Molecules of Life · Polymers are constructed using enzymes. A large number of polymers can be...

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1/17/2020 1 Molecules of Life Lecture 4 At the end of this series of lectures you should be able to: Define terms. Explain why carbon is important in the formation of large molecules. List and describe the macromolecules important for life. Describe the structure, functions, and types of the macromolecules. Objectives

Transcript of Molecules of Life · Polymers are constructed using enzymes. A large number of polymers can be...

Page 1: Molecules of Life · Polymers are constructed using enzymes. A large number of polymers can be constructed from a just a few monomers. Length Branching Order of monomers Macromoelcules

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Molecules of LifeLecture 4

At the end of this series of lectures you should be able to: 

Define terms. 

Explain why carbon is important in the formation of large molecules. 

List and describe the macromolecules important for life.

Describe the structure, functions, and types of the macromolecules. 

Objectives

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Organic compounds are carbon‐based.

Carbon is highly versatile  Shares electrons (covalent bonds) with up to 4 different atoms. 

Branch in up to 4 different directions. 

Carbon bonds can be to  Other carbon atoms

Other types of atoms

Double bonds

Hydrocarbons – Contain only hydrogen and carbon. 

Organic Compounds

The properties of the organic molecule depend on:

The size and shape of the carbon skeleton

Functional groups attached to it. 

Organic Compounds

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These tend to be large molecules They are also polymers – constructed from similar repeating 

building blocks or pieces 

The repeated blocks or pieces are called monomers.

Polymers are constructed using enzymes. 

A large number of polymers can be constructed from a just a few monomers.

Length

Branching

Order of monomers

Macromoelcules

There are four types of macromolecules important for life: 

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides 

Proteins

Amino acids

Lipids

Fatty acid chains

Nucleic acids

Nucleotides

Macromolecules

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Monomers are monosaccharides

Carbon skeletons vary in length

Glucose is a six carbon sugar

Can have a ring shape

Fuel for cells and raw material for constructing other organic molecules. 

Two linked monosaccharides are a disaccharides.

Sucrose (table sugar) is a disacharhide (glucose and fructose). 

Carbohydrates

Figure 3.5_s2

NEUROtiker, Public Domain, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrose#mediaviewer/File:Saccharose2.svg

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Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccahrides.

Storage molecules

Structural  molecules

Carbohydrates

Starch  Glucose monomers Energy storage in plants

Glycogen  Glucose monomers Energy storage in animals

Cellulose Glucose monomers Plant cell walls – structural – Wood

Chitin Exoskeletons of arthropods

Carbohydrates

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Figure 3.7

Ben Mills, Public Domain, Glucose:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose#mediaviewer/File:Alpha‐D‐glucose‐from‐xtal‐1979‐3D‐balls.pngCellulose: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose#mediaviewer/File:Cellulose‐Ibeta‐from‐xtal‐2002‐3D‐balls.pngCeresVesta, Public Domain, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen#mediaviewer/File:Glycogen_spacefilling_model.jpg

Cellulose

Glucose

Glycogen

Energy storage and structural moelcules Are water insoluble (hydrophobic) compounds Consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by 

covalent bonds. Are not large molecules or they polymers (strictly 

speaking)

Fats and oils Phospholipids Steroids

Lipids

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Fats and oils

Fats and oils are large lipids made from two kinds of smaller molecules:

glycerol

fatty acids

Fats are often called triglycerides because of their structure.

Lipids

Introduction to Anatomy and  Physiology by Stelios Kolomvounis, OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 

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If the fatty acid chains have as many hydrogen atoms as it could hold it is a saturated fatty acid – fat (solid at room temperature).

If the fatty acid chains contain double bonds (thus not as many hydrogen atoms as it could it is a unsaturated fatty acid – oil (liquid at room temperature). 

Lipids

Phospholipids  Important component of cell membranes. 

Similar structure to fats – except one of the fatty acid chains has been replaced by a phosphate. 

Head and tail shape develops

Phosphate head is hydrophilic (attracted to water)

Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (repelled by water)

Forms a bilayer Heads facing out from the bilayer

Tails inside the bilayer

Lipids

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Introduction to Anatomy and  Physiology by Stelios Kolomvounis, OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 

Introduction to Anatomy and  Physiology by Stelios Kolomvounis, OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 

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Steroids are lipids where the carbon skeleton contains four fused rings. Cell messengers 

Cholesterol

Component in cell membranes – stabilizes the membrane

Used by the body to make steroids

Anabolic steroids

Increased muscle and bone mass

Health threats

Sex hormones

Lipids

Figure 3.2

Introduction to Anatomy and  Physiology by Stelios Kolomvounis, OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 

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Many uses in the body Functional (enzymes)

Catalysts

Structural proteins 

Contractile proteins ‐‐muscle

Defensive proteins – antibodies

Signal proteins – some hormones

Receptor proteins – cell membranes

Transport proteins ‐‐ hemoglobin

Storage proteins – egg white

Proteins

Amino acids

Monomers (building blocks) for proteins

Structure 

A central carbon bonded to 

Hydrogen atom

An amino group 

A carboxyl group.

Functional group symbolized by R

Determines the properties of the amino acid

Proteins

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Figure 3.11A

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0, http://cnx.org/contents/6773536c‐3efb‐44c9‐8ace‐78fafdce27e1@4 

Proteins are made by 

Linking amino acids together

Dehydration reaction

Joins the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another amino acid

Creates a peptide bond.

More amino acids can be added by the same process to create a chain of amino acids 

Polypeptide.

Proteins

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Figure 3.11C_s2

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0, http://cnx.org/contents/6773536c‐3efb‐44c9‐8ace‐78fafdce27e1@4 

Polypeptide chains contain hundreds or thousands of amino acids

The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide to have a particular shape.

The shape of a protein determines its specific function.

If a protein’s shape is altered, it can no longer function.

Proteins

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A protein’s shape depends on four levels of structure. A protein can have four levels of structure: Primary structure – amino acid sequence 

Determined by genes

Secondary structure – Coiling or folding of polypetide Coiling – alpha helix Folding – Pleated sheet Maintained by hydrogen bonds

Tertiary structure – Overall 3‐d structure of the polypetide Interactions between amino acid R‐groups Disulfide bonds

Quaternary structure – Combining two or more polypetide chains (subunits) 

Protein

Biology by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 

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In the process of denaturation, a polypeptide chain

Unravel

Changes shape

No longer functions

Proteins can be denatured by changes in salt concentration, pH, or by high temperatures.

Proteins

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are composed of monomers called nucleotides.

Nucleotides have three parts:

Sugar

Ribose – sugar in RNA 

Deoxyribose – sugar in DNA

Phosphate group

Nitrogenous base

Nucleic Acids

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Robert Bear and David Rintoul, CC BY‐SA 3.0, http://cnx.org/contents/efedfd3e‐01ef‐4c5f‐8265‐c7bf730161a4@5

Nucleotides DNA

Adenine – A Cytosine – C Guanine – G Thymine – T

RNA Adenine – A Cytosine – C Guanine – G Uracil – U

Nucleic Acids

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A polynucleotide (nucleic acid polymer)  forms  By dehydration reaction

The phosphate of one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of the next nucleotide

A repeating sugar‐phosphate backbone forms with protruding nitrogenous bases. Two polynucleotide strands wrap around each other to form a 

DNA double helix. The two strands are associated because particular bases always 

hydrogen bond to one another. A pairs with T, and C pairs with G, producing base pairs.

RNA is usually a single polynucleotide strand.

Nucleic Acids