CODE OF ATTITUDES TO PREVENT IMPACTS BETWEEN …€¦ · impacts on climate change. Particularly...

Agriculture and Climate Change

CODE OF ATTITUDES TO PREVENT IMPACTS BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND

CLIMATE CHANGE

Province of

Parma - Italy Basilicata Region -

Italy

Agro Institute San Michele all’Adige -

Italy

Municipality of Chrissoupolis - Greece

University of Rostock - Germany

Municipality of Aegion - Greece

Czech Hydrometeorological

Institute – Czech Republic

Agricultural Institute of Slovenia - Slovenia

National Meteorological Administration -

Romania

University of Thessaly - Greece

Scientific and Coordination Committee

Province of Parma

Institute of Biometeorology

Central Office for Crop Ecology

COME.S Viareggio

Agriculture and Climate Change – How to Reduce Human Effects and Treats

Copyright © www.accrete.eu

Website co financed by the ERDF

Project part-financed by the European Union

PROJECT PARTNERS AND COMMITTES

3


4

1. ORIGIN AND AIMS OF THE CODE OF ATTITUDES 1.1 The ACCRETe Project 1.2 The Code of Attitudes: Targets and Aims

2. INTRODUCTION ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE AND MUTUAL RELATI ONSHIPS

WITH AGRICULTURE 2.1 Climate change and variability: main aspects (from IPCC “Climate Change 2007”) 2.2 Climate effects on crops and adaptation measures 2.3 Crops effects on climate and mitigation measures 2.4 Adapt and mitigate: good practices helping to prevent mutual impacts

3. AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES IMPACTING THE CLIMATE AND GO OD

PRACTICES TO REDUCE MUTUAL IMPACTS 3.1 Crop Management and land use

3.1.1 Varietal selection 3.1.2 Cropping system and cropping design 3.1.3 Pest and weed control 3.1.4 Practices favouring C sequestration

3.2 Soil management and fertilization 3.2.1 Erosion control (water erosion and tillage erosion) 3.2.2 Tillage methods 3.2.3 Mineral fertilization 3.2.4 Organic matter and fertilization

3.3 Livestock managements 3.3.1 Genetic improvement 3.3.2 Formulation of the diet 3.3.3 Animal housing and grazing 3.3.4 Manure storage techniques

3.4 Water management 3.4.1 Irrigation best management practises 3.4.2 Choosing an irrigation method 3.4.3 Save water techniques 3.4.4 Tools in irrigation: the irrigation systems 3.4.5 Tools in irrigation: the water balance

3.5 Renewable energy and energy efficiency 3.5.1 Solar energy for the farm: thermal and photovoltaic 3.5.2 Wind energy for the farm 3.5.3 Hydroelectric energy for the farm 3.5.4 Energy from BIOGAS for the farm 3.5.5 Energy from biomass: wood and raw material

4. GLOSSARY AND DEFINITIONS

5. REFERENCES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

5


6

Chapter 1

ORIGIN AND AIMS OF THE CODE OF ATTITUDES

The project ACCRETe is focused on the mutual impact between agriculture and

climate change. The demographic rate has been increasing, whereas agricultural lands and

renewable energy sources have been decreasing. Yet, major awareness on environmental topics has been recorded. A balance is encouraged between the use of resources and their protection; this means sustainable agriculture and dynamic systems that are capable to provide consumers with healthy, tasty, and accessible food and that fully comply with a socio-economic equilibrium.

We have to encourage awareness of climate change/extreme events and socio-economic impact; we have to encourage the use of bio waste, which can be easily transformed into bio energy. As a matter of facts, agriculture is the first victim of climate phenomena, yet it is also of massive contribution to it since it may ensure greenhouse gas reduction (different behaviours), trees absorb carbon from the atmosphere and organic biomasses perfectly replace fossil fuels.

This code has been produced as a collective effort from the staff belonging to the Project Accret-e to concretely address to the needs for farmers to adapt to climate change and to contribute to the mitigation of agricultural impacts on climate. The main agricultural activities impacting climate are outlined, together with the list of good practices farmers can adopt to reduce impacts and vulnerability.

7

1.1 The ACCRETe Project

Climate change will have dramatic effects on agriculture and the economy in Europe. New

attitudes that go along with the introduction and dissemination of sustainable resource managing systems are necessary to reduce climate risks and to mitigate the human-induced impacts on climate change. Particularly agriculture has an effect on global climate change, which affects it in its turn. For example, a huge part of the greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide originate from agriculture while agriculture is also that sector of the economy, which will be most severely hit by the effects of climate change.

Becoming aware of the interdependencies “agriculture – climate change” was the point of departure of the ACCRETe project. In ACCRETe ten partners worked together to develop tools to raise awareness and to inform about the link between agriculture and climate change. The project partners from Italy, Greece, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Romania stand exemplary for the different environments and regional climates of the CADSES region.

So far, many districts have had no monitoring systems for risk prevention regarding climate change. Local residents and institutions often ignore the impact of climate change. The aim of the project is to make private and public actors of the agriculture sector sensitive to possible consequences of climate change on production figures of agriculture. Beneficiaries and target groups of the project are actors from local and regional politics (environment and agriculture), the scientific sector, and farmers.

The ACCRETe Project Goals • To be aware of the mutualism "agriculture - climate change” • To make private and public actors of the agriculture sector sensitive to the possible

production consequences caused by this interaction • To improve forecasting - and preventing systems of natural risks affecting agriculture

(network).

Projects outputs and deliverables: The project ACCRETe intended to achieve the following results: • Observatory: establishment of a transnational network to examine how agriculture

interferes with climate change in the partner regions. AIM: to monitor the mutual relationship between agriculture and climate change in the partners regions, specifically to analyze the data referring to the dosage CO2 and the measurement of UV radiation increase. Results: specific website and publication of the collected data

• Thematic Workgroups: information, promotion, and dissemination through three

thematic work groups to change attitudes and raise awareness for the link between climate change and agriculture, also involving local actors.

ORIGINE AND AIMS OF THE CODE OF ATTITUDES

1

8

Chrissoupolis, Greece – February 2006. Topic: develop renewable energies and implement

controlling of energy and energetic effectiveness in agriculture. Potenza, Italy – November 2006. Topic: how to transfer patterns of better water resource

management to agriculture and reduce the climate change effects. Parma, Italy – February 2007. Topic: increase more sustainable cultivation methodologies,

particularly organic farming. • Code of Attitudes for farmers. This presentation summarizes risks for agriculture that

are due to climate change. It will also promote attitudes which should help to reduce human-induced impacts on the climate.

• A Transregional Declaration of Intents: “Transregional Understanding ACCRETe”.

All partners will undersign the declaration and will show they are firmly willing to follow up with research, cooperation, support of sustainable agriculture and activities in the issues.

• An Awareness Campaign, to inform citizens about risks that are due to climate

change. Particularly repercussions on agriculture will be stressed.

The ACCRETe project partners

PROVINCE OF PARMA - ITALY. LEAD PARTNER

BASILICATA REGION - ITALY

IASMA - AGRO INSTITUTE SAN MICHELE ALL’ADIGE - ITALY

MUNICIPALITY OF CHRISSOUPOLIS - GREECE

UNIVERSITY OF ROSTOCK - GERMANY

MUNICIPALITY OF AEHGIO - GREECE

CZECH HYDRO METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE - CZECH REPUBLIC

AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF SLOVENIA - SLOVENIA

NATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL ADMINISTRATION - ROMANIA

UNIVERSITY OF THESSALY – GREECE

The scientific and coordination committee

CNR – IBIMET BOLOGNA - ITALY

CRA – UCEA ROME - ITALY

COME.S VIAREGGIO -ITALY


1

9

1.2 The Code of Attitudes: Targets and Aims

This code has been produced as a

collective effort from the staff belonging to the project ACCRETe to concretely address to the needs for farmers to adapt to climate change and to contribute to the mitigation of agricultural impacts on climate.

Effort to offer suggestions in taking appropriate adaptation measurements, as increasingly important elements in the management "toolkit" for farmers, has been done to produce this Code.

The main agricultural activities impacting climate are outlined, together with the list of good practices farmers can adopt to reduce impacts and vulnerability.


1

10

Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE AND MUTUAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH

AGRICULTURE

Climate affects agriculture and agriculture affects climate. This mutual impact becomes even more evident now, when climate change and variability are widely recognized.

The 4th IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) report is comprehensively summarizing the last results about the various causes of change, and the impacts in the near and long-term under different scenarios. Adaptation and mitigation options and responses, and the inter-relationships with a sustainable development have been also listed and analyzed, together with long term perspective, scientific and socio-economic aspects relevant to adaptation and mitigation.

11

2.1 Climate change and variability: main aspects (from IPCC “Climate Change 2007”)

Nearly all European regions are anticipated to be negatively affected by some future

impacts of climate change and these will pose challenges to many economic sectors. Climate change is expected to magnify regional differences in Europe’s natural resources and assets. Negative impacts will include increased risk of inland flash floods, and more frequent coastal flooding and increased erosion due to storminess and sea-level rise. The great majority of organisms and ecosystems will have difficulties adapting to climate change. Mountainous areas will face glacier retreat, reduced snow cover and winter tourism, and extensive species losses (in some areas up to 60% under high emission scenarios by 2080).

In Southern Europe, climate change is projected to worsen conditions (high temperatures and drought) in a region already vulnerable to climate variability, and to reduce water availability, hydropower potential, summer tourism and, in general, crop productivity. It is also predicted to increase health risks due to heat waves and the frequency of wildfires.

In Central and Eastern Europe, summer precipitation is projected to decrease, causing higher water stress. Health risks due to heat waves are projected to increase. Forest productivity is expected to decline and the frequency of peatland fires to increase. In Northern Europe, climate change is initially estimated to bring mixed effects, including some benefits such as reduced demand for heating, increased crop yields and increased forest growth. However, as climate change continues, its negative impacts (including more frequent winter floods, endangered ecosystems and increasing ground instability) are likely to outweigh its benefits.

Adaptation to climate change is likely to take advantages from experience gained in reaction to extreme climate events, by specifically implementing proactive climate change risk management adaptation plans.

Observational evidence shows that food, fibre and forest products systems are being affected by regional climate changes, particularly temperature increases.

Globally, the potential for food production is projected to increase with increases in local average temperature over a range of 1-3°C, but above this, it is projected to decrease.

Projected warming in 21st century is expected to be

greatest over land and at most high northern latitudes and least over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean (Source Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Nairobi, 6 February 2007).

INTRODUCTION ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE AND MUTUAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH AGRICULTURE

2

12

Crop productivity is predicted to increase slightly at mid - to high latitudes for local

mean temperature increases of up to 1-3°C depending on the crop, and then decrease beyond that in some regions. At lower latitudes, especially seasonally dry and tropical regions, crop productivity is forecasted to decrease for even small local temperature increases (1-2°C). Increases in the frequency of droughts and floods are projected to affect local crop production negatively, especially in subsistence sectors at low latitudes.

Adaptations such as altered cultivars and planting times allow low- and mid- to high latitude cereal yields to be maintained at or above baseline yields for modest warming.

Globally, commercial timber productivity rises modestly with climate change in the short- to medium term, with large regional variability around the global trend.

Regional changes in the distribution and production of particular fish species are expected due to continued warming, with adverse effects projected for aquaculture and fisheries.

2.2 Climate effects on crops and adaptation measures

Climate is one of the most important factors determining the productivity of agricultural production systems. The appropriateness of the degree of matching between plant genetics, farming practices and local weather and environment is at the basis of the yield quantity and quality. Climate may be the most useful and costless resource, and agroclimatic zoning is now, for example, one of the main options to improve land use management and help to identify areas likely to be the most suitable for high-value crops.

Given the increasing limitation of this natural, basic resource, building knowledge and skills for better management of climate variability via the elements of surveying climatic and enterprise data, analyzing climatic risks and opportunities, and developing climatic risk management strategies is now a strategic element for improvement management farm strategies.

Global climate change impacts are already tracked in many physical and biological systems and they reveal a consistent picture of changes, e.g. an earlier onset of spring events in mid and higher latitudes and a lengthening of the plant growing season.

Precipitation: change in annual amount [%]. Source:

Living with climate change in Europe. EU 2007. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/adaptation/index_en.htm


2

13

The impacts frequently reflect projected changes in precipitation and other climate

variables in addition to temperature, sea level and concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Water shortage and drought may cause dramatic losses of production. Temperatures higher than the optimal ones reflect on metabolic reactions, inducing stress effects, and alterations in their average, maximum and minimum trends can easily increase frost hazards for sensitive crops. Temperature and relative humidity, as single factors or in combination, may enhance weed and pest and disease virulence and the vulnerability of crops.

