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IntroductionThis instructor’s manual for the Dictionary of Christianity and Science provides

resources to assist in the teaching of a course on the intersection of Christian theology and scientific inquiry. The material in the manual is divided into four sections.

The first section is titled Module Summaries. This section includes fourteen modules, and each module contains nine components:

1. Key Terms: important words and phrases that show up in the module.2. Student Objectives: key concepts students should know once they have studied the

material in the module. 3. Key Points: the most crucial concepts within the module.4. Article Summaries: overviews of each article.5. Pedagogical Suggestions: ideas for how to teach various items that are discussed in

the module.6. Other Media Sources/Websites: specific websites that are relevant to the material in

the respective modules. Examples include lectures, movies, and short overview videos of various concepts.

7. Suggested Essay Questions: prompts that seek broadly to address the main areas in each module or article. These could also be included on the midterm and final exams.

8. Open-Ended Discussion Questions: questions with which to start conversations about important aspects of the modules.

9. Digging Deeper Articles: list of additional articles from the Dictionary of Christianity and Science that give a more in-depth treatment of topics from the module.

The second section, Module Quizzes, provides quizzes that each contain fifteen true/false and fifteen multiple choice questions. Answers are given in bold type.

The third section contains two exams: a midterm and final. Each is fifty questions in length and comprised of questions from the chapter quizzes.

The fourth section contains a syllabus that can be used for either Monday/Wednesday/Friday schedule or a Tuesday/Thursday schedule, as it follows a weekly format. A brief course description is provided along with general intended learning outcomes for the course. Finally, the reading schedule gives readings from The Dictionary of Christianity and Science for the student to read in advance each week.

It has been a pleasure to work through The Dictionary of Christianity and Science and to prepare these educational resources. I sincerely hope that what follows will assist you in teaching the material.

Dr. Jason A. MyersGreensboro College

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Table of ContentsSuggested Websites........................................................................................................................3

Module Summaries........................................................................................................................4

Module Quizzes............................................................................................................................84

Midterm Exam...........................................................................................................................118

Final Exam.................................................................................................................................123

Sample Syllabus.........................................................................................................................128

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Suggested Websites1. The Biologos Group

www.biologos.com

2. Answers in Genesiswww.answersingenesis.com

3. The Human Genome Projecthttps://www.genome.gov/10001772/all-about-the--human-genome-project-hgp/

4. National Science Foundationhttps://www.nsf.gov

5. The Colossian Forumhttp://colossianforum.org

6. The Veritas Forumhttp://www.veritas.org

7. National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.com

8. Reasons to Believe http://www.reasons.org

9. National Association of Evangelicalshttps://www.nae.net/are-science-and-faith-compatible/

10. Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for Science and Faithhttps://www.humboldt-foundation.de/web/kosmos-cover-story-93-1.html

11. Science Magazinehttp://science.sciencemag.org

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Module SummariesModule 1 – Foundational Terms

Key TermsBig Bang; Naturalism; Nature; Religion; Revelation; Science; Scientific Method; Empiricism; Logic; Methodological Naturalism; Metaphysical Naturalism; Mythology; Pantheism; Panentheism; Paradox; Scientific Revolution; Theism; Theology; Worldview.

Student Objectives Understand the historical development both of science and of its conflict with religious

claims. Articulate the philosophical domains, interests, and issues related to the study of science. Delineate the domains of science and religion. Describe the scientific method. Understand the role of worldviews in the development of both science and religion. Differentiate between naturalism and methodological naturalism.

Key Points Naturalism as a metaphysical, philosophical construct attempts to give a well-defined and

valid account of what its adherents consider “all of reality.”• Theologians usually distinguish general revelation (sometimes called natural revelation)

and special revelation (sometimes called specific revelation).• Scientific investigation is an exploration of creation that is a form of creation revelation.• Knowledge gained through the Bible is mediated through practices such as worship,

prayer, and interpretation.• Scientific inquiry is an open practice, but it also relies on a form of provisional authority

in the form of authority given to nature, scientists, or societies.• Special revelation and general revelation are not opposites, but work synergistically.• The scope and methods of science have evolved through the centuries and are still

debated today.• The question of science’s proper boundaries will continue to be important for the purpose

of ensuring that scientific practice is free from both anti- and pro-religious biases.• The Scientific Revolution was led by the philosophical work of Francis Bacon and the

experimental and observational methods of Galileo Galilei.• A new meaning for science had developed by the 1860s as physical and experimental

knowledge to the exclusion of theological and metaphysical knowledge.• Presuppositions are indispensable for science. Accordingly, the basic presuppositions of

science are that the physical world is real and orderly and that we humans find it substantially comprehensible.

• The scientific method is a broad term given to the process of obtaining knowledge about the universe through experimentation and observation of empirical evidence. There is no single, well-defined implementation of the scientific method common to all fields.

• Though evidence of God may be observable in his creation, it is impossible to perform any experiment that would test for the existence of God.

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• Empiricism is a philosophical concept that can be contrasted with rationalism. The basic idea of empiricism is that experience, sense perception, and induction are the basis for knowledge.

• Logic is the study and use of methods for evaluating reasoning and uses inductive and deductive arguments.

• The main purpose of deductive logic is to determine whether deductive arguments are valid or invalid, and the main purpose of inductive logic is to determine whether and to what degree inductive arguments are strong or weak.

• Mythology does not map easily on to the modern conceptions of science. However, this does not mean that myths are necessarily fantasies or false stories. They contain truth claims that can be assessed.

• Many ancient peoples had myths to explain their world, as does the Bible. These ancient myths share both similarities and differences with one another.

• Both pantheism and panentheism reject theism.• All forms of pantheism deny (1) the personality of God, (2) the transcendence of God,

and (3) that the cosmos was created by a personal or intelligent agent.• Panentheism allows for God’s transcendence.• A paradox is a truth claim that is well supported and yet difficult to believe, because its

premises appear contradictory.• Western theism shares a broad consensus that God is a personal being who is supremely

powerful, wise, good, and free.• Theology is the study of God.• Science and theology have not always had a poor relationship, as they often do in modern

times, but the relationship has always been complex.• A worldview may be defined as how one sees life and the world at large.• Three popular current worldviews that compete for adherents in the marketplace of ideas

include secular naturalism, mystical pantheism, and Christian theism.• Science cannot function apart from worldview considerations.

Article Summaries Big Bang – The most widely accepted scientific theory for the origin history and structure

of the universe. In broad outline, the big bang theory describes the universe as a measurable system that expands from a singular beginning of matter, energy, space, and time under pervasive and constant laws of physics.

Naturalism – Naturalism as a metaphysical, philosophical construct attempts to give a well-defined and valid account of what its adherents consider “all of reality.” Methodological naturalism is to be clearly distinguished from what has been described above, which is referred to as metaphysical naturalism.

Nature – From a scientific perspective, nature refers to the entire physical universe, including the physical laws that govern it. The physical universe includes matter, energy, space, and time.

Religion – Religion can be defined as a set of beliefs and practices bound up with the core of a person’s worldview, intended to facilitate a connection to some form of transcendence.

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Revelation – The most general definition of revelation is knowledge received as a gift that stands in need of being understood. Theologians usually distinguish general revelation (sometimes called natural revelation) and special revelation (sometimes called specific revelation). One implication is that scientific investigation is an exploration of creation that is a form of natural revelation.

Science – The scope and methods of science have evolved through the centuries and are still debated today. Originally scientia meant a particular quality of knowledge, namely, certain knowledge resulting from valid deductive logic applied to self-evidently true axioms and unassailable first principles. The transition to its modern definition began with the Scientific Revolution, led by the philosophical work of Francis Bacon and the experimental and observational methods of Galileo Galilei. A new meaning for science had developed by the 1860s, as physical and experimental knowledge to the exclusion of theological and metaphysical knowledge.

Scientific Method – Lacking a single definition, the scientific method is a broad term given to the process of obtaining knowledge about the universe through experimentation and observation of empirical evidence. The scientific method does have limitations. It is impossible to perform any experiment that would test for the existence of God.

Empiricism – A philosophical concept that can be contrasted with rationalism; in fact, they are direct opposites of one another. In empiricism the basic idea is that experience, sense perception, and induction are the basis for knowledge, whereas in rationalism the basis for knowledge includes innate ideas, thoughts, reason, and deduction.

Logic – Logic is the study and use of methods for evaluating reasoning. The truth claims on which an inference is based are premises, and the truth claim inferred from a premise or premises is a conclusion. Arguments are deductive or inductive.

Mythology – A myth is a story about something significant. Myths are not fantasies or false accounts, but rather they seek to explain reality. The ancient Near East offers numerous creation myths that are both similar and different to the one in the Bible. These accounts talk about the beginning of the world. Myths make truth claims that can be assessed.

Pantheism/Panentheism – Both reject theism. Pantheism denies (1) the personality of God, (2) the transcendence of God, and (3) that the cosmos was created by a personal or intelligent agent. Panentheism allows for God’s transcendence, so it allows for some distinction within its framework. Modern cosmology, specifically the need for a cause of the universe, can be seen to undermine both pantheism and panentheism.

Paradox – A paradox is a truth claim that is well supported and yet difficult to believe. It is difficult to believe because it seems logically contradictory, incoherent, or contrary to commonsense.

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Theism – Western theism shares a broad consensus that God is a personal being who is supremely powerful, wise, good, and free. A hallmark of theism is the belief that God is also involved with the sustaining process of the world. This claim raises three philosophical and theological questions: (1) the specific connection of God and the world; (2) the division of labor between God and physical processes; and (3) the relationship between theism and modern science.

Theology – Theology is the study of God. Science and theology have not always been locked in a zero-sum battle, as some of the earliest scientists (Isaac Newton, Blaise Pascal, Francis Bacon) were Christians. Historically, science and religion have had a complex relationship.

Worldview – A worldview may be defined as how one sees life and the world at large. The term refers to the cluster of beliefs a person holds about the most significant issues of life, such as God, the cosmos, knowledge, values, humanity, and history. Science contains its own worldview.

Pedagogical Suggestions Divide students into groups, and instruct each group to examine evidence for the big bang

and debate how this might be coherent with or contradictory to Christian theology. Divide students into two groups, and instruct students to debate whether or not Christians

can be naturalists. Instruct students to discuss the differences and similarities of pantheism and panentheism

and how each ultimately differs from orthodox Christian theology. Provide students with several paradoxes, either scientific or theological, and instruct them

to discuss how each paradox can both be true and at the same time seem contrary to logic. Provide students with copies of Genesis 1–2 and compare and contrast these chapters

with ancient Near Eastern myths. Provide short biographies on some of the earliest scientists who were committed to the

Christian faith (such as Isaac Newton or Blaise Pascal), and ask students how these scientists act as role models even today.

Have students think of and provide examples of the three popular worldviews of today: naturalism, mystical pantheism, and Christian theism.

Other Media Sources/Websites A short introduction to the scientific revolution:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQ2dSTQwJo8 An introduction to metaphysics:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKq0Afmsj-U Alvin Plantinga on reasons for God:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oL5rykiekBs' Plantinga on theism, naturalism and rationality – one hour video lecture:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApvLxnHq8Zs Alister McGrath on theology:

https://youtu.be/7DhBE5wtil4 The faith journey of renowned scientist Francis Collins:

http://biologos.org/resources/audio-visual/pathways-to-truth7

Dallas Willard on worldviews:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6hwsG7AUZ0

Suggested Essay Questions Discuss the two varients of naturalism, and provide a critical response for how Christians

can engage with this concept as scientists. Define creation revelation, list proponents of this view, and discuss how this doctrine aids

in the studies of science and theology. Describe the change in the term “science” from Aristotle to today. What is a typical representation of the scientific method? (Include the five steps.) What is a paradox? Provide one example, either scientific or theological. What are the major distinctions between deism, theism, and pantheism? Define the three major worldviews of today.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. What are the theological concerns might be raised by the big bang theory? 2. Can Christians be “naturalists”?3. How would you define religion?4. Is there scientific evidence for supernatural causes and/or for God?5. What are the ramifications for various aspects of Christian theology if pantheism is true?6. What are some theological paradoxes?7. What is the value of mythology in a scientific age?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Collins, Francis2. Natural Theology3. Technology4. Alaya, Fransisco5. Barbour, Ian6. Barrow, John7. Bohr, Neils8. Causation (Upward, Downward)9. Confirmation10. Conservation of Energy11. Cultural Mandate12. Eddington, Arthur13. Einstein, Albert14. Ellis, George F. R.15. Faraday, Michael16. Fideism17. Genes18. Maxwell, James Clerk19. Meyer, Stephen C.

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20. Mystery21. Paradigm

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Module 2 – Historical Development of Science in the West

Key TermsEnlightenment; Bacon, Francis; Descartes, René; Pascal, Blaise; Newton, Isaac; Scientific Revolution; Dark Ages; Deism; Natural Philosophy; Aristotle; Two Books Metaphor; Copernicus, Nicolaus.

Student Objectives Describe the role of the Enlightenment and the conflict between science and faith that it

initiated. Understand the importance of the Scientific Revolution. Articulate how deism and orthodox Christian theology differ. Explain the influence of Aristotle on discussions of the nature of existence and scientific

inquiry. Explain the two books metaphor for the relationship of science and faith. Explain the importance of philosophers, scientists, and theologians in the rise of the

Enlightenment and the subsequent Scientific Revolution.

Key Points Aristotle’s ideas about causation had a significant influence on Western approaches to

science, religion, and ethics. His investigation of the questions “What is being?” and “What is substance?” led him to study the natures or essences of things.

Aristotle developed an account of the “four causes” as a way of articulating his understanding of the nature of things. According to Aristotle, the matter out of which an object is made is its material cause, and the arrangement of the matter can be said to be its formal cause.

Aristotle’s conception of final causes has greatly influenced philosophical and theological discussions of telos or purpose. The notion of teleology has important implications for our understanding of ourselves as human beings and of the universe.

Aristotle’s account of causation, especially with respect to formal and final causes, gradually slipped out of scientific discussion after the time of Isaac Newton, but the questions his account raises have remained among the most interesting in philosophy and theology.

The earliest church fathers had little to say about science. Science was a minority interest, and there were not many reasons for apologists or theologians to engage with it.

Modern science developed in the Christian West. Alongside the rise of science came the question of the history of science.

Natural philosophers and theologians developed a model called the “two books metaphor,” according to which God has revealed himself in the “books” of his Word (the Bible) and of his world (the created order). As such, the two domains were able to operate independently and in support of one another.

The Scientific Revolution was largely launched by Nicolaus Copernicus and his theory that the Earth revolved around the Sun.

The Renaissance was characterized by an interest in the literary achievements of the classical world, most notably those related to astrology. There was a high profile dispute between the Catholic Church and Galileo Galilei and his argument for heliocentrism,

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which ultimately led to his death. The direct influence of established churches over scientific practice began to wane during this period.

The Enlightenment (approximately 1650–1800) was characterized by an emphasis on reason and science in thinking through the great questions of human life and a newfound belief in the progress of mankind in religion and study of the universe. Influential thinkers included René Descartes, John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Francis Bacon.

The beginnings of the Enlightenment period can be traced to the work of René Descartes (1596–1650).

Descartes laid much of the foundations for modern scientific thinking by combining Christian doctrine with the philosophies of Aristotle and the Christian theologian Thomas Aquinas. He is considered to be the “Father of Modern Philosophy.”

Descartes offered a variety of arguments to support substance dualism. He argued that he must be distinct from his body because (1) he can doubt that he has a body, (2) he can conceive of himself without a body, and (3) his body is divisible, while he is not. Each argument has been challenged, while contemporary versions are still defended.

Francis Bacon is considered a founding father of the empirical tradition of science. Bacon’s scientific method consisted of gathering a vast amount of data from which

general principles were supposed to be distilled. However, his own investigations tended to be unfocused, and his methodology has not been influential as a way of generating new knowledge.

Later generations of scientists praised Bacon’s insistence that science must be based on empirical investigation and not just dry theorizing.

Bacon found ample evidence for the work of God in nature. He was a trenchant critic of atheism.

Blaise Pascal was a revolutionary figure in the study of science. Pascal made important contributions to the field of mathematics and science.

Isaac Newton was a philosopher, mathematician, physicist, and astronomer, a towering figure in the history of science. He played a key role in the unfolding of the Scientific Revolution.

Newton’s religious beliefs developed over time along with his systematic study of nature. To Newton the existence of God was undeniable, evidenced by the majesty and grandeur of the universe.

Newton did not hold to the doctrines of the Trinity or to the divinity of Christ. Deism was a prominent worldview of the Enlightenment period. Many have described

this worldview as one in which a God has created the universe and wound it up like a clock, but has not been thereafter directly involved in the world’s affairs.

Classical deism was not a monolithic belief system, but had different hues. In some cases it emphasized divine withdrawal from humanity, and in others it affirmed the existence of a divine Providence to whom humans might pray.

Natural philosophy was one of the three traditional branches of philosophy (the others being metaphysics and ethics).

Natural philosophers studied the causes of phenomena in the natural world and tried to explain them.

The archetypal work of natural philosophy is The Physics of Aristotle, which sought to explain the causes of motion.

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Up until the nineteenth century, natural philosophy explicitly consisted of the study of God’s creation.

In the Middle Ages, natural philosophy became an essential prolegomenon for theologians.

In the early modern period, natural philosophy was extensively used to supply arguments for the existence of God, a practice known as natural theology.

After the word scientist was coined in 1834, practitioners of science gradually stopped calling themselves philosophers.

Article Summaries Aristotle’s Four Causes – Aristotle’s (384–322 BC) ideas on causation had a great

influence on Western approaches to science, religion, and ethics. He provided a detailed study of the natures or essences of things. According to Aristotle, the matter out of which an object is made is its material cause, and the arrangement of the matter can be said to be its formal cause. Aristotle’s account of causation, especially with respect to formal and final causes, gradually slipped out of science after the time of Isaac Newton, but the questions his account raises have remained among the most interesting in philosophy and theology.

Origins of Science – The development of science is directly connected to the Christian West, and this article investigates why it was the West and Christianity and not other places or religions that facilitated the development of modern science. The article stresses the importance of monotheism; demythologizing nature, and the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation provided an additional impetus to throw off submission to authority that had controlled much of the thinking in the Middle Ages.

Scientific Revolution – A central part of the Scientific Revolution involved the gradual acceptance of Nicolaus Copernicus’ key thesis that the Earth revolved around the Sun. Branches of the church both accepted and challenged the ramifications of this thesis. The Scientific Revolution is often said to have launched a new method of empiricism.

Science and Renaissance/Early Modern Christianity – The main effect of the Renaissance on science was to ensure that astrology provided a market for astronomical handbooks. Important thinkers in this period were Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, and Blaise Pascal. Perhaps most notable were the Catholic Jesuits, whose emphasis on education facilitated a particular interest in science. Some of the most notable thinkers of the period were orthodox or at least heterodox Christian thinkers and churchmen. The direct influence of established churches over scientific practice began to wane during this period.

