At this time arose a reformer of a different kind from any of those who had gone before him.He was a Yorkshireman, named John Wyclif, who had been educated at Oxford, and had becomefamous there as a teacher of philosophy before he began to show any difference of opinions fromthose which were common in the Church. Ever since the time when King John disgusted his peopleby his shameful submission to the pope (p 219), there had been a strong feeling against the papacyin England; and it had been provoked more and more, partly because the popes were always drawing

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money from this country, and thrusting foreigners into the richer places of the English Church.These foreigners squeezed all that they could out of their parishes or offices in England; but theynever went near them, and would have been unable to do much good if they had gone, becausethey did not understand the English language. And another complaint was, that, while the popeslived at Avignon, they were so much in the hands of their neighbours, the kings of France, that theEnglish had no chance of fair play if any question arose between the two nations, and the popecould make himself the judge. And thus the English had been made ready enough to give a hearingto any one who might teach them that the popes had no right to the power which they claimed.

There had always been a great unwillingness to pay the tribute which King John had promisedto the Roman see. If the king was weak, he paid it; if he was strong, he was more likely to refuseit. And thus it was that the money had been refused by Edward I, paid by Edward II, and againrefused by Edward III, whom Pope Urban V, in 1366, asked to pay up for thirty-three years at once.In this case, Wyclif took the side of his king, and maintained that the tribute was not rightly due tothe pope. And from this he went on to attack the corruptions of the Church in general. He set himselfagainst the begging friars, who had come to great power, worming themselves in everywhere, sothat they had brought most of the poorer people to look only to them as spiritual guides, and tothink nothing of the parish clergy. In order to oppose the friars, Wyclif sent about the country a setof men whom he called “poor priests.” These were very like the friars in their rough dress andsimple manner of living, but taught more according to a plain understanding of the Scriptures thanto the doctrines of the Roman Church. It is said that once, when Wyclif was very ill, and wassupposed to be dying, some friars went to him in the hope of getting him to confess that he repented

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of what he had spoken and written and done against them. But Wyclif, gathering all his strength,rose up in his bed, and said, in words which were partly taken from the 118th Psalm, “I shall notdie but live, and declare the evil deeds of the friars.” He was several times brought before assembliesof bishops and clergy, to answer for his opinions; but he found powerful friends to protect him,and always came off without hurt.

It was in Wyclif’s time that the rebellion of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw broke out, as we read inthe history of England (AD 1381); but, although Wyclif’s enemies would have been very glad tolay some of the blame of it at his door, it is quite certain that he had nothing to do with it in anyway.

In those days almost all books were written in Latin, so that none but learned people could readthem. But Wyclif, although he wrote some books in Latin for the learned, took to writing otherbooks in good, plain English, such as every one could understand; and thus his opinions becameknown to people of all classes. But the greatest thing that he did was the translation of the Bibleinto English. The Roman Church would not allow the Scriptures to be turned into the language ofthe country, but wished to keep the knowledge of it for those who could read Latin, and expectedthe common people to content themselves with what the Church taught. But Wyclif, with otherswho worked under him, translated the whole Bible into English, so that all might understand it. Wemust remember, however, that there was no such thing as printing in his days, so that every single

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book had to be written with the pen, and of course books were still very dear, and could not be atall common.

It is said that Pope Urban V summoned Wyclif to appear before him at Rome; but Wyclif, whowas old, and had been very ill, excused himself from going; and soon after this he died, on the lastday of the year 1384.

Wyclif had many notions which we cannot agree with; and we have reason to thank God’s goodprovidence that the reform of the Church was not carried out by him, but at a later time, and in a

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more moderate and sounder way than he would have chosen. But we must honour him as one whosaw the crying evils of the Roman Church and honestly tried to cure them.

Wyclif’s followers were called Lollards, I believe from their habit of lulling or chanting tothemselves. After his death they went much farther than he had done, and some of them grew verywild in their opinions, so that they would not only have made strange changes in religious doctrine,but would have upset the government of kingdoms. Against them a law was made by which personswho differed from the doctrines of the Roman Church were sentenced to be burnt under the nameof heretics, and many Lollards suffered in consequence. The most famous of these was Sir JohnOldcastle, Lord Cobham, a brave but rather hotheaded and violent soldier, who was suspected ofmeaning to get up a rebellion. For this and his religious opinions together he was burnt in Smithfield,which was then just outside London (AD 1417); the same place where, at a later time, many sufferedfor their religion in the reigns of Henry VIII and Mary.

CHAPTER XXI: THE POPES RETURN TO ROMEAD 1367–1377

While the popes lived at Avignon, Rome suffered very much from their absence. There wasnothing like a regular government. The great Roman families (such as the Colonnas, whom I havementioned in speaking of Boniface VIII) carried on their quarrels with each other, and no oneattempted or was strong enough to check them. Murders, robberies, and violences of all sorts werecommon. The vast and noble buildings which had remained from ancient times were neglected;

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the churches and palaces fell to decay, even the manners of the Romans became rough and rude,from the want of anybody to teach them better and to show them an example.

And not only Rome but all Italy missed the pope’s presence. The princes carried on their warsby means of hired bands of soldiers, who were mostly strangers from beyond the Alps. These bandshired out their services to any one who would pay enough, and, although they were faithful to eachemployer for the time that was agreed on, they were ready at the end of that time to engagethemselves for money to one who might be their late master’s enemy. The most famous captain ofsuch hireling soldiers was Sir John Hawkwood, an Englishman, who is commonly said to havebeen a tailor in London before he took to arms, but this I believe to be a mistake. He fought for

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many years in Italy, and a picture of him on horseback, which serves for his monument, is still tobe seen in Florence Cathedral.

