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THE CASES

NOMINATIVE

The nominative case is used for the SUBJECT of the sentence. Remember that everything that

agrees with the subject must also be nominative, particularly adjectives, wherever they occur

in the sentence.

The man that I saw yesterday in the street was very old.

Homo quem in via heri vidi erat vetissimus.

The nominative is also used for the COMPLEMENT of the subject, that is, any word that states

what the subject is.

Marcus is a writer. Marcus est scriptor.

The young man became a senator. Iuvenis factus est senator.

ACCUSATIVE

There are ten main uses of the accusative case, as follows:

1 DIRECT OBJECT OF THE VERB:

The boy loved the girl. Puer puellam amabat.

The emperor wrote a book. Imperator librum scripsit.

2. VERBS OF NAMING, TEACHING, HIDING AND ASKING

These verbs have TWO objects in the accusative case:

They called the senator a fool. Senatorem appelabant asinum.

I taught the boy litterature. Puerum litteras docui.

I hid the book from the girl. Puellam celavi librum.

The consul asked Cicero for the keys. Consul Ciceronem claves poposcit.

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3. ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION

This should not be confused with the vocative used to exclaim a name, or with an interjection.

However, most exclamations are found in the accusative:

Alas! I am undone! Eheu, me perditum!

How wretched I am! O me miserum!

4. ACCUSATIVE OF THE EXTENT OF SPACE

When measurements are given showing the amount of space that is taken up, the

measurement is expressed in the accusative:

Cæsar pitched his camp three miles from the border.

Cæsar castra tria milia passuum a finibus posuit.

The wall is many feet high.

Murus multos pedes altus est.

5. ACCUSATIVE OF THE EXTENT OF TIME

The amount of time taken to accomplish anything, or the amount of time something lasts, is

expressed in the accusative:

He lived in Rome for many years.

Romæ multos annos habitabat.

Romulus reigned for 37 years.

Romulus septem et triginta annos regnavit.

This is also used to express age :

two years old duos annos natus

6. MOTION TOWARDS

The goal of motion is in the accusative, usually with the preposition AD or IN, when the

English has the sense of TO or INTO :

He went to the garden.

In hortum ivit.

The consul entered the senate.

Consul in senatum ingressus est.

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Often AD has the sense of “up to”:

The army marched up to the walls of the city.

Exercitus ad muros urbis profectus est.

With names of towns there is NO preposition, however (this also includes small islands, rus

and domus):

We all went to Rome.

Omnes Romam ivimus.

I’ll go to the country: you go home.

Ego rus ibo, vos domum ite.

7. COGNATE ACCUSATIVE

Some intransitive verbs can have an object when it is formed from the same root as the verb

itself (as in English) – e.g., “to live a life” or “to run a race”.

He lived a good life.

Bonam vitam vixit.

8. ACCUSATIVE AFTER CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS

The following prepositions are followed by a noun or pronoun in the accusative:

ad to adversum/s towards

ante before apud among/at the house of

circa around circum around

circiter about (number) cis this side of

citra this side of contra against

erga towards (person) extra outside

infra below inter between / among

intra within iuxta next to

ob because of penes in the power of

per through pone behind

post after præter beyond

prope near propter on account of

secundum according to supra above

trans across ultra beyond

in into (movement) sub under (movement)

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GENITIVE The genitive case is that of the possessor (rendered in English either by use of the possessive

case – i.e., S with apostrophe – or by the use of ‘of’).

1. GENITIVE OF POSSESSION

The boy’s book Pueri liber

The boys’ books Puerorum libri

The end of the road Finis viæ

2. PARTITIVE GENITIVE

This is used to show part of a whole:

more food plus cibi

a huge pile of books ingens acervus librorum

enough money satis pecuniæ

3. QUALITY EXPRESSED WITH AN ADJECTIVE

He is a man of great authority Homo est magnæ auctoritatis

Cicero was a man of old fashioned sternness Cicero vir erat priscæ severitatis

4. PREDICATIVE GENITIVE

This usually shows some characteristic or quality of a person or a class of persons:

It is characteristic of boys to play Puerorum est ludere

It is the duty of all men to protect their country Omnium hominum est patriam servare

Your letter was of great importance to me Tua epistula maximi ponderis mihi erat

5. WITH SUPERLATIVES

We usually use the preposition “in” in English after a superlative. In Latin the genitive is

required instead:

the biggest house in the street maxima domus viæ

Rome is the greatest of all cities Roma maxima omnium urbium est

the most difficult part of the book pars libri maximæ difficultatis

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6. WITH ‘CAUSA’ & ‘GRATIA’

These words mean ‘for the sake of’ or ‘because of’:

for the sake of love amoris causa

for the sake of an example (i.e., “e.g.”) exempli gratia

for the sake of building a house causa ædificandi domum

7. AFTER CERTAIN ADJECTIVES

sciens knowing inscius not knowing cupidus eager particeps sharing avidus greedy peritus skilled tenax holding firmly memor mindful immemor unmindful plenus full

not knowing my future inscius futuræ meæ

eager for a profit beneficii avidus

skilled in medicine medicinæ peritus

forgetting the danger immemor periculi

8. WITH VERBS OF REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

memini & obliviscor

the king remembered his friends rex amicorum meminerat we must not forget our work laboris oblivisci non debemus

9. WITH VERBS OF ACCUSATION, CONDEMNATION AND ACQUITTING

the person accused is in the accusative: what he is accused of is in the genitive

the slave was accused of many crimes multorum scelerum servus criminatus est

he was acquitted of robbery latrocinii reus est

9. GENITIVE OF VALUE

used with verbs of valuing, buying and selling

magni (for a large amount) – parvi (for a small price) – nihili (for nothing) – flocci (worthless)

he sold the books for a very low price libros minimi vendidit

the judge cares nothing for the state iudex rempublicam flocci non facit NB definite price is expressed by the ablative case

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10. WITH PRONOUNS

satis (enough) – nimis (too much) – plus (more) – parum (not enough) – aliquid (some)

enough bread satis panis

not enough wine parum vini

too much money nimis pecuniae

dative

1 INDIRECT OBJECT

This is the person/thing, etc., to whom the object is given, said, etc.

The Romans gave peace to the world Romani pacem mundo dederunt

2 AFTER CERTAIN VERBS

Some verbs have a dative rather than an accusative object. There is a little rhyme to

help remember these:

Envy, spare, believe, assist,

Study*, hurt, obey, resist,

Indulge, persuade, pardon – add to these

Favour, be angry with, and please.

* in the sense of ‘be keen on’ as well

Examples of these:

invideo – invidere – invidi – invisum envy

cur mihi invides? why do you envy me?

parco – parcere – peperci – parsum spare

hostibus pepercit he spared the enemy

credo – credere – credidi – creditum believe

tibi simper credo I always believe you

subvenio – subvenire – subveni – subventum assist

succurro – succurrere – succurri – succursum assist

suis amicis subvenit he assisted his friends

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studeo – studere – studui study – be keen on

litteris studebat he studied literature

noceo – nocere – nocui to hurt, harm

cruri suo nocuit he hurt his leg

pareo – parere – parui to obey

legibus parendum est one must obey the laws

resisto – resistere – restiti to resist

hostibus restiterunt they resisted the enemy

indulgeo – indulgere – indulsi to indulge, grant, allow

servo suo pecuniam indulsit he granted his servant the money

suadeo – suadere – suasi – suasum to persuade

regi suasit se honestum esse he persuaded the king that he was honest

ignosco – ignoscere – ignovi – ignotum to pardon

amico ignovit he pardoned his friend

faveo – favere – favi – fautum to favour

si tibi dei favent if the gods favour you

irascor – irasci – iratus sum to be angry with

magistro iratus est he was angry with his teacher

placeo – placere – placui to please

haec mihi placuerunt these things pleased me

impero – imperare – imperavi – imperatum to command

militibus imperavit ut proficiscerent he ordered the soldiers to set out

nubo – nubere – nupsi – nuptum to marry (of a woman only)

suo sobrino nupsit she married her cousin

desum – deesse – defui to be lacking

pecunia mihi deerat I had no money

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3 VERBS OF HINDERING AND HELPING

particularly those beginning with ad – ob – præ – sub

he obstructed the enemy hostibus obstitit

4 DATIVE OF POSSESSION

This is similar to the dative of advantage/disadvantage

this book is mine hic liber mihi est

5 DATIVE OF ADVANTAGE

When anyone is advantaged or disadvantaged by the action of the verb (usually with

the sense of ‘for’)

He did the work for his father laborem patri suo fecit

The journey was hard for the Gauls Gallis iter durum erat

6 DATIVE WITH IMPERSONAL VERBS

Impersonal verbs such as libet (it is pleasing) and licet (it is allowed):

what pleases me the most quod mihi maxime libet

I am allowed to read the book mihi librum legere licet

7 PREDICATIVE DATIVE (ALSO DATIVE OF PURPOSE)

A number of nouns, usually abstract in meaning, are put in the dative to show what a

person or thing serves as or results in. The most common are exitio (destruction), usui

(use or purpose), auxilio (help, assistance), curae (worry)

this book will be of great use to me hic liber mihi magno usui erit

they had sent cavalry to help Caesar equitatum auxilio Caesari miserant

8 DATIVE OF AGENT

This is normally used with a gerund or gerundive, but can also be found in other

circumstances. When there is any ambiguity, the ablative is used instead:

this was to be carried out by us hoc erat agendum nobis

these things were to be said by you hæc erant dicenda tibi

the matter has been provided for by me res provisa est mihi

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9 DATIVE OF SEPARATION

Where a verb of separation is used with the English sense “from”, the person or thing

from whom the separation takes place is put in the dative:

Take this terror away from me! hunc terrorem mihi eripe!