Virtually every aspect of agriculture, from the production of crops and livestock to the transportation of agricultural products to market are affected by climate. Crop production is also likely to be influenced by the increase in atmospheric CO2 associated to climate change, also if the positive effects of CO2 as fertilizer are controversial (concomitant increases of temperature and drought event might play opposite negative effects).

Adaptation

The history of agriculture reflects a continuous series of adaptations to a wide range of factors from both within and outside agricultural systems. Environmental conditions related to soil, water, terrain, and climate provide constraints and opportunities for agricultural production. As well, technological developments lead to modifications in the structure and processes of farming operations.

So manifold are the effects of weather and climate on agriculture that improving decisions and reducing climate risk exposure are fundamental to maintain adequate yield standards and to enhance sustainable agriculture. The issues of climate variability and climate change must cope now with daily farming activities, and this can be done introducing mitigation measures and adopting adaptation strategies. On June 29, 2007, the European Commission has adopted its first policy document on adapting to the impacts of climate change. The Green Paper "adaptation to climate change in Europe - options for EU action", builds upon the work and findings of the European Climate Change Programme. The paper argues that we are now faced with a double challenge: next to deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions we also need to adapt to the changing climate conditions, and describes possible avenues for action at EU level.

Yield changes previsions. Source: Jackson Institute,

University College London / Goddard Institute for Space Studies / International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.

Yield Change (%)

2080s

2050s

2020s

Yield Change (%)

2080s

2050s

2020s


2

14

Farm level analyses have shown that large reductions in adverse impacts from climate

change are possible when adaptation is fully implemented. In addition to long-term adaptations (that are major structural changes to overcome adversity, such as changes in land-use to maximize yield under new conditions; application of new technologies), short-term, autonomous adaptation are the reaction of, for example, a farmer to changing precipitation patterns, in that s/he changes crops or uses different harvest and planting/sowing dates. As general considerations, biodiversity in all its components (e.g. genes, species, ecosystems) increases resilience to changing environmental conditions and stresses. Genetically-diverse populations and species-rich ecosystems have greater potential to adapt to climate

The selection of crops and cultivars with tolerance to abiotic stresses (e.g. high temperature, drought, flooding, high salt content in soil, pest and disease resistance) may also be of great benefit, but selection of adequate crops cannot be separated from other management options within agro-ecosystems. Soil organic matter, which stabilizes the soil structure so that can absorb higher amounts of water without causing surface run off, and also improves the water absorption capacity of the soil during extended drought, should be maintained and increased. A broad range of agricultural water management practices and technologies are available to spread and buffer production risks.

Effort to offer suggestions in taking appropriate adaptation measurements , as increasingly important elements in the management "toolkit" for farmers, has been done to produce this Code.

2.3 Crops effects on climate and mitigation measures

Agriculture has an impact upon the weather and climate on the local, regional and global scales. Through agriculture man has altered, and manages to varying degrees, the vegetation (i.e., the physiological and physical properties of the land cover), and directly (via irrigation) or indirectly the soil moisture over large tracks of land. The growth and physiological activity of the cultivated plants, along with the land cover’s impact upon the level of available soil moisture, hence affect the weather and climate by influencing the transfer of heat, moisture and momentum from the land surface to the overlying air. Crops and pastures play a very significant role in the interactions between the land surface and the atmosphere, and thereby, routinely influence the weather and climate. Land cover effects may reinforce climate variability enhancing and/or extending extremes such as floods and droughts. Agriculture influences the availability of energy and water vapour mass for moist deep convection on the local and regional scales. By creating latent heat flux discontinuities, it may induce mesoscale circulations that initiate moist deep convection. Agriculture, by affecting the level of stored soil moisture, affect the level of convective activity within a region during a subsequent season. Spatially coherent and persistent patterns of thunderstorms play a role in the export of heat and moisture from lower to higher latitudes, and this may effect the general circulation. Thus agriculture, by influencing the occurrence, location and intensity of moist deep convection, may also influence global weather and climate.


2

15

When looking at the interactions with climate, strong concern goes to the emissions

from agricultural activities of greenhouse gases (GHG), linked to global increase of earth temperature. Although European agriculture accounts for only 10% of greenhouse gas emissions, it is the main source of methane (CH4) (from enteric fermentation, decomposition of manure, rice cultivation) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (livestock manure and chemical fertilizers). Farming activities, many of them involving high-energy inputs (chemicals, fuels, machines etc) are responsible for release of CO2 in the atmosphere, that add to the amount of this gas released from degradation of organic matter in agricultural soils.

Mitigation

Mitigation strategies mainly suggest to reduce GHG emissions, including methane and

nitrous oxide, and eventually increase absorption tools. Conversion of land to forest may offer considerable potential to absorb CO2 from the

atmosphere. A good photosynthetic efficiency permits to the cultivated crops to act, too, as efficient sinks of atmospheric CO2 , offering a positive net exchange of Carbon during their annual growth. Increasing cultivation efficiency by moving to low- or zero-tillage crop management practices, using more energy-efficient machinery, or reducing energy demand will reduce these direct CO2 emissions, improving the capacity of crops to store carbon in plant material and in soil.

Opportunities to reduce energy use in agriculture, together with effective alternative to fossil fuels in agriculture are promoted. Growing “energy crops” (rapes, maize, cereals, fast growing trees, perennial grasses, aquatic plants, and algae) may reduce net greenhouse gas emissions if biomass is used in place of fossil fuels. Each new generation of energy crops will, as it grows, remove from the atmosphere through photosynthesis a quantity of CO2 roughly equivalent to that released when the biomass is converted to fuel and burned to release energy. If sustainable - managed energy crops supplant energy that otherwise would be generated by fossil fuels, net CO2 emissions may decrease. Energy crops must however be grown using best practices that minimize the life-cycle GHG emissions associated with planting, growing, harvesting, transporting, and converting the crops into usable energy. The extent to which biomass fuels can displace net emissions of carbon dioxide depends on the efficiency with which they can be produced and used.

Greenhouse gas emissions also can be reduced by displacing fossil fuel use with energy from biomass residues (include agricultural wastes, food processing wastes, and a wide variety of woody waste materials).

2.4 Adapt and mitigate: good practices helping to prevent mutual impacts

Climate change adds to the complexity of the farming environment which is characterised by uncertainties in markets, resource conditions, technology and changing community values. In responding to climate change, innovation and strategies of adaptation should complement emission mitigation efforts and provide a window of opportunity to adjust resource management practices and support the sustainability of agriculture.


2

16

Strategies in agricultural activities to help farmers to better – and less riskily- produce in

a climate change scenarios constitute a potentially great value for agriculture. At the same time, the adoption of correct and environmentally sustainable practices in the field may positively reflect on climate, allowing agriculture itself to positively act to contrast climate change. The concept of Good Agricultural Practices has evolved in recent years as a result of the concerns and commitments of a wide range of stakeholders about food production and security, food safety and quality, and the environmental sustainability of agriculture. Good practices apply recommendations and available knowledge to addressing on-farm production and post-production processes resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products.

Good practices may greatly help to decrease vulnerability of agriculture with respect to climate change and variability. Vulnerability is a function of exposure to climate factors, sensitivity to change and capacity to adapt to that change. Systems that are highly exposed, sensitive and less able to adapt are vulnerable (see the scheme in this page), and adaptation strategies increase the capacities of farming systems to cope with changing climate.

This code has been produced as a collective effort from the staff belonging to the Project

Accret-e to concretely address to the needs for farmers to adapt to climate change and to contribute to the mitigation of agricultural impacts on climate. The main agricultural activities impacting climate are outlined, together with the list of good practices farmers can adopt to reduce impacts and vulnerability.

EXPOSURE SENSITIVITY

POTENTIAL IMPACT

ADAPTIVE CAPACITY

VULNERABILITY


2

17


18

Chapter 3

AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES IMPACTING THE CLIMATE AND GOOD PRACTICES TO REDUCE

EFFECTS

This chapter consider the main agricultural activities and their specific aspects impacting climate. Treated topics are:

3.1 Crop Management and land use 3.2 Soil management and fertilization 3.3 Livestock managements 3.4 Water management 3.5 Renewable energies and energy efficiency

For each of the main agricultural activities, a general description of its mutual interactions with climate is reported. Suggestions for the adoption of best practices are given with emphasis on benefits for farmers and environment. Topics will be illustrated based on the following scheme.

- General description of the Activity and its mutualrelations with climate change

- Activity Basis

Good Practices

Farmer benefits

19

Sustainable agriculture is based on high diversity crops, to the use of cultivars and

hybrids of high genetic potential, adapted to the local conditions, use of organic fertilizers, use of biological protection while limiting the use of chemical substances. As well as integrated management systems that take into account all the aspects of soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in order to preserve the natural potential and the renewable resources of agricultural ecosystems are important to be envisaged. As the climate is changing, and thus agro-climatic requirements of crops are not always sustained by the natural conditions, sustainable crop management and rational land-use become even more crucial in preserving the potential for crop yield, while maintaining reduced impact of the agricultural practices on environment and climate.

Autochthonous material should be preferred to optimize growth and yield and minimize climatic hazards. This consideration is even more important when Mediterranean species (as the olive in this picture) are planted in Northern locations.

3.1

CR

OP

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

S A

ND

LA

ND

US

E

3.1 CROP MANAGEMENTS AND LAND USE

AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES IMPACTING THE CLIMATE AND GOOD PRACTICES TO REDUCE EFFECTS

3

20


3.1.1 Varietal selection

Basis A large variety of cultivars is adapted

to a wide range of conditions (drought resistant, shorter germination and vegetation period, increased carbon fixation, etc.) and to limited tillage practices. The selection of appropriate cultivars is strategic to minimize agricultural practices impacting the environment, and may increase the farm efficiency of using the climatic resources. The choice of cultivars should take into account their adaptability to local conditions, i.e. the resistance of plants to water stress in drought vulnerable areas and, as a general rule, their natural potential for high quality and quantity of yield.

Good practices

• Use of cultivars resistant to abiotic stresses (i.e. water shortage, drought, high temperatures).

• Selection of cultivars with shorter germination period and shorter growing season.

• Selection of varieties that are naturally resistant to specific disease causing organisms.

Farmer benefits

• Improved water management in agriculture, reduced energy consumption for irrigation.

• Better use of the soil moisture conditions after sowing, improved ability in competing with weeds, and reduced number of agro-technical works.

• Increased yield production with less chemicals. Reduced costs of spraying. Reduced disease pressure, and thus more efficient spraying.

• Reduced CO2 emissions, and increased yield and biomass production.

Research tests in experimental field: different cultivars are tested to find those most suitable to fit to local conditions.


3

21

3.1.2 Cropping system and cropping design

Basis The design of the cropping system

may be more or less complex, in reference to several planting methods, some increasing crop density, others making an efficient use of space and time. Different crops may be planted in succession, simultaneously in the same field and harvested separately, or in the same field the same crop grow repeatedly during the years. In order to define a system that combines an efficient use of the resources minimizing inputs with sustainable yield levels, a well detailed knowledge is required on the specific varieties and how they perform in a particular growing location. The best cropping system to prevent direct and indirect effect on GHG emissions and generally considered the most environmental friendly is the crop rotation .


Good practices

• Use of adapted crop rotation as main crop system for the farm. • Use of mixed cropping, catch cropping, cover cropping, as multiple crop in the

same space or in the farm to increase biodiversity.

Farmer benefits

• Reduction of pest and disease incidence, i.e. root-knot nematodes.

• Slower trends of spreading of pest and diseases during the growing season.

• Reduction of the effect of adverse weather, through planting and harvesting at different times.

• Balance of the fertility demands of various crops to avoid excessive depletion of soil nutrients.

• Improving soil structure and fertility and organic matter by alternating deep-rooted plants.

• Crops that are appropriate ecologically and economically.

Crop rotation and multi crop cultivation of the farm is considered the most effectiveness cropping system to reduce environmental impact of agriculture while maintaining high yield levels.