Science and the Church Fathers – The earliest Christian writers had little to say about science, although they occasionally interacted with the works of Aristotle. Science was a minority interest, and there were not many reasons for apologists or theologians to engage with it.

Enlightenment, the – The period from roughly 1650–1800. The period was characterized by an emphasis on reason and science in thinking through the great questions of human life; a newfound belief in the progress of mankind in religion, morality, and political

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society; and the phenomenon of scientific advancement in a number of areas, including in society’s understanding of the universe.

Bacon, Francis – (1561–1626) Bacon wrote voluminously on philosophy and politics. Although his scientific methods were of little practical value, he enjoyed considerable repute as a founding father of the empirical tradition of science. It was his insistence that science must be based on empirical investigation and not just dry theorizing meant that he was celebrated by subsequent scientists. Bacon found ample evidence for the work of God in nature.

Descartes, René – (1596–1650) Descartes is considered the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” He developed much of the groundwork for modern scientific thinking. He was educated in a scholastic tradition that combined Christian doctrine with the philosophies of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas.

Pascal, Blaise – (1623–62) Pascal was a mathematician, a physicist, an inventor, a polemicist, and a Christian philosopher-theologian. Pascal made important contributions to the field of mathematics. He followed the views of Copernicus and Galileo and argued that respect for authority should not take precedence over analytic reasoning and scientific experimentation.

Newton, Isaac – (1643–1727) Newton was a philosopher, mathematician, physicist, and astronomer, a towering figure in the history of science. He played a key role in the unfolding of the Scientific Revolution. Some of the implications of Newton’s views led others to embrace a deterministic worldview. Newton’s religious beliefs developed over time along with his systematic study of physical nature. To Newton the existence of God was undeniable, evidenced by the majesty and grandeur of the universe. Newton did not hold to an orthodox position with respect to the doctrine of the Trinity or the divinity of Christ.

Dark Ages – A once popular term to describe the early Middle Ages, it is now rejected by many scholars. It is commonly thought to have begun in England around 410 AD and ended with the Norman conquest of England in 1066. Respectable arguments can be made that there was a sharp fall in the sophistication of civilization in Europe following the barbarian invasion of the Western provinces of the Roman Empire in the fifth century. Fortunately, the Roman Catholic Church preserved a significant amount of literature from this otherwise poorly documented era.

Deism – A prominent worldview of the Enlightenment period. Many have described this worldview as one in which a God has created and wound up the universe like a clock, but has not thereafter been directly involved in the world’s affairs, thus negating the possibility of miracles and revelation. Prominent deists included Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and David Hume.

Natural Philosophy – Natural philosophy was one of the three traditional branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics and ethics. A natural philosopher studied the causes of phenomena in the natural world and tried to explain them. Although natural science

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was long synonymous with natural philosophy, the term natural scientist did not exist until the nineteenth century. The field has its foundations in the work of Aristotle.

Pedagogical Suggestions Instruct students to choose one influential thinker listed in this module and present that

thinker’s main theories in chronological order to show how the Enlightenment developed. Let students discuss the importance of Isaac Newton and the relationship between

orthodoxy and scientific investigation. Let students discuss the consequences that a deistic worldview would have on Christian

theology.

Other Media Sources/Websites BBC documentary on Isaac Newton:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUW-xcAbsVY A brief introduction to Aristotle:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csIW4W_DYX4 A brief introduction to Descartes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAjWUrwvxs4 Aristotle’s four causes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yjXOmwXENjc The Renaissance:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fI1OeMmwYjU The Middle Ages (Dark Ages) in 3.5 Minutes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EAMqKUimr8

Suggested Essay Questions Summarize Aristotle’s four causes and their impact on the study of science and theology. Discuss the importance of Christianity and the West in the development of science

(including key persons and events). Discuss the key thinkers in the rise of the Enlightenment, noting their main contributions

to the development in this period. Discuss the contributions of René Descartes to the disciplines of philosophy and science. What are the implications for orthodox Christian theology in light of a deistic worldview?

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. What was unique about the Christian tradition that allowed science to develop as it did?2. What role did Christians play in the rise of the Enlightenment?3. Did Christians such as Isaac Newton contribute to the rise of deism or a deterministic

worldview?4. How does Aristotle’s conception of telos relate to a theology of creation?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

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1. Boyle, Robert2. Galilei, Galileo3. Kuhn, Thomas4. Plato5. Russell, Bertrand6. Wittingstein, Ludwig7. Alchemy8. American Scientific Affiliation9. Aquinas, Thomas10. Aristotle11. Astrology12. Atomism13. Augustine, St.14. Boehme, Jacob15. Brahe, Tycho16. Brooke, John Hedley17. Bruno, Giordano18. Buridan, Jean19. Calvin, John20. Clockwork Metaphor21. Copernicus, Nicholas22. Dissection, Human23. Faraday Institute24. Flat Earth25. Gaia Hypothesis26. Geocentrism/Heliocentrism27. Harrison, Peter28. Hypatia29. John Templeton Foundation30. Keplar, Johannes31. Laplace, Pierre-Simon32. Lemaitre, Georges33. Lindberg, David C.34. Linnaeus, Carolus35. Maxwell, James Clerk36. Mendel, Gregor37. Numbers, Ronald38. Oresme, Nicole39. Ptolemy, Claudius40. Scopes Trial41. Secularization42. Thomson, J. J.

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Module 3 – Genesis and Modern Science Part 1

Key TermsGenesis; Primeval History; Adam and Eve; Days of Creation; the Fall; Biblical Cosmology; Creation; Death; Anthropology.

Student Objectives Understand the major approaches for interpreting the days of creation. Describe the various cosmologies of the ancient Near East, the Bible, and the modern

world. Describe the relationship of anthropology and sociology to our understanding of Genesis

and science. Explain the various arguments for and against a historical Adam and Eve. Discuss the implications for theological concepts in light of scientific evidence.

Key Points Genesis 1–11 has been at the center of perhaps the most heated interchanges about

theology and science, particularly with respect to its description of the creation and early development of the cosmos and humanity.

Debates about the content of the book of Genesis include those on the nature of its genealogies, on the days of creation, and on the flood. In all of these cases, the debates typically hinge on whether or not Genesis provides literal descriptions of primeval history.

Since the Protestant Reformation, which emphasized a more literal understanding of the biblical text, the predominant view until very recently has been that the creation days were each 24 hours long.

Contemporary disagreements about whether Genesis 1–2 should be interpreted literally or figuratively have ancient antecedents with the church fathers.

The days of creation have been a source of controversy, specifically with respect to how the Hebrew term yôm (which is translated “day”) should be understood. Much attention has been devoted to how this term is used within the book of Genesis. There is debate over whether the term refers to a literal 24-hour day, or whether it should be taken as a figurative element or something else entirely.

The 24-hour day view of the days of creation argues that the term yôm is not used within Genesis 1:1–2:3 in a figurative way, and that a figurative or metaphorical explanation of the text is problematic for interpreting the Bible as a whole.

The day-age view of the days of creation argues that the term yôm is literal, but refers to a long but finite time period, not a 24-hour day. Thus, the six “days” are six sequential but non-overlapping periods.

The interpreter must keep in mind that Genesis is an ancient text written for a nation of mostly pastoral people.

The framework-hypothesis view sees the six days of creation as a literary portrayal of God making the universe orderly and whole, a fit habitation for himself. On the seventh day God rests from the work of creation in his newly ordered house.

Throughout the first 18 centuries of the church, the thinking was near unanimous that Adam and Eve were the first historical human pair. In recent years, however, many

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evangelical scholars have expressed doubts about a literal, historical Adam and Eve as the first humans created by God and the universal ancestors of all human beings.

The results of the Human Genome Project suggest that the original population of humans was comprised of at least ten thousand people. If this is true, Adam and Eve would need to be understood as a representative couple.

The story and biblical theology of the fall has entered the discussion about the relationship between the Bible and science, particularly with respect to the issues of evolution and the historical Adam.

Considering the important place of Genesis 3 in the New Testament and its consequent role in the development of Christian doctrine, it is surprising to see how rarely later Old Testament books refer back to this story or, for that matter, to the creation story.

Some believe that the doctrines of the fall and original sin depend on the historicity of Adam and Eve.

Controversy among evangelicals results from scholars grappling seriously, if somewhat belatedly, with difficult questions arising from fields like evolutionary biology, human genetic science, and paleoanthropology.

The evolutionary model of the fall takes Adam and Eve as a representative historical couple or as a literary model from which a theological principle is drawn.

The literal view of the fall argues that the genealogies of the Old Testament and the authors of the New Testament assume Adam to be a historical person. The role of the historical Adam in the fall is a test case for the relationship between science and faith.

The Bible does not present a clearly ordered cosmology. We must piece together various references to cosmology.

The ancient world had broad agreement on basic concepts of the creation and structure of the cosmos. These views are reflected in the Old Testament.

Literature from the ancient Near East features numerous texts that can be classified as cosmology texts.

While biblical writers consistently use terminology that is at home in their social context, their cosmology shows significant differences from the cosmologies of their ancient Near Eastern neighbors.

Throughout the ancient world, the gods were viewed as agents of causation in cosmic origins. In ancient Near Eastern thinking, “creation” involved activities that brought order, rather than those that merely produced something material.

The biblical view of death is relevant to issues in the debate over creation and evolution. Death is the cessation of vital functions or, in biblical terms the withdrawal of spirit and breath.

In distinction from Israel’s neighbors, who personified death as a deity and understood it as the result of offense against a variety of deities, Israel’s Scriptures clearly portray life and death as results of Israel’s response to Yahweh alone.

Anthropology is the study of humankind, past and present, and is commonly divided into four subfields: biological anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology.

Article Summaries Book of Genesis – Genesis has proven to be one of the epicenters of controversy within

the discussion of science and faith. Chapters 1–11 in particular have garnered the most debate, from how to interpret story of the creation of the cosmos to whether or not the

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flood (Genesis 6) was local or global.

Genesis, Interpretations of Chapters 1–2 (Canonical View) – Canonical interpretation acknowledges that all biblical texts exist today in the context of the Bible as a whole. That means any single passage must be read today in the context of the whole canon. Genesis 1–2 is not the only creation account in the Bible; we can find other descriptions of God’s creation of the cosmos and humans also in Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, as well as in the New Testament. All texts use highly figurative language. Likewise, canonically speaking, the end of the story in Revelation also uses highly figurative language to speak of the new creation. Thus we might say that the Bible employs figurative language when describing both the deep past (creation) and the far-distant future (consummation).

Genesis, Interpretations of Chapters 1–2 (Factual View) – Because all of God’s revelation, whether in nature or in Scripture, is directed to humans, he speaks as a human who is earthbound and takes on human forms. Whether we should interpret the early chapters of Genesis literally or figuratively is to ask the question incorrectly. The proper question is how does the text represent God’s creation of all things? Does Genesis portray these things non-figuratively or figuratively? The narrative factually presents the Creator’s acts without exaggeration or embellishment, albeit anthropomorphically. Thus, the factual portrayal of Genesis 1–2 does not mean that the creation accounts are void of figurative language.

Days of Creation (24-Hour Day View) – This view understands the predominant meaning of the Hebrew term yôm in the Old Testament as referring to a 24-hour day. The main scriptural exceptions to the literal 24-hour meaning for the word are found within the formula “[preposition] yôm [verb],” but none of the 14 instances of yôm in Genesis 1:1–2:3 involve this formula. This view also argues against the day-age theory, both because the theory is invalid from a strictly biblical sense, and because it does not concur with current evolutionary theory. There is no internal marker to indicate that the text of Genesis 1 should be taken figuratively.

Days of Creation (Day-Age View) – Day-age creationists believe that God miraculously formed the earth and created all its life within six literal days—that is, six long but finite time periods. The Hebrew word yôm, translated “day,” has four distinct definitions, all of which are “literal” in the sense that they fall within the strict, accurate meaning of the word. The day-age view treats the creation days as six sequential, non-overlapping, long periods of time.

Days of Creation (Framework-Hypothesis View) – The Bible is God’s Word. But as a written work of literature, it must be interpreted. People wrote during a certain time and circumstance to a certain group, and if we want to know what a given text means, we first ask what the human author intended. How would the original audience have understood this material? The interpreter must keep in mind that Genesis is an ancient text written for a nation of mostly pastoral people otherwise it is easily misunderstood. This article works through each of the seven days with reference to the ancient Near Eastern worldview.

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Adam and Eve (First Couple View) – Adam and Eve are real, historical persons, created uniquely by God as the first human pair and the universal ancestors of the rest of humanity. The data from the Human Genome Project does not necessarily contradict this; the Project’s conclusions about a historical starting pool of ten thousand humans is an inference from their data—an inference made using the evolutionary assumptions of common ancestry, gradual change over long periods of time, and natural selection.

Adam and Eve (Representative-Couple View) – The results of the Human Genome Project indicate to the vast majority of biologists that humanity does not originate back to a single couple, but rather to an original breeding population of around five to ten thousand individuals. This view argues that Adam and Eve were a representative couple within this original population (or even a representative couple tens of thousands of years after the original population).

The Fall (Evolutionary View) – Evolutionary theory presents significant challenges to the traditional understanding of the fall, predominantly with its powerful evidence that favors the evolutionary origins of humanity in a population of some few thousand individuals rather than a single pair. In this view, the understanding of Adam as a literary (representing original humanity) rather than a historical figure does not undermine the historicity of the fall or the truth taught by the doctrine of original sin.

The Fall (The Literal View) – The literal view argues that attempts to develop Christian theology without a historical fall are fraught with problems and must be judged a failure. Genesis 3 cannot be de-historicized without eviscerating the integrity of the whole Bible. The genealogies of Scripture assume the Adamic events as historical, as do the inspired New Testament authors. Adam’s fall is a classic case study in the relationship between science and theology.

Cosmology, Ancient – Literature from the ancient Near East features numerous texts that can be classified as cosmology texts. This article discusses the ideas of ontology, non-existence, causation/purpose, order/roles, conflict, temple imagery, and geography through an ancient Near Eastern worldview. Genesis reflects many of the common perspectives of the ancient world, although it differs in key places.

Cosmology, Biblical – The biblical writers’ views of the origin, organization, function, and future of the cosmos, including the role of both God and humanity in it. The biblical writers show far more interest in the God of creation and the implications of his creating for life now than the mechanics of the origin and structure of the universe. The biblical writers consistently use terminology at home in their world, their cosmology shows significant differences that flesh out their vision.

Creation (Including Ancient Near Eastern Accounts) – Humans have always been curious about origins. The Bible opens with two discrete accounts of creation (Genesis 1:1–2:4a; 2:4b–25). Israel’s neighbors also had accounts of creation that provide the background for our reading of the biblical story. Modern science asks questions about the origins of the cosmos and humanity. The nature of the relationship between the Bible and science when it comes to creation is hotly contested.

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Death – Death is the cessation of vital functions or, in biblical terms the withdrawal of spirit and breath, and initially comes into view in Genesis 2. This article explores the concept of death in both the Old and New Testaments. Importantly, in distinction from Israel’s neighbors, who personified death as a deity and understood it as the result of offense against a variety of deities, Israel’s Scriptures clearly portray life and death as results of Israel’s response to Yahweh alone.

Anthropology – Anthropology is the study of humankind, past and present, and is commonly divided into four subfields: biological anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology.

Pedagogical Suggestions Instruct students to chart out the days of creation and discuss how on the first day God

creates light and darkness, and on the fourth day the sun, moon, and stars that inhabit the realm of light and darkness. How does this relate to the terms “morning and evening?”

Divide the class into two groups and assign one of the viewpoint articles on the “Days of Creation” to each group. Instruct students to debate the merits of each view.

Provide students selections of the Epic of Gilgamesh and compare and contrast with the story of the flood in Genesis 6.

Instruct students to read Romans 5:12–21 and discuss whether or not Paul sees Adam as a historical figure.

Instruct students to compare the various creation accounts in the Old Testament and New Testament and note the similarities and differences between them. Texts: Psalms 8; 19; 24; 33; 74; 104; 136; Proverbs 3:19–20; 8:22–31; Job 38:4–11; John 1:1–5; Rom. 1:18–20; Col. 1:15–20.

Instruct students refer to the table on pages 117–19 and compare and contrast Genesis 1–2 with one or more of the ancient Near Eastern texts listed.

Other Media Sources/Websites Short video on anthropology:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6CJiLybbmUo John Walton on the creation story:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lKWVPVp_GZQ Two-hour John Walton lecture:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1kOflP3eLSI Roundtable discussion on Genesis and evolution with Tremper Longman III:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQ-l_vVo1W8 Audio recording of Enuma Elish:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46BGbs4ER9E The ancient Near East and Genesis:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-gssQ56kmx8 N. T. Wright on Adam and Eve:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BP1PpDyDCw

Suggested Essay Questions

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Name two issues of debate about primeval history. Choose one, explain both sides of the issue, and argue for the position you find more convincing.

According to the 24-hour view of the days of creation, what issues with the term yôm in Genesis need to be considered?

According to the day-age view of the days of creation, what issues with the term yôm in Genesis need to be considered?

How do day-age creationists believe God created the world? According to day-age creationists, what are the benefits of their view (have students give

four to five possible answers). Walk through the seven days of creation from a framework-hypothesis view and show

how each day would be understood from an ancient Near Eastern worldview. Discuss the issues related to Adam and Eve (both as the first historical couple and as a

representative couple) and what role the New Testament, theology, and modern genetics ought to play in our consideration of these issues.

Compare and contrast the differences between the cosmology of the biblical accounts and those of the ancient Near Eastern world.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. Do you think Genesis 1–2 is meant to be taken literally or figuratively? What evidence

should be considered?2. How should one navigate the issues surrounding the days of creation? What should the

multiplicity of views by evangelicals suggest to us?3. What is the significance of one’s views on Genesis 1–2 for Christian theology? What is

at stake with the issue?4. What is gained or lost from a view of Adam as a literary figure rather than a historical

one?5. Why is Adam absent from the rest of the Old Testament, yet so central to Paul’s

argument in Romans 5–8?6. What are the implications of modern genetics for the questions surrounding Adam and

Eve and the fall?7. What do the similarities and differences between ancient Near Eastern literature and the

Bible suggest to you about the concepts of revelation, God, and humanity?8. Have students read the article on anthropology (and related articles mentioned therein)

and discuss why there are so few Christian anthropologists.

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Adam in the New Testament2. Eden3. Days of Creation, Interpretations4. Enuma Elish5. Genealogies6. Atrahasis7. Firmament

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8. The Serpent9. Tower of Babel

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Module 4 – Genesis and Modern Science, Part 2

Key TermsCreationism; Old Earth; Young Earth; Evolutionary Creationism; Progressive Creation; Answers in Genesis; BioLogos; Radiometric Dating; Gilgamesh Epic.

Student Objectives Describe the various positions on evolution and creation from theological perspectives. Identify key groups engaged in the debate about science and faith and the range of

responses. Provide a definition and survey of creationism and its implications for science. Discuss the dating of the earth and the implications for or in light of Genesis. Articulate the role that other ancient Near Eastern texts should play in our interpretation

of Genesis.