The Senate has taken nothing from you nihil tibi senatus detraxit

10 DATIVE OF REFERENCE

Used in some questions where there is an advantage expressed to the speaker:

Where can I get a book? unde mihi liber?

11 DATIVE OF DIRECTION

This is only used in poetry for the place towards which there is motion (normally ad is

used with the accusative):

A shout goes up to heaven (Virgil) it clamor caelo

12 IMPERSONAL PASSIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Intransitive verbs cannot have an object and therefore cannot become passive.

However, an impersonal passive is often found, used with the dative of what would

have been the subject of the active verb:

I was commanded mihi imperatum est

you are pardoned tibi parcitur

13 ETHICAL DATIVE

This is used in the pronoun in familiar language to call attention or mark interest:

Tell me, what is Celsus up to? (Horace) quid mihi Celsus agit?

14 DATIVE WITH ACCUSATIVE

Three verbs have an accusative direct object and a dative of the second noun:

antepono (to prefer) – minor (to threaten) – præficio (to put in charge)

he prefers war to peace bellum paci anteponit

he threatened me with death mortem mihi minatus est

I put you in charge of the army te exercitui præficio

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14 ADJECTIVES THAT TAKE THE DATIVE

gratus pleasing to liber mihi gratus erat the book is pleasing to me (I like the book)

facilis easy for hæc opera ei facilia erant (and difficilis)

these tasks were easier for him

similis like puer patri similis est (and dissimilis)

the boy is like his father

vicinus neighbouring hæc tribus Romanis vicina est

this tribe is a neighbour of the Romans

inimicus unfriendly towards senator sociis inimicus erat

the senator was unfriendly towards his allies

aptus fit for hæc verba aptiora sunt sapientibus

these words are more fit/apt for wise men

carus dear to familia mihi cara est my family is dear to me

idoneus suitable for castris idoneum est locum

the place is suitable for a camp

utilis useful hic liber utilis studentibus est

this book is useful to the students

infestus hostile towards Pœni Romanis infesti erant the Carthaginians were hostile towards the Romans

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ablative

The ablative case has more uses than any of the others. Generally, it is used after many

prepositions, often with the sense of “away” – ab, ex, for example. In the plural it looks exactly

the same as the dative.

1 ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION

This is used with verbs such as solvo (to free from) and libero (to free from)

timore solutus est he was freed from fear

2 ABLATIVE OF ORIGIN

states from whom anyone is descended

Cæsar deis natus est Cæsar was descended from the gods

3 ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON

comparisons are often rendered by quam, but the ablative is often used instead

os maius est cane the bone is bigger than the dog

4 ABLATIVE OF ASSOCIATION

this is used with verbs and adjectives expressing plenty, fullness or possession

villa lacte melleque abundat the farm abounds in milk and honey

munere iuvenem donat he presents the young man with a gift

5 ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION

found with an adjective, usually expressing the sense of the English with or of

senex promissa barba an old man with a long beard

vir summa audacia a man of supreme boldness

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6 ABLATIVE OF RESPECT OR SPECIFICATION

used to express a limitation or a specification of the verb or noun – worthy (dignus)

also has an ablative of respect

natu maior older

vir ingenio maximus a man mighty in genius

femina laude digna a woman worthy of praise

hæ civitates lingua differunt these states differ in language

7 ABLATIVE OF MANNER

this is an adverbial use of the ablative, which expressed how something is done

summa celeritate cucurrerunt they ran with the greatest speed

silentio sedebant they sat in silence

8 ABLATIVE OF INSTRUMENT OR AGENT

expresses the thing with which an action is performed (with a person, a or ab is used)

scuto servatus est he was saved by his shield

dente lupus petit the wolf attacks with his teeth

se iaculis defenderunt they defended themselves with javelins

9 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE

expresses the reason why something occurs

fame mortuus est he died of hunger

10 ABLATIVE OF MEASURE (OF DIFFERENCE)

This shows the amount by which something is different

multo maior quam soror est he is much bigger than his sister

luna paulo minor quam sol est the moon is a little smaller than the sun

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11 ABLATIVE AFTER CERTAIN VERBS

A small number of verbs are followed by the ablative

potior – potiri – potitus sum to gain possession of

Romani maribus potiti sunt the Romans gained possession of the seas

utor – uti – usus sum to use (sometimes to possess)

armis uti sunt they used weapons

fungor – fungi – functus sum to perform / carry out

munere ædilicio fungebatur he carried out the office of an ædile

fruor – frui – fructus sum to enjoy, have the benefit of, take delight in

voluptate fructi sunt they enjoyed pleasure

nitor – niti – nisus (nixus) sum to rely on, lean on, strive

consilio alicuius nitor debes you must rely on other people’s advice

egeo – egere – egui – egitum to need, lack

careo – carere – carui – caritum to need, lack

auctoritate egebat he lacked authority

vescor – vesci to feed on

carne ferina vescebantur they fed on the flesh of wild animals

12 ABLATIVE OF PRICE

This is used with verbs and adjectives of buying and selling and gives a specific price

(cf. genitive of price for non-specific amounts)

hoc mihi uno talento stetit this cost me one talent

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13 ABLATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

the following adjectives are followed by a noun or pronoun in the ablative:

dignus – indignus worthy of – unworthy of

laude digna est hæc res this matter is worthy of praise

liber free from

tandem liber cura sum at last I am free from care

vacuus empty

castra militibus vacua erant the camp was empty of soldiers

fretus relying on

amicis fretus … relying on his friends …

præditus endowed with / furnished with

exercitus armis præditus erat the army was furnished with weapons

plenus full of

domus clamore erat plena the house was full of noise

contentus pleased with

exitu contentus sum I am pleased with the outcome

opus est to need

opus est mihi pecunia I need money

14 ABLATIVE OF EXACT TIME

A time expression in the ablative shows the exact time at which something occurred

(as opposed to the accusative of the length of time).

Cicerone consule when Cicero was consul

hieme in the winter

solis occasu at sunset

tertia hora at the third hour

illo tempore at that time

noctu by night

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It also shows the time within which something occurs

biduo within two days

tribus horis within three hours

id duobus diebus confecit he finished it in two days

15 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

This is also known as the “ablative of attendant circumstances”. It is common in Latin

because of the lack of active past participles (only the past participles of deponent

verbs are active in meaning). Therefore, one cannot say in Latin “Having murdered the

king, the rebels took power”. Instead, one has to say “The king having been murdered,

the rebels took power”. In this case, the participial phrase is not a grammatical part of

the sentence, and so it is placed in the ablative case. Where deponent verbs are

concerned, the past participle is used just as in English.

rege interfecto, populus gavisus est

the king having been killed, the people rejoiced.

epistula scripta, egressus est

the letter having been written, he went out.

libro lecto, patri gratias egit

when he had read the book, he thanked his father

castris captis, Cæsar milites interfecit

when he had captured the camp, Cæsar killed the soldiers

16 IDIOMATIC ABLATIVE

There are certain idiomatic expressions of comparison in which the ablative is used:

OPINIONE celerius opinione faster than one would think

SPE serius spe omnium later than they all hoped

SOLITO celerius solito faster than usual

ÆQUO gravius æquo more serious than was right

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locative

The locative case is found only in names of towns and small islands, along with a small

number of other words. In form, it corresponds to the genitive if the name is singular, and to

the ablative if the name is plural. It always has the sense of “at” or “in” a named place.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Romæ in Rome Athenis in Athens

Mileti in Miletus Gadibus at Cadiz

The other locative words are as follows:

humi (humus) in the ground ruri (rus) in the country

domi (domus) at home

belli (bellum) in war

militiæ (militia) in warfare

cordi (cor) at heart

In a few cases, the locative is also used to express exact time (normally the ablative is used):

luci (lux) in daylight vesperi (vesper) in the evening

Added to these uses, mention should be made of the accusative and ablative of names of

towns and small islands: “to” and “from” (in and ab) are omitted:

Romam to Rome Roma from Rome domum (to) home domo (from) home

vocative

The vocative case, used to call or address a person (and sometimes a thing), is found only in

the 2nd declension. In all other declensions it is the same as the nominative case.