The Romans again and again entreated the popes to come back to their city. The chief poet andwriter of the age, Petrarch, urged them both in verse and in prose to return. But the cardinals, whoat this time were mostly Frenchmen, had grown so used to the pleasures of Avignon that they didall they could to keep the popes there. At length, in 1367, Urban V made his way back to Rome,where the emperors both of the East and of the West met to do him honour, but after a short stayin Italy he returned to Avignon, where he soon after died (AD 1370). His successor, Gregory XI,however, was more resolute, and removed the papacy to Rome in 1377; and this was the end ofwhat was styled the seventy years’ captivity in Babylon (p 240).

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CHAPTER XXII: THE GREAT SCHISM (AD 1378–1410)

Gregory XI died in 1378, and the choice of a successor to him was no easy matter. The Romanswere bent on having a countryman of their own, that they might be sure of his continuing to liveamong them. They guarded the gates, they brought into the city a number of rough and half-savagepeople from the hills around, to terrify the cardinals; and, when these were shut up for the election,the mob surrounded the palace in which they were with cries of “We will have a Roman, or at leastan Italian!” Day and night their shouts were kept up, with a frightful din of other kinds. They brokeinto the pope’s cellars, got drunk on the wine, and were thus made more furious than before. Atlength, the cardinals, driven to extreme terror, made choice of Bartholomew Prignano, archbishopof Bari, in south Italy, who was not one of their own number. It is certain that he was not chosenfreely, but under fear of the noise and threats of the Roman mob; but all the forms which followafter the election of a pope, such as that of coronation, were regularly gone through, and the cardinalsseem to have given their approval of the choice in such a way that they could not well draw backafterwards.

But Urban VI (as the new pope called himself), although he had until then been much esteemedas a pious and modest man, seems to have lost his head on being raised to his new office. He heldhimself vastly above the cardinals, wishing to reform them violently, and to lord it over them in astyle which they had not been used to. By such conduct he provoked them to oppose him. Theyobjected that he had not been freely chosen, and also that he was not in his right mind; and a party

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of them met at Fondi and chose another pope, Clement VII, a Frenchman, who settled at Avignon.Thus began what is called the Great Schism of the West. There were now two rival popes—one

of them having his court at Rome, and the other at Avignon; and the kingdoms of Europe weredivided between the two. The cost of keeping up two courts weighed heavily on the Christians ofthe West; and all sorts of tricks were used to squeeze out fees and money on all possible occasions.As an instance of this, I may mention that Boniface IX, one of the Roman line of popes, celebrated

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two jubilees with only ten years between them, although in Boniface VIII’s time it had been supposedthat the jubilee was to come only once in a hundred years.

The princes of Europe were scandalized by this division and often tried to heal it, but in vain;for the popes, although they professed to desire such a thing, were generally far from hearty insaying so. At length it seemed as If the breach were to be healed by a council held at Pisa in 1409,which set aside both the rivals, and elected a new pope, Alexander V. But it was found that the twoold claimants would not give way; and thus the council of Pisa, in trying to cure the evil of havingtwo popes, had saddled the Church with a third.

Alexander did not hold the papacy quite eleven months (June 1409 to May 1410). He had fallenwholly under the power of a cardinal named Balthasar Cossa; and this cardinal was chosen tosucceed him, under the name of John XXIII. John was one of the worst men who ever held thepapacy. It is said that he had been a pirate, and that from this he had got the habit of waking allnight and sleeping by day. He had been governor of Bologna, where he had indulged himself tothe full in cruelty, greed, and other vices. He was even suspected of having poisoned Alexander;and, although he must no doubt have been a very clever man, it is not easy to understand how theother cardinals can have chosen one who was so notoriously wicked to the papacy.

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CHAPTER XXIII: JOHN HUSS (AD 1369–1414)

It would seem that after a time Wyclif’s opinions almost died out in England. But meanwhilethey, or opinions very like them, were eagerly taken up in Bohemia. If we look at the map of Europe,we might think that no country was less likely than Bohemia to have anything to do with England;for it lies in the midst of other countries, far away from all seas, and with no harbours to whichEnglish ships could make their way. And besides this, the people are of a different race from anythat have ever settled in this country, or have helped to make the English nation, and their languagehas no likeness to ours. But it so happened that Richard II of England married the Princess Anne,granddaughter of the blind king who fell at Cressy, and daughter of the emperor Charles IV, whousually lived in Bohemia. And when Queen Anne of England died, and the Bohemian ladies andservants of her court went back to their own country, they took with them some of Wyclif’s writings,which were readily welcomed there; for some of the Bohemian clergy had already begun a reformin the Church, and Wyclif’s name was well known on account of his writings of another kind.

Among those who thus became acquainted with Wyclif’s opinions was a young man namedJohn Huss. He had been an admirer of Wyclif’s philosophical works; but when he first met withhis reforming books, he was so little taken with them that he wished they were thrown into theMoldau, the river which runs through Prague, the chief city of Bohemia. But Huss soon came tothink differently, and heartily took up almost all Wyclif’s doctrines.

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Huss made many enemies among the clergy by attacking their faults from the pulpit of a chapel

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called Bethlehem, where he was preacher. He was, however, still so far in favour with the archbishopof Prague, that he was employed by him, together with some others, to inquire into a pretendedmiracle, which drew crowds of pilgrims to seek for cures at a place called Wilsnack, in the northof Germany. But he afterwards fell out of favour with the archbishop who had appointed him tothis work, and he was still less liked by later archbishops.

From time to time some doctrines which were said to be Wyclif’s were condemned at Prague.Huss usually declared that Wyclif had been wrongly understood, and that his real meaning wastrue and innocent. But at length a decree was passed that all Wyclif’s books should be burnt (AD1410), and thereupon a grand bonfire was made in the courtyard of the archbishop’s palace, whileall the church bells of the city were tolled as at a funeral. But as some copies of the books escapedthe flames, it was easy to make new copies from these.