3

22


3.1.3 Pest and weed control

Basis To reach profitable yields and high level of

product quality, pest and weed control plays an important role and a proper scheme of pathogens be must be implemented for each kind of cultivation. Several strategies may be considered, more or less impacting the environment. Reducing the use of chemical products may be assumed as a general rule for environment protection as a whole and for the reduction of gas emissions in particular. Pest and weed control techniques of the organic field crop production are well fitted with above purposes. In the organic farming, disease and pest management is based on three main tools: host resistance, crop rotation, and appropriate cultivation techniques. Not all diseases can be avoided by utilizing these management strategies; however, the damage of many plant diseases can be greatly reduced by the their integration. Tillage can also be used to hasten the decomposition of crop residues and decline of a pathogen population. In this case, the goal is to bury crop residues or to place them in contact with the soil, so that they are quickly colonized by organisms involved with residue decomposition and exclusion of the disease causing organisms. However, care should be given in proceeding to tillage for controlling pests and weeds, in order to protect soil from erosion. Crop competition is an important component of cultural weed control and an effective way to control weed growth. Low density planting leaves large soil surface open to sunlight, making high intensity radiation available for weed growth and competition. A vigorous growing crop is less likely to be adversely affected by weeds.

Good practices

• Use of organic farming control practices.

• Use of host-resistance crops. • Implementation of crop

rotation with non-host plants to decline pathogen presence or pathogen impact on susceptible crops.

• Use of appropriate tillage to bury crop residues to hasten decomposition.

• Consider agricultural practices that increase competition of crop against weed (reducing sowing row distance, early sowing,..).

• Use of mulches to provide a physical barrier on the soil surface. Also organic material such as straw or killed cover crop residue left on the surface can be used.

Farmer benefits

• Reduced development of weeds highly reducing costs and impacts due to chemicals.

• Reduced impact of specific pathogens on susceptible crops.

• Improved crop yields.

Low density planting leaves large soil surface open to sunlight, available for weed growth and competition


3

23


3.1.4 Practices favouring C sequestration

Basis Soil is a major component of the global carbon

balance, which can be significantly affected by processes like soil erosion, biomass burning, and soil fertility depletion. Due to the magnitude of the organic carbon sequestered in soils, it is largely agreed that even small changes in such a large pool would have dramatic feed-back effects in the global climate system. Mineralization of soil organic carbon is strongly dependent on temperature, thus warming may lead to even higher rates of CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. Soil degradation is caused mainly by land misuse and inappropriate land management practices. Two of the main consequences of land degradation are: losses of organic carbon from soil, leading to increased emission of CO2 into the atmosphere, and reduction of net primary production, defined as the rate of carbon uptake by plants from the atmosphere (in form of CO2). Agricultural practices that increase soil CO2 emissions are plow-till farming, deforestation, drainage of organic soils/peatlands, subsistence farming leading to fertility depletion, overgrazing, etc.

Good practices

• Conservation tillage and mulch farming techniques, to reduce soil emissions of CO2. • Planted fallows, cover crops and catch crops.. • Forestation and agro forestry. • Science-based agriculture with judicious chemical inputs. • Managed pastures with adapted stocking rate. • Avoid cultivating of organic soils (histosols)

Farmer benefits

• Reduction of tillage costs.

• Reduced soil degradation, erosion, and salination.

• Better protection of land from desertification and degradation (erosion).

• Improved crop production, reduced soil and underground water pollution, more efficient use of natural resources.

• Maximization of animal health and productivity, increasing the farm income without damage to the environment or nitrogen pollution.

Burning biomass on the field is a good example of a common practice that reduces the organic carbon component of the soil.


3

24

Assessment of soil management potential to maintain, restore, and enlarge the

carbon pool in soils, thus reducing or maintaining the atmospheric CO2 concentration, focuses on cultivated areas, where loss of soil organic matter is substantial.

For example, mineral and organic carbon contained in the soil displaced by erosion is easily decomposed and a large fraction of it is mineralized annually into CO2. Soil erosion is one of the most important soil degradation problems, contributing to soil quality reduction and surface waters pollution. Erosion may be caused by water, by wind and by tillage. For example, raw plant residues on the surface help reduce surface wind speed and water runoff. Removal, incorporation or burning of residues may predispose the soil to serious erosion.

Appropriate soil management in respect of tillage, fertilization, crop rotation, etc. may reduce the loss of carbon from soils and even increase the carbon fixation.

3.2

SO

IL M

AN

AG

EM

EN

T A

ND

FE

RT

ILIZ

AT

ION

3.2 SOIL MANAGEMENT AND FERTILIZATION

An appropriate management of the soil is important to maintain a structure able to contain the negative effects of extreme climatic events.


3

25


3.2.1. Erosion control: water erosion

Basis Water erosion is caused by the impact of rain drops

(rainfall intensity is crucial in this case) and by runoff processes (affected by the total amount of rainfall). Appropriate soil management practices can control the inter-rill erosion (the movement of soil by rain splash) and the rill erosion (erosion by concentrated flow in small rivulets). The practices used to control erosion include previous management and cropping, the protection of the soil surface by vegetative canopy, and maintenance of surface cover and roughness.

Good practices

• Maintain crop residue cover above 30 percent until crop canopy closure. • Alternate summer crops with winter crops and perennial crops. • Use cover crops during periods when the soil would have insufficient

residue. • Contour farming – crops are planted nearly on the contour (especially for

moderate slopes, 2-6%). • Contour strip-cropping – alternating strips with high-residue cover or

perennial crops with strips with low residue cover. The strips should be laid out close to the contour.

• Construction of level terraces.

Farmer benefits

• Soil surface directly exposed to rain drops splash is reduced.

• Increase the time with vegetation cover.

• Reduces runoff and rain splash.

• Protection from water erosion on moderate slopes.

• Soil eroded from the bare or low-residue strips is deposited in strips with high residue or dense vegetation because runoff is decreased.

• Change of slope steepness.

The utilization of cover crop may be useful in the case of orchard located in sloping areas.


3

26


3.2.1 Erosion control: tillage erosion

Basis The tillage erosion is a form of erosion that

moves soil from the top of the field downward, exposing subsoil on top of the slopes and burying soil at the bottom, where topsoil is accumulating after many years of tillage. The effect of this process is reduced yield but with the same production costs (tillage, fertilizers, etc.) per unit area, due to low quality of exposed subsoil. In addition, tillage erosion is reinforcing water erosion because, if crop growth is reduced on the upper slopes, the soil is not well protected from water.

Good practices

• Eliminate or reduce tillage. • If it is not possible to eliminate tillage, it is recommended to avoid down-hill

plowing. It is beneficial to plow on the contour or uphill. • Turn soil uphill with contour tillage (not recommended for steep slopes). • Transport topsoil from depositional areas to hill crests.

Farmer benefits

• Tillage erosion can be completely eliminated.

• Reduced erosion and maintenance of more constant yields.

• Reduced tillage erosion.

• Rehabilitation of eroded slopes.

• Better use of plant nutrients.

Great attention has to be paid during tillage operation to the prevention of soil erosion in hilly areas. The maintaining of cover crops may surely decrease every kind of soil losses.


3

27


3.2.2 Tillage methods

Basis Conservation tillage (no-till or minimum till practices) has evolved as a measure to prevent

soil erosion. However the concern for global climate and emissions of greenhouse gases brought up the potential of these methods to reduce soil carbon losses, or even to convert many soils from carbon sources to sinks. Soil loosening by tillage results in loss of soil carbon and nitrogen due to better accessibility of oxygen necessary for the organic matter decomposition and respiration, thus increasing the CO2 release. Implementation of conservation tillage implies a build up of carbon and organic matter in agricultural soils.

Good practices

• Convert to a no-till tillage management system.

• If tillage is necessary, avoid autumn tillage and wait for spring.

• Reduce the number of tillage passes. • Set chisels and disks to work

shallower. • Drive slower on tillage operations.

Farmer benefits

• Better protection of land against erosion, degradation; reduced amount of tractor power, fuel, etc.

• Fuel economy, reduced costs, and reduced soil compaction.

• Reduced drag of the chisels and disks, with implications in fuel economy. In addition, soil moisture is better conserved.

• Driving fast throws more soil and covers residue, with negative impact on preserving soil moisture.


3

28

3.2.3 Mineral fertilization

Basis The soil fertility management aims to improve the soil chemical conditions that enhance

plant growth and development and supply nutrients in sufficient amount and at needed timing to plants. Fertilization must be done so that it will optimize the crop yield and the economic benefits, while minimizing environmental impact. Quantitative requirements of mineral nutrients depend on the nature of the crop, soil reserve and expected yield. The fertility level of a soil can decline if planting technologies are inadequate or, conversely, may increase if the soil is cultivated in a way that improves its chemical, physical and biological properties.

Fertilization with nitrogen may increase the soil CO2 flux with up to 20% compared to cases where no nitrogen was applied. Such effects were observed especially when there are more factors acting simultaneous, like burning residues and tillage practices.

Good practices

• Adapt or optimize the application of mineral fertilizers, especially nitrogen.

• Use crop rotation systems. • Perform periodical soil analysis and tests, in order to assess and

correct the limiting factors which hinder the normal growth and development of plants (acidity, nutrient excess or deficit, etc.).

• Use of natural organic fertilizers, adapted to needs/demands.

Farmer benefits

• Lower soil and underground water pollution with nitrates.

• Preservation and improvement of the natural soil fertility.

• Creation of adequate mineral nutrition conditions based on accurate information from soil testing.

• Reduced costs, use of readily available by-products of the farm (manure), and less negative impact on soil and water quality in the farm, compared to using mineral fertilizers.



3

29


3.2.4 Organic matter and fertilization

Basis

Organic matter is the vast array of carbon compounds in soil. Originally created by plants, microbes, and other organisms, these compounds play a variety of roles in nutrient, water, and biological cycles. For simplicity, organic matter can be divided into two major categories: stabilized organic matter which is highly decomposed and stable, and the active fraction which is being actively used and transformed by living plants, animals, and microbes. Two other categories of organic compounds are living organisms and fresh organic residue. One of the best ways to improve soil fertility is to add organic matter. It helps soil hold important plant nutrients. By adding organic matter to sandy soil, the ability of the soil to retain water is improved. In a clay soil, humus will loosen the soil to make it more crumbly. Organic matter does not add any "new' plant nutrients but releases nutrients in a plant available form through the process of decomposition. In order to maintain this nutrient cycling system, the rate of addition from crop residues and manure must equal the rate of decomposition. If the rate of addition is less than the rate of decomposition, soil organic matter will decline and, conversely if the rate of addition is greater than the rate of decomposition, soil organic matter will increase. The term steady state has been used to describe a condition where the rate of addition is equal to the rate of decomposition. Fertilizer can contribute to the maintenance of this revolving nutrient bank account by increasing crop yields and consequently the amount of residues returned to the soil.

Farmer benefits

• Increasing soil fertility and amount of carbon in the soil that promote the grow of beneficial bacteria. Organic matter may be considered as “revolving nutrient bank account”. It gives and absorbs nutrients in plant available form.

• Improving soil structure, aeration, water infiltration and resistance to erosion and crusting by binding small soil particles into larger aggregates.

• Increasing the nutrient holding capacity (caption exchange capacity) and other soil properties by the resistant or stable fraction of soil organic matter.

• Higher water holding capacity.

Good practices

• Use of minimum tillage techniques to decrease speed of organic soil matter degradation.

• Add natural organic fertilizer to improve fertility of cultivated soil. Natural organic fertilisers are produced by agricultural and livestock farms or obtained from vegetation material. They can be fresh and in different stages of fermentation. The most widespread natural organic fertilisers are produced by animal husbandry. Among the most important natural organic fertilisers are manure (that can be used fresh, partially or completely fermented), manure leachate, urine, liquid animal waste (also called slurry), compost and green manure mixed with vegetal materials used for bedding. (see glossary for definition of manure, compost and green fertilizers).


3

30

Animal production is the most important source of GHG in agriculture. In EU, more than 50 % of all GHG in agricultural sector is released from animal houses and manure stores. The main GHG in animal production are methane and nitrous oxide. A minor part of GHG is contributed also by the use of fossil fuels for heating and for running of various machinery and equipment in animal houses. Carbon dioxide that arises in the respiration of domestic animals does not contribute to increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the air. It originates from plant materials which are, similar as in energy sector, considered as a renewable source of energy. Carbon dioxide released in respiration of domestic animals is again incorporated by plants into organic matter and the whole cycle begins again.

The largest quantity of methane is generated through the fermentation of feed in the intestinal tract of domestic animals, especially in the forestomach of ruminants. Considerable quantities are also generated during the storage of animal fertilisers. Despite the fact that the carbon in methane originates from plant materials, it is not environmentally neutral as in the case of carbon dioxide which is formed due to respiration. The greenhouse effect of methane is namely 21 times greater than that of carbon dioxide.

Nitrous oxide is generated primarily in the conversion of nitrogen compounds on agricultural land and in animal fertiliser storage premises. Farming also causes indirect emissions, which do not arise on farms, but are the consequence of ammonia and nitrogen oxides (NOX) volatilization into the atmosphere. Indirect emissions are caused also by the leaching and runoff of nitrogen compounds into surface water, groundwater and watercourses. Nitrous oxide emissions depend primarily on the efficiency of nitrogen management.