Words ending in us have their vocative in E

Words ending in ius have their vocative in I

Greek names ending in eus have EU

amice! friend!

fili! son!

Antoni! Antonius!

Pompei! Pompeius!

Orpheu! Orpheus!

Very often the exclamatory O is prefaced to a word in the vocative: O fili mi!

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the grammar of

sentences

We now come to how words in sentences interact with one another – that is, what we call

“constructions” or “syntax”.

1. direct questions

When there is no interrogative word, the enclitic particle NE is added to the end of the first word.

Has your mother come home? Materne domum revenit?

If the answer expected is “yes”, NONNE is placed at the beginning:

You have finished your work, haven’t you? Nonne laborem confecisti? Surely you’ve finished your work?

If the answer expected is “no”, NUM is placed at the beginning:

You haven’t seen my book, have you? Num librum meum vidisti? Surely you haven’t seen my book?

In other cases, direct questions have an interrogative word at the beginning. The most common

interrogative words are:

quis – quid pronoun who – what? qui – quæ – quod adjective which – what?

quantus-a-um how big?

qualis what kind of?

quot how many?

quotiens how often, how many times?

quando when?

ubi where, when?

unde where from?

quo where to?

cur why?

quare why?

quomodo how?

quam diu how long?

uter-utra-utrum which (of two)?

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The verb after these interrogative words is in the INDICATIVE in direct questions.

Examples:

Who did that? Quis illud fecit?

What did you say? Quid dicisti?

Which book did you read? Quem librum legisti?

How big was the elephant? Quantus erat elephantus?

What kind of word is that? Quale verbum est illud?

How often did she sing? Quotiens canebat?

How many soldiers did you see? Quot milites vidisti?

When will he arrive? Quando [ubi] veniet?

Where did you get that book from? Unde illum librum adeptus es?

Where are you going tomorrow? Quo cras ibis?

Why did you complain? Cur [quare] questus es?

How did he make it? Quomodo id fecit?

How long did they stay? Quamdiu manserunt?

Which of the two books did you sell? Utrum librum vendidis?

Alternative questions are introduced by either UTRUM … AN / ANNON

or –NE … AN / ANNON:

Is she singing or shouting? Utrum canet an clamat? Canetne an clamat?

Are you coming or not? Utrum venis annon?

Venisne annon?

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2. relative clauses

A relative pronoun (qv in part 1) introduces a clause describing a noun or pronoun in the

main clause (called the ‘antecedent’). It has the same gender and number as the antecedent,

but takes the case required by its own clause.

Examples:

NOMINATIVE

The senator who wrote this Senator qui hoc scripsit

The girl who was playing Puella quæ ludebat

The war which occurred in Italy Bellum quod in Italia accidit

ACCUSATIVE

The book that I’m reading Liber quem lego The girl I saw Puella quam vidi

The girls I asked Puellæ quas rogavi

The body they found Corpus quod invenerunt

GENITIVE

The writer whose book I read Scriptor cuius librum legi

The woman whose son was rich Femina cuius filius erat dives

The soldiers whose weapons were bright Milites quorum arma erant clara

DATIVE

The boy he gave the book to Puer cui librum dedit The boys he gave the books to Pueri quibus libros dedit

ABLATIVE

The house in which we found the money Domus in qua pecuniam invenimus The towns from which they escaped Oppida e quibus evaserunt

If CUM (meaning ‘with’) is used with a relative pronoun, it is placed on the end of it:

The soldiers I am walking with Milites quibuscum ambulo The senator he went to Rome with Senator quocum Romam ivit

The following expressions are common:

is qui the man who / he who is qui hunc librum scripsit ea quæ the woman who / she who ea quæ canebat

id quod that which / what id quod dixi

ei qui the men who ei quos vidi

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3. comparison

There are two ways of translating THAN after a comparative (adjective or adverb):

[1] QUAM (meaning ‘than’):

His horse is taller than mine Equus suus altior quam meus est

The man’s legs are longer than the boy’s Crures hominis longiores quam pueri sunt

[2] Using the ablative:

The bone is bigger than the dog Os maius cane est

The slave is bolder than the master Servus audacior domino est

4. deliberative questions

These are the kind of questions that are asked in English using an interrogative word and the

verb ‘to be’, such as “What am I to do?”, “What is to be done?”, “How can I do that?” In Latin

these questions always have a verb in the subjunctive:

Examples:

What was I to reply? Quid responderem?

How was he to get to Rome? Quomodo Romam iret?

What am I to do? Quid faciam?

We are not to get angry. Non irascamur

How many times are we to repeat this? Quotiens hoc iteremus?

What sort of book am I to read? Qualem librum legam?

Which dog am I to choose? Quem canem eligam?

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5. wishes

Wishes can be made for the present time, as well as for the future. We can also wish that

something had happened in the past. These are all expressed with subjunctive verbs in Latin:

PRESENT - IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

We use the imperfect subjunctive in English as well to express a present wish: “I wish I had

enough money to buy that!” It is the same in Latin (sometimes with the word utinam at the

beginning):

I wish I had enough money! (Utinam) satis pecuniæ haberem!

If only you were here! (Utinam) adesses!

FUTURE - PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

Once again, English also uses the present subjunctive to express a wish for the future:

God save the Queen! Deus reginam servet!

May the king reign for ever! Rex in æternum reget!

PAST - PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

We use the pluperfect in English too for these wishes:

I wish I’d never seen it! (Utinam) id numquam vidissem

If only you hadn’t said that! Ne illud dixisses

I wish he’d spoken to me yesterday (Utinam) mihi heri locutus esset

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6. dates

This is here for your reference only!

Every Roman month had three special days –

the Kalends (always on the first of the month),

the Nones on the 5th,

the Ides on the 13th.

However, in March, May, July and October, the Nones fell on the 7th and the Ides on the 15th.

Remember that Julius Cæsar was murdered on the Ides of March!

The three special days were taken as points in each month from which the other days were

counted backwards – that is, they always said that a day was so many days before the special

day. Thus the 30th May would be “the third day before the Kalends of June” – “ante diem

tertium Kalendas Iunias”. And the 1st of June would be “Kalendis Iuniis” – each special day

was put in the ablative. The dates were also abbreviated: 30th May would become “a.d.III

Kal.Iun.” The day before a special day was “pridie” – so the 30th April would be “pridie Idus

Martias”.

All this was complicated even further by the fact that months (as at present) had different

numbers of days and leap years occurred every four years. The names of the months (which

were adjectives) were as follows:

January ianuarius

February februarius

March martius

April aprilis

May maius

June iunius

July iulius (named after Julius Cæsar – earlier it was quintilis)

August augustus (named after Augustus – earlier it was sextilis)

September september

October october

November november

December december

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7. prolative infinitive A prolative infinitive is one which directly follows another verb. In English there are two types: those

that follow verbs after ‘to’ (e.g., “He wanted to see”) and those which follow modal verbs without the

use of ‘to’ (e.g., “He will see”). In Latin there is a list of verbs after which the infinitive is used:

POSSUM posse potui to be able/can

He was able to read the book Librum legere potuit

I can’t find my money Pecuniam meam invenire non possum

DEBEO debere debui debitum ought / must

We ought to write to the senator ad senatorem scribere debemus

VIDEOR videri visus sum to seem

He seems to be hurrying festinare videtur

They seemed to be trying conari videbantur

VOLO/NOLO/MALO wish – want/not wish/prefer

He wanted to see the queen reginam videre voluit

They didn’t want to work laborare nolebant

We prefer to write letters epistulas scribere malumus

CONOR conari conatus sum try

We tried to catch the thief furem capere conati sumus

DOCEO docere docui doctum teach

They taught the children to read liberos legere docuerunt

DISCO discere didici learn

We learnt to speak Latin latine loqui didicimus

COGO cogere coegi coactum compel

He compelled them to confess eos confiteri coegit

SINO sinere sivi situm to allow

We allowed them to enter eos intrare sivimus

DESINO desinere destiti to cease / stop

The boys stopped shouting pueri clamare destiterunt

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INCIPIO incipere incepi inceptum begin

The soldiers began to be afraid milites timere inceperunt

CŒPI cœpisse (defective) to begin

They began to run out of the town ex oppido currere cœperant

STATUO statuere statui statutum to decide / determine

CONSTITUO constituere constitui constitutum

We decided to ask the magistrate prætorem rogare constituimus

CUPIO cupere cupivi cupitum to desire

Cæsar desired to see the consul Cæsar consulem videre cupiebat

SOLEO solere solitus sum to be used to/ accustomed to

I’m not used to working with my hands manibus laborare non soleo

AUDEO audere ausus sum to dare

Did Cicero dare to insult Antony? Antonione insultare ausus est Cicero?