Huss was excommunicated, but he still went on teaching. In 1412, Pope John XXIII proclaimeda crusade against Ladislaus, King of Naples, with whom he had quarrelled, and ordered that itshould be preached, and that money should be collected for it all through Latin Christendom. Hussand his chief friend, whose name was Jerome, set themselves against this with all their might. Theydeclared it to be unchristian that a crusade should be proclaimed against a Christian prince, andthat the favours of the Church should be held out as a reward for paying money or for shedding ofblood. One day, as a preacher was inviting people to buy his indulgences (as they were called) forthe forgiveness of sins, he was interrupted by three young men, who told him that what he said wasuntrue, and that Master Huss had taught them better. The three were seized, and were condemnedto die; and, although it would seem that a promise was afterwards given that their lives should bespared, the sentence of death was carried into effect. The people were greatly provoked by this,

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and when the executioner, after having cut off the heads of the three, proclaimed (as was usual),“Whosoever shall do the like, let him look for the like!” a cry burst forth from the multitude around,“We are ready to do and to suffer the like.” Women dipped their handkerchiefs in the blood of thevictims, and treasured it up as a precious relic. Some of the crowd even licked the blood. The bodieswere carried off by the people, and were buried in Bethlehem chapel; and Huss and others spokeof the three as martyrs.

By this affair his enemies were greatly provoked. Fresh orders were sent from Rome for thedestruction of Wyclif’s books, and for uttering all the heaviest sentences of the Church againstHuss himself. He therefore left Prague for a time, and lived chiefly in the castles of Bohemiannoblemen who were friendly to him, writing busily as well as preaching against what he supposedto be the errors of the Roman Church.

We shall hear more of Huss by-and-by.

CHAPTER XXIV: THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE (AD 1414–1418)

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PART I

The division of the Church between three popes cried aloud for settlement in some way; andbesides this there were general complaints as to the need of reform in the Church. The emperorSigismund urged Pope John to call a general council for the consideration of these subjects; and,although John hated the notion of such a meeting, be could not help consenting. He wished thatthe council should be held in Italy, as he might hope to manage it more easily there than in anycountry north of the Alps; and he was very angry when Constance, a town on a large lake in

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Switzerland, was chosen as the place. It seemed like a token of bad luck when, as he was passingover a mountain on his way to the council, his carriage was upset, and he lay for a while in thesnow, using bad words as to his folly in undertaking the journey; and when he came in sight ofConstance at the foot of the hill, he said that it looked like a trap for foxes. In that trap Pope Johnwas caught.

The other popes, Gregory XII and Benedict XIII, did not attend, although both had been invited;but some time after the opening of the council (which was on the 5th of November, 1414), theemperor Sigismund arrived. He reached Constance in a boat which had brought him across the lakevery early on Christmas morning, and at the first service of the festival, which was held beforedaybreak, he read the Gospel which tells of the decree of Caesar Augustus that all the world shouldbe taxed. For it was considered that the emperor was entitled to take this part in the Christmasservice of the Church.

It was proposed that all the three popes should resign, and that a new pope should be chosen.In answer to this, John said that he was ready to resign if the others would do the same, but it soonbecame clear that he did not mean to keep his promise honestly. He tried by all manner of tricksto ward off the dangers which surrounded him; and, after he had more than once tried in vain toget away from Constance, he was able to escape one day when the members of the council wereamusing themselves at a tournament given by a prince whom John had persuaded to take on theirattention in this way. The council, however, in his absence went on to examine the charges againsthim, many of which were so shocking that they were kept secret, out of regard for his office. John,by letters and messengers, asked for delay, and did all that he could for that purpose; but,notwithstanding all his arts, he was sentenced to be deposed from the papacy for simony (that is,

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for trafficking in holy things—p 185) and for other offences. On being informed of this, he at onceput off his papal robes, saying, that since he had put them on he had never enjoyed a quiet day(May 31, 1415).

PART II

John Huss, the Bohemian reformer, had been summoned to Constance, that he might give anaccount of himself, and had been furnished with a safe-conduct (as it was called), in which theemperor assured him of protection on his way to the council and back. But, although at first he wastreated as if he were free, it was pretended, soon after his arrival, that he wished to run away; andunder this pretence he was shut up in a dark and filthy prison. Huss had no friends in the Council;

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for the reforming part of the members could have nothing to do with him, lest it should be thoughtthat they agreed with him in all his notions. And when he was at length brought out from prison,where his health had suffered much, and when he was required to answer for himself, withouthaving been allowed the use of books to prepare himself, all the parties in the council turned onhim at once. His trial lasted three days. The charges against him were mostly about Wyclif’sdoctrines, which had been often condemned by councils at Rome and elsewhere, but which Husswas supposed to hold; and when he tried to explain that in some things he did not agree with Wyclif,nobody would believe him. Some of his bitterest persecutors were men who had once been hisfriends, and had gone with him in his reforming opinions.

After his trial, Huss was sent back to prison for a month, and all kinds of ways were tried topersuade him to give up the opinions which were blamed in him, but he stood firm in what hebelieved to be the truth. At length he was brought out to hear his sentence. He claimed the protectionof the emperor, whose safe-conduct he had received (as we have seen). But Sigismund had been

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hard pressed by Huss’s enemies, who told him that a promise made to one who is wrong in thefaith is not to be kept; and the emperor had weakly and treacherously yielded, so that he could onlyblush for shame when Huss reminded him of the safe-conduct.

Huss was condemned to death, and was degraded from his orders, as the custom was; that is tosay, they first put into his hands the vessels used at the consecration of the Lord’s Supper, whichwere the signs of his being a priest; and by taking, away these from him, they reduced him from apriest to a deacon. Then they took away the tokens of his being a deacon, and so they stripped himof his other orders, one after another; and when at last they had turned him back into a layman,they led him away to be burnt. It is said that, as he saw an old woman carrying a faggot to the pilewhich was to burn him, he smiled and said, “O holy simplicity!” meaning that her intention wasgood, although the poor old creature was ignorant and misled. He bore his death with great patienceand courage; and then his ashes and such scorched bits of his dress as remained were thrown intothe Rhine, lest his followers should treasure them up as relics (July 6, 1415).

About ten months after the death of Huss, his old friend and companion, Jerome of Prague, wascondemned by the council to be burnt, and suffered with a firmness which even those who weremost strongly against him could not but admire (May 30, 1416).