Key Points Most scientists in the early part of the twentieth century assumed that the universe did not

have a beginning and had existed forever. However, observations over the last hundred years or so give strong evidence that the universe had a beginning in an event.

The evidence is clear that all stars and galaxies, and even space itself, had a beginning in the finite past.

Current astronomical evidence consistently shows that the universe has been undergoing a continual expansion of space since its beginning about 13.8 billion years ago.

Radiometric dating refers to analyses of naturally occurring materials and human artifacts that rely on measurements of radioactive atoms, or the products of radioactivity, to quantify the passage of time.

The first radiometric dating techniques were developed in the early twentieth century, shortly after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896, and applied to rocks and minerals from the earth’s crust.

Many different radiometric methods have been devised and applied to hundreds of thousands of samples of differing materials.

Ages determined for earth’s materials consistently fall within a range of zero (modern) to roughly 4.5 billion years. The oldest rocks from the earth’s crust are found in western Australia, and their formation is dated to approximately 4.4 billion years ago. The oldest meteorites, thought to represent debris solidified shortly after the birth of our solar system, date to approximately 4.6 billion years ago.

Old earth creationism seeks to marry the scientific consensus that the earth is very old with the biblical doctrine of creation that arises from Scripture.

Supporters of the old earth view argue that young-earth creationism is at odds with the consensus view of every relevant field of science, including stratigraphy, paleontology, astronomy, glaciology, coral reef study, radiometric dating, geochronology, physical cosmology, and even archeology.

Young earth creationism includes a diverse range of beliefs related to the creation story in Genesis and the flood in the days of Noah.

Theistic evolution can mean different things to different people, largely because the term evolution itself has several distinct meanings.

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Evolutionary creationism is the Christian view that God, as creator and sustainer of the cosmos, was pleased to use evolution as the means for creating biodiversity on earth.

Evolution is a theory in the scientific sense, meaning that it is an explanatory framework supported by a large body of experimental evidence that makes accurate predictions about the natural world.

Progressive creation holds that God miraculously intervened at different times and in different ways over Earth’s long history to introduce new life forms. The physical creation process began with the origin of the first life forms and culminated with the creation of human beings.

Progressive creation accepts the record of life’s history and of Earth’s geologic history that emerges from mainstream scientific research. It differs, however, from widely held views on the means by which life emerges and the degree to which life changes by strictly natural processes.

The progressive creation perspective dates back to the eighteenth century. A main contention with respect to the flood story is whether a global flood view can

effectively synthesize biblical and scientific evidence. Diverging viewpoints emerge. The story of the flood comes within a specific theological patter in Genesis 1–11—the

pattern “sin, judgment speech, token of grace, judgment.” The flood story is another episode that speaks of human sinfulness and God’s judgment,

but also of his redemption. According to the theological view of the flood, there is no geological evidence for the

flood, and there should be if there was a global inundation of the earth. Efforts to find such evidence over the years have failed.

One response to the lack of evidence of a global flood is to argue that the Bible describes a local flood rather than a flood that covered the entire surface of the earth.

The flood legend is known from the earliest phases of Mesopotamian literature (Sumerian King List; the Eridu Genesis). The similarities and differences between the biblical account and the Mesopotamian tradition are seen most dramatically in the story of Atrahasis and especially the eleventh tablet of the Gilgamesh Epic.

The Gilgamesh Epic is perhaps the best-known Mesopotamian literary composition today, and it has important connections to the biblical story of the flood.

The similarities between the Gilgamesh Epic and the Genesis flood make it highly likely that there is some connection between these flood traditions, but the exact nature of their relationship is a matter of speculation.

We do not know precisely when the Gilgamesh Epic or, for that matter, the biblical account was first composed.

Several organizations are dedicated to studying the relationship between Christianity and science. Some examples include Answers in Genesis, BioLogos, the Institute for Creation Research, and Reasons to Believe.

Article Summaries Old Earth Creationism (Critical View) – This article summarizes the variety of views

among old earth creationists, including the main strengths and weaknesses of each. The first view discussed is the gap theory, which posits a “gap” between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2. A second option is the day-age view, which understands the “days” of Genesis 1:1–2:3 as sequential periods of thousands or millions of years. The third option is the framework-hypothesis view, which understands each of the days as a 24-hour day, but suggests that

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the days are literary and not sequential. This article ultimately argues that these views are not persuasive and marshals several critiques against the standard arguments.

Old Earth Creationism (Supportive View) – This article advances several options to reconcile modern science with the biblical accounts, such as the framework-hypothesis view and the day-age theory. It also critiques several arguments put forward by the young earth creation movement.

Young Earth Creationism (Critical view) – This article offers several critiques of this position. One such critique is that young-earth literalism ignores both the ancient Near Eastern context of biblical revelation and the interpretive significance inherent in ancient Hebrew literary devices, social conventions, and literary genres. It also tackles the three proposals that light traveled faster at creation, that the earth is in a gravitational well, and the “mature creationist” proposal that God created the light from distant galaxies already visible. The article finds the argument of young earth creationism unpersuasive.

Young Earth Creationism (Supportive View) – Young-earth creationism does not preclude mythological, theological, or mystical further interpretations of Genesis, but asserts that the core of the Genesis story is historical. The article discusses the history of the movement, as well as its main proponents.

Evolutionary Creationism (Critical View) – This article describes and evaluates different concepts of theistic evolution. Special attention is due to the important issue of whether theistic evolutionists regards the evolutionary process as guided or unguided.

Evolutionary Creationism (Supportive View) – This position views science as a means to understand the mechanisms by which God chose (and chooses) to bring about creation. This article marshals several pieces of evidence for evolution, such as natural selection and fossil records. The article also addresses scientific objections to evolutionary creationism.

Genesis Flood (Global View) – This view understands Genesis 6–9 as describing a global flood and addresses the following issues: the pitfalls of local and mythological perceptions of the flood, the biblical affirmation of a global flood in Genesis 6–9, the use of the flood narrative in the New Testament, and geological evidences for a global flood.

Genesis Flood (Theological View) – This view puts the flood into the theological context of Genesis 1–11 where a pattern of sin, judgment, and redemption shapes the narrative flow of the section. This view makes much of the fact that there is no geological evidence for the flood, which there should be if there had been a global inundation of the earth. Efforts to find such evidence over the years have failed. Evidence put forward today by some outlier thinkers is based on pseudoscience and is not accepted by the scientific community. This article argues that the Genesis flood is interacting with other well-known ancient Near Eastern flood narratives.

Gilgamesh Epic – Perhaps the best-known Mesopotamian literary composition today, the Gilgamesh Epic has important connections to the biblical story of the flood. This article

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provides an overview of the main features of the flood portion of the Epic. We do not know precisely when the Gilgamesh Epic or, for that matter, the biblical account was first composed.

Answers in Genesis – Answers in Genesis is an evangelical nonprofit organization and is the largest apologetics ministry in the world. Its cofounder and CEO, Ken Ham, is perhaps the most well-known creationist alive today. In 1993 Creation Science Ministries was founded by Ken Ham, Mark Looy, and Mike Zovath, and the organization was rebranded as Answers in Genesis in 1994.

BioLogos – BioLogos is a Christian ministry founded in 2007 by Francis Collins. The group states that purpose is to “[invite] the church and the world to see the harmony between science and biblical faith as we present an evolutionary understanding of God’s creation.”

Institute for Creation Research – Founded in 1972, the Institute for Creation Research is a Christian apologetics institute with the objective to provide research, education, and communications that promote and defend the principles of scientific creationism and biblical creationism. It was founded by Henry Morris, who is considered to be the father of the modern creationist movement.

Reasons to Believe – A science apologetics ministry founded by astronomer Hugh Ross in 1986. Its mission is to spread the Christian gospel by demonstrating that sound reason and scientific research consistently support, rather than erode, confidence in the truth of the Bible and faith in the personal, transcendent God revealed in both Scripture and nature.

Progressive Creation – The central tenet of progressive creation holds that God miraculously intervened at different times and in different ways over Earth’s long history to introduce new life forms.

Singularity, the (Cosmological) – Current astronomical evidence consistently shows that the universe has been undergoing a continual expansion of space since its beginning about 13.8 billion years ago. This evidence is primarily based on the redshift of the spectral lines of light coming from distant galaxies. The evidence is clear that all stars and galaxies, and even space itself, had a beginning in the finite past.

Origin of the Universe – Observations over the last hundred years or so give strong evidence that the universe had a beginning in an event, derisively coined by physicist Fred Hoyle as the big bang. Though not all would agree, the proposition that a transcendent God created the universe is compatible with all these observations, and is arguably the best explanation for the origin of the universe.

Radiometric Dating – This article provides a definition for the term, its origins, and the processes involved in the use of radiometric dating. It also provides several examples and refutations to common objections.

Pedagogical Suggestions

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Take any of the multiple viewpoint articles and ask students to argue for the positions based on the reasons given in each article. Ask them which they find most persuasive and why.

Using the website listed below with flood traditions from around the world (especially ancient Near Eastern ones), ask students compare and contrast the biblical account of the flood for similarities and differences. Sections of the Epic of Gilgamesh would be particularly helpful.

Provide students a copy of the Gilgamesh Epic article in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science, and instruct them to note what comparisons they find with the Genesis account of the flood.

Other Media Sources/Websites Flood traditions from around the world:

www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html BioLogos website:

www.biologos.org Answers in Genesis website:

https://answersingenesis.org/ Institute for Creation Research website:

www.icr.org

Suggested Essay Questions According to the old earth view of creationism, what are the main arguments supporting

this viewpoint? Objections? What are the main arguments supporting the young earth view of creationism? What are

the main objections? What are the similarities between the characters of Adam and Noah? How does Genesis

6–9 present Noah as the “new Adam?” What are the main arguments supporting the global view of the flood? What are the main arguments supporting the theological view of the flood?

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. How is the term “land” in the flood account interpreted by those with a global view of

the passage? What about by those with a theological view?2. Which arguments for reading Genesis 1 and 2 do you find most persuasive or

problematic?3. How do you think Christians before the advent of modern science faced such issues?4. What role should the origins of the universe play in terms of Christian orthodoxy?5. Is it possible to be a scientist with Christian orthodox convictions?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Age of the Earth Theory2. Big Bang Theory 3. Geology

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4. Genesis Flood and Geology5. Noah’s Ark6. Paleontology 7. Cambrian Explosion 8. Drummond, Henry9. Enns, Peter10. Gish, Duane11. Ham, Ken12. Hodge, Charles13. Morris, Henry M. 14. Noah’s Ark15. Price, George McCready16. Ross, Hugh17. Schroeder, Gerald18. Uniformitarianism19. Ussher, James20. Walton, John21. Whitcomb, John C.22. Young, Davis

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Module 5 – Biological Evolution, Darwinism, and Intelligent Design

Key TermsEvolution; Synonymous and Nonsynonymous Coding; Hominin Radiation; Natural Selection; Species; Anthropic Principle; Teleology; Darwinism; Probability; Irreducible Complexity; Teleology.

Student Objectives Understand the primary arguments of evolutionary theory. Describe the term and issues related to evolution. Understand the history of the development of the concept of evolution. Provide a definition of natural selection. Understand and describe the theory known as Darwinism. Provide an explanation of how irreducible complexity and natural selection work.

Key Points In terms of a fundamental definition, evolution is the change in average characteristics of

a population over time. The roles of fossil evidence, genetics, and the origin of Homo sapiens have all

contributed to the debates about human evolution. The process of natural selection is one of Charles Darwin’s important contributions to our

understanding of the natural history of organisms. Natural selection is the idea that the genetic variations that offspring inherit from their

parents confer a slight advantage in navigating ecological pressures, giving the offspring a small differential reproductive advantage.

Darwinism is a complex term with a rich history of usage. As such it has engendered debate as to whether or not Darwinism is atheistic or theistic.

Sometimes Darwinism is used as a synonym for Charles Darwin’s scientific theory of evolution.

People’s responses to Darwinism depend on their particular understanding of that term, as well as how they understand intelligent design.

The term irreducible complexity was introduced to focus attention on an apparent difficulty for Darwin’s theory of evolution by random variation and natural selection.

Natural selection is the mechanism proposed by Charles Darwin to explain the origin of species.

The theory of natural selection consists of three premises: (1) there is variability in natural populations; (2) some of this variability is heritable; and (3) some variants have qualities (“adaptations”) that enable them to reproduce more effectively than others.

The anthropic principle refers to the observation that the universe appears to have been engineered to make possible the existence of human beings.

Greek philosophers were among the first to draw attention to the apparent order and design in the world and to believe that this order required an explanation.

Later thinkers in the Christian tradition built on the insights of the Greeks and developed the argument for the existence of a Designer, or a divine mind, behind the universe.

The design argument’s premise is that the universe shows evidence of design or order. This order is detectable in ordinary empirical ways.

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The design argument is an inductive or probabilistic one; it does not claim that the design in the universe offers conclusive proof of a designer, only that it is a very reasonable conclusion.

Regardless of one’s position on origins, almost everyone agrees that complex life is too improbable to have been produced by random chance alone.

The theory of evolution provides an account for why life is not as improbable as it might initially seem.

The idea of the fine-tuning of the universe and solar system argues that certain parameters of our universe must occur within stringent limits in order for the universe to be able to support any conceivable form of life.

The relationship between theology and evolution is both complex and contentious, especially in the context of the Judeo-Christian tradition.

According to intelligent design proponents, information, especially specified complexity, is the key to detecting design. Thus, nature is not what it is on account of a random accident, but because God made it this way.

Most scientists think that all living organisms, including Homo sapiens, have been formed through a process of gradual modification from preexisting species, so that all living things share common ancestors.

Intelligent design shares a middle ground between young-earth creationists and theistic evolutionists. For this reason, intelligent design is at once too radical for theistic evolutionists and not radical enough for young-earth creationists.

Theology plays a significant de facto role in the current defense of common ancestry. Methodological naturalism is a highly controversial principle of scientific methodology.

The basic idea is that “by its very nature, science is obliged to leave out any appeal to the supernatural.”

Methodological naturalism is not the same as philosophical naturalism, which makes the ontological claim that only the natural world exists.

Article Summaries Human Evolution (Evolutionary Creation View) – Topics included in this article include

a survey of the evidence from fossils, genetics (including mutation rate, ‘scars’, and synonymous and nonsynonymous coding), the hominin radiation, the origin of Homo sapiens, and the human migration out of Africa. This view sees the evolutionary process as God’s way of carrying out his will for human existence.

Human Evolution (Unique-Origin View) – This article addresses questions like how much change is required, and does similarity indicate common descent? Likewise, responses are included to the arguments from the evolutionary creation view (see above), such as synonymous codon use, critiques of common descent, and population genetics. The article concludes that the preponderance of the evidence suggests our unique origin, because common descent cannot adequately explain patterns we see in our genomes.

Darwinism – This article provides an overview of Charles Darwin’s theories (special attention given to natural selection) and addresses the issue of whether or not there are theological implications to his theory. Other issues under discussion are Darwinism as a worldview and the role of Darwinism today.

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Design Argument – The design argument’s premise is that the universe shows evidence of design or order. This order is detectable in ordinary empirical ways.

Evolution and Probability – This article frames the debate on the complexity of human life between two opposing viewpoints. On one side are advocates of the evolutionary model, who admit that the improbability of life is a problem, but one solved by natural selection. Others argue that the evolution of complex life remains prohibitively improbable. Selection is not capable of providing sufficient gradualism to render probable the development of complex life.

Evolution and Theology – This article highlights the few thinkers who have noted the important role that theology plays in arguments for evolutionary theory. Specifically, although theology may not appear in all arguments for evolution, it plays a significant de facto role in the current defense of common ancestry.

Evolution, Biology – This article provides an overview of the terms and theory of biological evolution. Evolution is the change in average characteristics of a population over time. Current evidence strongly supports the hypothesis that all present-day living things share common ancestors, and that all descend from the last universal common ancestral population, or LUCA. Thus, it appears that life originated on earth only once and has diversified over approximately 3.8 billion years to the present day.

Intelligent Design – This view holds that nature is not what it is on account of a random accident, but because God, by intention or design, has made it this way. Intelligent design shares a middle ground between young-earth creationists and theistic evolutionists. For this reason, intelligent design is at once too radical for theistic evolutionists and not radical enough for young-earth creationists.

Anthropic Principle – This term refers to the idea that the universe appears to have been engineered to make possible the existence of human beings. The article focuses on the four distinct philosophical interpretations of the anthropic principle.

Fine-Tuning of Universe and Solar System – Fine-tuning refers to the idea that certain parameters of our universe must occur within stringent limits for the universe to be able to support any conceivable form of life. Fine-tuning is closely related to and commonly involved in any discussion of the anthropic principle. This article provides and overview of some key examples, criticisms of the theory, along with the history of the discussion.

Intelligibility of the Universe – This article addresses the fundamental questions of ontology and epistemology in relation to nature: Why is nature ordered in such a way that it can be understood? Why is the human mind able to understand the natural order? It discusses the historical conversations surrounding this issue as well as the philosophical and theological ramifications of proposed answers.

Irreducible Complexity – This article provides a definition of the term and describes the history of its usage, as well as its importance for the discussion of evolution and the

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appropriateness of the term to describe various aspects of the evolutionary model.

Methodological Naturalism – This article covers the debated nature of the term and its usage within the scientific community. In particular, it looks at the relationship between methodological naturalism and the intelligent design concept and whether or not they are compatible. Finally, it addresses the issue of whether or not the concept is compatible with or even requires a commitment to philosophical naturalism.

Natural Selection – This article provides a scientific overview of the term and concept, introduces the debates with scientific and philosophical import about natural selection itself, and considers the theological implications of the theory.

Common Ancestry – This article covers the scientific evidence for common ancestry, including the genetic features that consist of the following: mutation rate, genetic scars, and frequency of synonymous and nonsynonymous differences between closely related species.

Pedagogical Suggestions Take any of the multiple viewpoint articles and ask students to argue for the positions

based on the reasons given in each article. Ask them which they find most persuasive and why.

Instruct students to discuss the theological ramifications of both the unique-origin view and the evolutionary creation view.

Let groups of students discuss whether or not Darwinism is theistic or atheistic. What role should Darwin’s own thoughts on the matter play?

Other Media Sources/Websites Evolution and Charles Darwin:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3QdmgEv7KE Theory of evolution and natural selection:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcpB_986wyk How evolution works:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOfRN0KihOU The fine-tuning of the universe: the teleological argument:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSa7cq3QOwU How did God create the ingredients for life?:

http://biologos.org/resources/audio-visual/how-did-god-create-the-ingredients-for-life How evolution works (two parts):

http://biologos.org/resources/audio-visual/how-evolution-works-part-1 http://biologos.org/resources/audio-visual/how-evolution-works-part-2

Evolution and Christian theology:http://biologos.org/resources/audio-visual/what-happens-to-christian-theology-if-evolution-is-true

Suggested Essay Questions

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Address the issue of human origins, and make an argument (with supportive evidence) for either the evolutionary creation view or the unique-origin view. Be sure to respond to criticism from the opposing side.