The passive of all verbs of thinking and saying also takes a prolative infinitive, for example:

Cæsar is said to have seen a ghost Cæsar lemures vidisse dicitur

He is thought to be a praetor prætor esse putatur

8. nominative infinitive

English nouns ending in ING are usually translated in Latin by the gerund. However, if the

noun is the subject of the sentence, it is translated by the Latin infinitive. This is nearly always

with the verb ESSE in some form. The same can happen in English too, for example: “singing is

better than shouting” can be expressed “to sing is better than to shout”. This infinitive,

working as a noun, is always neuter (thus any adjective will be neuter as well).

Playing is more pleasant than working Ludere est iucundius quam laborare

It was difficult to understand his words Difficile erat intellegere verba sua

It’s easy to believe his innocence Facile est credere innocentiæ suæ

Working is praying Laborare est orare

It was sad to hear about his death Triste erat de sua morte audire

Writing letters is a pleasant task Scribere epistulas est opus gratum

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9. predicative dative

These are nouns in the dative case when they act as the predicate1 of the verb ‘to be’. See the

section on the dative case for a full explanation. The following are the most common:

auxilio esse (sometimes with mittere or venire) to be a help to

he was a help to his father auxilio patri erat

præsidio esse (sometimes with mittere or venire) to be a protection to

the walls are a protection to the city mœnia præsidio urbi sunt

subsidio esse (sometimes with mittere or venire) to be a support to

the soldiers came to support the general milites subsidio duci venerunt

bono esse to be an advantage to

the delay was an advantage to Cæsar mora Cæsari bono fuit

usui esse to be useful to

the book will be useful to my sister liber usui sorori meæ erit

saluti esse to be a means of safety to

the camp was a means of safety for the soldiers castra saluti erant militibus

honori esse to be an honour to

your praise was an honour to me laus tua honori mihi erat

oneri esse to be a burden to

the baggage was a burden to the horses impedimenta oneri erant equis

curæ esse to be a care to

her son was a care to the old woman filius curæ erat vetulæ

dedecori esse to be a disgrace to

your book is a disgrace to you liber dedecori tibi est

dolori esse to be a grief to

her daughter’s fate was a grief to her mother fatum filiæ dolori fuit matri

impedimento esse to be a hindrance to

his big feet are a hindrance to him magni pedes impedimento ei sunt

1 the predicate of a verb is everything apart from the subject and the verb itself.

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ludibrio esse to be a laughing-stock to

I am a laughing-stock to my enemies ludibrio sum inimicis meis

odio esse to be hateful to

this work is hateful to me hoc opus odio mihi est

ornamento esse to be an ornament to

the church will be an ornament to the city ecclesia ornamento urbi erit

argumento esse to be a proof to

the evidence was proof to the judge testimonium argumento fuit iudici

exitio esse to be disastrous to

the bad weather was disastrous to the flowers intemperiæ exitio fuerunt floribus

detrimento esse to be a disadvantage

the defeat is a great disadvantage to them clades magno detrimento eis est

admirationi esse to be a wonder to

the victory is a wonder to everyone victoria admirationi omnibus est

exemplo esse to be an example to

her work is an example to her friends labor exemplo amicis suis est

receptui canere to sound a retreat

they sounded the retreat at the sixth hour sexta hora receptui cecinerunt

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10. participial phrases

For the formation of the three types of participle, please see the section on adjectives and

participles.

The present participle corresponds to the English adjective ending in ING, and refers to

what is going on at the same time as the main verb.

The past participle corresponds to the English past participle (the adjectival part of the verb

placed after ‘has’ or ‘have’). When two indicative verbs in the same sentence have the same

subject and object, the first is made into a past participle agreeing with the object:

e.g. They killed the pig and ate it Porcum necatum ederunt

The future participle has the sense of ‘about to do something’. It does not exist in English.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES

While riding in her carriage, the queen read a book In curru vehens regina librum legebat

That is a loving gesture Hoc est gestus amans

When writing letters people tell the truth Epistulas scribentes, vera dicunt

His father found him watching the soldiers Pater eum milites spectantem invenit

PAST PARTICIPLES

They read the letter and gave it to their mother Matri epistulam lectam dederunt

Having been acquitted, the prisoner was freed Captivus absolutus liberatus est

The conquered tribes were enslaved Tribus victæ in servitutem redactæ sunt

Saying these words, he walked out Hæc locutus, discessit

The slave caught the horse and led it home Servus equum captum domum duxit

FUTURE PARTICIPLES

As I was about to go home, I saw the thief Domum iturus furem vidi

On the point of setting out we were stopped Profecturi inhibiti sumus

On the point of sleep, the boy remembered his book Dormiturus puer libri meminerat

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11. accusative & infinitive

This is the construction of indirect statement. All verbs of thinking and saying are followed by

it. The subject of the clause is placed in the accusative, and the verb is an infinitive. The tense

of the infinitive depends on the tense of the original statement. For example, verbs of hoping,

promising, swearing and threatening will need a future infinitive (to translate the English

“would”).

‘He said he was ready.’ actual words : ‘I am ready’ therefore present infinitive

‘He said he would go.’ actual words : ‘I shall go’ therefore future infinitive

‘He said he had done it.’ actual words : ‘I have done it’ therefore perfect infinitive

If the verb to say is negative, Latin uses the verb to deny instead.

‘He said that he would never do it’ becomes ‘He denied that he would ever do it.’

negavit se id umquam facturum esse

Here are examples of all six infinitives used after dixit:

PRESENT ACTIVE

He said he was ready Dixit se paratum esse

He said his brother was ready Dixit fratrem paratum esse

PRESENT PASSIVE

He said he was being praised Dixit se laudari

PERFECT ACTIVE

He said he had seen the king Dixit se regem vidisse

PERFECT PASSIVE

He said he had been praised Dixit se laudatum esse

FUTURE ACTIVE

He said he would see the king Dixit se regem visurum esse

FUTURE PASSIVE

He said he would be praised Dixit se laudatum iri

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If ‘he/she/it’ is the subject of the accusative and infinitive construction, and it refers to the

same person as the main clause, it is translated as se. If it is someone else, it is translated as

eum / eam / id. For example:

He said that he (himself) would come dixit se venturum esse

He said that he (someone else) would come dixit eum venturum esse

One important exception to the use of the accusative & infinitive is the IMPERSONAL PASSIVE

use of verbs of saying, thinking or seeming. When these are passive they must have their

subject changed to a personal one. For example:

It seems that the king has arrived becomes The king seems to have arrived

Rex venisse videtur

It is said that he is lazy becomes He is said to be lazy

ignavus dicitur

It was thought that the king was ill becomes The king was thought to be ill

Regem morbum esse putabatur

The most common verbs that are followed by an accusative & infinitive construction are

listed below:

puto – putare – putavi – putatum to think existimo – existimare – existimavi – existimatum to think

reor – reri – ratus sum to think

credo – credere – credidi – creditum to believe

pro certo habeo to be sure

sentio – sentire – sensi – sensum to notice

intellego – intellegere – intellixi – intellectum to understand

animadverto – animadvertere – animadverti to notice

cognosco – cognoscere – cognovi – cognotum to learn/ find out

scio – scire – scivi – scitum to know

nescio – nescire – nescivi – nescitum not to know

audio – audire – audivi – auditum to hear

dico – dicere – dixi – dictum to say

nego – negare – negavi – negatum to deny / say … not

memoro – memorare – memoravi – memoratum to mention

nuntio – nuntiare – nuntiavi – nuntiatum to announce

refero – referre – retuli – relatum to announce

narro – narrare – narravi – narratum to tell / relate

clamo – clamare – clamavi – clamatum to shout

simulo – simulare – simulavi – simulatum to pretend

respondeo – respondere – respondi – responsum to reply

affirmo – affirmare – affirmavi – affirmatum to affirm / declare

certiorem facere to inform

ferunt they say

inter omnes constat it is agreed

promitto – promittere – promise – promissum to promise

polliceor – polliceri – pollicitus sum to promise

spero – sperare – speravi – speratum to hope

iuro – iurare – iuravi – iuratum to swear

minor – minari – minatus sum to threaten

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12. passive of intransitive verbs

Normally verbs which take a dative object (see section on use of the dative case, in which

they are listed) cannot be put into the passive. However, they can be used impersonally, that

is, with ‘it’ as the subject.