PART III

When Pope John had been got rid of, Gregory XII, the most respectable of the three rival popes,agreed to resign his claims. But the third pope, Benedict VIII, would hear of no proposals for hisresignation, and shut himself up in a castle on the coast of Spain, where he not only continued tocall himself pope, but after his death two popes of his line were set up in succession. The council

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of Constance, however, finding Benedict obstinate, did not trouble itself further about him, andwent on to treat the papacy as vacant.

There was a great dispute whether the reform of the Church (which people had long asked for),or the choice of a new pope, should be first taken in hand; and at length it was resolved to elect apope without further delay. The choice was to be made by the cardinals and some others who were

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joined with them; and these electors were all shut up in the Exchange of Constance—a buildingwhich is still to be seen there. While the election was going on, multitudes of all ranks, and eventhe emperor himself among them, went from time to time in slow procession round the Exchangechanting in a low tone litanies, in which they prayed that the choice of the electors might be guidedfor the good of the Church. And when at last an opening was made in the wall from within, andthrough it a voice proclaimed, “We have a pope: Lord Otho of Colonna!” the news spread at oncethrough all Constance. The people seemed to be wild with joy that the division of the Church, whichhad lasted so long, was now healed. All the bells of the town pealed forth joyfully, and it is saidthat a crowd of not less than 80,000 people hurried at once to the Exchange. The emperor in hisdelight threw himself at the new pope’s feet; and for hours together vast numbers thronged thecathedral, where the pope was placed on the high altar, and gave them his blessing. It was on St.Martin’s day, the 11th of November, 1417, that this election took place; and from this the popestyled himself Martin V. But the joy which had been shown at his election was more than the effectwarranted. The council had chosen a pope before taking up the reform of the Church; and the newpope was no friend to reform. During the rest of the time that the council was assembled, he didall that he could to thwart attempts at reform; and when, at the end of it, he rode away fromConstance, with the emperor holding his bridle on one side and one of the chief German princes

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on the other, while a crowd of princes, nobles, clergy, and others, as many as 40,000, accompaniedhim, it seemed as if the pope had got above all the sovereigns of the world.

The great thing done by the council of Constance was, that it declared a general council to beabove the pope, and entitled to depose popes if the good of the Church should require it.

CHAPTER XXV: THE HUSSITES (AD 1418–1431)

The news of Huss’s death naturally raised a general feeling of anger in Bohemia, where hisfollowers treated his memory as that of a saint, and kept a festival in his honour. And when theemperor Sigismund, in 1419, succeeded his brother Wenceslaus in the kingdom of Bohemia, hefound that he was hated by his new subjects on account of his share in the death of Huss.

But, although most of the Bohemians might now be called Hussites, there were great divisionsamong the Hussites themselves. Some had lately begun to insist that in the sacrament of the Lord’sSupper both the bread and the wine should be given to all the people, according to our Lord’s ownexample, instead of allowing no one but the priest to receive the wine, according to the Romanpractice. These people who insisted on the sacramental cup were called Calixtines, from the Latincalix, which means a cup or chalice. But among those who agreed in this opinion there were seriousdifferences as to some other points.

In the summer of 1419, the first public communion was celebrated at a place where the townof Tabor was afterwards built. It was a very different kind of ceremony from what had been usual.

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There were three hundred altars, but they were without any covering; the chalices were of wood,the clergy wore only their every-day dress; and a love-feast followed, at which the rich shared withtheir poorer brethren. The wilder party among the Hussites were called Taborites, from Tabor,which became the chief abode of this party. They now took to putting their opinions into practice.They declared churches and their ornaments, pictures, images, organs, and the like, to be abominable;and they went about in bands, destroying everything that they thought superstitious. And thusBohemia, which had been famous for the size and beauty of its churches, was so desolated thathardly a church was left in it; and those which are now standing have almost all been built sincethe time when the Hussites destroyed the older churches.

The chief leader of the Taborites was John Ziska, whose name is said by some to mean one-eyed;and at least he had lost an eye in early life. Ziska had such a talent for war that, although his menwere only rough peasants, armed with nothing better than clubs, flails, and such like tools, whichthey had been accustomed to use in husbandry, he trained them to encounter regular armies, andalways came off with victory. He taught his soldiers to make their flails very dangerous weaponsby tipping them with iron; and to place their waggons together in such a way that each block ofwaggons made a sort of little fortress, against which the force of the enemy dashed in vain. ButZiska’s bravery and skill were disgraced by his savage fierceness. He never spared an enemy; hetook delight in putting clergy and monks to the sword, or in burning them in pitch, and in burningand pulling down churches and monasteries. In the course of the war he lost his remaining eye; buthe still continued to act as general with the same skill and success as before. His cruelty becamegreater continually, and the last year of his life was the bloodiest.

Ziska died in October, 1424. It is said that he directed that his skin should be taken off his body,

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and made into the covering of a drum, at the sound of which he expected all enemies to flee interror, but the story is probably not true. At his death, a part of his old companions called themselves“orphans”, as if they had lost their father, and could never find another. But other generals aroseto carry on the same kind of war, while their wild followers were wrought up to a sort of fury whichnothing could withstand.

On the side of the Church a holy war was planned, and vast armies, made up from all nationsof Europe, were gathered for the invasion of Bohemia. One of these crusades was led by CardinalBeaufort, bishop of Winchester, and great-uncle of King Henry VI of England; another, by a famousItalian cardinal, Julian Cesarini. But the courage and fury of the Bohemians, with their savageappearance and their strange manner of fighting, drove back all assaults, with immense loss, in onecampaign after another, until Cesarini, the leader in the last crusade, was convinced that there wasno hope of putting the Bohemians down by force, and that some other means must be tried.