Provide two scientific examples of how theology can have a significant role for evolutionary theory. (The article “Evolution and Theology” gives three examples).

Provide two examples of how the universe is “finely-tuned.” What other solutions do non-theists propose to the fine-tuning problem? Define the concept of natural selection, including its three components, and discuss two

theological implications of Charles Darwin’s idea of natural selection.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. What relevance does the issue of human origins have to Christian theology?2. What information about Charles Darwin or Darwinism surprised you the most?3. To what extent does the doctrine of the fall, which holds that the natural world is marred,

counter Gould’s claim that God would never allow imperfection?4. Are theology-laden arguments for evolution compatible with compartmentalism,

complementarity, or methodological naturalism.5. What is the relationship between methodological naturalism and philosophical

naturalism? Are they at odds? Does one require the other?6. Discuss the critiques of the intelligent design movement from the perspective of a theistic

evolutionist and from that of a young earth creationist.

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Fossil Record2. Fossils, Hominid 3. Creationism, Intelligent Design, and the Courts4. Darwin, Charles5. Evolutionary Creationism (Critical and Supportive Views)6. Neo-Darwinian Synthesis 7. Probability8. Pseudogenes 9. Random Mutation10. Anthropic Principle Inequality 11. Archaeopteryx 12. Behe, Michael 13. Bradley, Walter14. Chance15. Co-Option16. Davies, Paul17. Dembski, William18. Denton, Michael 19. Discovery Institute20. Epigenetics

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21. Extinction 22. Gish, Duane23. Habitable Zone24. Ham, Ken25. Huxley, Thomas Henry26. Information27. Johnson, Phillip E. 28. Just-so Stories29. Kenyon, Dean 30. Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste31. Lennox, John32. Memes33. Meyer, Stephen C. 34. Miller, Kenneth35. Morris, Simon Conway36. Mystery of Life's Origin (Thaxton, Bradley, Olson)37. Paley, William38. Punctuated Equilibrium39. Ruse, Michael40. Selfish Gene41. SETI42. Species 43. Specified Complexity44. Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre45. Van Till, Howard 46. Wallace, Alfred Russel 47. Wilson, E. O.

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Module 6 – Selected Biblical and Theological Issues Related to Modern Science

Key TermsTranscendence; Immanence; the Trinity; Panentheism; Eschatology; Providence; Open Theism; Determinism; Omnipotence; Compatibilism; Causation; Miracles; Special Divine Action; Virgin Birth; Incarnation; Physicalist; Cultural Mandate; Divine Voluntarism.

Student Objectives Understand the relationship between immanence and transcendence and its importance

for the doctrine of the Trinity. Provide a definition of eschatology. Understand major Christian doctrines, such as the image of God and the incarnation. Identify the various positions and arguments related to determinism, omnipotence, and

special divine action. Discuss the implications of the Trinity for philosophy and the Christian life. Identify the challenges to key Christian doctrines posed by some worldviews.

Key Points Affirmation of the transcendence of God—God’s radical nonidentity with this world in

any aspect—is a staple of biblical theology, as is the affirmation of his immanence—God’s radical “direct” contact with even the innermost particulars of this world.

The notions of transcendence and immanence are near the heart of what makes dialogue between Christianity and the natural sciences complicated.

The traditional Christian affirmation of God’s transcendence and immanence also raises questions about divine action in the world.

The distinctively Christian doctrine of the Trinity affirms the existence of three divine persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—in one being.

The triune God furnishes the grounding for personhood, relationality, and community. God is not an isolated self.

Time plays a significant role in Christian theology. Most fundamentally, there is the question of the reality of time.

The theological importance of time becomes most evident when we ask about God’s relationship to time. One of God’s essential attributes is his eternality.

One’s view of time (tenseless or tensed) will provide a framework for understanding how God relates to the human perception of time.

Providence is a way of construing God’s relation to the world and to its history in terms of his care for the world and its constituents’ continuing existence and well-being and his guiding of the world and its constituents toward a particular end or destiny.

Scientific ways of understanding the world have also highlighted tensions with the doctrine of providence.

Open theism is the view that God does not (or cannot) have complete foreknowledge; specifically, God cannot know the truth value of future contingent propositions.

Interpreters over the centuries have struggled to describe exactly what it means to be created in the image of God, since this term is not explicitly defined in the Old Testament.

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The best understanding of the “image of God” is that it points to humanity’s status as representatives of God in the world. Humans reflect God’s glory and authority in the world.

Understanding that the image of God is a status means that it does not provide a theological objection to evolutionary theory.

David Hume shaped the modern period’s discussion of the possibility of miracles. A definition of miracle that better encompasses biblical instances, held by many scholars

today, is that of a “special divine action.” The question of miracles’ possibility as miracles is not one of science but one of

philosophy and theology. Hume denied miraculous activity on the basis of uniform human experience. However,

this argument from uniform human experience depends heavily on the alleged lack of credible eyewitness claims.

Hume’s argument against miracles is circular. His a priori stance against miracles became dominant in many academic circles, but is now widely debated among philosophers.

The virgin birth refers to the biblical claim that by a unique miraculous action of God, Jesus of Nazareth was conceived within a virgin named Mary without any contribution from a biological human father, such that Jesus was born to a mother who had not had sexual intercourse.

The doctrine of the incarnation affirms both the full deity and the full humanity of Jesus of Nazareth, two natures in one person.

The doctrine of the incarnation is considered by critics to be metaphysically impossible and contradictory.

The doctrine of the incarnation has wide-ranging implications. It reaffirms the goodness of the physical world.

Jesus’s resurrection from the dead grounds the entire breadth of Christian theism. It provides the basis for the most central tenets of faith, as well as the reasoning and foundation not only for its truth, but also for practicing its disciplines in our present lives.

Surveying the historical landscape surrounding the death and resurrection of Jesus, a handful of particular facts are distinguished as especially well-established according to recent scholars. This is known as the minimal facts method.

The most common response to the minimal facts approach is not to question the historical foundation itself, which is a concession to its strength, but rather to question the assumed miraculous nature of the event and to assert that miracles are either impossible or at least highly unlikely.

In terms of resurrection, the traditional and culturally widespread claim that a human person is an immaterial soul accommodates the possibility of resurrection. However, some theologians reject this dualistic account of human nature.

The resurrection of individuals raises several philosophical dilemmas. Particularly, is there any way in which particular pre- and postmortem human beings could in fact be the very same person.

Throughout scripture, prayer or petitioning God is commended as a righteous practice. This witness is also clear that God answers prayer.

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Scientific practices are conducted by persons with worldviews held explicitly or tacitly. Some worldviews allow answers to prayers, while in others to expect an answer is sheer foolishness.

The cultural mandate is the divine injunction given to humanity in Genesis 1:26–28 to take care of God’s creation and to draw out, work with, and benefit from its inherent potentialities as God’s representatives on earth.

Theologians debate whether when God created the world he did so freely or out of necessity. Those who are rational theologians argue that he did so as an activity of reason, while voluntarist theologians argue that God created not wholly determined by reason, and therefore the created world is contingent, not logically necessary.

Eschatology describes the ultimate destiny of God’s creation, the fate that awaits the entire cosmos and each individual person. It is the study of “last things” and includes doctrines like the general resurrection, heaven and hell, the immortality of the soul, the second coming of Christ, the new heaven and new earth, and the final judgment.

It is precisely this rich, biblical picture that is undermined by standard scientific cosmologies.

Some argue that scientific cosmology and biblical eschatology are independent projects, separate domains of knowledge; in principle there can be no conflict.

Article Summaries Immanence, Transcendence – This article discusses the concepts of God’s immanence

and transcendence within Christian theology and the challenges these concepts present to the relationship between Christian theology and the natural sciences. Such theological concepts raise important issues as it relates to divine action in the world (providence, miracles, etc.).

The Trinity – This article provides an overview of the classic Christian doctrine of the Trinity and discusses the issues of oneness, threeness, and personhood. It furthermore details the contributions that a doctrine of the Trinity makes to philosophy and related fields.

Time – This article provides a definition of time and explores the relationship between God and time. A central aspect of the issue is that one’s view of time (tenseless or tensed) shapes how one understands God’s relationship with time. The article also reflects on the doctrine of creation in light of the issue.

Providence – Christianity and science has generated difficult problems with the doctrine of providence. Particular issues under consideration are human freedom, as well as the problem of evil and suffering. The end of the account wraps up how such difficulties can be overcome with emphasis on Thomas Aquinas’ dual causality theory and quantum physics.

Open Theism – This article defines the term, covers the five foundational claims for the view, and then shows the responses both by evangelicals and philosophers who reject open theism.

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Image of God – This article provides an overview of the concept through the usage of the phrase in the Old Testament, extrabiblical literature, and the New Testament. It also engages with the theological impact of evolutionary theory on the concept of the image of God.

Miracles – This article defines the nature of miracles, traces the influence and objection of David Hume on the topic, and then provides an explanation of and evidence for the possibility of miracles today.

Virgin Birth – This article provides a brief overview of both the virgin birth and virginal conception and addresses the historicity of the accounts in Matthew and Luke.

Incarnation – This article summarizes the doctrine of the incarnation and explains how philosophy supports the two-nature essence of Christ. Special attention is given to philosopher Thomas Morris’s “two-minds” proposal.

Resurrection of Jesus – This article explains the New Testament’s emphasis on the centrality of Christ’s resurrection within Christian theology. It lists key evidence for the historicity of the resurrection, while also addressing skeptics’ claims against the resurrection.

Life after Death – This article surveys two main positions in relation to the human and resurrection. The two main positions are the physicalist and dualist positions. The article offers a philosophical rational for both claims and also discusses the intermediate state.

Prayer – This article discusses the biblical testimony to the prayer tradition, addresses the transcendental question regarding prayer, engaging with philosopher Immanuel Kant, and distinguishes prayer from magic, while also looking at the scientific outlook of prayer and its effects.

Cultural Mandate – The cultural mandate is the divine injunction given to humanity (Genesis 1:26–28) to take care of God’s creation. This article describes the dilemma facing humanity in carrying out this task and notes important figures from Christian history who have been involved in confronting this dilemma.

Divine Voluntarism – This article addresses the question, “When God created the world, did he do so freely or out of necessity?” It discusses the two main positions of rationalist theology and voluntarist theology.

Eschatology – This article provides a definition of the term and engages with the scientific and philosophical issues related to this topic. Scientific cosmology does not provide evidence of the earth working towards a “conclusion” in this sense.

Pedagogical Suggestions Provide students with texts written by open theists and instruct students to discuss the

meaning of those text(s) and their impact on the notion of human freedom and divine omnipotence.

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Ask students to discuss whether or not God completely knows the future and how his foreknowledge affects or does not affect human free will.

Provide students with a blank sheet of paper and ask them to explain the incarnation and how Jesus can be both God and Man. Then provide them a list of heresies and have them see whether or not their explanation of the incarnation has ever been deemed heretical by the church.

Ask students to discuss times when their prayers have been answered and not answered. Then ask what role they believe prayer has in terms of scientific impact.

Ask students to discuss what the cultural mandate means in terms of Christian practices and the environment.

Other Media Sources/Websites Miracles and Christianity with Craig Keener:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kFqJYRDHwXE Graham Cole on the incarnation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkjZ-KyBuos Did Jesus really rise from the dead, with N. T. Wright :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KnkNKIJ_dnw Theology of the Trinity, with Fred Sanders:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7Gsfg1v_TY Two natures of Christ, with Fred Sanders:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HT8WdzlnbGA Greg Boyd on open theism:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SyZQySJeg4g

Suggested Essay Questions Briefly explain the essential contours of the doctrine of the Trinity and its implications

for Christian theology. Explain the relationship (if any) between the doctrines of creation and providence. Explain the five foundations of open theism. How should we understand the phrase “image of God” in light of linguistic evidence, and

does this present a problem in light of evolutionary theory? Are miracles possible in the modern world in light of what we know about the universe?

Provide evidence to support your position. Provide a response to the objections of David Hume to the possibility of miracles. Define the difference between virgin birth and virginal conception. Describe Philosopher Thomas Morris’s “two-minds” proposal and how it helps us

understand the doctrine of the incarnation. Discuss the minimal facts method as it relates to the resurrection of Jesus.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. What contributions does the doctrine of the Trinity make for how we conceive of human

relationships and interaction?2. What challenges does science present to the doctrine of providence?3. Does the concept of the image of God present a problem for evolutionary theory? Why or

why not?4. Can and do miracles happen today?

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5. Discuss the theological implications of the incarnation for how we think about our bodies.

6. Did the resurrection happen? What historical evidence do we have?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Soul2. Angels and Demons3. Bethlehem, Star of4. Bible, Pi and the5. Shroud of Turin

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Module 7 – Anthropology, Theological and Scientific

Key TermsConsciousness; Qualia; Memeplexes, Consciousness; Mind-Body Problem; Substance Dualism; Physicalism; Functionalism; Genome; Gene; Personalism, Determinism; Psychology.

Student Objectives Articulate the complexities of philosophical and scientific discussions about the mind. Explain how psychology has aided our understanding of consciousness and the human

mind. Explain the importance of consciousness and its implications for theological thought. Understand the implications of the themes of this chapter for the doctrine of original sin.

Key Points Evolutionary psychology is the systematic attempt to apply evolutionary theory to

cognition and behavior in humans and other animals. Evolutionary psychology has emerged as a cross-disciplinary field that proposes

evolutionary explanations of specific cognitive capacities on the assumption that they are adaptations or by-products of adaptive features.

Moral psychology is the scientific study concerned with the mental, emotional, behavioral, and social processes involved in the formation and expression of an individual’s regard for the rights and welfare of others.

Two main twentieth-century approaches to moral development are the cognitive developmental approach and the character development approach.

Modern psychology is typically defined as the scientific study of thought and behavior. Modern psychology originated in the late 1800s and adopted the philosophy of

materialistic naturalism from the natural sciences. The goal of psychology is to describe, explain, and predict thoughts and behavior from a

secular perspective. Psychology investigates phenomena through the formation of theories, the collection of

empirical data to test theories, and the interpretation of patterns derived from statistical analyses of the empirical data.

Philosophers generally agree that the mind is that which thinks, understands, reasons, and feels. It is aware of the world through sensation and of itself through introspection.

Historically the study of the psychology of religion had success in the first third of the twentieth century, but then fell out of vogue for more than forty years.

As the push for more empirical and statistical approaches grew in psychology and the adversarial relationship of science and religion intensified, the interest in the psychology of religion diminished.

The physicality of mental and physical states is a debated issue, with one explanation being substance dualism, where a mental “substance” is understood very broadly to mean an enduring mental subject of some kind.

The most common complaint about substance dualism is that it makes it difficult to understand how the mental and physical worlds causally interact.

The mind-body problem has generated a great deal of attention in philosophy, especially as it relates to Christian theism, morality, and free will.

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The mind-body problem is an enormously significant topic in philosophy, and the central dispute revolves around the question of the relationship between the mind and the body.

The argument from reason is a name applied to an argument, or a group of arguments, that attempts to make a case against a naturalistic philosophy by pointing out that such a philosophy undercuts the claim to hold rational beliefs.

The argument from reason tries to show that if the world were as the naturalist or materialist or physicalist says that it is, then no one can be rational in believing that it is so. Rational beliefs must, according to this argument, have rational causes, but naturalism holds that in the final analysis, all causes are non-rational causes.

According to the argument from reason, the naturalistic worldview, which is supposed to be based on science, is actually a view that renders science impossible.

Consciousness seems to be an essential characteristic of the nature of the self and is at the heart of personal identity, self-awareness, subjectivity, free will, and moral agency.

The unique nature of consciousness has been noted by Christian philosophers, with many regarding it as either the essence, or a significant part of the essence, of human nature.

Anthropology is the study of humankind, past and present, and is commonly divided into four subfields: biological anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology.

A person, philosophically speaking, refers to a rational, independent, and autonomous agent.

Human persons, according to biblical theology, are embodied from conception onward. At conception at least one genetically unique human person is formed.

Human persons are, however, the only persons who are made in the imago Dei (image of God). Thus, Jesus—fully God and fully human—is the “image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation” (Colossians 1:15).

The main challenge of origin of life research is to explain how biological molecules can be assembled into complex networks.

Origin of life science still needs a plausible mechanism for forming specific biopolymer sequences and primitive functional cells.

The Human Genome Project was an international, collaborative research program whose goal was the complete mapping and understanding of all the genes of human beings.

Established in 1990, the Project was massive—by far the biggest coordinated effort ever attempted in the history of biology.

Over six thousand identified inheritable diseases are caused by defects in the DNA coding information. Now that genomes can readily be sequenced and compared to the reference genome, it is often possible to diagnose specific illnesses more rapidly than previously dreamed possible.

The Western doctrine of original sin describes how all humanity, by implication of Adam’s primal sin, is born separated from God, culpably so, and saddled with an abominable, incurable, and innate moral corruption.

Recent scientific developments, however, raise a host of questions concerning our understanding of original sin, questions ranging from Adam’s historicity to a radical rethinking of the nature of sin.

The key question about original sin is that if sin is intrinsic to human beings, this is a biological predicament, not just a theological one.

Article Summaries42

Consciousness – This article provides a working definition of consciousness, notes famous thinkers on the subject, and engages in the debates of whether once consciousness arises it is physical or nonphysical, of whether it is reducible to, or can be fully explained in terms of, brain properties, and also of whether it can have causal power over the brain. Also discussed is the relation of the conscience and evolutionary theory.

Psychology, Evolutionary – This article addresses the history of the study of evolutionary psychology, beginning with Charles Dawkins and E. O. Wilson, and then traces the conversation through modern day. The nature of the argument and its conclusions are then applied to a discussion of religion and religious belief and how best to account for the reality of religious belief.

Life, Origin of – This article provides a short history of the origin of life study and then addresses two main approaches: the replicator-first approach and metabolism-first approach. The second half of the article addresses the debates over the theological significance of origin of life science and gives an overview of the main positions.

Mind-Body Problem – This article explains the history of discussion surrounding the relationship of the mind to the body, beginning with a summary of René Descartes’s thoughts on the subject, and then discusses several arguments for different construals of the relationship between the mind and body. Primary focus is directed on the substance dualism argument as most persuasive.

Reason, Argument from – This article provides an overview of the argument from reason, with a primary focus on the influence of C. S. Lewis on the topic. It discusses the implications of the argument from reason for a naturalistic worldview, which in the end proves to be self-contradictory.

Anthropology – This article provides a summary of the five main sub-fields of anthropology: biological anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, and cognitive anthropology.

Human Genome Project – This article tracks the history and nature of the Human Genome Project and details the implications of the data that it has provided for personal medicine.