Also, verbs which are intransitive (i.e., verbs that don’t have an object) are used impersonally

in the passive when we are not told who carried out the action.

Here are some examples of the passive impersonal use of verbs that take the dative:

The slave was pardoned becomes It was pardoned to the slave

parsum est servo

The queen will not be obeyed becomes It will not be obeyed to the queen

reginæ non parebitur

The enemy was resisted becomes It was resisted to the enemy

hostibus resistebatur

He will never be believed become s It will never be believed to him

Numquam ei credetur

And here are some examples of intransitive verbs used impersonally in the passive:

A battle was fought becomes It was fought

pugnatum est

They arrived at 3 o’clock becomes It was arrived at 3 o’clock

ventum est tertia hora

It will be announced tomorrow becomes It will be announced tomorrow

nuntiabitur cras

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13. impersonal verbs / general use

These are verbs which would be impersonal in English (taking ‘it’ as their subject). They are

divided into seven groups depending on the cases that they take.

GROUP 1 ACCUSATIVE & GENITIVE

These verbs of feeling take the accusative of the person who feels and the genitive of the reason

for their feeling. They can also take an infinitive:

miseret it evokes pity perfect = miseruit

I pity the slaves me miseret servorum

piget it annoys perfect = piguit

the delay annoyed Cæsar Cæsarem piguit moræ

pænitet it repents perfect = pænituit

the man repented of his sins Hominem pænituit peccatorum

tædet it tires perfect = tæduit

we are tired of work nos tædet laboris

pudet it shames perfect = puduit

I am ashamed of my speech me pudet orationis

I am ashamed to say it me pudet hoc dicere

GROUP 2 ACCUSATIVE & INFINITIVE

oportet it is necessary (must) perfect = oportuit

I must depart oportet me discedere

We had to come oportuit nos venire

decet it is right/proper perfect = decuit

it is right for us to praise the gods decet nos deos laudare

dedecit it is not right / it is improper perfect = dedecuit

it is improper for you to lie dedecit te mentiri

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GROUP 3 GENITIVE AND INFINITIVE

interest it is important perfect = interfuit

it is important for Cæsar to respond interest Cæsaris respondere

refert it is important

it is important to his friends for him to reply refert amicorum eum respondere

GROUP 4 ABLATIVE FEMININE SINGULAR OF PRONOUN & INFINITIVE

These are the same two verbs, but when used with a pronoun instead of a noun the ablative

feminine singular of the possessive adjective is used:

interest it is important

it is important to me that he should come interest mea eum venire

GROUP 5 DATIVE AND INFINITIVE

licet it is allowed perfect = licuit

we are allowed to see the judge licet nobis iudicem videre

we were allowed to see the judge licuit nobis iudicem videre

libet it is pleasing perfect = libuit

we are pleased to see you libet nobis te videre

placet it seems right perfect = placuit

I am pleased to see my friend placet mihi amicum meum videre

it seemed right to Cæsar to come placuit Cæsari venire

GROUP 6 UT & SUBJUNCTIVE

accidit it happens perfect = accidit

the master happened to be at home accidit ut dominus domi esset

evenit it happens perfect = evenit

it happens that I’m not ready evenit ut non sim paratus

fieri potest it’s possible perfect = fieri potuit

it’s possible that he has come fieri potest ut venerit

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GROUP 7 ABSOLUTE EXPRESSIONS

pluit it’s raining perfect = pluit

tonat it’s thundering perfect = tonuit

ningit it’s snowing perfect = ninxit

14. conditional clauses

These are the clauses dependent on the conjunction “if”. Just as in English, Latin has open

conditions which take an indicative verb, and subjunctive conditions, which deal with

hypotheses. The correct grammatical terminology is that the main clause is called the

protasis and the “if” clause is the apodosis.

There are six types of condition, as follows:

1. CONDITION THAT MAY HAVE BEEN FULFILLED IN THE PAST

[a] on one occasion both protasis and apodosis are perfect indicative:

if you believed this, you were wrong si hoc credidisti, erravis

[b] as a regular occurrence both protasis and apodosis are imperfect indicative:

if you believed this, you were wrong si hoc credebas, errabas

2. CONDITION THAT MAY BE FULFILLED IN THE PRESENT

both protasis and apodosis are present indicative if you believe this (now) you are wrong si hoc credis, eras

3. CONDITION THAT MAY BE FULFILLED IN THE FUTURE

apodosis is future-perfect indicative and protasis is future indicative if you believe this (in the future) you will be wrong si hoc credideris, errabis

4. CONDITION THAT MAY BE FULFILLED IN A VAGUE FUTURE

both apodosis and protasis are present subjunctive if you were to believe this, you would be wrong si hoc credas, erres

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5. CONDITION THAT IS NOT FULFILLED IN THE PRESENT

both apodosis and protasis are imperfect subjunctive

if you believed this (now) you would be wrong si hoc crederes, errares

6. CONDITION THAT WAS NOT FULFILLED IN THE PAST

both apodosis and protasis are pluperfect subjunctive

if you had believed this, you would have been wrong si hoc credidisses, erravisses

7. MIXTURE OF PAST AND PRESENT CONDITION

the apodosis is pluperfect and protasis imperfect subjunctive

if I had asked, you would be here now si rogavissem, hic nunc adesseres

“unless” or “if not” is expressed by NISI:

if he hadn’t asked, I wouldn’t have replied nisi rogavisset, non respondissem

“whether … or ….” is seu … seu...

whether we are rich or poor, we are happy seu dives seu pauperes sumus læti

15. temporal clauses

These are time clauses, introduced by conjunctions of time:

postquam after (often split into two parts) antequam before (often split into two parts)

priusquam before (often split into two parts)

ubi when

ut when

quotiens whenever

simulac as soon as

simulatque as soon as

cum primum as soon as

donec until

quoad until

dum (while) and cum (when) will be dealt with later as they have special uses.

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All these conjunctions are followed by a verb in the indicative, except on the following two

occasions:

[1] when the clause is part of oratio obliqua (indirect speech)

He said he would worship the gods after the temple had been built

dixit se deos veneraturum esse postquam templum æedificatum esset

[2] when the time clause really expresses purpose (usually with ‘could’ or ‘should’)

the mouse escaped before the cat could catch it

mus ante evasit quam felis eum caperet

The use of indicative tenses after postquam, simulac, ubi and ut differs slightly from the

English. English uses the pluperfect (“He went out after he had finished the work”) but Latin

uses the perfect:

He went out after he had finished the work

Egressus est postquam opus confecit

However, the tense is the same as English if the exact time is stated:

After he had worked for two hours he had a rest

Postquam duas horas laboraverat, quievit

After antequam and priusquam the tenses differ from English as follows:

for the English present and future, Latin uses the present; the perfect is used for the past:

I shall finish it before you arrive

hoc conficiam priusquam advenis

but after a negative the temporal clause will be in the future-perfect:

I shall not finish it before you arrive

hoc non conficiam priusquam veneris

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16. cum

Cum as a conjunction (do not confuse it with the preposition meaning ‘with’) can mean

“when”, “whenever”, “since” and “although”. In each case its usage is different.