CHAPTER XXVI: COUNCILS OF BASEL AND FLORENCE (AD 1431–9)

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It had been settled at the council of Constance that regularly from time to time there should beheld a general council, by which name was then meant a council gathered from the whole of theWestern Church, but without any representatives of the Eastern Churches; and according to thisdecree a council was to meet at Basel on the Rhine, in the year 1431. It was just before the time ofits opening that Cardinal Cesarini was defeated by the Hussites of Bohemia, as we have seen. Being

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convinced that some gentler means ought to be tried with them, he begged the pope to allow thema hearing; and he invited them to send deputies to the council of Basel, of which he was president.

The Bohemians did as they were asked to do, and thirty of them appeared before thecouncil,—rough, wild-looking men for the most part, headed by Procopius, who was at once apriest and a warrior, and was called the great, in order to distinguish him from another of the samename. A dispute, which lasted many weeks, was carried on between the leaders of these Bohemiansand some members of the council; and, at length, four points were agreed on. The chief of thesewas, that the chalice at the Holy Communion should not be confined to the priest alone, but mightbe given to such grown-up persons as should desire it. This was one of the things which had beenmost desired by the Bohemian reformers. We need not go further into the history of the Hussitesand of the parties into which they were divided; but it is worth while to remember that the use ofthe sacramental cup was allowed in Bohemia for two hundred years, while in all other churchesunder the Roman authority it was forbidden.

Soon after the meeting of the council of Basel, the pope, whose name was Eugenius IV, grewjealous lest it should get too much power, and sent orders that it should break up. But the memberswere not disposed to bear this. They declared that the council was the highest authority in theChurch, and superior to the pope; and they asked Eugenius to join them at Basel, and threatenedhim in case of his refusal. Just at that time Eugenius was driven from Rome by his people, andtherefore he found it convenient to try to smooth over differences, and to keep good terms with thecouncil; but after a while the disagreement broke out again. The pope had called a council to meetat Ferrara, in Italy, in order to consult with some Greeks (at the head of whom were the emperorand the patriarch of Constantinople) as to the union of the Greek and Latin Churches; and he desired

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the members of the Basel council to remove to Ferrara, that they might take part in the new assembly.But only a few obeyed; and those who remained at Basel were resolved to carry on their quarrel tothe uttermost. First, they allowed Eugenius a certain time, within which they required him eitherto appear at Basel or to send some one in his stead; then, they lengthened out this time somewhat;and as he still did not appear, they first suspended him from his office, then declared him to bedeposed, and at length went on to choose another pope in his stead (Nov. 17, 1439).

The person thus chosen was Amadeus, who for nearly thirty years had been duke of Savoy, buthad lately given over his dukedom to his son, and had put himself at the head of twelve old knights,who had formed themselves into an order of hermits at Ripaille, near the lake of Geneva. The newpope bargained that he should not be required to part with the long white beard which he had wornas a hermit; but after a while, finding that it looked strange among the smooth chins of those aroundhim, he, of his own accord, allowed it to be shaved off. But this attempt to set up an antipope came

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to very little. Felix V (as the old duke called himself on being elected) was obliged to submit toEugenius; and the council of Basel, after dwindling away by degrees, and being removed from oneplace to another, died out so obscurely that its end was unnoticed by any one.

Eugenius held his council at Ferrara, and afterwards removed it to Florence (AD 1438–9); andit seemed as if by his management the Greeks, who were very poor, and were greatly in need ofhelp against the Turks, were brought to an agreement with the Latins as to the questions which hadbeen so long disputed between the Churches. The union of the Churches was celebrated by a grandservice in the cathedral of Florence. But, as in former times (p 232), the Greeks found, on their

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return home, that their countrymen would not agree to what had been done; and thus the breachbetween the two Churches continued, until a few years later Constantinople was taken by the Turks,and so the Greek Empire came to an end.

CHAPTER XXVII: NICOLAS V AND PIUS II (AD 1447–1464)

The next pope, Nicolas V, was a man who had raised himself from a humble station by hislearning, ability, and good character. He was chiefly remarkable for his love of learning, and forthe bounty which he spent on learned men. For learning had come to be regarded with very highhonour, and those who were famous for it found themselves persons of great importance, who werewelcome at the courts of princes, from the Emperor of the West down to the little dukes and lordsof Italy. But we must not fancy that these learned men were all that they ought to have been. Theywere too commonly selfish and jealous, vain, greedy, quarrelsome, unthrifty; they flattered thegreat, however unworthy these might be; and in religion many of them were more like the oldheathen Greeks than Christians.

In the time of Nicolas, a terrible calamity fell on Christendom by the loss of Constantinople.The Turks, a barbarous and Mahometan people, had long been pressing on the Eastern empire, andswallowing up more and more of it. It was the fear of these advancing enemies that led the Greeksrepeatedly to seek for union with the Latin Church, in the hope that they might thus get help fromthe West for the defence of what remained of their empire. But these reconciliations never lastedlong, more especially as the Greeks did not gain that aid from their Western brethren for the sake

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of which they had yielded in matters of religion. One more attempt of this kind was made after thecouncil of Florence; but it was vain, and in 1453 the Turks, under Sultan Mahomet II, becamemasters of Constantinople.

A great number of learned Greeks, who were scattered by this conquest, found their way intothe West, bringing with them their knowledge and many Greek manuscripts; and such scholarswere gladly welcomed by Pope Nicolas and others. Not only were their books bought up, but thepope sent persons to search for manuscripts all over Greece, in order to rescue as much as possiblefrom destruction by the barbarians. Nicolas founded the famous Vatican Library in the papal palaceat Rome, and presented a vast number of manuscripts to it. For it was not until this very time that

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printing was invented, and formerly all books were written by hand, which is a slow and costlykind of work, as compared with printing. For in writing out books, the whole labour has to be donefor every single copy; but when a printer has once set up his types, he can print any number ofcopies without any other trouble than that of inking the types and pressing them on the paper, bymeans of a machine, for each copy that is wanted. The art of printing was brought from Germanyto Rome under Nicolas V, and he encouraged it, like everything else which was connected withlearning.