Mind – This article provides an explanation of the mind, as well as numerous other related concepts, particularly the mind-body relationship. It provides a brief overview of substance dualism and then covers the two attempts to harmonize our understanding of human agency with modern science: reductive and non-reductive materialism.

Moral Psychology – This article traces the study of moral psychology through the field’s two main figures, Jean Piaget and Émile Durkheim. It describes the development of moral psychology since the work of these two pioneers and addresses the influence of the neurosciences on the field.

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Original Sin – This article describes the importance of the doctrine of original sin for Christian theology and then provides an overview of numerous evolutionary accounts of immorality. It traces three responses that have developed in light of evolutionary accounts of human origins—strong biologism, weak biologism, and suprabiologism.

Person – This article gives an overview and definition of the term person. It provides a special emphasis on personalism, and finishes by looking at a theological discussion of “persons,” with notes on the Trinity, the image of God, and Jesus as the image of God par excellence.

Psychology – This article provides an overview of the main aims and goals of psychology with a brief history of the domain. It observes that much of what psychology studies is the immaterial, which raises the question of metaphysical assumptions inherent in the task.

Psychology of Religion – This article discusses the purpose and goals of the study of religion from a psychological angle. It provides an overview of the diminished role religious experience has played in the area of psychological study.

Pedagogical Suggestions Ask students to read articles on the five sub-domains of anthropology and give a short

presentation on each, as well as each sub-domain’s relationship to Christian theology. Divide students into two groups and debate whether religious experience ought to have a

role in psychology. One group should argue for the affirmative, and the other negative.

Other Media Sources/Websites Alistair McGrath on faith, proof, and evidence:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SeCCjcuhmVo Alvin Plantinga and the evolutionary argument against naturalism:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SJ5RPn6nlwo The mind-body problem:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8uM9_tbfCI Overview of the philosophy of René Descartes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAjWUrwvxs4&t=274s Introduction to anthropology:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5aglbgTEig The race to sequence the human genome:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5aglbgTEig Five-part PBS documentary on the Human Genome Project:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rw7XU7durG4 Veritas Forum lecture by Francis Collins on the language of God:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGu_VtbpWhE

Suggested Essay Questions Provide an overview of the discussion of the mind-body problem, and give support for

how you think the mind and body relate.

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Describe C. S. Lewis’s argument from reason and explain its implications for a naturalistic worldview.

Provide a brief overview of the domain of psychology and the promises and pitfalls of its study.

Discuss the relationship between the doctrine of original sin and the evolutionary model of human origins. What are the issues at stake in the discussion?

Open-Ended Reflection Questions1. What is the relationship between the mind and the brain? Does Christian theology guide

our understanding of this relationship, and if so, how?2. What are the implications of evolutionary psychology for Christian belief and ethics?3. Of the domains in anthropology, which do you think poses the biggest challenges for

Christian theology?4. Why do you think anthropology is one of the most secular professions?5. What challenges does a belief in the evolutionary origins of humankind provide for the

doctrine of original sin?6. What makes a person a person?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Psychoanalysis 2. Emergence3. Near Death Experiences4. Chinese Room5. Compatibilism6. Copernican Principle7. Eccles, John8. Eliminative Materialism9. Erikson, Erik 10. James, William 11. Jung, Carl 12. Language, Origin of13. Libertarian Free Will14. Libet, Benjamin15. MacKay, Donald16. Negel, Thomas17. Ryle, Gilbert18. Searle, John19. Sentience20. Turing Test

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Module 8 – Key Scientific Disciplines and Concepts in Christian Perspective

Key TermsCosmology; Singularity; Cosmological Principle; Quantum Physics; Wave-Particle Duality; General Relativity; Chaos Theory; Physics; Uncertainty Principle; Dark Matter; Dark Energy.

Student Objectives Explain quantum theory, its related theories, and its implications for the study of the

universe. Articulate the main features of Einstein’s theories on relativity. Understand how the fine-tuning of the universe supports belief in intentional design, with

particular attention to dark matter and dark energy. Explain the arguments for a multiverse and its implications for Christian theology. Explain the concept of cosmology and the development of quantum theory.

Key Points Cosmology is the study of the origin and structure of the universe, and it has been the

object of study for almost as long as there have been humans to study it. Contemporary scientific cosmology began in 1915 when Albert Einstein’s general theory

of relativity replaced the theory of gravity developed by Isaac Newton. Einstein assumed a concept called the cosmological principle, according to which on

large scales, space-time geometry is homogeneous (mass-energy is evenly distributed) and isotropic (the universe looks basically the same in every direction from every location).

Much contemporary work in theoretical cosmology is motivated by attempts to mitigate the metaphysical implications of the universe having a beginning.

The big bang theory tells us that the observable universe was once smaller than an atom, which is the scale where quantum physics takes effect. Applying quantum theory to this epoch has created a speculative branch of physics called “quantum cosmology.”

The most famous quantum cosmologist is Stephen Hawking, who popularized the “no boundary” proposal, but numerous flaws deem his theory suspect.

Quantum physics, or quantum mechanics, is the branch of physics that describes properties of matter and energy at small size scales, approximately the size of atoms (10–

10 meters) or smaller. The foundations of quantum mechanics were developed in the early twentieth century by

studying electromagnetic radiation and atomic spectra. Up until the 1920s, an early, primitive form of quantum physics was developed, but in the

mid-1920s and beyond, quantum theory was reformulated into a broader and more refined theory by physicists such as Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, Louis de Broglie, Erwin Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli, and Satyendra Bose.

Many of the features of quantum mechanical systems seem to violate our everyday experience of how things should operate.

The principle of quantum entanglement is a central feature of quantum physics and deals with the relationship of multiple particles with overlapping wave functions.

The probabilistic predictions of quantum physics have shown to be so accurate that all scientists accept quantum mechanics as the correct theory of how the universe operates.

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Scripture, astronomical observations of the past history of the universe, and the space-time theorems demonstrate that space and time had a beginning coincident with the origin of our universe.

Multiple independent experiments in physics have shown that while it is possible to slow down or speed up the passage of time, it is impossible to reverse or stop the passage of time. Space, however, is not constrained to a single dimension, and space travel can be both stopped and reversed.

The Bible alone, among all the world’s holy books and religious teachings, declares that God created space and time when he created the cosmos.

The notion of ongoing expansion challenged the reigning paradigm of nineteenth-century cosmology, which held that the universe was vast and ancient beyond any knowable limits.

In the late 1960s, George Ellis, Stephen Hawking, and Roger Penrose developed the first of the space-time theorems in physics.

Today general relativity ranks as the most exhaustively tested and firmly established principle in physics.

The space-time theorems and the principles of cause-and-effect imply that a causal agent beyond space and time is responsible for creating space and time. Thus, at the very least, the space-time theorems reasonably point to a deistic interpretation of reality.

The success of physical science in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries left people with the impression that the universe worked as clockwork, operating under deterministic physical laws. The twentieth century has seen this viewpoint discredited with the development of quantum theory and the advent of chaos theory.

Chaos theory argues that since there is no infinite precision in specifying the system’s initial conditions, there are limitations to what can be calculated about its development. Chaos is thus the only rational result. This leaves open a possible avenue for God’s providential action, for the future is not necessarily rigid.

The twentieth century has seen belief in the rigid deterministic clockwork operations of nature (the sixteenth- to nineteenth-century viewpoint) replaced by belief in a more open future, governed by God who rules in a way consistent with the laws of nature that have been implemented by him, but laws that exhibit some inherent openness.

Physics is the branch of science that most generally tries to understand the fundamental principles that govern the universe. It can be argued that it is the oldest discipline of all the sciences.

The subjects of physics are often divided into two broad categories: classical physics and modern physics. Classical physics deals with subjects that were developed primarily before the twentieth century and includes mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.

The word physics comes from the Greek physike, “belonging to nature.” Before the seventeenth century, physics was a part of natural philosophy.

There are many branches of physics. Some of the major branches include astrophysics, condensed matter physics, atomic physics, optical physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics.

German theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg was the first to demonstrate the existence of a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain characteristics of physical particles can be known and measured.

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The general theory of relativity, developed by Albert Einstein describes gravitation, specifically how mass interacts with the space-time fabric of the universe.

One of the foundational principles of general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates the gravitational mass of an object with its inertial mass.

Objects with mass warp the space and time around them and the shape of space-time determines the motion of objects.

The special theory of relativity was developed by Albert Einstein and published in 1905. It describes the relationship of space and time between two different inertial reference frames, that is, two different frames of reference that are moving at constant speed with respect to each other, but not accelerating with respect to each other.

The theory is called the special theory because of the limitation that the reference frames are inertial, while the general theory of relativity discards that restriction.

Special relativity also provides the famous equation E=mc2, in which E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The interpretation of this equation is that mass is equal to energy, or sometimes stated that mass is a form of energy.

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of the mind, emphasizing thought, feelings, intelligence, and problem solving over behavior. Cognitive science may be better understood as an interdisciplinary field, rather than an academic discipline of its own.

The target of cognitive science, then, is cognition, which can be understood as all the thoughts and processes that occur within the human mind.

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It encompasses molecular, cellular, systemic, and cognitive aspects of neurobiology. It also entails psychophysics, computational modeling, and the study of diseases of the nervous system.

Modern neuroscience has deep roots in biology, but it is an interdisciplinary science, drawing from several fields.

Despite the remarkable advances in neurobiology in the past century and a half, neuroscience remains saddled with a profound weakness. Materialistic mechanical philosophy precludes an adequate understanding of the powers of the mind.

When most people think of the universe, they think of galaxies, gas cloud nebulae, stars, planets, moons, asteroids, and comets, but these heavenly bodies make up only 0.27 percent of all the stuff of the cosmos. The remaining 99.73 percent has been labeled “dark matter” and “dark energy.”

There are two kinds of dark matter. Ordinary dark matter (protons, neutrons, and electrons) interacts strongly with photons (light), but exists in concentrations insufficient to emit detectable light. Exotic matter (neutrinos, axions, and other particles) interacts either weakly or not at all with photons and, regardless of concentration, emits no detectable light.

Dark energy is even more mysterious than exotic dark matter. Although it makes up seventy percent of the energy density of the universe, it was only first positively detected as recently as 1999.

Current understanding says dark energy is uniformly distributed throughout the space-time surface of the universe, and its basic property is to expand the cosmic surface along which all the stuff of the universe is constrained.

Dark energy yields what may be considered the most spectacular measurable evidence for the supernatural, intentional design of the cosmos for the benefit of life.

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As scientists seek to understand measurements of the observable region of the universe, their explanations increasingly include the existence of physical realms beyond those limits: a multiverse.

In the last hundred years, scientific explanations of the universe have often employed a multiverse, but the character and nature of the multiverse have changed dramatically.

Tentative evidence from quantum mechanics, inflationary big bang cosmology, string theory, and other theories provide enough plausibility that multiverse models belong in the arena of scientific investigation.

The social sciences (e.g., anthropology, economics, education, history, human geography, linguistics, political science, psychology, and sociology) are a group of disciplines that are designed to study human behavior and social phenomena.

The objective of the social sciences is to seek human flourishing by understanding the social behavior and phenomena of humanity through scientific methods. Thus, social scientists use observation, experiments, and hypotheses to understand and interpret social phenomena and human behavior.

As natural science sought to understand the world through the lens of strictly material causes rather than a religious viewpoint, the social sciences followed suit. Charles Darwin’s views became influential, and many social scientists in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries believed that human behavior was strictly biologically derived.

Although early relationships between the Christian faith and the social sciences were less than ideal, social scientists such as Robert N. Bellah, Peter L. Berger, and Clifford J. Geertz have argued in various ways that the social sciences reveal religion to be an appropriate basis from which to view reality.

Although theology and the social sciences often appear to be at odds, both are keenly interested in understanding humanity.

Sociology is a social science that emerged in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that seeks to study human social life in groups and societies.

American sociology emerged in the late nineteenth century when American society was facing rapid social changes and in desperate need of a new science to confront growing social problems. It has had a tenuous relationship with religion.

Liberation theology, which explores the relation between Christian theology and sociopolitical concerns such as human rights, social justice, and poverty, is a product of the collaboration of theology and sociology.

Article Summaries Cosmology, Contemporary – This article provides an overview of the contemporary

study of the cosmos. It primarily focuses on the seminal work of Albert Einstein and then switches focus to the influence of Stephen Hawking and the weaknesses of his ‘no boundaries’ theory of the universe.

Quantum Physics – This article overviews the development of the field of quantum physics and focuses on several related principles, including the uncertainty principle, the principle of quantum entanglement, and the Copenhagen interpretation.

Space and Time – This article traces the development of thought surrounding the concepts of space and time in light of the theory of general relativity and interacts with major proponents and theories relevant to the discussion. Also discussed is scriptural

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teaching about space and time, as well as the implications of theories on space and time for Christian theology.

Chaos Theory – This article begins by setting the backdrop of the success of the physical sciences in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries and describing the rise of chaos theory out of quantum physics. It provides an overview of the theory and its possible theological implications for Christian theology.

Physics – This article gives an overview of the discipline, history, and branches of physics and lists several major developments and foundational principles of the field.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – This article discusses the uncertainty principle and its implications for physics. Particular attention is devoted to the concept of quantum tunneling.

Relativity, General Theory of – This article provides an overview of the general theory of relativity and gives special attention to the issues of the equivalence principle, gravitational waves, and black holes.

Relativity, Special Theory of – This article gives an account of the main features of Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. Specific attention is given to the ideas of simultaneity, time dilation, the equivalence of mass and energy, and the maximum speed limit in the universe.

Cognitive Science – This article gives an overview of the field of cognitive science and the domains of its focus, including decision making, imagery, imagination, language, learning, memory, and perception. Special attention is given to the implications of cognitive science for the study of religion, and to how the belief in gods, spirits, and afterlives resonates with the natural tuning of the human cognitive system.

Neuroscience – This extensive article begins with a description of the history of the field of neuroscience. The rest of the article discusses related concepts, including conceptual issues, metaphysical perspectives, and specific conceptual problems. One particular issue of theological importance is that some have claimed that neuroscience deems free will nonexistent.

Dark Matter, Energy – This article discusses the two types of dark matter, ordinary and exotic. It includes an overview of dark energy and its contribution to the “fine-tuning” explanation for supernatural intentional design of the cosmos.

Multiverse – This article explains the scientific reasons for the postulation of a multiverse, and then focuses on the topics of inflationary bubble universes, the quantum multiverse, and the implications of a multiverse for philosophy and religion.

Social Sciences – This article gives a concise overview of the rise of the social sciences in the nineteenth through twentieth centuries and highlights the precarious relationship between the social sciences and religion. However, it also notes some rapprochement and

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even positive influence of the social sciences in more recent decades.

Sociology – This article situates the discipline of sociology within the social sciences and focuses particularly on the American version of sociology and its historically contentious relationship with religion. The article concludes with some positive examples of Christian interaction with sociology, in particular as the two have united under the banner of liberation theology.

Pedagogical Suggestions Ask students to read the ancient, biblical, and contemporary cosmology articles and work

on a project that synthesizes the material and showcases the similarities and differences of each model.

Instruct students to prepare presentations on cognitive science and neuroscience, in which students explain the main principles of each discipline, how they are different, but also how they can contribute to one another.

Provide students examples of positive interactions of sociology with Christian theology. Examples could include selections of works by Christian Smith, Walter Brueggemann, John Elliott, or Ben Witherington.

Other Media Sources/Websites Albert Einstein documentary :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyK5SG9rwWI Understanding Einstein’s special theory of relativity:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TgH9KXEQ0YU Short film on Einstein’s general theory of relativity:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6XSAVqm0XBI PBS 12-minute explanation of multiverse:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzKWfw68M5U Quantum physics for seven-year-olds, TED Talk by Dominic Walliman:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARWBdfWpDyc Dark matter:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAa2O_8wBUQ Neil deGrasse Tyson explains dark matter and energy:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lr-DB3Z_5_c Max Weber, sociology:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICppFQ6Tabw Émile Durkheim, sociology:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9W0GQvONKc

Suggested Essay Questions Discuss the weaknesses of Stephen Hawking’s “no boundary proposal.” Provide an explanation of quantum theory, its related theories, and its implications for the

study of the universe. Trace the main features of Albert Einstein’s theories on relativity, noting their aims,

goals, and differences. Discuss how the fine-tuning of the universe offers an explanation of intentional design,

with particular attention to dark matter and dark energy.51

Explain the arguments for a multiverse, and then discuss two implications for the discussion of Christian theology.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. How do astronomers and cosmologists use what we can see (the observable universe) to

make inferences about what we cannot see (the global structure of the whole universe)?2. What impact, positive or negative, does chaos theory have on Christian theology?3. How would you explain God’s characteristics to a non-theist using Albert Einstein’s

special theory of relativity?4. Do the cognitive sciences aid or impede theological claims?5. Do the implications of neuroscience deny the possibility of free will?6. Does the theory of a multiverse render Christianity (and religion in general) implausible

or unnecessary?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Cognitive Science of Religion 2. Interpretations of Quantum Theory3. Mathematics4. Paleontology5. Speed of Light6. Complexity7. Astronomy8. Behaviorism 9. Borde, Guth, Vilenkin Singularity Theorem10. Complementarity Principle11. Cosmological Constants12. DNA13. Durkheim, Émile14. Ecology15. God Particle, the16. Gödel’s Theorem17. Grand Unified Theory18. Holographic Universe19. Indeterminism (including Theological)20. Inflationary Universe Theory21. Quantum Fluctuation22. Quantum Vacuum State23. Schrödinger’s Cat24. Science, Teaching25. Science, Vocation of26. Second Law of Thermodynamics27. Standard Model, The28. Statistics

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Module 9 – Ethical and Bioethical Issues

Key TermsBioethics; Genetic Testing; Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis; Evolutionary Creationism; Life; Morality; Ethics; Moral Relativism; Natural Law; Abortion; Rational Ensoulment; Embryonic Cloning; Nuclear Transfer Cloning.

Student Objectives Understand the complexities of the relationship between evolution and morality. Explain the origin of morality according to various models. Articulate the relationship and challenges of evolutionary ethics. Explain the relationship between science and ethics. Articulate the issues challenging ethics from scripture and science.

Key Points Evolutionary ethics is the attempt to provide an evolutionary explanation for the moral

sensibilities of human beings and any other animals with highly developed social instincts.

An implicit tenet of evolutionary ethics is that the moral sensibilities of human beings are contingent on their natural history.

A central problem for evolutionary ethics is the famous problem of altruism. If morality reflects our biological interests, then it seems there can only be moral reasons to aid those with whom we are genetically related.

A more general worry is that if morality depends on natural history, moral obligations do not have normative necessity.

Christian ethics is a blend of virtues and principles. It is strongly deontological (principle- based) because of its emphasis on God’s commands and biblical principles. However, it is also significantly virtue-oriented, as virtues provide the proper Christian emphasis on a person’s internal character, rather than focusing focused on a person’s actions.

Christian ethics asks not only “What is the right thing to do?” but also “What kind of person am I becoming?”