1 WHEN

The rule is that if the verb in the cum clause is in a primary sequence, the mood is

indicative, whereas if it is in a historic sequence the mood is subjunctive:

[a] primary

when you see her, give her the letter

cum eam videris, da ei epistulam

when they arrive I will give them the book

cum venerint eis librum dabo

[b] historic

when he arrived in Rome he saw the pope

cum Romam venisset papam vidit

when the farmer had killed the pig he sold the meat

cum agricola porcum necavisset, carnem vendidit

[c] inverted cum

when the idea of time is really in the main clause (in a historic sequence) then cum

takes the indicative instead of the subjunctive. For example, in “The sun was setting

when he saw her” the idea of time is in the main clause – that is, he saw her when the

sun was setting:

The sun was setting when he saw her

sol occidebat cum eam vidit

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2 WHENEVER

The tenses here are very different from English: when whenever refers to present

time, Latin uses the perfect tense; when it refers to future time, Latin uses the future-

perfect, and when it refers to past time, Latin uses the pluperfect. For example:

present: whenever I see him I rejoice! cum eum vidi, gaudeo

future: whenever I see him I shall rejoice! cum eum videro, gaudebo

past: whenever I saw him I rejoiced! cum eum videram, gaudebam

3 ALTHOUGH & SINCE

With this meaning, cum always takes the subjunctive:

Although the enemy was stronger, Cæsar resisted them

Cum hostes fortiores essent, Cæsar eis restitit

Since this is easy for you, you can finish it

Cum hoc tibi facile sit, conficere potes

18. dum

Dum can mean while, as long as and until. Its compound dummodo means provided that.

1 WHILE

In this case, dum is always followed by the PRESENT indicative:

While she was working, she saw soldiers approaching

Dum laborat, milites appropinquantes vidit

While he was preparing the bread, the oven caught fire

Dum panem parat, furnus arsit

2 WHILE / AS LONG AS

“While” really has two meanings: one (as above) concerning an action which another

action interrupts, and the second concerning two actions that continue

simultaneously. In this latter case, dum has the same indicative tense as in English:

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My mother stayed here while she was ill

Mea mater hic mansit dum ægrotabat

While the men worked the women chatted

Dum homines laborabant, mulieres garriebant

3 UNTIL

Dum meaning “until” has the normal tenses of a temporal clause. The only exception is

that if the main clause is negative antequam or priusquam are used instead.

Stay in the temple until I arrive

Mane in templo dum venero

He waited outside until his father came

Foris mansit dum pater venit

but Don’t go away until the work is finished

Noli discedere priusquam labor confectus erit

4 DUMMODO – PROVIDED THAT

This takes the subjunctive and the same tense as in English (and ne is used for the

negative):

Provided that you work hard, you will become rich

Dummodo maxime labores, dives fies

Provided you don’t shout, the lion will not attack you

Dummodo ne clames, leo te non aggredietur

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19. gerund & gerundive

For the formation of the gerund and gerundive, see the section on verbs.

A GERUND is a noun formed from a verb and used in all cases except the nominative (when

an infinitive is used instead). It is always neuter and singular. It has the same uses as the

English gerund (verbal noun) ending in ING. Because they are verbal, gerunds can take

objects and direct objects.

[1] with the ACCUSATIVE

for the purpose of writing books ad libros scribendum

for seeing the queen ad reginam videndum

This use, as you can see, shows purpose, as does the next:

[2] with the GENITIVE

for the sake of writing books causa libros scribendi

for seeing the queen causa reginam videndi

[3] with the DATIVE

they enjoy writing books libros scribendo student

[4] with the ABLATIVE

by writing books libros scribendo

A GERUNDIVE is an adjective formed in exactly the same way as a gerund, and belongs to

Type 1 adjectives (like longus). It can be used in all cases where the verb it comes from is

transitive (i.e., takes an object). So in each of the examples above, a gerundive could have

been used also:

[1] with the ACCUSATIVE

for writing books ie, for books being written ad libros scribendos

[2] with the GENITIVE

for the sake of seeing the queen ie, for the sake of the queen being seen causa reginæ videndæ

[3] with the DATIVE

they enjoy writing books ie, they enjoy books being written scribendis libris student

[4] with the ABLATIVE

by writing books ie. by books being written scribendis libris

NB If the use of the genitive would require two genitive plurals, the gerund is used instead:

not causa librorum scribendorum, but causa scribendi libros.

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20. gerundive of obligation

To express obligation, the GERUNDIVE is used with any tense of the verb TO BE. This is done

in two ways, depending on whether the verb is transitive (takes an object) or not. Obligation

is expressed in English with must, have to, ought to.

1 TRANSITIVE VERBS

Where English has “must”, etc., Latin has the gerundive with the sense “to be done” – thus

all gerundives of transitive verbs can mean “to be …..” e.g.,

We must write the book becomes the book is to-be-written by us

They ought to see the queen becomes the queen is to-be-seen by them.

The sense of “by” is rendered by the agent in the dative.

the farmer has to find his cow becomes the cow is to-be-found by the farmer

vacca est invenienda agricolæ

she was to do the work becomes the work was to-be-done by her

labor erat faciendus illi

the soldier ought to have seen the enemy becomes the enemy was to-be-seen by the soldier

hostes erant videndi militi

2 INTRANSITIVE VERBS

In this case, the gerundive is neuter (with the sense of “it” in English). Thus, “We must

obey the laws” becomes “It is to-be-obeyed to the laws by us” – note than when there is a

dative already, the agent goes into the ablative:

we must obey the laws becomes it is to-be-obeyed to the laws by us

parendum legibus a nobis est

they should hurry becomes it is to-be-hurried by them

festinandum eis est

we had to go becomes it was to-be-gone by us

eundum nobis erat

the slave is to be forgiven becomes it is to-be-forgiven to the slave

ignoscendum est servo

she ought to marry her friend becomes it is to-be-married to her friend by her

nubendum amico ab illa est

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21. supine

The supine is found in two forms:

[1] in UM

[2] in U

1 SUPINE IN ‘UM’

This is used to express purpose (just like ut and the subjunctive), but only if [a] the purpose

verb is not negative or passive (in which case another form of purpose construction is used)

and [b] after verbs of going, coming and sending. For example:

We went to Rome to see the pope

Romam ivimus papam visum

He came to my house to borrow a book

Domum meam venit librum apportatum

The general sent the soldier to find the enemy

Dux militem misit hostes inventum

2 SUPINE IN ‘U’

When in English we use an infinitive to explain an adjective (using “it + to be + adjective +

infinitive) , Latin uses a supine in U instead:

His song was pleasant to hear carmen gratum erat auditu

The bag is heavy to carry saccus gravis est portatu

wonderful to relate mirabile dictu

The book was very easy to understand liber facillimus erat intellectu

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22. purpose constructions

The main ways to express purpose in Latin (see each one explained individually elsewhere)

are as follows:

1 ‘UT’ OR ‘QUI’ WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE

He sent the slave to find the book servum misit ut librum inveniret

servum misit qui librum inveniret

2 SUPINE IN ‘UM’

He sent the slave to find the book servum misit librum inventum

3 GERUND OR GERUNDIVE

He sent the slave to find the book servum misit ad librum inveniendum

servum misit causa libri inveniendi

23. final clauses

A final clause is a clause of purpose. (See previous §22 for other ways that purpose is

expressed.)

These clauses begin with ut, a relative pronoun, quo when comparative, ne when negative:

Because of the use of NE for negative purpose (“lest” or “in order than not”), words that

would be negative in English become positive in Latin after NE, so that …

so that no one becomes lest anyone ne quis

so that nothing becomes lest anything ne quid

so that never becomes lest ever ne umquam

so that nowhere becomes lest somewhere ne usquam

The verb in final clauses is always subjunctive.

1 UT AND NE

He hurried to the town to buy food

in urbem festinavit ut cibum emeret

We went to Rome to see the pope

Romam ivimus ut papam videremus

They work to earn money

laborant ut pecuniam capiant

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He hid so that no one could find him

Se celavit ne quis eum inveniret

They said nothing so that they could never be blamed

Nihil dicebant ne umquam culparentur

2 RELATIVE PRONOUN

ut is replaced with an appropriate relative pronoun when the subject of the final clause

is the same as the object of the main clause:

Cæsar send a soldier to find the general

Cæsar militem misit qui ducem inveniret

3 QUO WITH COMPARATIVE

quo is used if there is a comparative (adjective or adverb) in the final clause:

He ran to get to the city more quickly

Cucurrit quo celerius in urbem veniret

He learnt the words to speak the language more easily

Verba didicit quo facilius linguam loqueretur

4 SO THAT … AND NOT

A double purpose, whose second part is negative, is expressed by ut and neve (or neu):

He sent the soldier to fight and not to rest

militem misit ut pugnaret neve quiesceret

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24. consecutive clauses

These are clauses of result. Like final clauses, their verb is always in the subjunctive.

However, when they are negative, they do not take ne – they have ut non instead. Words that

introduce consecutive clauses are as follows:

so that (with the result that) ut so that not ut non

so big that tantus ut

of such a kind that talis ut

so (+ adjective/adverb) tam … ut

in such a way that ita ut

to such an extent that adeo ut

so many that tot ut

so often that totiens ut

so that no one ut nemo

The tense of the subjunctive is usually the same as English, but for the past tense the

imperfect is normally used, that is, unless the result is quick.