Nicolas also had a plan for rebuilding Rome in a very grand style, and began with the churchof St. Peter; which he intended to surround with palaces, gardens, terraces, libraries, and smallerchurches. But he did not live to carry this work far.

One effect of the new encouragement of learning was, that scholars began to inquire into thetruth of some things which had long been allowed to pass without question. And thus in no longtime the story of Constantine’s donation and the false Decretals (p 192) were shown to be forgedand worthless.

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The shock of the loss of Constantinople was felt all through Christendom, and Nicholas attemptedto get up a crusade, but died before much came of it. When, however, the Turks, in the pride ofvictory, advanced further into Europe, and laid siege to Belgrade on the Danube, they were drivenback with great loss by the skill of John Huniades, a general, and by the courage which John ofCapistrano, a Franciscan friar, was able by his exhortations and his prayers to rouse in the heartsof the besieged.

Nicolas died in 1455, and his successor, Calixtus III, in 1458. The next pope, AEneas SylviusPiccolomini, who took the name of Pius II, was a very remarkable man. He had taken a strong partagainst Pope Eugenius at Basel, and had even been secretary to the old duke-antipope Felix. Buthe afterwards made his peace by doing great services to Eugenius, and then he rose step by step,until at the death of Calixtus he was elected pope. Pius was a man of very great ability in manyways; but his health was so much shaken before he became pope, that he was not able to do all thathe might have done if he had been in the fulness of his strength. He took up the crusade with greatzeal, but found no hearty support from others. A meeting which he held at Mantua for the purposehad little effect. At last, although suffering from gout and fever, the pope made his way from Rometo Ancona, on the Adriatic, where he expected to find both land and sea forces ready for the crusade.But on the way he fell in with some of the troops which had been collected for the purpose, andthey turned out to be such wretched creatures, and so utterly unfit for the hardships of war, that hecould only give them his blessing and tell them to go back to their homes. And although, afterreaching Ancona, he had the pleasure of seeing twenty-four Venetian ships enter the harbour forhis service, he was so worn out by sickness that he died on the next day but one (Aug. 14, 1464).And after his death the crusade, on which he had so much set his heart, came to nothing.

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CHAPTER XXVIII: JEROME SAVONAROLA (AD 1452–1498)

PART I

There is not much to tell about the popes after Pius II until we come to Alexander VI, who wasa Spaniard named Roderick Borgia, and was pope from 1492 to 1503. And the story of Alexanderis too shocking to be told here; for there is hardly anything in all history so bad as the accountswhich we have of him and of his family. He is supposed to have died of drinking, by mistake, somepoison which he had prepared for a rich cardinal whose wealth he wished to get into his hands.

Instead, therefore, of telling you about the popes of this time: I shall give some account of aman who became very famous as a preacher— Jerome Savonarola.

Savonarola was born in 1452 at Ferrara, where his grandfather had been physician to the duke;and his family wished him to follow the same profession. But Jerome was set on becoming a monk,and from this nothing could move him. He therefore joined the Dominican friars, and after a whilehe was removed to St Mark’s, at Florence, a famous convent of his order. He found things in a badstate there; but he was chosen prior (or head) of the convent, and reformed it, so that it rose incharacter, and the number of the monks was much increased. He also became a great preacher, sothat even the vast cathedral of Florence could not hold the crowds which flocked to hear him. Hewas especially fond of preaching on the dark prophecies of the Revelation, and of declaring thatthe judgments of God were about to come on Florence and on all Italy because of sin; and hesometimes fancied that he not only gathered such things from Scripture, but that they were revealedto him by visions from heaven.

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At this time a family named Medici had got the chief power in Florence into their hands, andSavonarola always opposed them, because he thought that they had no right to such power in a citywhich ought to be free. But when Lorenzo, the head of the family, was dying (AD 1497), he sentfor Savonarola, because he thought him the only one of the clergy who would be likely to speakhonestly to him of his sins, and to show him the way of seeking forgiveness. Savonarola did hispart firmly, and pointed out some of Lorenzo’s acts as being those of which he was especiallybound to repent. But when he desired him to restore the liberties of Florence, it was more than thedying man could make up his mind to; and Savonarola, thinking that his repentance could not besincere if he refused this, left him without giving him the Church’s absolution.

But, although Savonarola was a very sincere and pious man, he did not always show goodjudgment. For instance, when he wished to get rid of the disorderly way in which the young peopleof Florence used to behave at the beginning of Lent, he sent a number of boys about the city (AD1497), where they entered into houses, and asked the inhabitants to give up to them any “vanities”which they might have. Then these vanities (as they were called) were all gathered together, andwere built up into a pile fifteen stories high. There were among them cards and dice, fineries ofwomen’s dress, looking-glasses, bad books, musical instruments, pictures, and statues. The wholeheap was of great value, and a merchant from Venice offered a large sum for it. But the money wasrefused, and he was forced to throw in his own picture as an addition to the other vanities. When

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night came, a long procession under Savonarola’s orders passed through the streets, and then thepile was set on fire, amidst the sound of bells, drums, and trumpets, and the shouts of the multitude,who had been worked up to a share of Savonarola’s zeal.

But the wiser people were distressed by the mistakes of judgment which he had shown in setting

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children to search out the faults of their elders, and in mixing up harmless things in the samedestruction with those which were connected with deep sinfulness and vice. And this want ofjudgment was still more shown a year later, when, after having repeated the bonfire of vanities,Savonarola’s followers danced wildly in three circles around a cross set up in front of St. Mark’s,as if they had been so many crazy dervishes of the East.