3.3

LIV

ES

TO

CK

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

S 3.3 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

Besides negative impacts, animal production also has some positive effects on climate change. Herbivorous animals utilize large areas of grasslands with several environmental benefits. Grassland soils are usually rich in organic matter which can serve as a sink of carbon dioxide. Animal manures also increase the level of organic matter in arable land.


3

31

Generally speaking, the most important measure for reduction of GHG emissions in

animal production is an efficient utilization of energy and protein which has to be upgraded by appropriate animal excreta management with special emphasis on efficient nitrogen cycle on the farm. It has to be kept in mind that methane is produced also in non-productive animals which need the energy in the form of feed for maintenance of their vital functions. With increasing productivity the ratio between energy which is spent for production and the energy spent for maintenance increases and, as a consequence, the methane emissions per unit of production decrease. For emissions of nitrous oxide it is important that animals are supplied with as much protein as is vitally necessary. Surplus of protein in the diet causes excessive N excretion and increased nitrous oxide emissions from manure storage while lack of protein causes suboptimal energy utilization and therefore increased methane emissions from enteric fermentation.

In practice, animal and plant production are often separated, performed on different farms or even regions. It makes the efficient nitrogen circulation difficult. While the animal producers are concerned by the surplus of nitrogen on the farm, plant producers need to apply a lot of mineral fertilizers which are important source of nitrous oxide. Therefore, as far as possible, farming should be organised in a structure of combined units involving both crop and animal production.

In conclusion, GHG in animal production can be markedly reduced by genetic improvement of herds or flocks, by adequate diet formulation for domestic animals, by suitable animal housing and proper manure storage. Introduction of suitable grazing systems on the farm can also contributes a lot to reducing emissions of GHG.

3.4

LIV

ES

TO

CK

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

S

Animals on movement in traditional grazing area in Sicily (Italy). Traditional and modern concepts and acquired knowledge on raising management have to be integrated in order to define a sustainable while environmentally friendly livestock farming.


3

32

3.3 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENTS

3.3.1 Genetic improvement

Basis The largest quantities of methane per

unit of production are generated by low-yielding animals. By increasing the intensity of animal production, i.e. increasing yield per animal, it is possible without reducing yields of milk and meat to reduce the number of animals. In raising dairy cows, dairy sheep and goats, breeding sows and layer hens the aim should be also to extend of the productive period. This thereby reduces the need for animals to renew the herd or flock and the associated emissions. Livestock breeders and expert services must work to ensure genetic advances aimed at more efficient and robust animals adapted for the local natural conditions.

Good practices

• Explore the genetic potential of selected animal breeds. • Eliminate low producing animals from the herd. Keep in mind that in some

species, like cattle, extremely high production may induce lower fertility and decrease longevity which may, in turn, eliminate all the positive effects of high production. The latest is especially true in the case of exotic breeds which are not adapted to local conditions.

• Avoid raising of low producing animals. An exception can be made in the case of genetically endangered breeds which have to be preserved.

Farmer benefits

• Lower costs for feed per unit of product.

• Lower costs of animal housing and equipment per unit of product.

Genetic potential of local animals represents a good starting point to reach efficient and robust animals, well adapted to natural conditions and familiar to the growers.


3

33


3.3.2 Formulation of the diet

Basis Diets for farm animals must be balanced and adjusted

to their needs in such a way that their genetic capacity is utilised in the best possible way. Adequate balancing of energy and protein in diets and correct supplementation of diets with minerals and vitamins are of special importance for optimal utilisation of feed which leads to lower methane emissions. Surplus of protein causes excessive nitrogen excretion and higher direct and indirect emissions of nitrous oxide. Increased emissions are also caused by overfeeding, which causes animals to gain excessive body reserves (fat). Generally, highly digestible diets generate lower amounts of greenhouse gasses per unit of product than diets of low digestibility. Balanced diets are also a prerequisite for longevity which contribute to lower greenhouse gas emissions through reduced needs for heifers to renew the herd.

Good practices

• Check the diets by diet calculation taking into account the nutritional value of available feed and the needs of animals. Feed characterized by high variability should be analyzed occasionally.

• The most demanding ruminant animals (dairy cows, ewes and goats at the top of lactation, young fast growing animals, …) should be offered the best forages while poorer forage should be offered to less demanding animals (suckling cows, dairy cows at the end of lactation and during the early dry period, ewes and goats, …).

• Introduce phase-feeding in pigs and poultry with the aim to match the requirements of individual animal categories as close as possible.

• Consider the supplementation of grass based diets for the most demanding ruminant animals with high energy and low protein forages (maize silage, fooder beet, …).

• Consider optimizing amino acid supply for pigs and poultry with synthetic amino-acids to reduce the concentration of protein in the diet.

• Supplement the basal diet for ruminants with concentrates where necessary. • Regularly check the adequacy of feeding through animal performance (daily gains, milk and

egg production, reproductive performance, …)

Farmer benefits

• Lower costs for feed.

• Better animal performance.

• Reduced animal health problems.


3

34


3.3.3 Animal housing and grazing

Basis Direct emissions of greenhouse gases

from animal houses are negligible. However, housing system may affect the emissions during the manure storage and also the indirect nitrous oxide emissions due to ammonia volatilization from animal houses. Basically, it is advisable to keep the animals in fields during the vegetation period. In this case the manure is being more or less uniformly spread on the ground and thus avoiding anaerobic decomposition of organic matter during the manure storage. It results in lower methane emissions.

The main measures to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from housing are therefore increasing the proportion of grazed animals and reducing ammonia emissions from animal houses.

Good practices

• Where possible, the proportion of grazed animals should be increased and the length of the grazing season extended. Grazing must be conducted in such a way that animals do not remain for a long time around drinking troughs, salt licks, feeders etc.

• Remove manure and slurry regularly from the animal houses, keep the floor clean.

• Keep the manure as dry as possible, use adequate amounts of suitable bedding.

Farmer benefits

• Grazing is generally economically in favour of housing systems.

• Reducing the emissions of nitrogenous compounds into the air creates savings in purchases of nitrogen fertilizers.

• The same measures reduce the odour and possible conflicts with neighbours.

Grazing and the length of the grazing season should be extended. This will reduce drastically the emissions during the manure storage.


3

35


3.3.4 Manure storage techniques

Basis Considerable quantities of methane and nitrous oxide are generated due to microbial

degradation of manures during the storage period. Manure stores are also a source of indirect nitrous oxide emissions due to ammonia volatilization into the air. In the case of bad management indirect nitrous oxide emissions arise also due to leaching and runoff of nitrogen compounds into the groundwater and surface waters. The options to reduce the direct emissions of GHG from manure stores are limited since measures which reduce methane production usually promote nitrous oxide release and vice versa. Anaerobic treatments lead to methane emissions and the aerobic treatments to nitrous oxide emissions. Therefore, liquid systems (slurry) are characterised by a higher methane emissions and solid systems (farmyard manure) by a higher nitrous oxide emissions. The most promising abatement technique is biogas production where anaerobic conditions prevent extensive nitrous oxide release while methane is captured and used as renewable source of energy. A lot can also be done by prevention of ammonia volatilization and leakage of nitrogen compounds, both leading to indirect emissions of nitrous oxide. Minimizing the loss of nitrogen into environment also contribute to lower needs for mineral fertilizers.

Good practices

• Stores for livestock manure must be sufficiently large, watertight and properly regulated.

• Heat speeds up the formation of methane, and it is therefore advisable to store animal manures in a shaded position.

• Storage of slurry below slats in an animal barn is not recommended because owing to the increased temperatures and because of the large surface area, losses of nitrogen with ammonia are very high.

• Covering slurry tanks is a positive measure since this reduces ammonia emissions. For covering purposes special tarpaulins and floating covers can be used. The natural crust that forms on slurries with a sufficiently high dry matter content is also effective in reducing ammonia emissions.

• Ensure the adequate quantity of litter used in the case of the farmyard manure collection. It prevent smell and reduce nitrogen loss with ammonia.

• Consider the possibility of building biogas installation. It reduces methane emissions, while use of the energy obtained helps reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. Unfortunately biogas production is generally too expensive for small holdings.

Farmer benefits

• Reducing the emissions of nitrogenous compounds into the air creates savings in purchases of nitrogen fertilizers.

• In the case of large units biogas production offers and additional income from energy sold on the market. In many countries electricity from biogas is subsidised.


3

36

.. Impact of water management on climate change is less evident than the several

consequences of climate change on the need of modification of irrigation techniques. Decreasing of GHG emission basing on water management is mainly in the way of reducing energy use and water use, while the effects of climate change on water management are more evident and complex.

A starting point for the suggestion of good irrigation practices could be the assumption that average temperatures is likely to continue its rise of at least 1.5 °C in the next few decades. As well, change in the frequency and intensity of rainfall patterns throughout the European region are expected (see Chapter 2).

With higher temperatures there will be more evapotranspiration and this could push up agricultural water demand. This will cause extra stresses on water resources. Areas which present large water availability and a high risk of climate change must learn the habits of areas where water already lacks today. Crops will need to be watered and irrigated differently depending on how rainfall regime changes; meanwhile, there will be changes in crops and cultivars grown, as agriculture has to adapt to climatic change. Irrigation techniques and practices must evolve, for example using drip feed which is less wasteful than spraying.

The general temperature increase is likely to reduce the storage of snow and ice on the mountains and in glaciers and released in rivers in spring and summer. Moreover, the snow- and glacier-melt may intervene earlier in spring, thus changing the seasonal regimes of rivers and it is known that warmer surface water bodies suffer more from pollution discharges.

3.4

WA

TE

R M

AN

AG

EM

EN

T

3.4 WATER MANAGEMENT

The effect of climate change on the water management are evident. Together with providing water for the plants, irrigation wil l more and more cover also the function of mitigating extreme climate event damages (frost, high temperatures).


3

37

The light and frequent summer rainfall of North West Europe could become more like

the intense thunderstorms of Southern Europe so extreme meteorological events are likely to become more common place and this will also affect local micro-climates. Extended periods of drought are likely to occur more frequently than now in southern Europe, which may face increased risk of desertification.

Farmers may work in two ways, adopting dry farming and irrigation farming. Dry farming is the profitable production of useful crops, without irrigation, on lands that receive annually a rainfall of 508 mm or less. In districts of torrential rains, high winds, unfavourable distribution of the rainfall, or other water-dissipating factors, the term "dry-farming" is also properly applied to farming without irrigation under an annual precipitation of 635 mm or even 762 mm. The fundamental problems of dry-farming are, then, the storage in the soil of a small annual rainfall; the retention in the soil of the moisture until it is needed by plants; the prevention of the direct evaporation of soil-moisture during the growing season; the regulation of the amount of water drawn from the soil by plants; the choice of crops suitable for growth under arid conditions; the application of suitable crop treatments, and the disposal of dry-farm products, based upon the superior composition of plants grown with small amounts of water.

Irrigation farming is based on the artificial distribution and application of water to arable land to initiate and maintain plant growth.

3.3

LIV

ES

TO

CK

MA

NA

GE

ME

NT

S

The increasing temperature trend and inhomogeneous distribution of rainfalls may force to provide extra water also to those crops that usually grow under dry farming conditions.


3

38


3.4.1 Irrigation best management practises

Basis The water-rich areas with a high risk of climate change must

learn the habits of the water-scarce areas. We propose to adopt for water management the best practices already “distilled” by a case study: a survey on irrigation management in an arid land like Australia. (www.sardi.sa.gov.au). The outlined best management practices are deliberately non-prescriptive, that is, they do not set out to tell irrigators exactly how they should go about managing irrigation, or exactly what tools they need to use. These decisions rest upon individuals, and vary according to a whole range of site- and irrigator-specific factors. A key point is that more sophisticated irrigation systems and scheduling tools do not necessarily lead to better irrigation performance. The key point of irrigation performance is probably the management skill of the land grower.

Good practices

• Rate irrigation highly within the management system. • Know the soils property like capacity of soil to hold water, and where in the soil profile the

roots of the crop are. • Design and maintain irrigation systems correctly. Irrigation system setup, age, and

maintenance are limiting factors in their ability to manage irrigation • Monitor all aspects of each irrigation event before, during and after the irrigation. Deciding

of when, monitoring of where water is going, both during the irrigation, by measuring system performance and uniformity of application, and after the irrigation, by assessing under- and over-irrigation.

• Use more than one objective monitoring tools to schedule irrigation. The most common and simplest included digging holes to check soil water, observation of the appearance of plants, and the checking of test-wells or drain flows after irrigation and subsequent adjustment in practice at the next irrigation.