Examples:

The soldier was so brave that he received a reward

Miles tam fortis erat ut præmium acciperet

The storm is so great that we cannot stay outside

Tempestas tanta est ut foris manere non possimus

The book was of such a kind that everyone wanted it

Liber talis erat ut omnes eum vellent

He worked in such a way that his master praised him

Laboravit ita ut magister eum laudaret

They tried to such an extent that in the end they succeeded

Conati adeo sunt ut tandem florerent

There were so many cows that we had too much milk.

Tot vaccæ erant ut nimis lactis haberemus

The slave stole so often that his master punished him severely

Servus totiens furatus est ut dominus eum graviter puniverit

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25. indirect commands

There are two kinds:

[1] verbs that take an accusative and infinitive

[2] verbs that take ut and the subjunctive

An indirect command is found after verbs of ordering, asking, warning, advising and

encouraging.

1 TAKING AN ACCUSATIVE & INFINITIVE

iubeo – iubere – iussi – iussum to command

veto – vetare – vetui – vetitum to forbid

He told the soldier to kill the slave

militem iussit servum interficere

He forbade the soldier to kill the slave

militem vetuit servum interficere

2 TAKING ‘UT’ AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE

peto – petere – petivi – petitum to ask

rogo – rogare – rogavi – rogatum

precor – precari – precatus sum

He asked the soldier to kill the slave

ab milite petivit ut servum interficeret

militem rogavit ut servum interficeret

militem precatus est ut servum interficeret

oro – orare – oratus sum to beg

He begged the gods to answer his question

deos oravit ut quæstioni suæ responderent

flagito – flagitare – flagitavi – flagitatum to demand

postulo – postulare – postulavi – postulatum

posco – poscere – poposci

He demanded that the soldier should kill the slave

postulavit ut miles servum interficeret

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hortor – hortari – hortatus sum to encourage

admoneo – admonere – admonui – admonitum

He encouraged the soldiers to fight well

milites hortatus est ut bene pugnarent

impero – imperare – imperavi – imperatum to order, command

He ordered the soldier to kill the slave

militi imperavit ut servum interficeret

moneo – monere – monui to advise, warn

suadeo – suadere – suasi – suasum (takes the dative)

He advised the soldiers not to fight

milites monuit ne pugnarent

persuadeo – persuadere – persuasi – persuasum (takes dative) to persuade

he persuaded the enemy not to besiege the town

persuasit hostibus ne urbem oppugnarent

NB Verbs of warning and persuading can be used in two senses:

[1] as an indirect command: “I warned you not to do it”

Te monui ne id faceres

[2] as an indirect statement: “I warned you that he had arrived”.

Te monui eum advenisse

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26. indirect questions

Indirect questions are reports of questions, usually following verbs of saying and thinking,

such as ask, tell, know. The questions are introduced by if, whether, or an interrogative word

such as where or why or when.

Verbs in indirect questions are always in the subjunctive – they also sometimes require a very

rare tense: the future subjunctive. There are two future subjunctives: the primary and the

historic, formed as follows:

primary future participle + sim, sis, sit, simus, sitis, sint

historic future participle + essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis, essent

Note: if and whether in single questions are translated by NUM; double questions (whether…

or) require UTRUM … AN / ANNON

Examples:

I don’t understand what you said non intellego quod dixeris

I know whom you gave it to scio cui id dedideris

he asked where the slaves were going rogavit quo servi irent

He doesn’t know if his brother is ready nescit num frater paratus sit

We asked why they did it rogavimus quare hoc facerent

I don’t know where the slave was Nescio ubi servus esset

Do you know when he is returning? Scisne quando venturus sit?

I don’t know whether he’s rich or poor Nescio utrum dives an pauper sit

Did you find out what he said? Cognovistine quod diceret?

He told me when he would be ready Mihi dixit cuando paratus esset

He wants to know why you were crying Vult scire quare fleres

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27. verbs of fearing

As in English, verbs of fearing can be followed either by an infinitive or by a ‘that’ clause,

which in Latin begins with ne even though the verb is positive.

The main verbs of fearing are as follows:

timeo timere timui

metuo metuere metui

vereor vereri veritus sum

Also found is periculum est, which means “there is a risk”

Examples with infinitive:

The boy is afraid to go out Puer timet egredi

The girl was afraid to speak Puella metuit loqui

We were afraid to fight pugnare verebamur

Examples with NE (ne non is used for the negative) :

He was afraid that his father would see him

Timebat ne pater eum videret

I was afraid that they weren’t coming

Metui ne non venirent

We were afraid of being punished

Veriti sumus ne puniremur

The English present participle FEARING is translated by the Latin past participle veritus. This

takes ne and the subjunctive in historic sequence:

Fearing that the soldier was about to kill him, the slave ran away

Veritus ne miles eum interfacturum esset, servus fugit

When the clause after vereor is negative, ut is often used instead of ne non:

I was afraid that I would not receive the money

Veritus sum ut pecuniam acciperem

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28. relative and subjunctive Clauses where qui, quæ, quod are used instead of ut, apart from occurring in final clauses, also

occur on five other occasions, as follows:

1 AFTER ‘EST’ AND ‘SUNT’ MEANING ‘THERE IS’, ‘THERE ARE’

There are some who believe in the gods Sunt qui in deos credant

There is one that loves animals Est qui animalia amet

2 TO SHOW THE RESULT OF A CHARACTERISTIC

She is not the sort of girl to do that Non ea est quæ illud faciat

3 AFTER ‘IDONEUS’, ‘DIGNUS’, ‘INDIGNUS’

The king was not suitable to lead an army rex non idoneus erat qui exercitum duceret

They are not worthy to be praised Non sunt digni qui laudentur

They are unworthy of receiving the reward Sunt indigni qui præmium accipiant

4 TO REFER TO PRONOUNS IN THE MAIN CLAUSE

aliquis, quis, nemo, nullus, nihil, unus and solus in the main clause have a relative

pronoun in the subjunctive clause:

They have no one to help them Neminem habent qui eos adiuvet

He has nothing to eat Nihil habet quod edat

There is no one who writes me letters Nemo est qui ad me epistulas scribat

He had someone to talk to Aliquem habebat cui loqueretur

It’s the only book I want Solum librum est quem velim

5 TO EXPRESS “TOO … TO”

This is the use with a comparative adjective followed by quam and the relative:

We were too tired to work fessiores eramus quam qui laboremus

The donkey was too old to carry burdens asinus veterior erat quam qui onera ferret

She is too fat to use that seat obesior est quam quæ hac sede utatur

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29. quin & quominus

Quin and quominus are the relatives used after verbs of preventing and hindering.

QUOMINUS can be used after any of these verbs.

QUIN is used if the main verb is negative, or contains words such as “scarcely” (aegre) or

“hardly” (vix). Quin is also used after expressions of doubt, and expressions of possibility

when both clauses are negative.

quin and quominus are also used in certain idiomatic expressions.

1 VERBS OF HINDERING AND PREVENTING:

to forbid interdico – interdicere – interdixi – interdicum (takes the dative as well)

to prevent deterreo – deterrere – deterrui – deteritum

to refuse recuso – recusare – recusavi – recusatum

to restrain retineo – retinere – retinui – retentum

to hinder impedio – impedire – impedivi – impeditum

to hinder obsto – obstare – obsteti – obstatum (takes the dative as well)

I prevented him from killing the slave

Eum deterrui quominus servum interficeret

We forbade him to enter the temple

Ei interdiximus quominus in templum ingreditur

He restrained him from fighting

Eum retinuit quominus pugnaret

They hindered her from speaking

Ei obsteterunt quominus loqueretur

2 USING ‘QUIN’

Nothing prevented me from acting

Nihil me deterrebat quin agerem

They could hardly restrain him from fighting

Eum vix retinebant quin pugnaret

There is no doubt that they are slaves

Non dubium est quin hi servi sint

It is impossible that they have conquered

Non potest fieri quin vicerint

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3 IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

[a] There is nobody who … not; everybody nemo est quin

There is no one who doesn’t know how to read

Nemo est quin legere sciat

Everybody knows how to read

Nemo est quin legere sciat

[b] to be “nearly” haud multum abest quin

We were nearly killed

Haud multum aberat quin interficeremur

They nearly fell ill

Haud multum aberat quin aegrotaverint

[c] to take every opportunity nihil prætermittere quin

We take every opportunity to read your book

Nihil prætermittimus quin tuum librum legamus

He took every opportunity to punish the slave

Nihil prætermisit quin servum puniret

[d] I can’t help non possum facere quin

I can’t help laughing

Non possum facere quin rideam

They can’t help boasting

Non possunt facere quin glorientur

[d] It is due to [me/you] that … not per [me/te] stat quominus …

It is due to me that you were not killed

Per me stat quominus servareris

It is due to your father that you are not rich

Per patrem stat quominus dives sis

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30. causal clauses

These are clauses of REASON, introduced by conjunctions such as “because”, “since”.