PART II

Savonarola had raised up a host of enemies, and some of them were eagerly looking for anopportunity of doing him some mischief. At length one Francis of Apulia, a Franciscan friar,challenged him to what was called the ordeal (or judgment) of fire, as a trial of the truth of hisdoctrine; and after much trouble it was settled that a friend of each should pass through this trial,which was supposed to be a way of finding out God’s judgment as to the truth of the matter indispute. Two great heaps of fuel were piled up in a public place at Florence. They were each fortyyards long and two yards and a half high, with an opening of a yard’s width between them; and itwas intended that these heaps should be set on fire, and that the champions should try to passbetween the two, as a famous monk had done at Florence in Hildebrand’s time, hundreds of yearsbefore. But when a vast crowd had been brought to see the ordeal, they were much disappointedat finding that it was delayed, because Savonarola’s enemies fancied that he might perhaps makeuse of some magical charms against the flames. There was a long dispute about this, and, while theparties were still wrangling, a hearty shower came down on the crowd. The magistrates then forbadethe trial; the people, tired and hungry from waiting, drenched by the rain, provoked by the wearisomesquabble which had caused the delay, and after all balked of the expected sight, broke out againstSavonarola; and he had great difficulty in reaching St. Mark’s under the protection of some friends:

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who closed around him and kept off the angry multitude. Two days later the convent was besieged;and when the defenders were obliged to surrender it, Savonarola and the friar who was to haveundergone the ordeal on his side were sent to prison.

Savonarola had a long trial, during which he was often tortured; but whatever might be wrungfrom him in this way, he afterwards declared that it was not to be believed, because the weaknessof his body could not bear the pain of torture, and he confessed whatever might be asked of him.This trial was carried on under the authority of the wicked Pope Alexander VI

Although no charge of error as to the faith could be made out against Savonarola, his enemieswere bent on his death; and he and two of his companions were sentenced to be hanged and burnt.Like Huss, they had to go through the form of being degraded from their orders; and at the end ofthis it was a bishop’s part to say to each, “I separate thee from the Church militant” (that is, fromthe Church which is carrying on its warfare here on earth). But the bishop, who had once been oneof Savonarola’s friars at St. Mark’s, was very uneasy, and said in his confusions, “I separate thee

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from the Church triumphant” (that is, from the Church when its warfare has ended in victory andtriumph). Savonarola saw the mistake, and corrected it by saying, “from the militant, not from thetriumphant; for that is not thine to do.”

Savonarola’s party did not die out with him, but long continued to cherish his memory. Amongthose who were most earnest in this was the great artist, Michael Angelo Buonarotti, who had beenone of his hearers in youth, and even to his latest days used to read his works with interest, and tospeak of him with reverence.

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CHAPTER XXIX: JULIUS II AND LEO X (AD 1503–1521)

Alexander VI was succeeded by a pope who took the title of Pius III, and who lived only sixand twenty days after his election. And after Pius came Julius II, who was pope from 1503 to 1513,and Leo X, who lived to the year 1521.

Julius, who owed his rise in life to the favour of his uncle Sixtus IV (one of the popes who hadcome between Pius II and Alexander VI), was desirous to gain for the Roman see all that it hadlost or had ever claimed. He was not a man of religious character, but plunged deeply into politics,and even acted as a soldier in war. Thus, at the siege of Mirandola, in the winter of 1511, he livedfor weeks in a little hut, regardless of the frost and snow, of the roughness and scantiness of hisfood; and when most of those around him were frightened away by the cannon-balls which camefrom the walls of the fortress, the stout old pope kept his place, and directed the pointing of hisown cannon against the town.

His successor, Leo, who was of the Florentine family of Medici (p 272), was fond of elegantpleasures and of hunting. His tastes were costly, and continually brought him into difficulties as tomoney. The manner of life in Leo’s court was gay, luxurious, and far from strict. He had comediesacted before him, which were hardly fit for the amusement of the chief bishop of Christendom. Heis famous for his encouragement of the arts; and it was in his time that the art of painting reachedits highest perfection through the genius of Michael Angelo Buonarotti (who has been already

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mentioned as a disciple of Savonarola—p 274), and of Raphael Sanzio. In the art of architecture agreat change took place about this time. For some hundreds of years it had been usual to build inwhat is called the Gothic style, of which the chief mark is the use of pointed arches. Not that therewas no change during all that time; for there are great differences between the earlier and the laterkinds of Gothic, and these have since been so carefully studied that skillful people can tell fromthe look of a building the time at which every part of it was erected. But a little before the year1500, the Gothic gave way to another style, and one of the greatest works ever done in this newstyle was the vast church of St. Peter, at Rome. I have mentioned that Nicolas V thought of rebuildingthe ancient church, which had stood since the time of Constantine the Great, and that he had evenbegun the work (p 269). But now both the old basilica (p 85) and the beginning of a new churchwhich Nicolas had made were swept away, and something far grander was designed. There were

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several architects who carried on the building of this great church, one after another; but the granddome of St. Peter’s, which rises into the air over the whole city, was the work of Michael Angelo,who was not only a painter, but an architect and a sculptor. It was by offering indulgences (orspiritual favours, forgiveness of sins, and the like) as a reward for gifts towards the new St. Peter’s,that Julius raised the anger and disgust of the German reformer, Martin Luther. And thus it was thebuilding of the most magnificent of Roman churches that led to the revolt which took away fromthe popes a great part of their spiritual dominion.

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CHAPTER XXX: MISSIONS; THE INQUISITION

All through the times of which I had been speaking, missions to the heathen were activelycarried on. Much of this kind was done in Asia, and, indeed, the heart of Asia seems to have beenmore open and better known to Europeans during some part of the middle ages than it has everbeen since. But as those parts were so far off, and so hard to get at, it often happened that dishonestpeople, for their own purposes, brought to Europe wonderful tales of the conversion of Easternnations, or of their readiness to be converted, which had no real ground. And sometimes the craftyAsiatic princes themselves made a pretence of willingness to receive the Gospel, when all that theyreally wanted was to get some advantages of other kinds from the pope and the Christians of theWest.

A great deal was heard in Europe of a person who was called Prester (that is to say, “presbyter”or “priest”) John. He was believed to live in the far East, and to be both a king and a Christianpriest. And there really was at one time a line of Christian princes in Asia, between Lake Baikaland the northern border of China, whose capital was Karakorum; but in 1202 their kingdom wasoverthrown by the Tartar conqueror, Genghis-Khan; although the belief in Prester John, which hadalways been mixed with a good deal of fable, continued long after to float in the minds of theWestern Christians.