• Retain control of irrigation scheduling. With modern technology, it is possible to set up irrigation systems to operate entirely automatically, based on the readings from a probe or a set of probes.

• Remain open to new information. • Use software for water balance, running on personal computers or on web servers. Models

for practical use must be simple, avoiding too many parameters, useful only for experimental purposes.

Farmer benefits

• Optimal use of irrigation water.

A proper maintenance of the irrigation system, or its modernization, are very important tools to be used in order to reach an efficient water management.


3

39


3.4.2 Choosing an irrigation method

Basis Climate change will not modify the way

followed in choosing irrigation methods, only the weight of some factors will be different. To choose an irrigation method, following FAO indications, the farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods. Farmers must know which method best suits local conditions. Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution: all methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Testing of the various methods - under the prevailing local conditions - provides the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method.

Good practices Choose the most suitable irrigation method according to the following natural conditions: • Soil type: sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate. They

therefore need frequent but small irrigation applications, in particular when the sandy soil is also shallow. Under these circumstances, sprinkler or drip irrigation are more suitable than surface irrigation. On loam or clay soils all three irrigation methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more commonly found. Clay soils with low infiltration rates are ideally suitable for surface irrigation. When a variety of different soil types is found within one irrigation scheme, sprinkler or drip irrigation are recommended as they will ensure a more even water distribution.

• Slope: Sprinkler or drip irrigation are preferred above surface irrigation on steeper or unevenly sloping lands as they require little or no land leveling. An exception is rice grown on terraces on sloping lands.

• Climate: Strong wind can disturb the spraying of water from sprinklers. Under very windy conditions, drip or surface irrigation methods are preferred. In areas of supplementary irrigation, sprinkler or drip irrigation may be more suitable than surface irrigation because of their flexibility and adaptability to varying irrigation demands in the farm.

• Water availability : Water application efficiency is generally higher with sprinkler and drip irrigation than surface irrigation and so these methods are preferred when water is in short supply. However, it must be remembered that efficiency is just as much a function of the irrigator as the method used.

• Water quality : Surface irrigation is preferred if the irrigation water contains much sediment. The sediments may clog the drip or sprinkler irrigation systems and increasing cost of maintenance. If the irrigation water contains dissolved salts, drip irrigation is particularly suitable, as less water is applied to the soil than with surface methods. Sprinkler systems are more efficient that surface irrigation methods in leaching out salts.


3

40


Choose the most suitable irrigation method considering:

• Type of crop: Surface irrigation can be used for all types of crops. Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of their high capital investment per hectare, are mostly used for high value cash crops, such as vegetables and fruit trees. They are seldom used for the lower value staple crops. Drip irrigation is suited to irrigating individual plants or trees or row crops such as vegetables and sugarcane. It is not suitable for close growing crops (e.g. rice).

• Type of technology: The type of technology affects the choice of irrigation method. In general, drip and sprinkler irrigation are technically more complicated methods. The purchase of equipment requires high capital investment per hectare. To maintain the equipment a high level of 'know-how' has to be available. Also, a regular supply of fuel and spare parts must be maintained. Surface irrigation systems - in particular small-scale schemes - usually require less sophisticated equipment for both construction and maintenance (unless pumps are used). The equipment needed is often easier to maintain.

• Previous experience with irrigation: The choice of an irrigation method also depends on the irrigation tradition within the region or country. Introducing a previously unknown method may lead to unexpected complications. It is not certain that the farmers will accept the new method. The servicing of the equipment may be problematic and the costs may be high compared to the benefits. Often it will be easier to improve the traditional irrigation method than to introduce a totally new method.

• Required labour inputs: Surface irrigation often requires a much higher labour input - for construction, operation and maintenance - than sprinkler or drip irrigation. Surface irrigation requires accurate land levelling, regular maintenance and a high level of farmers' organization to operate the system. Sprinkler and drip irrigation require little land levelling; system operation and maintenance are less labour-intensive.

• Costs and benefits: Before choosing an irrigation method, an estimate must be made of the costs and benefits of the available options. On the cost side not only the construction and installation, but also the operation and maintenance (per hectare) should be taken into account. These costs should then be compared with the expected benefits (yields). It is obvious that farmers will only be interested in implementing a certain method if they consider this economically attractive.

Farmer benefits

• Adopting an efficient irrigation method is the first indispensable step towards water saving.

Water deriving from sewage treatment plants may represent an important source of water for agriculture.


3

41


3.4.3 Save-water techniques Basis To save water can be considered the main

aspect of a climate and environmental friendly water management. Water saving techniques can be applied to soil, plants (crops and weeds), atmosphere and irrigation system. Save water techniques for irrigated agriculture, in addition to dry-farming techniques, concern the multiple steps of irrigation process: water collection (pumping, etc.), storage (ponds, lakes, groundwater), transport (aqueducts), salinity, toxicity, suspended materials, evaporation losses during distribution and from irrigated bare soils, transpiration losses by weeds, run-off losses, deep percolation losses. Agronomical save-water practices may be suggested to save water.

Good practices

• Ploughing to enhance the soil depth disposable for water storage and optimal roots growing. A tilled soil surface reduces in many cases the runoff of rain water and in clay soils increments water storage of about 50 mm compared to minimum tillage or mulching and 100 mm compared to no tillage. In the case of sandy soils, deep ploughing can reduce water storage capacity.

• Superficial Tillage like Light cultivator or Chisel cultivator to control weed and superficial crust breaking, interrupting water extraction by roots (transpiration) and drastically reducing capillary rise (evaporation).

• Wind barriers to control soil water, wind erosion and ambient dust. The most common species for annual barriers is silage maize, although sunflowers are also popular.

• Mulching to reduce evaporation. A chaff spreader may be considered one of the least expensive and most effective soil and water conservation investments. Plastic mulches can be also used.

• Cover crop in orchards. It prevents degradation of soil structure, creating an optimal soil structure for water infiltration and storage, allowing moreover a better access to the trees for coltural and harvest activities.

• Reducing irrigated area in orchards. In situations of reduced water availability, it can sometimes be more profitable to provide optimum water to part of an orchard and produce good marketable fruit, rather than watering the whole orchard and producing small unmarketable fruit. Avoid to irrigate the inter-row space.

Farmer benefits

• Evaporation, transpiration and run-off are reduced.

• The soil structure and permeability are optimized.

• Crop yields are improved.

Some techniques, like flooding irrigation, are well known to be high water expensive.


3

42


3.4.4 Tools in irrigation: the irrigation systems

Furrow systems: a series of small, shallow channels used to guide water down a slope across a paddock. Furrows are generally straight, but may also be curved to follow the contour of the land, especially on steeply sloping land. Row crops are typically grown on the ridge or bed between the furrows, spaced from 1 meter apart.

Flood or border check systems: divide the paddock into bays separated by parallel ridges/border checks. Water flows down the paddock's slope as a sheet guided by ridges. On steeply sloping lands, ridges are more closely spaced and may be curved to follow the contour of the land. Border systems are suited to orchards and vineyards, and for pastures and grain crops.

Level basin systems: differ from traditional border check or flood systems in that slope of the land is level and area's ends are closed. Water is applied at high volumes to achieve an even, rapid ponding of the desired application depth within basins.

Center-pivot sprinkler systems: a self-propelled system in which a single pipeline supported by a row of mobile towers is suspended 2 to 4 meters above ground. Water is pumped into the central pipe and as the towers rotate slowly around the pivot point, a large circular area is irrigated. Sprinkler nozzles mounted on or suspended from the pipeline distribute water under pressure as the pipeline rotates. The nozzles are graduated small to large so that the faster moving outer circle receives the same amount of water as the slower moving inside.

Hand move sprinkler systems: a series of lightweight pipeline sections that are moved manually for successive irrigations. Lateral pipelines are connected to a mainline, which may be portable or buried. Handmove systems are often used for small, irregular areas. Handmove systems are not suited to tall-growing field crops due to difficulty in repositioning laterals. Labour requirements are higher than for all other sprinklers.


3

43


Solid set / fixed sprinkler systems: refer to a stationary sprinkler system. Water-supply pipelines are generally fixed (usually below the soil surface) and sprinkler nozzles are elevated above the surface. Solid-set systems are commonly used in orchards and vineyards for frost protection and crop cooling. Solid-set systems are also widely used on turf and in landscaping.

Travelling gun sprinkler systems: use a large sprinkler mounted on a wheel or trailer, fed by a flexible rubber hose. The sprinkler is self-propelled while applying water, travelling in a lane guided by a cable. The system requires high operating pressures, with 100 psi not uncommon.

Side-roll wheel-move systems: large-diameter wheels mounted on a pipeline, enabling the line to be rolled as a unit to successive positions across the field. Crop type is an important consideration for this system since the pipeline is roughly 1 meter above the ground.

Linear or lateral-move systems: similar to center-pivot systems, except that the lateral line and towers move in a continuous straight path across a rectangular field. Water may be supplied by a flexible hose or pressurised from a concrete-lined ditch along the field's edge.

Low-flow irrigation systems (including drip and trickle): use small-diameter tubes placed above or below the soil's surface. Frequent, slow applications of water are applied to the soil through small holes or emitters. The emitters are supplied by a network of main, submain, and lateral lines. Water is dispensed directly to the root zone, avoiding runoff or deep percolation and minimising evaporation. These systems are generally used in orchards, vineyards, or high-valued vegetable crops.

3.4.4 Tools in irrigation: the irrigation systems


3

44


3.4.5 Tools in irrigation: the water balance

The water balance of an agricultural field is an accounting of inputs (precipitation , irrigation , capillary rise form water table), outputs (evapo-transpiration, run-off , deep percolation) and storage changes of water in the soil layer explored by roots. With a step of one day (or week or month), starting from water deficit rate at the end of previous period, water balance estimates the water deficit at the end of the current period. Since in many cases the major input of water is from precipitation and output is evapotranspiration, the following simplification is often used in water balances for irrigation.

SMDt = SMDt-1 + Kc*Etot – Pet – IRnet.t

where: IRnet.t: [mm] is the net irrigation water rate applied during period t. Kc [-] : is a coefficient varying with crop type and growth stage. Etot: [mm] is the reference evapotranspiration during period t. Pet [mm]: effective precipitation during period t. SMDt-1, SMDt: [mm] soil moisture deficit at the end of period t-1 and t.

A complete term explication is available in the Glossary. Between field capacity (FC) and wilting point (PWP or WP) there is water only in soil micro-

porosity (pore diam.< 8 µm), while macro-porosity (d. > 8 µm) is occupied by soil atmosphere, creating an optimal environment for roots respiration. When humidity is under PWP, plants of temperate climates die because water is too strongly bounded to soil. When humidity is above FC, water is not held by soil and percolates towards the water table. Available Water (AW ) is the difference between soil moisture at FC and at WP:

AW [mm/m] = FC [mm/m] – WP [mm/m]

AW is mainly a function of particle size composition, organic matter content and structure.

The use of agrometeorological information allows to obtain a reliable indication to develop an appropriate water balance, thus constituting a very important decision supporting tool.


3

45


Plant available water (PAW) depends on AW and on Root Depth (RZ):

PAW [mm] = AW [mm/m] * RZ [m]

To avoid water stress, irrigator permits only a partial depletion of soil water storage. Allowable depletion (AD) depends on the type of crop and on phenological phase. With sprinkler irrigation method , soil is refilled to FC when AD is completely exhausted, instead with trickle the humidity level of irrigated zone is constantly maintained close to FC.

FAO proposes the so called “3 steps” method for ET calculations: 1) ETo = Reference evapo-transpiration 2) ETc = Evapo-transp. of crop in optimal conditions Etc = ETo * Kc 3) ETreal = Evapo-transp. of crop in real conditions

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) in most cases is calculated from meteorological data using mathematical formulas. Crop coefficients (Kc) for each region are generally published by agricultural institutions and experimental centres. The last step is often not necessary because the finality and the spirit of irrigation is exactly maintaining crops in optimal conditions.

Effective precipitation (Pe) is the part of precipitation (normally rain) stored in soil. Adopting directly rain measures from rain gauges does not heavily modify the water balance, because evaporation of water intercepted by plant canopy indeed accounts for transpiration from leaves.

When assessing Net irrigation (IRnet) with sprinklers, the same difficulties are met as with precipitation. For trickle the focus is not on evaporation, but rather on Deep percolation (DP) losses. Anyway, in modern plants, for both methods the adoption of a flow meters is common, to permit accurate irrigation dosages.