because - quod & quia (when the verb is subjunctive only QUOD is used)

cum (followed by the subjunctive)

since - quoniam

The general rule is that causal clauses have an indicative verb and take the same tense as in

English. For example:

He didn’t work because he was lazy non laboravit quia ignavus erat non laboravit quod ignavus erat

Since he was tired, he decided to sleep quoniam fessus erat, dormire statuit

The exceptions are as follows:

[1] when the reason is not fact, but alleged, the verb is in the subjunctive:

he didn’t go to the theatre because apparently he had no money

in theatrum non ivit quod pecuniam non haberet

[2] a “not … but …” reason takes the subjunctive:

I have married this woman not because I like her but because she is rich

hanc uxorem duxi non quod illam amem sed quod dives est

[3] when CUM is used for ‘because’ the verb is always subjunctive:

he didn’t work because he was lazy

non laboravit cum ignavus esset

[4] when the causal clause occurs in oratio obliqua the verb is always subjunctive:

he said that because he was tired he had decided to sleep

dixit se quod fessus esset dormire statuisse

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31. concessive clauses

These are clauses introduced by conjunctions such as “although”, “however …” or “even if”.

ALTHOUGH quamquam with the indicative quamvis with the subjunctive

licet with the subjunctive cum with the subjunctive

1 QUAMQUAM

Quamquam states a fact, so the verb is always indicative:

although he is rich, he is mean quamquam dives est, turpis est

although we had eaten, we were hungry quamquam ederamus, esurientes eramus

2 QUAMVIS & LICET

These express a possibility rather than a fact, which explains their subjunctive verb

although I may not want to, I will come quamvis nollem, veniam

however tired he was, he always worked quamvis fessus esset, semper laborabat

3 CUM

This always takes the subjunctive, whether it states a fact or a possibility

Although he is rich, he is mean cum dives sit, turpis est

4 EVEN IF

This is translated by etiamsi, etsi, or tametsi. Because of the si part of the conjunction, it

always conforms to the rules for CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (qv).

Even if he beats the slave, he will work etsi servum percusserit, laborabit

Even if he had been tired he would have worked etsi fessus fuisset, laboravisset

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32. comparative clauses

The mood of the verb in comparative clauses depends on whether the comparison is a fact, when the

indicative is used, or an imaginary comparison (“as if”), when the subjunctive is used.

1 FACTUAL COMPARISON

The most common comparative words and phrases are as follows:

idem ac the same as (idem declines)

our house is the same as their house nostra domus eadem ac eorum domus

alius ac different from (alius declines)

her book is different from ours sua liber alius est ac noster

her flowers are different from her mother’s suæ flores aliæ sunt ac matris

aliter ac differently from

he works differently from his brother laborat aliter ac frater

æque ac as much as

she cries as much as her baby flet æque ac infans sua

perinde ac exactly as

he wrote the letter exactly as I dictated epistulam scripsit perinde ac dictavi

sicut just as

he came at 3 o’clock just as he said tertia hora venit sicut dixit

tam … quam … as … as …

the bag is as heavy as the boy saccus tam gravis quam puer est

totiens … quotiens … as often as

he writes as often as I write scribit totiens quotiens scribo

tot … quot … as many as

there were as many boys as girls in the temple tot pueri quot puellæ in templo erant

tantus … quantus … as big as

the bone is as big as the dog os tantum est quantum canis

talis … quails … such as

such books as I have read tales libri quales legi

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2 IMAGINARY COMPARISON

This construction requires a verb in the subjunctive:

as if tamquam si – velut si – quasi

for example:

he ran as if he were in danger of death

cucurrit velut si in periculo mortis esset

he trembled as if he had seen a ghost

tremebat quasi lemures vidisset

3 PROPORTIONAL COMPARATIVE

This translates the English “the more … the more …”

The construction is quo + comparative + eo + comparative

The more he he sees his wife, the more he loves her

quo plus uxorem vidit, eo plus illam amat

33. infinitive of indignant exclamation

This is an exclamatory figure that Romans used to express how indignant they felt. We have a

similar construction in English, though we use the present infinitive to express it, often

preceded by and. You may well meet the construction, both with the present infinitive and the

perfect, especially in the works of Cicero.

And to think that he really said that!

putavisse eum illud dixisse!

I be vanquished and abandon my plan?!

mene incepto desistere victam? (from Vergil)

To think that such a man could have said such things!

Talem hominem talia dixisse!

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34. figures of speech

aganectesis exclamation resulting from deep indignation

alliteration the repetition of consonant sounds: the furrow followed free (Coleridge).

anacœnosis asking the audience to agree

anaphora the repetition of a word or part of speech in a succession of

positions.

anastrophe reversal of the normal order of words in order to emphasise

a word or idea (verb at beginning and subject at end)

anticlimax the decline from an exalted tone or idea.

antithesis the forceful expression of contrasting ideas (adj. antithetical).

also syncrisis

anthypophora asking a rhetorical question then answering it oneself.

apophasis emphasis by means of negation:

apostrophe [1] addressing an object as though it were a person

[2] addressing an absent or dead person as though present.

assonance the repetition of vowel sounds

asyndeton the omission of conjunctions for effect

bathos descent into the unexalted or absurd; stronger than anticlimax.

chiasmus a crossing of terms, named after the Greek character chi (χ) in which the elements of the first part are reversed in the second

clausula the downward cadence of closing words in Cicero’s sentences.

climax an arrangement of ideas or words so that each is more impressive than the

previous; from the Greek κλιμαξ - ladder. conduplicatio repetition of a single word in a series of clauses

consonance a variety of alliteration in which the same consonants are

repeated with different vowels: ship/shop.

deesis an appeal to the gods (“O di immortales!”)

diazeugma one subject governing several verbs

dysphemism the opposite of euphemism (qv)

dissonance the arrangement of unharmonious or unpleasant sounds in

order to gain an effect (tongue-twisters often fall into this

category)

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ecphonesis emotional exclamation (‘O tempora! O mores!)

erotema another term for a rhetorical question

hendiadys joining two constituents grammatically rather than subordinating one to the

other:

homoioptoton repetition of similar endings in adjacent words or words in a parallel position

homoiteleuton similar: series of parallel words with the same ending.

hypallage usually known as transferred epithet—the use of an adjective to describe a

noun other than the one it strictly refers to.

hyperbaton similar to anastrophe (qv) in that it consists of placing words out of their

normal order.

hyperbole exaggeration for emphasis or effect.

isocolon a series of parallel elements of equal length (see tricolon)

litotes the opposite of hyperbole: understatement for emphasis or effect.

metaphor the description of something in the terms of something else; the two parts of

the metaphor are the tenor (i.e. the thing described) and the vehicle (i.e. the

noun used for comparison);

metastasis denying, then turning opponent’s argument back on him

onomatopœia the formation of words from sounds which resemble those

made by the object

oxymoron a short, condensed paradox

paradox an apparent self-contradiction which contains a truth reconciling the two

elements:

.

pathopœia speech designed to affect the audience emotionally

polyptoton repetition of the same word in different cases/tenses in the same sentence

polysyndeton the repetition of conjunctions for an effect, usually of climax. The word comes

from the Greek prefix πολυ - many, and συνδητοσ - joined together.

sibilance the repetition of hissing sounds (s, sh, z, etc.) often to obtain an onomatopœic

effect. Romans thought a series of S sounds very ugly.

sigmatism another term for sibilance (qv), from the Greek letter S (sigma - Σ)

simile an explicit comparison, using comparative words such as like or as.

syncrisis antithesis between two subjects expressed in parallel clauses

syllepsis the relation of one word to more than one other word in the sentence, when it

should properly apply only to one

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stichomythia a rapid, witty exchange of words between two people: στιχη – a line of verse,

and μυθος - a speech or fable.

tautology a form of repetition in which the same idea is expressed in different terms.

tmesis separation of a word or phrase by the insertion of another, common in

passionate or abusive language, from the Greek τεμνηιν- cut.

tricolon three parallel elements (often verbs) of equal length

(‘Veni, vidi, vici’)

zeugma a grammatically incorrect syllepsis (qv).

prozeugma one verb controls two or more objects.