Keberagaman, Antar Budaya dan Atribusi

Kepemimpinan

Chapter 10

Mata kuliah : J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial GlobalTahun : 2010

Learning Objectives

• Understand why cross-cultural research on leadership is important.

• Understand different types of cross-cultural research.

• Understand the difficulties of studying cross-cultural leadership.

• Understand how cultural values are related to beliefs about effective leadership.

Learning Objectives (Cont.)

• Understand how cultural values can influence leader behavior.

• Understand how gender issues have been studied and the limitations of this research.

• Understand the findings in research on gender differences in leadership.

• Understand how to manage diversity and provide equal opportunities.

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Leadership

• Importance of Cross-Cultural Research– Increasing globalization– Leaders need to influence people from other cultures– Leaders need to understand how others interpret their

actions

• Cultural Influences on Leadership Behavior

Cross-Cultural Leadership Research: Types and Difficulties

• Types of Cross-Cultural Studies• Methodological Problems

– Lack of equivalence of meaning for measures– Confounding effects – Response bias– Lack of representative samples– Level of analysis problems

Cross-Cultural Leadership Research: Types and Difficulties (Cont.)

• Cross-Cultural Research on Behavior Differences• Examples of Research on the Effects of Behavior

– Lowe, 1999– Dorfman and colleagues, 1997– Schaubroech, Lam, and Cha, 2007

The GLOBE Project

Cultural Value Dimensions and Leadership

• Power Distance• Uncertainty Avoidance• Individualism (vs. Collectivism)• Gender Egalitarianism• Performance Orientation• Human Orientation

Evaluation of the Cross-Cultural Research

1. How does actual behavior of leaders differ across cultural value clusters and for different countries?

2. How are leader values and behaviors jointly influenced by personality (and developmental experiences), company culture, and national culture?

3. How useful is the distinction between actual and ideal cultural values for understanding implicit theories of leadership and patterns of leadership behavior?

Evaluation of the Cross-Cultural Research (Cont.)

4. How difficult is it to change an organization’s cultural values when they are not consistent with the societal values where the organization’s facilities are located?

5. How fast are cultural values changing, and what are the primary determinants of culture changes that are relevant for leadership?

6. What types of leadership traits, skills, and developmental experiences are most useful to prepare someone for a leadership assignment in a different culture?

Gender and Leadership

• Sex-Based Discrimination• Explanations for the Glass Ceiling• Theories of Feminine Advantage• Findings in Research on Gender Differences• Limitations on Research on Gender Differences• Identifying Causes and Reducing Discrimination• Summary of Leader Gender Research

Managing Diversity

Managing Diversity (Cont.)

• Fostering Appreciation and Tolerance• Providing Equal Opportunity

Dyadic Relations, Attributions, and Followership

Learning Objectives

• Understand why different dyadic relationships develop between a leader and individual subordinates.

• Understand the major findings in research on leader-member exchange theory and the limitations of this research.

• Understand how leader behavior is influenced by attributions about the motives and skills of subordinates.

• Understand appropriate ways to manage a subordinate who has performance deficiencies.

Learning Objectives (Cont.)

• Understand how leaders and followers attempt to manage impressions about their ability and motivation.

• Understand how attributions and implicit theories influence follower perception and evaluation of a leader.

• Understand what followers can do to have a more effective dyadic relationship with their leader.

• Understand how follower self-management can substitute for some aspects of leadership.

Leader-Member Exchange Theory• Initial Version of LMX Theory• Role-Making Stages• Measurement of LMX

Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.)

• Research on Correlates of LMX• Evaluation of LMX Theory and Research

– Ambiguity about the nature of the exchange relationship

– More elaboration about how exchange relationships evolve over time

– Clearer description of how a leader’s dyadic relationships affect each other and group performance

– Incorporation of attributional processes– Incorporation of situational variables– More longitudinal research

Leader Attribution About Subordinates

• Two-Stage Attribution Model1. The manager tries to determine the cause of the poor

performance2. The manager tries to select an appropriate response

to correct the problem

• Types of Attributions– Internal

• Effort• Ability

– External

Reasons for an External Attribution

1. The subordinate has no prior history of poor performance on similar tasks

2. The subordinate performs other tasks effectively3. The subordinate is doing as well as other people

who are in a similar situation 4. The effects of failures or mistakes are not serious

or harmful5. The manager is dependent on the subordinate for

his or her own success6. The subordinate is perceived to have other

redeeming qualities7. The subordinate has offered excuses or an apology8. Evidence indicates external causes9. Managers with prior experience doing the same

kind of work as the subordinate

Leader Attribution About Subordinates (Cont.)

• Research on the Model• Attributions and LMX

– Type of exchange relationship influences manager’s attribution

• Less critical when there is a high-exchange relationship

• Effective performance more likely to be attributed to internal factors where there is a high-exchange relationship

• Ineffective performance more likely to be attributed to external factors when there is a high-exchange relationship

• Opposite is true for low-exchange relationships

Correcting Performance Deficiencies

• Gather information about the performance problem

• Try to avoid attributional biases• Provide corrective feedback promptly• Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms• Explain the adverse impact of ineffective

behavior• Stay calm and professional

Correcting Performance Deficiencies (Cont.)

• Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance

• Ask the person to suggest remedies• Express confidence in the person• Express a sincere desire to help the person• Reach agreement on specific action steps• Summarize the discussion and verify agreement

Follower Attribution and Implicit Theories

• Determinants of Follower Attributions– Timely indicators of performance– Direct versus indirect actions– Response in a crisis– External conditions– Constraints on leader’s decisions and actions– Leader’s intentions and competency– Leader’s personal qualities

• Implications of Follower Attributions about Leaders

• Implicit Leadership Theories

Impression Management

• Impression Management Tactics– Exemplification– Ingratiation– Self-Promotion– Intimidation

• Impression Management by Followers• Impression Management by Leaders

Follower Contribution to Effective Leadership

• Follower Identities and Behavior– Need to implement decisions made by a leader and

challenge misguided or unethical decisions– Willing to risk leader’s displeasure– Take time and effort to help a leader grow and succeed– Strong commitment to the organization and its mission

Self-Management• Strategies

– Behavioral Strategies

• Self-reward• Self-punishment• Self-monitoring• Self-goal setting• Self-rehearsal• Cue modification

– Cognitive Strategies

• Positive self-talk• Mental rehearsal

• How Leaders Encourage Self-Management

Guidelines for Followers

• Find out what you are expected to do• Take the initiative to deal with problems• Keep the boss informed about your decisions• Verify the accuracy of information you give the

boss• Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback

to you

Guidelines for Followers (Cont.)

• Support leader efforts to make necessary changes• Show appreciation and provide recognition when

appropriate• Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by

leaders• Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the

boss• Provide upward coaching and counseling when

appropriate