The mendicant orders, which (as we have seen) were founded in the time of Innocent III (pp225–7), took up the work of missions with great zeal; and some of the Franciscan missionariesespecially, by undergoing martyrdom, gained great credit for their order in its early days. There

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were also travellers who made their way into the East from curiosity or some other such reason,and brought home accounts of what they had seen. The most famous of these travellers was MarcoPolo, a Venetian of a trading family, who lived many years in China, and found his way back toEurope by India and Ceylon. Some of these travellers report that they found the Nestorian (p 146)clergy enjoying great influence at the courts of Asiatic sovereigns; for the Nestorians had been veryactive in missions at an earlier time, and had made many converts in Asia; but the travellers, whosaw them only after they had been long settled there, describe them very unfavourably in all ways.John of Monte Corvino, an Italian, was established by Pope Clement V as Archbishop of Cambalu

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(or Peking) with seven bishops under him; and Christianity seemed thus far to be flourishing inthat region (AD 1307).

In the meantime the people of countries bordering on the Baltic Sea were converted, althoughnot without much trouble. Sometimes they would profess to welcome the Gospel; but as soon asthe preachers had left them they disowned it, and washed themselves, as if by doing so they mightget rid of their Christian baptism. And the missionaries often found themselves at a loss how todeal with the ignorant superstition of these people. Thus a missionary in Livonia, named Dietrich,was threatened with death because an eclipse had taken place during his visit to their country, andthey fancied that he had swallowed the sun! At another time his life was in danger because thenatives saw that his fields were in better condition than theirs, and, instead of understanding thatthis was the effect of his greater skill and care, they charged him with having brought it about bymagical arts. They therefore resolved to settle his fate by bringing forward a horse who was regardedas sacred to their gods, and observing how the beast behaved. At first the horse put forward hisright foot, which should have saved the missionary’s life; but the heathen diviners said that the God

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of Christians was sitting on the horse’s back, and directing him; and they insisted that the backshould be rubbed, in order to get rid of such influence. But after this had been done, the horse againput forward the same foot, and, much against the will of the Livonians, Dietrich was allowed to gofree.

Sometimes the missionaries tried other things to help the effect of their preaching. Thus, a latermissionary in Livonia, Albert of Apeldern, in order to give the people some knowledge of Scripturehistory, got up what was called a prophetical play, in which Gideon, David, and Herod were toappear. But when Gideon and his men began to fight the Midianites on the stage, the heathens tookalarm lest some treacherous trick should be practised on them, and they all ran away in affright.

Albert of Apeldern founded a military order, somewhat on the plan of the Templars, for theconversion of the heathen on the Baltic; and it was afterwards joined with another order. TheTeutonic (or German) order, which was thus formed, became very famous. By subduing the nationsof the Baltic coasts, it forced them to receive Christianity, got possession of their lands, and laidthe foundation of a power which has grown by degrees into the great Prussian (or German) empire.

The work of missions was carried on also in Russia, Lithuania, and other northern countries,so that by the time which we have now reached it might be said that all Europe was in some wayor other converted to profess the Gospel.

About the end of the fifteenth century the discoveries of the Portuguese in Africa and the East,and those of the Spaniards in the great Western continent, opened new fields for missionary labour,but of this we need not now speak more particularly.

Unhappily the Church was not content with trying to convince people of the truth of its doctrineby gentle means, but disgraced itself by persecution. We have already noticed the horrible wars

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against the Albigenses in the south of France (p 223); and cruel persecutions were carried on inSpain against Jews, Mahometans, and persons suspected of heresy, or such like offences. Theconduct of these persecutions was in the hands of the Inquisition, which did its work without any

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regard to the rules of justice, and was made more terrible by the darkness and mystery of itsproceedings. It kept spies to pry into all men’s concerns and to give secret information againstthem; even the nearest relatives were not safe from each other under this dreadful system. Multitudeswere put to death, and others were glad to escape with such punishments as entire loss of theirproperty, or imprisonment, which was in many cases for life.

In the course of all these hundreds of years, Christian religion had been much corrupted fromits first purity. The power of the clergy over the ignorant people had become far greater than itought to have been; and too commonly it was kept up by the encouragement of superstitions andabuses. The popes claimed supreme power on earth. They claimed the right of setting up andplucking down emperors and kings. They meddled with appointments to sees, parishes, and allmanner of offices in the Church, throughout all Western Europe. They wished to make it appearas if bishops had no authority except what they held through the grant of the pope. There weregeneral complaints against the faults of the clergy, and among the mass of men religion had becomein great part little better than an affair of forms. From all quarters cries for reform were raised, anda reform was speedily to come, by which, among other things, our own country was set free fromthe power of the popes, and the doctrine of our Church was brought back to an agreement withHoly Scripture and with the Christianity of early times.

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Indexes

Index of Scripture References

Exodus3:8

Leviticus21:17-23 25Deuteronomy

16:161 Kings18:44Job10:1

Psalms26:5

Jeremiah7:4

Hosea6:6

Matthew6:34 9:13 10:8 10:9 10:23 13:24-30 13:36-43 13:38 13:47-50 13:48 25:40 26:52

Mark16:15Luke

13:1-5 14:23 17:21 18:18-22John

8:29 8:59 10:11 11:54Acts

1:2 1:15-26 2:34 2:46 4:32 4:34 8 8:20 11:26 12:23 15 16:9 16:37 17:18 17:32 20:7

Romans8:15 13:13 15:28 16:1

1 Corinthians1:23 1:23 3:16 11:21 15:42-44

Philippians1:23

Colossians

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2:81 Timothy

1:19 3:2 6:202 Timothy

2:17Titus1:5

James3:17

1 Peter2:5-9 2:23Revelation

1:6

Index of Pages of the Print Edition

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Sketches of Church History from AD33 to the Reformation

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