In Christian ethics, the ultimate source for morality is God’s character. God’s commands are the penultimate source for morality and are derived from his character. The Bible also connects the work of the Holy Spirit to moral renewal.

Environmental ethics is the study of the principles and standards regarding the moral relationship between humans and nature.

The instrumental (or utilitarian) value of nature is based on nature providing for human needs.

The instrumental value of nature is probably the most widely understood and embraced purpose for creation among Christians, as there is much support for this view throughout Scripture.

The intrinsic value of nature ascribed to creation beyond human utility is generally connected to the idea that living things have an intrinsic right to exist and to pursue ends and interests of their own.

This philosophy is manifested in the New-Age–related ecology movement, which posits that the whole of nature is in a balanced interrelationship, with no one part (e.g., humankind) having any more importance than any other.

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Many Christian scholars include creation’s value to God as one aspect of intrinsic value, but since value to God is technically extrinsic, it would be more accurate to use the term theistic intrinsic value.

Contemporary science is to some degree institutionalized. Its overall direction is partly shaped by governments, industries, and private foundations; these work with scientists to suggest promising avenues for research and propose important scientific and technological challenges.

Honesty in conducting and reporting research is stressed by most scientific organizations’ ethical codes, but also by many scientific sub-fields.

Several special ethical issues occur commonly enough that procedures for handling them have been codified. Studies involving human or animal subjects are typically overseen by institutional review boards.

Because projects have the potential to generate revolutionary insights or new technologies or have significant social, economic, and public policy implications, additional ethical issues may arise on a project by project basis.

Bioethics is an interdisciplinary endeavor primarily involved in the study of moral issues in health care and the life sciences for the purpose of providing ethical guidance for practitioners in clinical and research settings.

The most contested issues in bioethics are issues related to the beginning of life and end of life.

Secular bioethics relies heavily on a school of thought known as principlism, which maintains that health professionals should assess the morality of their clinical judgments on the basis of four principles—autonomy, non-maleficence, benevolence, and justice—while at the same time excluding from their judgments contested metaphysical beliefs about the nature of the human person that are usually tightly tethered to religious traditions.

Since the 1990s there has been great excitement about embryonic stem cell research and its potential to aid patients suffering from myriad diseases.

Most of the stem cells that are in clinical use at present are what are called adult stem cells, meaning that they are derived from sources other than human embryos.

The most significant moral obstacle to using embryonic stem cells is that it requires the destruction of human embryos.

The debate over embryonic stem cells revolves around the moral status of human embryos outside the womb.

If a person does not believe that human embryos have the moral status of persons, then the discussion is over and there is no debate. But those who hold that human embryos are persons with the right to life also hold that human beings are actually being sacrificed for the benefit of others.

Whether or not embryos are persons is not a biological question, but a philosophical one. The human embryo (more specifically, the fertilized egg) is what is called a totipotent

cell; that is, it has all it needs to mature into a full-grown adult. Genetic enhancement is a means of augmenting the human genome or genetic blueprint

to create “better humans.” The research of the Human Genome Project, which mapped the entire human genetic

blueprint, has spawned new hopes for the genetic manipulation of humans, not only to eradicate diseases, but to extend the human life span.

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There are three scientific methods of manipulating human genes: in so-called germ cells, in vitro, and modifying the DNA of adults.

The successful manipulation of the genetics of the embryo—in either germ cells or somatic cells—is especially difficult.

As a result of the Human Genome Project and genetic information being more readily available, numerous diagnostic tests are now available that can test for a variety of genetic links and predispositions, both in adults and in fetuses in the womb.

Genetic testing in adults can be useful for prevention, in that a person who is at high risk for acquiring a disease can take a variety of measures to minimize the chances of actually getting the disease.

Prenatal genetic testing has become common and can be done in a variety of ways —through blood testing and through ultrasound imaging, which can identify many genetic abnormalities simply by looking at the fetus.

One form of genetic testing is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, in which a cell is taken from the embryo and screened (some call this an “embryo biopsy”).

This method raises ethical questions surrounding the discard of the defective embryos, since there is no morally relevant distinction between discarding defective embryos and aborting fetuses with genetic abnormalities.

The availability of genetic testing in the developing world presents acute ethical dilemmas for physicians who want to provide the best prenatal care for their pregnant patients.

Life is the condition or attribute that distinguishes organic from inorganic and animate from inanimate objects, whether vegetable, animal, human, angelic, or divine.

All living organisms are composed of six basic elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and sulfur.

Every major worldview and religion has an account of the origins of life. Those accounts are either naturalistic or supernaturalistic.

Supernaturalist accounts of the origin of life fall on a spectrum from evolutionary theories to nonevolutionary theories.

Evolutionary creationism, sometimes known as theistic evolution, is the view that once God created space and time, he made a “fine-tuned” universe of physical constraints that were hospitable to life, including human life.

Young earth creationists have a more literal interpretation of the Genesis account, holding that God made the heavens and the earth within the span of six 24-hour days.

Recent efforts are under way to synthesize life forms. Using the tools of synthetic biology, researchers are attempting to create novel life forms through genetic recombination.

There are potentially valuable prospects for biomedicine and bioenergy through synthetic biology, including cleaner energy sources, customized vaccines, targeted medicines, environmental cleansers, and hardier crops. There are also troublesome ethical, legal, and social questions raised by this new arena of experimentation.

The term morality derives from the Latin moralis, meaning customs or mores. Morality refers to beliefs, notions, or opinions about what behavior or decisions are good, bad, right, or wrong. Generally speaking, ethics is a synonym.

The term morality can be used descriptively or normatively (prescriptively). When used descriptively, morality refers to the ethical beliefs or customs of a person, group, or era.

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When used normatively, morality may be used to offer a prescription of certain beliefs and behaviors or assessment of the rightness or wrongness of certain beliefs and behaviors.

Moral relativism is the reigning paradigm today, with the view that notions of right and wrong are matters of opinion that may differ from person to person and culture to culture.

A main issue debated throughout human history is the source of morality. Natural law theorists argue that moral norms are built into the nature of reality.

Christians find the ground of morality in biblical revelation, not human reason. Abortion is the premature termination of a pregnancy, which always results in the death

of the unborn human organism. An abortion can either occur naturally, as in a miscarriage, or intentionally, as in the case

of when a pregnant woman procures one. Based on its understanding of scripture, the Christian church has rejected the moral

permissibility of elective abortion from its very beginning, even though the Bible does not explicitly condemn it.

Throughout church history, Christian philosophers and theologians have differed over the question of when precisely the developing life in the womb acquires a human soul, but that disagreement has never had bearing on whether abortion was morally permissible.

Cloning is an artificial process by which genetic copies of living organisms or their parts are brought into being.

Cloning is fairly common in agriculture and horticulture, and scientists have been cloning human and animal genes for many decades.

There are two general methods for cloning: Embryonic cloning is the artificial replication of what occurs naturally in monozygotic twinning. Nuclear transfer cloning occurs when an ovum’s nucleus is removed, replaced by the nucleus of a donor’s non-germ cell, and this re-nucleated ovum is electrically stimulated to begin cellular division like an ordinary conception.

Infertility and organ donation are the most popular reasons suggested for cloning human beings.

Few debates have received greater worldwide attention over the last two decades than anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) global warming.

Article Summaries Ethics, Evolutionary – This article describes the role of ethics within an evolutionary

model and relies on the initial four-stage argument of Charles Darwin as a basis. It poses the central problem of altruism for evolutionary ethics and then provides notable responses to the issue.

Ethics, Christian – This article provides an overview of the orientation and goal of ethics and morality from a Christian perspective. The role of love and forgiveness is central to the article.

Ethics in Science – A wide-ranging article addressing the overall scope and aims of scientific work and the ethical issues that can arise from the revolutionary and boundary-pushing nature of scientific work.

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Bioethics – This article discusses the interdisciplinary nature of bioethics. The primary foci of the article are issues related to the beginning of life and end of life. The article concludes with a brief discussion of secular bioethics and the challenges for those with religious convictions.

Embryonic Stem Cell Research – This article provides an overview of differentiated and somewhat differentiated cells and explains the core ideas driving stem cell research. It notes several important breakthroughs (such as the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells) and concludes with a summary of philosophical and theological considerations for stem cell research.

Genetic Enhancement – This article traces the history of genetic research and focuses on the three scientific methods of manipulating human genetics. It concludes with a discussion of key challenges—scientific, ethical, and theological—that face the future of genetic manipulation.

Genetic Testing – This article describes the methods of genetic testing used for both adults and fetuses. It discusses the scope of genetic testing that can be done on fetuses and the ethical questions that this practice raises when problems are detected. The article concludes by noting problems with the accuracy of genetic testing.

Life – This article gives an overview of what makes up a living organism from a scientific point of view, as well as a brief overview of the spectrum of viewpoints on the origin of life—ranging from naturalism to young earth creationism. It concludes with a short summary of developments in artificial life and the benefits and challenges of such advances.

Morality – This article gives an overview and definition of the term morality and focuses on the problematic assumptions of moral relativism. The article finishes with a survey of historical arguments for the sources of morality from Aristotle, John Locke, natural law, and the Bible.

Abortion – This article defines abortion and explains the Christian church’s historical response (and subsequent debate). The article also discusses the debate surrounding whether or not an embryo is a unified individual organism.

Cloning – This article provides a description of the two main methods of cloning: embryonic cloning and nuclear transfer cloning.

Ethics, Environmental – This article describes three different approaches to the relationship between humans and nature: the instrumental value approach, the intrinsic value approach, and the theistic intrinsic value approach. The article concludes with a discussion of Christian stewardship of creation.

Climate Change (Global Warming View) – This article explains the philosophical backdrop that provided the animosity between scientific and religious claims (i.e., reductionism), makes the scriptural argument for creation care, then turns to look at

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scientific evidence for climate change, with a focus on atmospheric providence and selective absorption.

Climate Change (Natural Variations View) – This article begins by looking at the key term climate and makes an argument that the climate is not and has never been stable. It discusses common misconceptions related to greenhouse gasses and fossil fuels and concludes that natural climate variations outweigh human-induced effects.

Pedagogical Suggestions Divide students into groups—one in favor of creation care and one against—and instruct

them to debate their assigned positions. Instruct students to deliver presentations on a beginning or end of life issue discussed in

this module. Divide the room into two groups, and ask each group to discuss whether or not Christians

should make use of the genetic enhancement processes.

Other Media Sources/Websites Evangelical climate scientist Katharine Hayhoe (article):

http://biologos.org/blogs/archive/katharine-hayhoe-evangelical-christian-climate-scientist Bill Nye on climate change:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtW2rrLHs08 What are embryonic stem cells?:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EY5CTGI03uM Does evolution compromise human morality? (article):

http://biologos.org/blogs/archive/does-evolution-compromise-human-morality Peter Singer on evolutionary ethics and moral progress:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=91UQAptxDn8 Ethics of gene editing:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O49KmMg671E Genetics with Bill Nye:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5IJgGDfu-7k

Suggested Essay Questions Why are humans moral agents? Compare and contrast answers to this question from

evolutionary and Christian perspectives, noting strengths and weaknesses of each argument.

What are the main principles of secular bioethics, and what challenges would these principles present for a Christian bioethicist?

You are a doctor living in 2055, and genetic enhancement is now a possibility. Provide an argument with supporting evidence (scientific, philosophical, and theological) for whether or not you would make use of genetic enhancement.

Prenatal genetic testing has revealed that a child has genetic link to Huntington’s disease (a degenerative neurological disease) and will almost certainly contract the disease. What would you counsel the parents to do in this situation?

Provide a working definition of morality, its sources, and its normative relevance. Also include a critique of moral relativism.

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Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. What is at stake with an evolutionary view of morality?2. What role do Christians have in taking care of the earth?3. Where does morality come from?4. Are there scientific fields that from an ethical view Christians should not participate in?5. Should a patient’s autonomy and understanding of what is in his or her own best interest

be the overriding concern in bioethics?6. Should there be limits on the research and use of embryonic stem cells?7. How should Christians react to genetic enhancement?8. If prenatal genetic testing reveals defective genes, what decisions would Christian

parents and care providers need to think through?9. Is there such a thing as a universal morality, or is morality culturally defined?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Altruism2. Naturalistic Fallacy

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Modules 10–11 – Philosophy of Science and Christian Faith, Parts 1 and 2

Key TermsConcursus; Divine Action; Evil; Critical Realism; Supernatural Critical Realism; Worldview; Instrumentalism; Idealism; Presuppositions; Instrumentalism; Theodicy; Evil; Free-Will Theodicy; Truth; Proposition; Belief; Epistemology; Rationalism; Empiricism; Determinism; Compatibilism; Indeterminism; Teleology; Objectivity; Subjectivity; Sufficient Principle of Reason.

Student Objectives Explain divine action and the role of miracles within a Trinitarian framework. Articulate the differences between the two views of divine action (concursive and

engaged governance). Discuss and evaluate two scientific arguments for the existence of God. Understand the limitations of science. Articulate the role of theodicy and the problem of evil, and discuss various explanations

of the problem.

Key Points The belief that God exists continues to be widely held among both academics and

nonacademics, among scientists and laypersons. Many reasons and arguments for the existence of God have been propounded, including advanced scientific ones.

The cosmological argument infers from certain facts about the universe the existence of a reality beyond the universe.

The argument for God’s existence from natural theology argues that there must be a beginning cause of the universe that is itself external to the universe.

The teleological argument for the existence of God infers from certain features of the natural world that reflect design, purpose, and goal-oriented intelligence the existence of a grand designer, God. This includes the fine-tuning argument.

Discussions of divine action often focus on the question of whether God needs to intervene in nature—where intervention is understood as working apart from or contrary to the laws of nature.

The concursive view of divine action argues that God’s usual way of acting in creation occurs via concursus—God acting through and alongside the processes of creation.

The incarnation offers the best illustration of concursus: everything Jesus did in his life and ministry on earth was a fully human action, while also being a fully divine action.

Ordinary divine action is often defined as God’s preservation of creation, while special divine action is often defined as God’s action making a pronounced difference in the world.

The Trinitarian view of concursus tends to erase this distinction between ordinary and special divine action.

The ordinary–special distinction presupposes a false dichotomy that claims events in creation are due either (1) to God’s unmediated divine interventions or (2) to natural processes without any divine influence whatsoever.

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The engaged-governance view of divine action argues that God sometimes intervenes in the natural order to bring about events that would not have otherwise occurred and sometimes intervenes to prevent other events from happening.

Atheists, agnostics, and deists cite the problem of evil as a potent challenge to the truth of Christianity.

All worldviews, not simply Christianity, must grapple with the question of evil. According to the progressive creationist view of the problem of evil, Christianity

proclaims a two-creation model, in which both realms are radically different, and evil ultimately serves a purpose.

The premise of the two-creation model is that God has no good purpose for presently-existing evil and suffering. The first world of Adam and Eve was “very good,” but the second world will be “perfect.”

Evolutionary creation has little connection to some aspects of the problem of evil. For instance, human beings have free will and have thereby caused countless evils.

Is there a problem of evil posed for Christian theology by the pain, suffering, and extinction of a species? We also must consider that pain and suffering may not be identical with the term evil.

One possible solution is that God uses pain and suffering for a greater good. One of the greater goods that evolution enables might be that God delights in the transformation of chaos into order and delights in the cooperation of his creation in the process.

This does not mean we should force ourselves to think that evil is good, but it seems that God has structured things so that good comes from evil—including goods that could come about no other way.

Critical realism is a philosophy of science with special application in three primary areas: philosophies of perception, the science and religion movement, and efforts to balance positivism in sociological scholarship.

According to critical realism theorists, there is an objective reality “out there” that can be known by human observers, even if we may not be able to know it exactly. Mental construction and imaginative activity allow us to form theories, and some of these conform to observations better than others, because events have an objective pattern.

A number of important science and religion movement standard-bearers like Arthur Peacocke and John Polkinghorne argue that the fundamental source of all reality is the Creator God, the Ground of all Being.

Physical reality is endowed with objective existence, even if it is contingent on the continual upholding of the Creator. Because of this unity, science and theology have a deep similarity: both are methods of studying reality, and both are limited by the fallen humans that deploy these tools of knowledge.

Critical realism maps out a middle ground between positivism and idealism and encourages a nuanced appreciation of human cognition and personality.

The natural sciences make important contributions to human knowledge, but it is easy to overestimate their powers. Some argue that the only knowledge that matters is scientific knowledge, or that scientific methods are the only reliable means to knowledge. A more reasonable view of the sciences recognizes both the power and limits of scientific investigation.

The most easily overlooked limitation of scientific inquiry involves the basic presuppositions that make such inquiry possible. Perhaps the least recognized of these

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presuppositions is that truth exists. The kind of truth the sciences seek is provisional in the sense that it is conditioned by what is currently known.

Scientific methods are designed to tell us what we can know about things right now to the best of our ability. Scientists thus remain open to new discoveries that can prompt them to revise their current views on a given subject.

Presuppositions can only be motivated or justified as elements of a larger philosophical or theological view. Therefore, the sciences are dependent on deep, underlying philosophical commitments, just like any other form of human inquiry.

Scientific methods are not designed to detect or uncover meaning. They are designed to explore physical reality, which they often do effectively.

Purposes, values, meanings, declarations, and arguments do not exist in the subatomic, chemical, or biological domains. They exist in the domain of human consciousness.

The philosophy of science has garnered renewed attention due in part to the great success of the scientific method in discovering how the physical universe works and in practical application in many areas of human life.

The philosophy of science therefore raises foundational questions with regard to such issues as the definition of science and its method of inquiry, the truth status of scientific theories, whether science provides objective knowledge of the real world, the difference between science and non-science, the limits of science, and its relationship to other forms of inquiry, such as philosophy, theology, religion, and ethics.

The realm of the rational is broader than that of the scientific, which means that a claim or theory, such as belief in the existence of God, can be supported by reasons and accepted as true even if it is not subjected to scientific testing.

The distinction between methodological and metaphysical naturalism has often been invoked as a way of addressing the overreach of science and of illustrating the limits of scientific inquiry.

Methodological naturalism is the view that when doing science, only physical, testable explanations should be considered and pursued.

Metaphysical naturalism argues that the atheistic view that the only type of explanation one should ever consider for any question is a scientific one, because only natural, physical causes exist.

Theodicy is an attempt to justify God given the fact that there is evil in the world. Theodicy takes on the burden of attempting to vindicate God by providing a plausible explanation for evil.

A general form for theodicy is: God, an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent being, will prevent or eliminate evil unless there is a good reason or set of reasons for not doing so. There is evil in the world. Therefore God must have a good reason or set of reasons for not preventing or eliminating evil.

The most widely known and used example of theodicy was crafted by Augustine (354–430 AD). Augustine argued that God is perfect in goodness, and the universe, God’s creation, is thus also good. Since all things are good, evil must not represent the positive existence of any substantial thing. Evil must rather be a metaphysical privation of the good.