3.4.5 Tools in irrigation: the water balance

Personalized irrigation advices are sent via web and as small message (SMS) directly to the mobile farmers from public administration services in many Countries (here the IRRINET service developed in Emilia-Romagna-Italy- by CER). Such advices are based on crop characteristics and local water balance, and allow a proper irrigation for the different crops.


3

46

Agricultural sector needs a big amount of energy, required by the wide ranging

operations of the whole production chain: soil movements, tillage, animal housing, crop management, irrigation, harvest and post-harvest operations, etc. A great part of the energy needs in the agricultural sector and of a farm is provided by the use of fossil fuel. It is well known that burning fossil fuels is among the most important factors of GHG emission, increasing the presence in the atmosphere of several gases like CO2, CO, CH4, NOx, SOx, and others. In spite the great potential of the agricultural sector in providing energy using alternative sources, fossil fuel still remain the main source of energy in this sector. Reducing fossil fuel use become a priority for farmers, together encouraging the use of renewable energy. The utilization of high efficiency tools or by switching to renewable non-fossil fuels will decrease the emission of GHG. It should be important the corrected maintenance of all farm engines in order to have the most efficient conversion. Farmer may install implants to convert solar energy in electricity (photovoltaic conversion), or to produce hot water (thermal conversion) and to transport heat where it is required. In some cases wind may be a great source of energy that can provide electricity for the farm or again using biomass as an alternative to fossil fuel. Biomass may be defined as the organic matter available on a renewable basis. The principal contribution that the biomasses can offer for the reduction of the greenhouse effect derives from their ability to store enormous quantities of CO2 removed from the atmosphere and stored for a long time inside the fibres that constitute them. Biomass includes forest and mill residues, agricultural crops and wastes, wood and wood wastes, animal wastes, livestock operation residues, aquatic plants, fast-growing trees and plants, and municipal and industrial wastes. Energy may be obtained through several processes. On the basis of the chemical - physic characteristics, the biomasses can be converted in solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.

3.5

RE

NE

WA

BLE

EN

ER

GY

AN

D E

NE

RG

Y E

FF

ICIE

NC

Y

3.5 RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

The production of energy from woods it is a practice that is well known by rural people. Modern concepts and knowledge on forest management and on transformation plants have to drive to a rational utilization of this source of energy for the satisfaction of the energy demands.


3

47

In some situations, the use of biomass involves the cultivation of oil-seed crops

(sunflower, rapeseed, etc.) for the production of fuels like bio-diesel, or bio-ethanol, the last produced from starch or sugar crops. Burning biomass give the possibility to produce directly heat or electricity, while through the gasification process it can be produced a fuel gas. Again with a chemical process called pyrolysis (solid organic material is heated strongly in absence of oxygen) it is possible to produce a fuel with similar properties of synthetic oils. The utilization of the cultivation of dedicated biomass crops could be used advantageously both by the energy sector, as a substitute for fossil fuel, and by the agricultural sector, for which it could substitute or complement the production of food crops as a source of incomes. Of course, to be useful in an environmental sense, cultivation of dedicated biomass crops needs to be carried out in an environmentally friendly manner (low input agriculture). Frequently a great source of biomass is represented by woody-herbaceous crop residues. Farmers use to burn crop residues on field losing the possibility to produce energy by this material. Residual biomass, wood chips or even produced biomass from dedicated crops may be collected and converted in energy. A practice common in a number of countries is the use of methane emissions from livestock manure as biogas, thereby turning the methane into carbon dioxide and reducing the overall greenhouse effect.

It’s important that the farmer assumes not only the role of producer of the materials but also the role of consumer and/or energy's supplier. Besides the environmental aspects, in a context of opportune planning, choice and integration of the most appropriate technologies and sources, there is also a real possibility of saving on the energetic costs, reducing drastically the use of fossil fuel and thus the emission of GHG and of thin dust. The diffusion depends to the politics that allow them to become more competitive compared with the fossil combustibles (gasoline, gas-oil). The European Directive 2003/30/CE impose to the Members States, least percentages of biofuels to introduce in the national markets: the 2% of the whole gasoline and the diesel (used for the transports) present on the market to the 31st December 2005, and the 5,75% within the 31st December 2010. In terms of biomasses use, the conditions appear favourable both in relation to synergistic actions with the exploitation of the solar (thermal and photovoltaic) and aeolian (mini - aeolian) energy and to promote the diversification of the rural economy and its competitiveness, with the reduction of the energetic costs.

3.5

RE

NE

WA

BLE

EN

ER

GY

AN

D E

NE

RG

Y E

FF

ICIE

NC

Y

Regulations and Documents of EU • Dec. n. 646/2000/CE of 28-02-2000. Decision of the European Parliament and Council

that adopts a long-term program to promote the renewable energetic sources in the European Community (ALTENER) (1998-2002). Published in the G.U.C.E. 30th March 2000, n. L. 79. In force 19th March 2000.

• Dir. 2001/77/CE of 27-09-2001. Directive of the European Parliament and Council on the promotion of the electric energy deriving from renewable energetic sources. Published in the G.U.C.E. 27th October 2001, n. L 283. In force 27th October 2001.

• Reg. (CE) n. 1782/2003 of 29-09-2003. Regulation of the European Council that establishes common norms related to the regimes of direct support within the common agricultural politic (CAP); it sets up some regimes of support for the farmers and modifies the regulations (CEE) n. 2019/93, (CE) n. 1452/2001, (CE) n. 1453/2001, (CE) n. 1454/2001, (CE) n. 1868/94, (CE) n. 1251/1999, (CE) n. 1254/1999, (CE) n. 1673/2000, (CEE) n. 2358/71 and (CE) n. 2529/2001. Published in the G.U.C.E. 21st October 2003, n. L. 270. In force 28th October 2003.

• Dir. 2003/96/CE of 27-10-2003. Directive of the European Council about the new taxation of the energetic products and the electricity. Published in the G.U.C.E. 31st October 2003, n. L 283. In force 31st October 2003.

• Reg. (CE) n. 1698/2005 of 20-09-2005. Regulation of the European Council about the support to the rural development through the Agricultural European Fund for the Rural Development (FEASR). Published in the G.U.C.E. 21st October 2005, n. L. 277. In force 22nd October 2005.

• Communication 07/12/2005 - Action Plan for the Biomass.


3

48



3

3.5.1 Solar energy for the farm: thermal

Farmer benefits

• Saving money. • Increasing self-reliance • Reducing pollution and GHG emissions

Good practices

• Install solar water heater on the roof or close to the farm. Passive or active circulating systems and different plants dimension are available on the market.

• Active solar heating systems, which use heat boxes and fans, can warm the air, saving on fuel.

• Solar water heaters can provide low - medium - temperature hot water. Dairy operations can use solar heated water to clean equipment and to warm and stimulate cow’s udders. For homes or farms with electric or propane water heaters, solar collectors can save money.

• Solar collector can be used to dry crops and grains • Solar greenhouse uses building materials to collect and store solar energy as

heat.

Basis

Solar energy - power from the sun - is clean and unlimited. Capturing the sun's energy for heating water can be a convenient way to save money, whether drying crops, heating buildings, or powering a water pump, using the sun can make the farm more efficient. The amount of energy from the sun that reaches Earth each day is enormous. All the energy stored in Earth's reserves of coal, oil, and natural gas is equal to the energy in just 20 days of sunshine. Mainly Southern Europe Countries receive enough sunshine to make solar energy practical.

Solar energy may be used to heat water or air. Small plants are able to satisfy the needed of the domestic hot water and heating.

49

3.5.1 Solar energy for the farm: photovoltaic

Farmer benefits

• Saving money. • Increasing self-reliance • Reducing pollution and GHG emissions

Good practices

• Install photovoltaic panels to provide electric energy for domestic or farm use.

• Design or renovate buildings and barns to use natural daylight instead of electric lights.

• Passive solar designs, where the building is designed to take advantage of the sun automatically, are often the most cost-effective approach.

• Photovoltaic panels are often a cheaper option than new electric lines for providing power to remote locations.

Basis

Photovoltaic technology means the direct transformation of the solar energy in electric energy by the exploitation of the properties of some semiconductor materials. The systems consist in a photovoltaic panel, where the transformation occurs, an inverter to convert continuous electricity from panels to alternate and others mechanisms to stabilize the electric power. Capturing the sun's energy for light and electricity can be a convenient way to save money. Costs of plant are amortized in few years. To reach a power of 1 kWp, it is needed 8 - 10 m2 of panels, that at central Europe latitudes may correspond to about 1100 kWh of electric energy per year. Mainly Southern Europe Countries receive enough sunshine to make solar energy practical.



3

50

3.5.2 Wind energy for the farm

Farmer benefits

• The wind turbines are clean and noiseless. • Environmental friendly power is produced • Saving-and possibly earning- money reducing pollution and GHG emissions • Wind is free, produces no waste or greenhouse gases. • The land beneath can usually still be used for farming. • Wind farms can be tourist attractions. • A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

Good practices

• Building wind farms in places that have strong, steady winds. The best places are in coastal areas, at the tops of rounded hills, open plains and gaps in mountains - places where the wind is strong and reliable.

• To be worthwhile, an average wind speed of around 25 km/h is preferred. • Use large propellers to extract energy from the largest possible volume of air. The blades

can be angled to "fine" or "coarse" pitch, to cope with varying wind speeds, and the generator and propeller can turn to face the wind wherever it comes from.

• Install tall towers, to get the propellers as high as possible, up to where the wind is stronger. This means that the land beneath can still be used for farming.


Basis In theory, the wind is a very powerful resource,

but greatly variable from one location to another. The market potential for wind also depends on the cost. The cost of producing wind power has fallen by as much as 90 percent since 1980. By 2010, electricity from new wind power projects is projected to be cheaper than electricity from new conventional power plants. Farmers are in a unique position to benefit from the growth in the wind industry. To tap this market, farmers can use the wind to generate power for their farms, or become wind power producers themselves. Farmers can generate their own power from the wind, just as their predecessors did in the 1930s and 1940s. Small wind generators, ranging from 400 watts to 40 kilowatts or more, can meet the needs of an entire farm or can be targeted to specific applications (i.e to pump water). They may also be cheaper than extending power lines and are more convenient and cheaper than diesel generators. A opportunity for a farmer or group of farmers is to become a wind developer who produces power to sell to others. Wind in fact allows the production of green" or environmentally friendly power.

Aeolian plants (or mini - aeolian) may be harmoniously integrated with landscape and promote the diversification of the rural economy.


3

51

3.5.3 Hydroelectric energy for the farm


Farmer benefits

• Reliability of the energy source. • High electric energy efficiency production using new technologies. • Low maintenance costs. • The possibility for the farmer to integrate the electric energy use with a low

costly renewable source.

Good practices

• Install small hydroelectric power station exploiting each kind of water jump or stream that can be present on farm.

• Install vanguard plants the efficiently transform mechanical energy of water in electric energy.

• Evaluate the effective water flow rate in order to choose the more appropriately plant.

• Consider the possibility to use the energy of pressure pipelines of the potable water.

Basis The source of energy is the water. Hydroelectric energy may be available wherever there is the presence of a constant and appropriate water flow. Hydroelectric plants are able to transform the energy of a stream of water in mechanical energy, then transformed in electricity, both exploiting the energy of a water fall or the speed of a water flow. The power that can be produced is depending on flow rate or by the water jump. Basing on the nominal power, hydraulic plants may be classified as: micro (P < 100 kW); mini (100 < P (kW) < 1000); small (1000 < P (kW) < 10000) and big (P > 10000 kW). The availability of water and the way how it could be available (artificial or natural lakes, streams, pressure pipelines or penstocks) determines the kind of the more feasible plant. Farmers may found advantages even from the presence of a small river of a water stream producing electric energy to satisfy in part or the overall farm energy needs. Water got an high specific energy (produced energy per volume or weight unit), higher than wind. Water is thicker than wind, giving an higher load to the turbines.


3

Unlike high power plants, that require a natural or an artificial lake to store the water, mini plants work as the old water mills (obviously technically innovated), directly using the flow of a river, can provide significant amount of energy.

52


3.5.4 Energy from biogas for the farm

Farmer benefits

• The possibility for the farmer to integrate the electric energy use with a low costly renewable source.

• For big plants, the possibility to sell energy or heat produced by waste materials.

Good practices

• Collecting and use of the organic waste material from agro and food farms and from livestock farms with high content of proteins (slurry, sewages sludge, wastes from food and animal industry, crop wastes, organic waste from butchery).

• Dedicated crops like maize, legumes, sugar beet, etc. can grown to supply biogas plants.

• Use of urban wastes. • Definition of the amount and quality of the organic material can be collected.

Basis Biogas is produced throughout the anaerobic

digestion (without oxygen) of the organic matter, carried out by particular micro-organisms. The composition of biogas depends by the source of biomass digested, in any case this gas presents an high percentage of methane (from 50 to 80 %), thus representing a good-quality fuel that can be used to produce heat or electricity. Agro and food industry together with the whole livestock sector produce a big amount of wastes that can be utilized to produce biogas. There is a wide range of plants available in the market, all differing by the amount of material processed and, then, by the amount of energy releasable. Both farmers and stock-breeder may think to install a biogas plant in relation to the amount of waste organic material that they can produce or to cooperate. Generally it can be found small plants connected to small livestock farms or big plants receiving external material by the several producers and realising energy as heat or electricity for the consumers.


3

53


3.5.5 Energy from biomass: wood and raw material

Basis Woody crops and any kind of crop residues

together with dedicated herbaceous energy crops may represent an important source of material to produce energy. Biomass may be chipped or transformed in pellet on the farm. Chips and pellet are compressed small pieces of woody or herbaceous material, easily to store and to move. Chip and pellet may be obtained from waste, from crops specifically cut for this purpose (short-rotation woody crops), from management of forests or from woody industry wastes. Burning biomass on the farm or in a cooperation with neighbouring farmer using appropriate plants represents another possibility to produce energy avoiding fossil fuel and then reducing GHG emissions. Furthermore part of the CO2 absorbed by plants is permanently fixed in the soil as roots.

Good practices

• To avoid burning crop residues on field. • Cultivation of short-rotation woody crops (fast-growing hardwood trees harvested in

2 to 5 years: poplar trees, etc.). • Cultivation of annual herbaceous energy crops (switchgrass, miscanthus, fibre

sorghum, ect.). • To produce chips on farm using any woody and herbaceous crop residues. • To use chips to produce energy through combustion or gasification. • Evaluate the possibility to create an association that provide to collect crop residues

and produce chips (economies of scale).

Farmer benefits

• The possibility to produce the own energy on farm.

• To reduce the use of fossil fuel (save money)

• To increase the farm biodiversity introducing new crops.

• Use of marginal lands for the cultivation of energy crops.

• Differentiation of farm production and lower dependence by the market fluctuation.

• The possibility of new incomes both selling chips and energy in excess.

Rural and marginal lands may represent an important source of biomass, both from forest and dedicated crops, these last easily manageable with low input agricultural concepts.


3

54

Chapter 4

GLOSSARY AND DEFINITIONS

55

In this chapter is provided a list of definitions of many terms

related to the treated topics in this code. Further information and definition about environments and agricultural topics may be also be found at the European Environmental Agency multilingual glossary web site.

http://glossary.eea.europa.eu/EEAGlossary/

55

CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE AND MU TUAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH AGRICULTURE Abiotic stress: nonliving components of the environment associated with climatic, edaphic and physiographic factors that can limit plant growth and survival. Categorically abiotic stresses include drought, salinity, non-optimal temperatures and poor soil nutrition. Adaptation: action taken to adjust natural ecosystems and agricultural system so they can cope with changing climate conditions, the aim being to reduce potential harm or exploit potential benefits. Adverse effects of climate change: changes in the physical and environmental or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on the composition, resilience or productivity of ecosystems and agricultural systems. Atmospheric processes: atmospheric motions that spans on a wide spectrum of scales. The largest scales are those that encompass only a few horizontal waves, or cycles, around each hemisphere of the Earth (Rossby Waves), the smallest are the microscale eddies of turbulence, (down to only fractions of meters, even millimetres). In between these two extremes there are several others dynamically significant scales. Usually the division is into a few separate scales: the Global, Synoptic, Meso and Boundary-layer scale. Climate: climate summarises the average, range and variability of weather elements, e.g. rain, wind, temperature, fog, thunder, and sunshine, observed over many years (usually a 30-year time period) at a location or across an area. The climate of a region will determine what plants will grow there, and what animals will inhabit it. Climate change: a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Climate (climatic) variability: in the most general sense, the term "climate variability" denotes the inherent characteristic of climate which manifests itself in changes of climate with time. The degree of climate variability can be described by the differences between long-term statistics of meteorological elements calculated for different periods. The term "climate variability" is often used to denote deviations of climate statistics over a given period of time (such as a specific month, season or year) from the long-term climate statistics relating to the corresponding calendar period. In this sense, climate variability is measured by those deviations, which are usually termed anomalies. Convection: a term that describes processes affecting the atmosphere, waters, and solid earth. In the atmosphere, hot air rises on convection currents, circulating and creating clouds and winds.


4

56

Drought: drought is a protracted period of deficient precipitation resulting in extensive damage to crops, resulting in loss of yield. The following operational definitions help define the onset, severity, and end of droughts: Agricultural drought occurs when there is not enough soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop at a particular time. Agricultural drought happens after meteorological drought but before hydrological drought. Agriculture is usually the first economic sector to be affected by drought. Hydrological drought refers to deficiencies in surface and subsurface water supplies. It is measured as stream flow and as lake, reservoir, and groundwater levels. There is a time lag between lack of rain and less water in streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, so hydrological measurements are not the earliest indicators of drought. When precipitation is reduced or deficient over an extended period of time, this shortage will be reflected in declining surface and subsurface water levels. Socioeconomic drought occurs when physical water shortage starts to affect people, individually and collectively. Or, in more abstract terms, most socioeconomic definitions of drought associate it with the supply and demand of an economic good.

Extreme weather event: meteorological conditions that are rare for a particular place and/or time, such as an intense storm or heat wave. Flood: an overflow or inundation that comes from a river or other body of water and causes or threatens damage. Floods are caused by weather phenomena and events that deliver more precipitation to a drainage basin than can be readily absorbed or stored within the basin. Frost hazard: the risk of damage by frost, expressed as the probability or frequency of killing frost on different dates during the growing season, or as the distribution of dates of the last killing frost of spring or the first of autumn. Frost may be a very detrimental factor for crop yield and crop quality. GHG: greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. They contribute to the heating of the atmosphere, Some of their formation is due to natural causes, some is due to anthropic impact (traffic, industrial activities etc). Greenhouse effect: it is the heating of the Earth due to the presence of greenhouse gases. It is named this way because of a similar effect produced by the glass panes of a greenhouse. Shorter-wavelength solar radiation from the sun passes through Earth's atmosphere, then is absorbed by the surface of the Earth, causing it to warm. Part of the absorbed energy is then re-radiated back to the atmosphere as long wave infrared radiation. Little of this long wave radiation escapes back into space; the radiation cannot pass through the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases selectively transmit the infrared waves, trapping some and allowing some to pass through into space. The greenhouse gases absorb these waves and reemits the waves downward, causing the lower atmosphere to warm.


4

57

Heat waves: extreme events which have not a standardized definition. The usual approach to define them is to consider an absolute or relative threshold for a weather variable, the daily maximum air temperature frequently, and to declare the heat wave as the period where the variable exceeds this threshold. Mitigation: a human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Examples include using fossil fuels more efficiently for industrial processes or electricity generation, switching to solar energy or wind power, improving the insulation of buildings, and expanding forests and other “sink” to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Risk management: the process of analyzing exposure to risk and determining how to best handle such exposure. Thunderstorm: a convective storm accompanied by lightning and thunder and a variety of weather such as locally heavy rain showers, hail, high winds, sudden temperature changes, and occasionally tornadoes. Thunderstorms are considered severe when they produce winds greater than 26 m/s , hail larger than 19 mm in diameter, or tornadoes. CHAPTER 3. AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES IMPACTING THE CLI MATE CHANGE AND GOOD PRACTICES TO REDUCE MUTUAL IMPACTS Chapter 3.1 Crop management and land use Biodiversity: in the simplest of terms, biological diversity is the variety of life and its processes; and it includes the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur. Cultivar: the article 2.1 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants states that a cultivar is the "primary category of cultivated plants whose nomenclature is governed by this Code. An assemblage of plants that has been selected for a particular attribute or combination of attributes, and that is clearly distinct, uniform and stable in its characteristics and that, when propagated by appropriate means, retains those characteristics" (Art. 2.2). Conservation Tillage: a production system in which at least 30% of the soil surface is covered by residues from previous crops. Conservation tillage is practiced to reduce erosion and to conserve soil carbon. Chemical: in agriculture, a substance (or a solution of different substances) with a distinct molecular composition that is synthesised to solve problems related to weed and pest managements. Generally contain an active principle that affect a physiological process of weed or pests.


4

58

Crop rotation: the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same space in sequential seasons. The choice and sequence of rotation crops depends on the nature of the soil, the climate, and precipitation which together determine the type of plants that may be cultivated. Other important aspects of farming such as crop marketing and economic variables must also be considered when choosing a crop rotation. Only certain plants are predominant in crop rotation, especially grain and technical plants, the most widespread being monoculture (kernel maize) and two year rotation (maize and winter wheat), involving high rates of mineral fertiliser and pesticide application. Fallow: plowed but left unseeded during a growing season. Host resistance: the genetic, biochemical, and/or physiological profiles that inhibit parasite establishment, survival, and/or development within the host. Integrated crop management: an approach to farming which aims to balance production with economic and environmental considerations by means of a combination of measures including crop rotation, cultivations, appropriate crop varieties and careful use of inputs. Mulching: mulch is a covering placed around plants (or covering the ground in lieu of plants), to prevent the growth of weeds. If placed around plants, a mulch provides additional benefits, including the diminution of evaporation and soil erosion, and the regulation of soil temperature. In addition, upon decomposition (for organic mulches), mulches serve as soil amendments. Polycolture: association of multiple crops. Organic farming: agricultural production system where only natural fertilisers, pesticides and nutritional supplements are used. Hormones and synthetics checmicals are not used at all.

Sustainable Agriculture: referring to an agricultural system that is ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially just—a system capable of maintaining productivity indefinitely. 3.2. Soil management and fertilization Carbon fixation: the process by which photosynthetic organisms such as plants turn inorganic carbon (usually carbon dioxide) into organic compounds Compost: obtained by the fermentation of different organic residues (straw, maize stalks, chaff, weed and legume waste, etc.), sometimes adding mineral substances (lime, ash, etc.). Gathered in piles, they are occasionally watered to foster the fermentation process. Composts may be used for all the agricultural crops, in quantities of 15 - 25 tonnes per hectare. Unlike manure, compost acts rapidly, but its effect only lasts one or two years.

58


4

59

59

59

Cover crops: a crop that provides temporary protection for delicate seedlings and/or provides a canopy for seasonal soil protection and improvement between normal crop production periods. Except in orchards where permanent vegetative cover is maintained, cover crops usually are grown for one year of less. When plowed under and incorporated into the soil, cover crops are also referred to as gren manure crops. Green fertilisers: include certain plants grown to be incorporated into the soil at the time of preparing the soil. The plants used as green manure should produce as rich a vegetable mass as possible in an as short a time as possible and should not require special soil quality. The effect of this type of fertiliser is very similar to that of mineral manure, due to its favourable action on the activity of soil flora and fauna for periods of 2 - 3 years, and thereby improving the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Green manure can be applied on any type of soil, but is more efficient on soils deficient in organic matter (podzolic and sandy soils). Manure: a complete organic fertiliser containing all the nutritional elements required by plants, being considered a universal fertiliser, adequate for all cultivated plants and soil types. It is used mainly on low humus soils, unstructured or damaged soils, heavy soils (loosen their structure), or on sandy soils (to improve water retention). Nitrate: inorganic form of nitrogen. An important plant nutrient and type of inorganic fertilizer (most highly oxidized phase in the nitrogen cycle). In water, the major sources of nitrates are septic tanks, feed lots and fertilizers.

Soil organic matter: soil organic matter has three parts: living organisms, fresh residues, and well-decomposed residues (the living, the dead, and the very dead). Fresh residues are a primary source of food for living organisms. Decomposition of fresh residues releases nutrients needed by plants. Well-decomposed matter, also called “humus,” holds on to some nutrients, storing them for slow release to plants Topsoil: the upper part of the soil. It is the soil with the most organic matter in it. 3.3 Livestock managements Aerobic: aerobic means with oxygen. More specifically, it refers to occurring or living only in the presence of oxygen; therefore, the chemistry of the system, environment, or organism is characterized by oxidative conditions. Many organic contaminants are rapidly degraded under aerobic conditions by aerobic bacteria called aerobes. This process is known as aerobic biodegradation. Anaerobic: means without oxygen. More specifically, it refers to occurring or living without oxygen present; therefore, the chemistry of the system, environment, or organism is characterized by reductive conditions. Many organic contaminants are degraded under anaerobic conditions by anaerobic bacteria called anaerobes. This process is known as anaerobic biodegradation.