Most contemporary theologians and philosophers believe that natural evils—disease, natural disasters, and predation—occur because of the laws of nature, not because of the sins of the first human beings, thereby negating the main thrust of Augustine’s argument.

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According to the soul-making theodicy, God created a world that includes natural laws that allow for natural evil, suffering, and hardship, but God had a purpose in allowing this, for it fostered the development of morally and spiritually mature persons.

The general notion of truth is massively contested. There are many theories of truth, including those with a fairly long history (the correspondence theory, the coherence theory, and the pragmatist theory) and those far more recent (the performative theory, the minimalist theory, and the disquotational view). Postmodern thought has also generated various theories of truth and non-truth.

Christians are committed to truth both in past and present terms, as truth is first and foremost an attribute of God that emphasizes divine reliability and steadfastness.

The four major views of truth are the pragmatist view, the view proposed by Richard Rorty, the coherence view, and the correspondence view.

Epistemology is a subfield of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge—what it is, how it is acquired, and what its limits are.

Throughout most of the history of Western philosophy, epistemological debate has concerned the sources of knowledge, with philosophers tending to opt either for rationalism (Plato, René Descartes, and Baruch Spinoza) or empiricism (Aristotle, John Locke, and David Hume).

Modern science essentially formalized the empirical method, leading to discoveries and applications that transformed Western civilization.

Determinism, which dates back to pre-Socratic philosophers, is the view that for every event there is a cause or sufficient condition for its occurrence.

By the early modern period, two forms of determinism had emerged. One of these was hard determinism which says that since all events are caused, humans are not free or morally responsible. Another view, held by René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, and most other early modern philosophers, was called compatibilism.

Compatibilism affirms that universal causation is logically compatible with human freedom and moral responsibility.

Arguments in support of determinism range from the theological to the scientific, with proponents of each dating back to ancient times.

The scientific argument for determinism reasons that since science is predicated on the doctrine of universal causation and humans are a part of the physical world, even human choices must be determined.

Teleology is the study of goals, purposes, perfections, ends, and functions. There are three basic accounts of teleology: the agent account, the non-reductive

Aristotelian account, and the reductive account. Intrinsic or immanent teleology refers to things that, in virtue of their intrinsic principles,

tend to an end, such as the wing of a bird existing for the purpose of flight. Extrinsic teleology refers to things that, in virtue of outside sources, tend to an end, like

seed existing for the sake of nourishing birds. Teleological explanations appeal to the contribution of certain things, features, or agents

toward a goal or function. Objectivity is typically contrasted with subjectivity. Objectivity refers to how things are

in and of themselves, while subjectivity refers how things appear to be to some perceiver or thinker.

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Philosophical issues of objectivity concern not only whether subjectivity is involved in some state of affairs, but also whether the relevant reality is ultimately subjective or mind-dependent.

Scientific activity is motivated by the belief that there are reasons why things are as they are. Gottfried Leibniz, was the most well-known scholar to express this idea in the principle of sufficient reason.

The principle of sufficient reason is the claim that every fact, or every contingent fact, has an explanation.

A true principle of sufficient reason achieves more, since it also figures in a valid cosmological argument for the existence of God, beginning with Leibniz’s concern that if everything within the universe requires an explanation, then the universe as a whole does too.

Science and theism have a joint interest in the principle of sufficient reason.

Article Summaries Divine Action (Concursive View) – This article summarizes the argument that God’s

usual way of acting in creation is concursus—acting through and alongside the processes of creation. It explains the theological background of this position, describes divine action, and then distinguishes between ordinary and special divine action. The article concludes with a discussion of miracles and the relationship between randomness and divine action.

Divine Action (Engaged-Governance View) – This article consists of articulations of and responses to non-interventionist objections to this view. Questions include: Does divine interaction make God incompetent? Inconsistent? Unscientific? A God of the gaps?

Evil, Problem of (Evolutionary-Creationist View) – This article addresses the problematic nature of evil from an evolutionary and theological perspective. It discusses whether pain is identical with suffering, what extinction means in moral terms, and the greater good theory, and then concludes with a reflection on eschatology.

Evil, Problem of (Progressive-Creationist View) – This article addresses the problem of evil from a creationist perspective. It argues for the two-creation model, according to which the current (“very good”) world order is one in which evil is a possibility, while the future (“perfect”) world order will be one in which evil is eradicated. The article addresses the role of providence and physics from the progressive-creationist perspective.

Critical Realism – This article gives an overview of the rise of critical realism and its theoretical scope: philosophies of perception, the science and religion movement, and efforts to balance positivism in sociological scholarship.

God, Existence of – This article explains various scientific arguments for the existence of God, including the cosmological argument, the natural theology argument, and the teleological argument. It includes rebuttals to each of these arguments.

Science, Limits of – This article describes the presuppositions of science, which is conditioned by what is currently known and open to new discoveries. These

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presuppositions and the limits of scientific knowledge are devoid of philosophical and theological explanations of reality.

Science, Philosophy of – This article investigates the philosophical considerations and presuppositions of science, its definition, aims, and limits. The article traces some of the history of science and concludes with a discussion of the distinction between methodological and metaphysical naturalism.

Theodicy – This article gives a general overview of the standard theodicy argument. It describes and critiques several major approaches of theodicy, including free-will theodicy, soul-making theodicy, and the process defense.

Truth, Theories of – This article describes the four major views of truth: the pragmatist view, the view proposed by Richard Rorty, the coherence view, and the correspondence view. The discussion centers on what has been called the metaphysical project of truth (which focuses on the nature of truth) rather than the epistemological project.

Epistemology – This article traces the history of the debate between rationalist and empiricist philosophers, as well as the influences of the Scientific Revolution in the modern period. The article describes the influence of Edmund Gettier and the “Gettier problem.” It concludes with a summary of the debate among internalists (or foundationalists) and coherentists.

Objectivity – This article summarizes of the definition and scope of objectivity. It primarily engages with the theory of John Locke, but also relates the issue of objectivity to morality.

Sufficient Reason, Principle of – This article summarizes the principle of sufficient reason, with a review of Gottfried Leibniz’s theory, a definition of the principle, a description of its relationship to the cosmological argument for God, and objections to the principle.

Determinism – This article provides a historical overview of the discussion surrounding determinism (from hard determinism to compatibalism), as well as the contrasting arguments of non-determinism. The article includes arguments in support of determinism that range from the theological to the scientific.

Teleology – This article provides a definition of the term and an overview of the three basic accounts of teleology: the agent account, the non-reductive Aristotelian account, and the reductive account.

Pedagogical Suggestions Using the texts provided in the two articles on divine action (concursive and engaged

governance), divide students into groups of two and discuss how the texts either support or do not support each view. Have each group prepare a three or four minute presentation on their findings.

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Divide students into groups. Assign one argument from the Existence for God article to each group, and instruct them to prepare a short presentation on their assigned argument.

Instruct groups of three students to debate the merits of free-will theodicy, soul-making theodicy, and free process defense.

Other Media Sources/Websites Alvin Plantinga on divine action:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N5DPneR-Rtc Alister McGrath on understanding cultural and theological resistance to special

divine action:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sfdXnnK6tXg

Sally Haslanger on philosophy and the problem of evil:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pRzyioUKp0

Wright, Ward, and Bauckham on evil and suffering (two parts):https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5wYOZSh4GU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aIrFCmUkQ4w

Alistar McGrath on Bhaskar’s “critical realism” and multiple levels of reality:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6SPUklxrQmU

Leibniz’s Contingency Argument:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPCzEP0oD7I

The film The Adjustment Bureau trailer as a discussion-starter on free will and determinism:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZJ0TP4nTaE

Suggested Essay Questions From a concursive viewpoint of divine action, explain the role of miracles within a

Trinitarian framework. Compare and contrast the two views of divine action (concursive and engaged-

governance), noting the main tenets of each position, their theological rationales, and a specific explanation of the role of miracles in each view.

How would an evolutionary creationist and a progressive creationist explain the problem of evil? State the position of each and how they might respond to one another’s arguments.

Discuss and evaluate two scientific arguments for the existence of God, noting their main premises and possible objections.

If someone said to you, “science is the ultimate explanation for all that is and ever will be,” how might you respond with reference to the nature of the limitations of science?

In light of the Theodicy article, how would you respond to the question of how a good God could allow so much suffering in the world? Note the arguments of two major approaches to theodicy.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. How have you seen God active in the world?2. What is a miracle?3. How would explain the origin and problem of evil?4. Where did evil come from?5. Does science have limits?

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6. If God is good, then why does evil exist?7. Why do bad things happen to good people?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Animal Pain2. Evolutionary Argument against Naturalism3. Bayes’ Theorem4. Cosmological Arguments 5. Demarcation, Problem of 6. Explanation 7. Hiddenness of God8. Infinity9. Natural Law Theory 10. Necessity and Contingency11. Physicalism12. Science, Presuppositions of13. Beauty14. Carnap, Rudolf15. Cartwright, Nancy16. Craig, William Lane17. Dualism18. Duhem, Pierre 19. Falsifiability20. Feyerabend, Paul21. Functionalism22. Hempel, Carl23. Idealism24. Induction, Problem of25. Inference to the Best Explanation 26. Instrumentalism27. Intuition28. Kant, Immanuel 29. Lakatos, Imre30. Laudan, Larry31. Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von32. Locke, John33. Merton Thesis34. Monism35. Nagel, Ernest36. Naturalized Epistemology37. Nominalism38. Pascal’s Wager39. Polanyi, Michael

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40. Popper, Karl41. Positivism, Logical42. Process Philosophy43. Qualia 44. Qualities, Primary and Secondary 45. Quine-Duhem Thesis46. Quine, Willard V. O.47. Realism, Antirealism48. Reductionism49. Reichenbach, Hans50. Salmon, Wesley51. Scientism52. Sober, Elliott53. Spinoza, Baruch54. Supervenience55. Underdetermination of Theories by Evidence 56. Van Fraassen, Bas C. 57. Verification Principle58. Whewell, William59. Whitehead, Alfred North

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Module 12 – Models for Relating Christianity and ScienceKey TermsCompartmentalists; Hermeneutics; Scientific Method; Gap Theory; Darwinism; Conflict Thesis; Two Books Metaphor; Neo-Atheism; Scientific Materialism; Concordism; Animism; Manism; Deism; Metaphysics; Epistemology.

Student Objectives Describe the features of biblical hermeneutics. Describe the process of scientific hermeneutics. Explain the theory known as the “God of the gaps.” Discuss two naturalistic theories of religion noting major arguments and premises. Explain the scientific theory known as Darwinism. Explain the conflict thesis as it relates to science and faith.

Key Points The relation between science and theology should be one of harmony. Often there are extreme positions represented by figures like Richard Dawkins, who

views religion as a plague on humanity, or Ken Ham, who rejects anything other than a literal interpretation of Genesis. Both models are built on conflict.

At the other extreme are those who deny that science and theology experience any tension whatsoever. This is the approach taken by compartmentalists or complementarians. Such a definition of terms is inadequate for most.

According to the dialogue view of science and theology, what science and theology need is a living dialogue that recognizes the imperfection of our knowledge of both science and theology, and at the same time brings what clarity it can to the dialogue without betraying either science or theology.

Ian Barbour provided a fourfold model for the relationship of science and theology: conflict, independence, dialogue, and integration.

According to the reconciliation model of science and theology, there is some conflict between science and theology, but ultimately such conflict can be reconciled.

When there are conflicts between theology and science, we ought to recognize that these are not conflicts between the authoritative Word of God and the created order, but between our interpretations.

The conflict thesis is the overarching view of the history of science that maintains an inescapable and inherent conflict between science and religion.

One event that is commonly used to support the conflict thesis is the condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of the heliocentric system.

Today historians of science generally no longer favor a conflict model. The word hermeneutics is a derivation from the Greek word hermenuetes, meaning

“interpreter.” A number of difficulties face the reader in understanding and applying the Bible, a book

of the distant past. The Bible addresses cultures and historical situations far different from our own.

The nineteenth century was a dynamic period in the history of science, and new discoveries and theories posed unprecedented challenges to Christians who sought to

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correlate these developments with their understanding of biblical revelation, most notably with the book of Genesis.

The works of Charles Darwin presented the most alarming challenges to many Christians. Most of the resistance against evolution came from theologians, Bible scholars, and ministers.

How science and religion relate (or should relate) is a highly complex and controversial question. At the extremes are fundamentalist biblical literalism and scientific materialism.

Some have argued that conflict between science and religion can be minimized by emphasizing their independence from one another, which is reflected in their distinctive methodology or language.

A more ambitious approach to integration is the systematic synthesis of religion and science. A major concern about systematic integration is that it may implicitly give the finite and fallible theories of the human mind the same epistemic status as the revelation of an infinite and omniscient God.

The two books metaphor is a very well-known metaphor used throughout the centuries to characterize our knowledge of God and creation. The basic idea is that God has written two books for human interpretation, the book of nature and the book of Scripture.

The two books metaphor draws on the concept of revelation. At its broadest, revelation means knowledge received as a gift that stands in need of being understood, and this knowledge can be mediated through nature or through a human being.

The core idea of the two books metaphor, then, is that all knowledge is revealed, whether it is disclosed through reading, discussion, controlled experiments, or any other means.

Theologians usually distinguish two categories of revelation: (1) general or natural revelation and (2) special or specific revelation. General revelation is typically thought of as general knowledge about God disclosed through nature. In contrast, special revelation is specific, highly detailed knowledge about God, redemption, and Christ.

A third, less-discussed subcategory of general revelation is called creation revelation. This is specific, detailed knowledge about creation revealed through creation.

Since the Holy Spirit is the ultimate author of the two books, what they reveal about creation cannot conflict. Rather, conflicts arise from our handling of the two books.

New atheists (neo-atheists) embrace a conflict model of the relationship between science and religion, seeing themselves as championing a worldview based on evidence and therefore opposed to religion.

Neo-atheism is characterized by “the blind faith that all faith is blind faith.” Several notable philosophers (David Bentley Hart and James Taylor, among others), have

found the work of the neo-atheists to include logical fallacies, factual errors, and a general lack of engagement with theistic arguments.

Concordism refers to the position that the teaching of the Bible on the natural world, properly interpreted, will agree with the teaching of science (when it properly understands the data), and may in fact supplement science.

The concordist holds Scripture as entirely truthful, such that there cannot be any ultimate contradiction between Scripture rightly interpreted and nature rightly interpreted.

Concordism runs on the idea that God has accommodated himself to man using man’s common language to explain theological truths in Scripture.

An alternative view in the origins debate agrees that in the end science and Scripture will accord in what they affirm.

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The classic form of a “God of the gaps” argument is: “There is no known natural scientific explanation of X; therefore we know that a supernatural action of God explains X.”

The God of the gaps argument is an argument from ignorance (a logical fallacy), since it erroneously claims that our not knowing something (a natural scientific explanation of X) entails that we do know something else (a supernatural explanation of X).

Theologically, confining God to gaps in our knowledge is troubling. Doing so suggests that as science advances and those gaps shrink, there is less room for God in the world.

Naturalistic interpretations of religion generally stipulate (1) the unreality of transcendent powers of religions, and (2) the possibility of explaining the belief in these powers and their alleged effects (e.g., miracles) without going beyond the physical, social, and psychological aspects of human beings.

The philosophy of religion is the philosophical investigation of the content and central truth claims of religious traditions.

Questions addressed in the philosophy of religion are of central and enduring human significance and include those about the existence and nature of God, evil, morality, religious language, religious experience, miracles, life after death, religious diversity, and the relationships between faith, reason, and science.

Philosophy of religion is an interdisciplinary discipline, including other areas such as metaphysics and epistemology.

In a broad sense, religious experience refers to any experience of the sacred within a religious context, including religious feelings, visions, and mystical and numinous experiences.

Those who have religious experiences generally take them to be authentic experiences of an actual reality beyond themselves. Is it reasonable to agree with them? To put the question differently, do such experiences provide reasons for religious belief? Or are there naturalistic explanations for religious experience?

Article Summaries Science and Theology (Dialogue View) – This article begins with a discussion the

problematic reasoning of compartmentalists, who see no tension between science and theology. The article argues for a rapprochement that is based on the idea that God is author of the world that is studied by science, and that God is the main actor in the history of salvation that theology attempts to understand. The article touches on the related topics of the Trinity, the incarnation, artificial intelligence, and consciousness.

Science and Theology (Reconciliation View) – This article offers a historical framework of the discussion between theology and the sciences. It uses the fourfold model proposed by Ian Barbour and adapted by Stenmark to argue that there is some conflict between science and theology, but ultimately that such conflict can be reconciled. The article touches on the related topics of the image of God, original sin, and Adam and Eve.

Conflict Thesis – This article provides a history of the conflict thesis, with a focus on the works of Draper and White. It discusses the condemnation of Galileo Galilei and concludes with an assessment of modern scientists’ rejection of the conflict thesis.

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Hermeneutics, Biblical and Scientific – This article addresses the topic of traditional biblical hermeneutics and extends this idea of hermeneutics to the natural sciences, a topic of some concern to biblical understanding and Christian theology. The article includes a discussion of three factors that challenge the clear interpretation of scientific research and concepts.

Science and Fundamentalism – This article discusses the rise of Christian fundamentalism in response to scientific findings of the nineteenth century, such as the dating of the universe, the work of Charles Darwin, and the theory of evolution.

Science and Religion, Models of Relating – This wide-ranging article explains three essential modes of relationship between science and religion: the extremes of fundamentalist biblical literalism and scientific materialism; the independence model; and systematic integration.

Two Books Metaphor – This article provides an overview of the concept and its relationship to nature and scripture. It discusses general revelation, special revelation, and creation revelation and concludes with a discussion of how the “two books” should relate to one another.

New Atheism – This article traces the rise of the new atheist movement from the early 2000s vis-à-vis the works of Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins, and others. It describes the responses of David Bentley Hart and James Taylor, who challenge new atheism’s inadequate interaction with theistic arguments.

Concordism – This article defines the term and shows how it relates to scientific and scriptural issues. It describes the spectrum of concordist views, ranging from strong concordism to young earth creationim, and explains the alternative view that concordism exists only in what science and the bible affirm.

God of the Gaps – This article overviews the inference and the logical fallacies of the “God of the gaps” theory and explains the consequences of this theory for both science and theology.

Religion, Naturalistic Theories of – This article describes the philosophical assumptions of naturalistic interpretations of religion and then touches on the issues of magic, animism, manism, and naturism, as well as social and psychological theories, with a focus on Durkheim and Sigmund Freud.

Religion, Philosophy of – This article provides an overview and discussion of the philosophy of religion, and then traces the history of the discussion from the early Greek period, through the Renaissance and the rise of seventeenth-century deism, to modern discussions. Special attention is given to David Hume and Immanuel Kant.

Religious Experience – This article offers a definition and explains included experiences within the term. It then focuses on categories of religious experience, including regenerative, charismatic, and mystical experiences. The article concludes by addressing

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the question of whether such experiences provide reasons for religious belief, or whether there are naturalistic explanations for religious experience.