4

60

60

Leaching: loss of soluble substances and colloids from the top layer of soil by percolating precipitation. 3.4 Water management The following definitions are extracted from the Glossary of Irrigation Terms, The Irrigation Association®, 6540 Arlington Blvd, Falls Church, VA 22042-6638, USA. Allowable depletion [AD] {%, mm}: portion of plant available water that is allowed for plant use prior to irrigation based in plant and management considerations. Application efficiency: ratio of the average depth of irrigation water infiltrated and stored in the root zone to the average depth of irrigation water applied. Available water [AW] {%, mm/mm, mm/m }: portion of water in a soil that can be readily absorbed by plant roots. It is the amount of water released between in situ field capacity and the permanent wilting point. Crop coefficient [Kc]: coefficient used to modify reference evapotranspiration to reflect the water use of a particular plant or group of plants particularly with reference to the plant species. Crop evapotranspiration [ETc]: the quantitative amount of ET within the cropped area of a field, and which is associated with growing of a crop. Deep percolation [DP] {mm} : movement of water downward through the soil profile below the root zone that cannot be used by plants. Effective precipitation [Pe] {mm} : portion of total precipitation which becomes available for plant growth. Evaporation [E] {mm/day, mm/week, mm/month}: water movement from a wet soil or plant surface which does not pass through the plant. Evapotranspiration [ET] {mm/day, mm/week, mm/month}: combination of water transpired from vegetation and evaporated from the soil and plant surfaces. Field capacity [FC] {%, mm/mm, mm/m}: amount of water remaining in a soil when the downward water flow due to gravity becomes negligible. Gross irrigation requirement [IRgross] {mm} : total irrigation requirement including net crop requirement plus any losses incurred in distributing and applying and in operating the system. Groundwater: water beneath the earth's surface, often between saturated soil and rock, that supplies wells and springs.


4

61

61

Irrigation system: all equipment required to convey water to or within the design area. Maximum allowable deficiency [MADp] {-}, Management allowable (allowed) depletion (deficit) [MAD] {%, -} Planned soil moisture deficit at the time of irrigation. Net irrigation requirement [IRnet] {mm} : depth of water, exclusive of effective precipitation, stored soil moisture, or ground water, that is required for meeting crop evapotranspiration for crop production and other related uses. Such uses may include water required for leaching, frost protection, cooling. (Permanent) Wilting point [PWP, WP] {%, mm/mm, mm/m}: moisture content, on a dry weight basis, at which plants can no longer obtain sufficient moisture from the soil to satisfy water requirements. Plants will not fully recover when water is added to the crop root zone once permanent wilting point has been experienced. Classically, -15 atmospheres (-15 bars), soil moisture tension is used to estimate PWP. Plant available water [PAW] {mm} : available water located in the root zone. Porosity {%}: volume of pores in a soil sample relative to the total volume of the sample. Precipitation [P] {mm} : total of all atmospheric water deposited on the surface. That is rain, snow, hail, dew and condensation. Readily available water [RAW] {mm/m} : portion of available water that is more readily available for plant usage. It varies with plant type. Reference evapotranspiration [ETo]: rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive surface cool-season green grass cover of uniform height of 12 cm, actively growing, completely shading the ground, and not short of water. Root depth, Root zone [RZ] {mm, m}: depth of soil that plants roots readily penetrate and in which the predominant root activity occurs. Runoff: a term used to describe the water from rain, snowmelt or irrigation that flows over the land surface and is not absorbed into the ground, instead flowing into streams or other surface waters or land depressions. Soil moisture depletion [SMD] water deficit {mm}: Amount of water required to fill the plant root zone to field capacity. Surface water: any water beneath the surface of the ground. Transpiration [T] {mm/day, mm/week, mm/month}: liquid movement of water from the soil, into the roots, up the plant stems, and finally out of the plant leaves into the air as vapour.


4

62

62

Water use efficiency [WUE] {mg/mm}: ratio of the yield per unit area to the applied irrigation water per unit area. 3.5 Renewable energy and energy efficiency Bio-Diesel: a renewable fuel for diesel engines derived from natural oils like soybean oil or animal fats. Bio-Ethanol: an important renewable energy source. Basically alcohol, it is made from a variety of agricultural products that contain starch (grain, mostly corn, and tubers like cassava) or sugar (sugar beet, sugar cane); and - although large-scale still in the preliminary stages - from cellulose plants. Bioethanol is made in a biological process, which is fermentation and subsequent enrichment by distillation/rectification and dehydration. Bio-Gas: typically refers to a gas produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of organic matter including manure, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste or any other biodegradable feedstock, under anaerobic conditions. Biogas is comprised primarily of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas can be used as a vehicle fuel or for generating electricity. It can also be burned directly for cooking, heating, lighting, process heat and absorption refrigeration. Chips: compressed small pieces of woody material, easily to store and to move, obtained from waste, from crops specifically cut for this purpose (short-rotation woody crops), from management of forests or from woody industry wastes. Combustion: the burning of any substance, in gaseous, liquid, or solid form. Dedicated crops: dedicated energy crops are simply those cultivated with the primary purpose of producing fuel, not food. Gasification: The act or process of converting into gas.

Pellets: compressed small pieces of herbaceous material, easily to store and to move, obtained from waste, from crops specifically cut for this purpose, from management of forests or from woody industry wastes. Pyrolisys: is the chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents, except possibly steam. Pyrolysis is a special case of thermolysis. Anhydrous pyrolysis in particular can also be used to produce liquid fuel similar to diesel from solid biomass. Short rotation crops: "Short Rotation Crops" means woody crops such as willows, poplars, Robinia and Eucalyptus with coppicing abilities as well as lignocellulosic crops such as reed canary grass, miscanthus and switchgrass.


4

63


63

64

Chapter 5

REFERENCES

64

64

65

CHAPTER 1. ORIGINE AND AIMS OF THE CODE OF ATTITUDE S Web sites ACCRETe project web site: www.accrete.eu/ing/ CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE AND MU TUAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH AGRICULTURE Web sites http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/adaptation/index_en.htm http://www.fao.org/NR/climpag/ http://www.ipcc.ch/. www.agrometeorology.org Papers and publications

Brumbelow K., Georgakakos A., 2007. Consideration of Climate Variability and Change in Agricultural Water Resources Planning J. Water Resources Planning and Management, Vol 133, 3, pp. 275-285.

George, D. A., Clewett, J. F., (Birch, C., Wright, A., Allen, W., 2007. Development and accreditation of an

applied climate education unit for sustainable land use in Australia. J. Sustainable Agriculture, Vol. 29, 4, pp. 87-108.

Johansson D.J., Azar C., 2007. A scenario based analysis of land competition between food and bioenergy

production in the US. Climate Change, Vol 82, 3-4, pp.267-291. Motha R.P., 2007.Development of an agricultural weather policy. Agricultural Forest Meteorology 142, 2-

4, pp.3’3-313. Pielke R.A., Adegoke J.O., Chase T.N, Marshall C.H., T Matsui T., Niyogi D., 2007. A new paradigm for

assessing the role of agriculture in the climate system and in climate change. Agricultural Forest Meteorology 142, 2-4, pp.234-254.

Rossi F., Duce P., Spano D., 2002. Advanced Short Corse on Agricultural, Forest and Micrometeorology.

CNR- Dipartimento per le Attività Internazionali- 303 pp.,ISBN 88-8080-033-7. Seguin B., Arrouays D,, Balesdent J., Soussana J.F., Bondeau A., Smith P., Zaehle S., de Noblet N.,

Viovy N., 2007. Moderating the impact of agriculture on climate. Agricultural Forest Meteorology 142, 2-4, pp. 278-287.

Sivakumar, M. V.K.; Hansen, James (Eds.), 2007. Climate Prediction and Agriculture. Advances and

Challenger. Springer Ed. Stigter C.J., 2007. From basic agrometeorological science to agrometeorological services and information

for agricultural decision makers: A simple conceptual and diagnostic framework. Agricultural Forest Meteorology 142, 2-4, pp.91–95.

REFERENCES

5

66

CHAPTER 3 AGRICULTURE ACTIVITIES RELATED TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND GOOD PRACTICES TO REDUCE EFFECTS 3.1 Crop management and land use Web sites

http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/ http://agguide.agronomy.psu.edu/cm/default.cfm http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/ http://ipmguidelines.org/fieldcrops/ http://ec.europa.eu/environment/agriculture/pdf/icm_finalreport.pdf

Papers and publications Bolinder M-A., Andre´n O, Katterer T., de Jong R, VandenBygaart A.J., Angers D.A,. Parent L.E,

Gregorich E.G., 2007. Soil carbon dynamics in Canadian Agricultural Ecoregions: Quantifying climatic influence on soil biological activity. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 122 (2007) 461–470.

Lobell D. B, Field C. B. 2007. Global scale climate–crop yield relationships and the impacts of recent

warming. Envir. Res. Letters, 3. Passioura J. 2006. Increasing crop productivity when water is scarce - from breeding to field management.

Agricultural Water Management. 80: 176-196 3.2 Soil management and fertilization Web sites

http://attra.ncat.org/ http://soilmanagement.psu.edu/smdefault.cfm http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/soilmgmt/ http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/land/practices_e.htm

Papers and publications Fao 1998. Topsoil characterization for sustainable land management Land and Water Development

Division Soil Resources, Management and Conservation Service, 45 pp. Huang, B, Author, Reprint Author Huang Biao Huang, Biao , Sun, WX, et al., 2007.. Temporal and spatial

variability of soil organic matter and total nitrogen in an agricultural ecosystem as affected by farming practices. GEODERMA 139 (3-4): 336-345.

3.3 Livestock managements

Web sites

http://www.virtualcentre.org/ http://attra.ncat.org/livestock.html http://www.bigdutchman.de/bd_scripte/woerterbuch/wb_main.htmi?wb_country=en

Papers and publications H. Steinfeld, P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Castel, M. Rosales, C. de Haan. Livestock’s long shadow.

Environmental issues and options. By - 2006, 390 pp. FAO 2006 ISBN 978 -92-5-105571-7

65

REFERENCES

5

67

Richard A. Battaglia. Handbook of Livestock Management (Hardcover) Prentice Hall College Div; 2

edition (May 21, 1997). 589 pages. Language: English. ISBN-10: 0132564130. ISBN-13: 978-0132564137 Verbič J., Sušin J., Simončič A., Čergan Z., Babnik D., Jejčič V., Poje T., Knapič M., Verbič J., Dolničar

P., Majer D., Ugrinović K., Janža R., Maljevič J., Stopar M., Zemljič A., 1996, Svetovalni kodeks dobre kmetijske prakse. Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, Ljubljana, 200 p. (in Slovenian)

3.4 Water management

Web sites

www.ars.usda.gov/id/res_main.htm www.dpi.vic.gov.au www.fao.org www.irrigation.org/gov/default.aspx?pg=glossary.htm&id=106 www.irrigationtutorials.com www.kimberly.uidaho.edu/ref-et/ www.kimberly.uidaho.edu/water/ www.microirrigationforum.com www.sardi.sa.gov.au www.soilandhealth.org www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/nrcsirrig/

Papers and publications Doorenbos, J., Pruitt W. O., 1992, Crop water requirements, FAO Irrigation and drainage paper, 24, Roma. Hidalgo D, Irusta R, Fatta D., 2006. Sustainable and cost-effective municipal wastewater reclamation:

treated effluent reuse in agricultural production. Int J.of Environmenta and Pollution, 2-15. Mannini P., Pirani P., 2004. I Supplementi di Agricoltura. N.18 Regione Emilia-Romagna. Assessorato

Agricoltura, Ambiente e Sviluppo Sostenibile. (in Italian).

3.5 Renewable energy and energy efficiency

Web sites http://www.ecn.nl/phyllis/ http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/ http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/ http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/RENEW/ http://solar.anu.edu.au/

Papers and publications Bakis M., 2007. Electricity production opportunities from multipurpose dams (case study)

RenewableEnergy, 1723-1738 Nonhebel S., 2007. Energy from agricultural residues and consequences for land requirements for food

production. Agr. Syst 94,2, 586-592. Powlson D.S,.,Richie A.B., Heert A.L.2005. Biofuels and other approaches for decreasing fossil fuel

emissions from agriculture Annals of Applied Biology 2, 193-201.

66

REFERENCES

5

68

CODE OF ATTITUDES TO PREVENT IMPACTS BETWEEN …€¦ · impacts on climate change. Particularly...

Documents

Transcript of CODE OF ATTITUDES TO PREVENT IMPACTS BETWEEN …€¦ · impacts on climate change. Particularly...