Pedagogical Suggestions Instruct students to take one of the theological questions raised in the articles on Science

and Theology and present on how the dialogue and the reconciliation views would treat such topics as original sin, Adam and Eve, and so on.

Provide students with excerpts from both new-atheist works and responses by Christian philosophers so that they may identify the issues in debate between the two groups and observe how one might construct an argument and critically engage ideas.

Other Media Sources/Websites Hermeneutics: a very short introduction:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wPTV5hyB0Y Answering new-atheist objections and fallacies, by John Lennox:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBlldaLkEHc John Lennox and Richard Dawkins debate:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0UIbd0eLxw Rowan Williams on the new atheists:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0cyw89HeeRE Richard Dawkins and Rowan Williams debate:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVwnI2u9fuM The philosophy of religion Oxford University Open Education course (8 lectures):

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLPdA9zLPgLvFTgWa4jJfRFrkAxwTSzj-u Neil DeGrasse Tyson on the God of the gaps:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytaf30wuLbQ Neil DeGrasse Tyson Interview on science and religion with Bill Moyers:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRx6f8lv6qc&t=470s

Suggested Essay Questions What should the relationship between science and theology look like? Present a case

from either the dialogue or reconciliation viewpoint. Describe the process of biblical hermeneutics. Describe the process of scientific hermeneutics. What is the two books metaphor, and how does it help us understand the relationship of

science and theology? Should one book take precedence? Provide two examples of this metaphor in action.

Define the theory known as the “God of the gaps.” What are the problems with this view—logically, scientifically, and theologically?

Discuss two naturalistic theories of religion, noting major arguments and premises of each. Provide a critique of each theory.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. How would you characterize your experience of the relationship between science and

theology: conflict, independence, dialogue, or integration?2. What should be primary in our thinking—a Bible-first or a science-first approach? Or is

there a third way?74

3. What examples of concordism have you seen in popular evangelical culture?4. Is the “God of the gaps” view a helpful or unhelpful aid to Christians?5. What is the difference between magic and a miracle?6. Describe an important religious experience you’ve had. How might this experience be

explained from a variety of positions?7. What social benefit does religion have within a society? Does this social benefit

adequately explain the existence of religion?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Gifford Lectures2. Handmaiden Metaphor3. Non-Overlapping Magisteria (NOMA)4. Schroeder, Gerald5. Occasionalism6. Science, the Renaissance, and Early Modern Christianity

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Module 13 – Key Thinkers in the Science and Faith DiscussionKey Terms

Student Objectives Understand the major contributions of leading figures in the fields of science and

religion. Explain the historical development of ideas from significant researchers.

Article Summaries Francis Collins – Leading geneticist, the former head of the Human Genome Project, and

the current director of the National Institutes of Health. Collins, a former atheist, became a Christian while he was a medical student in North Carolina and later formed the BioLogos Foundation in order to better share with other Christians his belief that science and Christianity are not in conflict.

Richard Dawkins – A biologist, ethnologist, noted atheist speaker, author, and public intellectual. He holds a Doctor of Philosophy in ethology, the study of animal behavior. Dawkins’s biggest scientific contribution was his popularization of the knowledge of the gene as the principal unit of selection. He wrote the bestselling book The God Delusion.

Sam Harris – An American philosopher and atheist who gained prominence through his book The End of Faith (2004), which marked the beginning of the new atheist movement. He holds a degree in philosophy from Stanford University and a PhD in neuroscience from UCLA.

Stephen Hawking – One of the most famous theoretical physicists of the twentieth century. In 1979 he became Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, a post once held by Sir Isaac Newton. He retired from this position in 2009 and now holds an endowed chair as the director of research at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics. Hawking’s research has focused on singularities—locations in the space-time continuum where the laws of physics break down—the primary example of which is a black hole.

David Hume – (1711–76) Hume was a Scottish philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat, and essayist who distinguished himself as the foremost proponent of radical empiricism. He was highly critical of deductive reasoning and subsequently a firm believer in the absolute validity of skepticism.

C. S. Lewis – Lewis was a noted scholar of medieval and Renaissance English literature, serving for many years as a tutor at Magdalen College, Oxford University, and finishing his career as a professor at Magdalene College, Cambridge University. Lewis had a keen interest in the impact of science on culture and ultimately wrote nine books, nearly 30 essays, and several poems that explored science and its cultural ramifications. Lewis also challenged the rise of scientism. There is disagreement over Lewis’s views on evolution, but his most influential contribution to the discussion of evolution was his critique of evolutionary accounts of mind.

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Alister McGrath – One of the central evangelical figures to deal with the relationship between theology and science. A former atheist, it was during his first year of study at Oxford University that he converted to Christianity after finding the Christian worldview to be far more intellectually robust than he had previously imagined. He earned a PhD in molecular biophysics from Oxford in 1978. Later he would later go on to earn additional undergraduate (1978), graduate (1983), and doctoral (2001) degrees in theology and historical theology from Oxford. McGrath’s influence in the contemporary discussion of science and theology cannot be overstated. From 2001 to 2003 his seminal work was published as a three-volume series titled A Scientific Theology. He is also a frequent critic of the new atheist movement.

Wolfhart Pannenberg – (1928–2014) Pannenberg was one of the most prolific German theologians of the twentieth century. Pannenberg’s work constituted a long, concerted effort to bridge the gap between theology and the sciences in order to address the modern tendency of theologians to withdraw from the arena of secular reason.

Alvin Plantinga – An American philosopher of religion who writes in the analytic style and is widely regarded to be among the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century. He currently is the John A. O’Brien Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at the University of Notre Dame and is the inaugural holder of the Jellema Chair in Philosophy at Calvin College. He has produced groundbreaking work in metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophy of religion.

John Polkinghorne – An English theoretical physicist, theologian, Anglican priest, and writer. He is regarded as a leader in communicating the relationship between science and theology. He taught math at Cambridge University from 1968–79 before training to be an Anglican priest in 1982 and entering parish ministry. He finished his career as president of Queens College, Cambridge. Polkinghorne’s concern has centered on investigating the compatibility of science and religion. He has spoken worldwide, and his writings include five books in his research field of particle physics and more than 25 books on science and religion. Polkinghorne has consistently maintained the position that science and Christianity are cousins, each different, yet each seeking truth.

Bernard Ramm – A Baptist theologian, he has been ranked with Carl F. H. Henry as “one of the foremost American evangelical theologians of the twentieth century.” He holds a doctorate in the philosophy of science from the University of Southern California. He is perhaps most famous for his influential book The Christian View of Science and Scripture (1954). Ramm became a proponent of day-age theory or what he called progressive creationism.

Carl Sagan – (1934–96) Sagan was an American scientist and educator. He is best known as co-creator and host of the 1980 PBS miniseries Cosmos, which brought an infectious enthusiasm for astronomy into millions of living rooms, as well as for his popular writings about science. He earned his PhD from the University of Chicago in 1960. He was briefly a professor at Harvard University and then spent nearly three decades as a professor at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. He was a prominent critic of

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Christianity and other religions. He felt that the existence of a personal God was not credible in the absence of rigorous scientific proof.

Pedagogical Suggestions Instruct students to pick one key figure and create a lecture-style presentation on that

figure’s life and work.

Other Media Sources/Websites How I became a Christian, Francis Collins:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaEQyNeaFZs A conversation with Richard Dawkins:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MNCzd6_ce0I An introduction to David Hume:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HS52H_CqZLE C. S. Lewis: why he matters today:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHCztUy3kGU Christopher Hitchens and Alister McGrath debate:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKdZT7r2-RY An interview with Alister McGrath:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CouPgXi-ZKY Alvin Plantinga lecture: science and religion:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbjp9PrtPS8 Carl Sagan on God:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6bztIma03k The movie Theory of Everything biopic on Stephen Hawking.

Suggested Essay Questions Pick two leading figures in the discussion of science and theology and provide an

overview of their contribution to the debates.

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. Out of the figures listed in this module, who do you think was the most influential

thinker of the past two centuries? Why?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Collins, John C.2. Clayton, Philip3. Dennett, Daniel4. Draper, John William5. Flew, Antony6. Goodenough, Ursula 7. Gould, Stephen J.8. Hartshorne, Charles

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9. Hoyle, Fred10. Jaki, Stanley11. Jastrow, Robert12. Krauss, Lawrence13. Lewontin, Richard14. McMullin, Ernan15. Monod, Jacques16. Moreland, J. P. 17. Murphy, Nancey 18. Orr, James 19. Peacocke, Arthur 20. Ratzsch, Del21. Russell, Robert22. Schaefer, Henry F. 23. Stenger, Victor24. Tipler, Frank 25. Torrance, T. F.26. Ward, Keith27. Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge28. Weinberg, Steven29. White, Andrew Dickson

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Module 14 – Looking Ahead: Cutting-Edge Issues in Contemporary Science

Key TermsArtificial Intelligence; Turing Test; Algorithm; Consciousness; Panspermia; String Theory; Physics; General Relativity; Quantum Physics; Space-Time; Dimensions; Drake Equation; Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence; Singularity; Transhumanism; Chance.

Student Objectives Explain string theory and its implications for Christian theology. Articulate the arguments for the existence of extraterrestrial life and the hypothetical

implications of its existence on Christian theology. Understand quantum physics and its implications for science and faith. Articulate new avenues of scientific progress. Explain the Turing Test and its relationship to personhood. Explain the challenges and promises of artificial intelligence.

Key Points Artificial intelligence is a branch of computer science that seeks to develop computer

systems and algorithms that replicate or mimic cognitive tasks typically ascribed to humans.

The goals of artificial intelligence as a field can be divided into those of artificial general intelligence (also known as “Strong AI”) and those of applied artificial intelligence (also known as “Narrow AI”).

The engineering foundations for most artificial intelligence algorithms are based on the mathematics of probability, statistics, and search.

While computers can presently be programmed to address the “easy problem” by imitating humans to various degrees, it remains unclear whether machines will ever have the subjective experiences pursuant to the “hard problem of consciousness.”

Panspermia refers to the spread of genetic information and life by transportation throughout the galaxy, from planet to planet and from star to star.

Panspermia is not a theory about the origin of life, but principally about the viable transport of microbial life through space.

Panspermia directly competes with the two dominant theories of the history of life: Darwinian evolution and young earth creationism.

Panspermia is often attacked as a transparent attempt to avoid the origin of life problem by outsourcing the problem to other planets.

Only after the discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur in the late 1800s did panspermia, emerge when Richard Proctor (1870) argued (contra G. W. F. Hegel) that microbes were versatile enough to live on Mars or Venus.

Early work on panspermia involved collecting meteorites and examining them for life. Panspermia received a boost in the twentieth century when Arrhenius argued that microbes need not arrive on meteorites, but spores could be wafted in by stellar winds.

String theory is a theoretical construct in physics that proposes that the most fundamental objects in the universe are one-dimensional objects called strings. The theory offers a possible solution to some challenging problems in basic physics.

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String theory allows for the reconciliation of quantum mechanics with a theory of gravity, and is thus a strong candidate for the ultimate theory that incorporates all the fundamental forces and particles into a theory of everything.

Five independent string theories have been developed, and scientists assumed that only one would turn out to be correct. In the mid-1990s, however, researchers realized that the five theories could all be describing the same more fundamental theory from different perspectives.

All string theories require that the universe actually be composed of more than the four known dimensions of space-time.

If string theory is ever experimentally verified, it will certainly change our perception of the universe. It will confirm the existence of dimensions beyond the three known dimensions of space and one of time.

Extraterrestrial life is the subject of much popular interest and a serious scientific and theological debate. The general issue may be broken down to three main questions: Do extraterrestrial life-forms exist? If so, are there intelligent extraterrestrial life-forms? And, if so, can we make contact with them?

Scholars typically employ the Drake equation when addressing the extraterrestrial life question. The equation was developed in the early 1960s by astronomer Frank Drake. This essential looks at the probability of such an occurrence.

The likelihood of contact from extraterrestrial life-forms—that is, if they do exist—is considerably diminished by spatial scatter, temporal scatter, and potential life-form variation.

The SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) Research Center was launched in 1985. SETI employs dozens of research scientists and is devoted not only to making contact with extraterrestrial life-forms, but also to understanding the origin of life in the universe.

Christian theologians are divided on the question of extraterrestrial life for various reasons.

According to to inventor and science visionary Ray Kurzweil, humans and machines will eventually merge into one dynamic new entity called “the singularity.” This vision is part of a larger vision called transhumanism.

Challenges to the singularity theory are that although computers can arrange information in programmed ways, but they understand none of it.

Machine computation will never achieve consciousness, since consciousness involves semantic understanding (among many other things).

If machines can never be conscious, they cannot, then, merge with conscious humans in one conscious “singularity.”

Finally, there is no known mechanism by which non-living elements combine to generate genetic material. Neither chance nor natural law nor the combination of both is up for this metaphysical task.

Article Summaries Artificial Intelligence – This article provides an overview of the rise of artificial

intelligence, discusses pragmatic aspects of programming such as logic and statistics, looks at practical examples today (for example, Siri on the iPhone), as well as the role of artificial intelligence in film and popular culture. The article concludes with a discussion

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of consciousness and artificial intelligence.

Panspermia – This article discusses the concept of panspermia and shows how the theory critiques both Darwinian evolution and young earth creationism. The article responds to arguments against the theory while also tracing the history of the study.

String Theory – This article gives a detailed overview of string theory, describing the history of the field, its main arguments, and scientific evidence in support of it. The article explains the explanatory benefits of string theory, as well as the current problems facing the theory. It concludes with some theological implications of the theory on the belief in the existence of God and miracles.

Extraterrestrial Life – This article engages with the primary questions in the search for extraterrestrial life, discusses the probability of such life, surveys the scientific scholarly opinions on the matter, and concludes with ramifications for Christian theology.

Singularity, the – This article offers an overview of Ray Kurzweil’s theory of “the singularity,” or the merging of humans and machines into a single consciousness. The article includes several challenges to the theory as currently understood.

Pedagogical Suggestions Ask students to read articles both for and against AI and debate the merits and

consequences of this growing field.

Other Media Sources/Websites Movies about artificial intelligence such as Bicentennial Man or I, Robot. The movie Contact for Extraterrestrial life. The docudrama The Singularity. Elon Musk on artificial intelligence:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxZIuJVQPL0 What is artificial intelligence:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kWmX3pd1f10 An overview of artificial intelligence:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TRv0cXUVQw The Turing Test – TED ed video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wLqsRLvV-c Michio Kaku explains string theory:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYAdwS5MFjQ What is string theory:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9K7aTVTGg0 The singularity – Neil deGrasse Tyson and Ray Kurzweil:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyFYFjESkWU What is the singularity – BBC:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MVrtJdrYtA

Suggested Essay Questions What is string theory, and what are its implications for Christian theology?

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If extraterrestrial life were proven to exist, what would challenges to Christian theology would result?

Open-Ended Reflection Questions 1. Will computers ever have consciousness?2. How do you use artificial intelligence today? Where would you like to see artificial

intelligence grow?3. Does extraterrestrial life exist, and if so, does its existence pose any challenge to

Christian theology?4. Could bionic human beings have need for salvation?5. If death is defeated and is there a need for God in transhumanism?

Digging Deeper ArticlesFor more in-depth treatment of various topics see the following articles on key concepts

and persons in the Dictionary of Christianity and Science. These articles can supplement the current unit or be changed out for topics that are a better fit for the course or instructor.

1. Astrotheology2. Transhumanism

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Module QuizzesModule 1 – Foundational Terms

True/False1. All the available observations of the universe are consistent with the big bang theory. True3. Naturalists affirm there is no evidence for a soul or mental agent supervising the body and

brain. True4. Christians hold to metaphysical naturalism, but not methodological naturalism. False5. Nature functions as a closed system. False6. Religion is essentially tied with the core of a person’s world view. True7. Creation revelation is defined as “the knowledge of God that is disclosed through nature.”

False8. The process of obtaining knowledge about the universe through experimentation and

observation of empirical evidence is known as the scientific method. True9. Scientific ideas can be proven but never absolutely disproven. False10. Empiricism and rationalism are direct opposites of one another. True11. Many scholars agree that an essential element that birthed the modern idea of a law of nature

is theological. True12. The conclusion of an inductive argument is intended to be a necessary consequence of the

premise. False13. Mythology is defined as “an untrue story about something significant.” False14. Occam’s razor gives precedence to simplicity; of two competing theories, the simpler

explanation of an entity is to be preferred. False15. Science and theology have battled against one another throughout history. False16. Revelation as a gift underlies scientific practice as much as it does religious practice. True

Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following physicists was NOT accredited for discovering the big bang theory?

A. Albert EinsteinB. Edwin HubbleC. Arthur EddingtonD. George Lemaître

2. Religion must contain an element of:A. Supernaturalism.B. Transcendence.C. Spirituality.D. Eternality.

3. Scientific investigation and special revelation:A. Are mediated through practices that involve reason and experience.B. Require granting provisional authority.C. Are open-ended dialogue.D. All of the above

4. Of the following, which is NOT a current popular worldview?

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A. Secular naturalismB. Material humanismC. Mystical pantheismD. Christian theism

5. The basis of scientific thinking includes:A. Presupposition.B. Logic.C. Experiment.D. A & BE. All of the above

6. Empiricism asserts all of the following except:A. Experience, sense perception, and induction are the basis for knowledge.B. Deduction and innate thoughts contribute to knowledge.C. Knowledge depends on the use of senses.D. Experience leads to simple ideas that can build on one another to become complex.

7. The Genesis account of creation shares all of the following features with other creation myths, except:

A. A monotheistic context.B. A development from a cosmic order without life to one with life.C. A prelife cosmos represented as “water.”D. A divine intentionality guiding the development.

8. Occam’s razor includes a primary reference for:A. Explanatory simplicity.B. The best explanation.C. Explanatory adequacy.D. Elimination of plurality.

9. All forms of Pantheism deny:A. The personality of God.B. The transcendence of God.C. The creation of the cosmos.D. A & BE. All of the above

10. The doctrine of _____________ is an example of paradox.A. The incarnationB. The atonementC. Total depravityD. Biblical inspiration

11. Which is NOT a theme of postmodernism?A. Truth is socially constructed.B. Metanarratives are helpful to interpret patterns.

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C. Methodological objectivity is impossible.D. Texts are inherently unstable.

12. Christians can at least partly affirm which of the following postmodern themes?A. Truth is a social construct.B. “Self” is a construct.C. Traditional narratives are oppressive.D. Rejection of external realism.

13. Pseudoscience is generally characterized by:A. Beliefs that remain stagnant over time.B. Confirmation of belief that is overemphasized.C. Vague ideas.D. A & BE. All of the above

14. Which of the following is not an example of theism?A. HinduismB. ChristianityC. JudaismD. Islam

15. Worldview presuppositions of science include:A. Object reality of the cosmos.B. Order, regularity, and uniformity of nature.C. Congruence between human mind and physical reality.D. A & CE. All of the above

Module 2 — Historical Development of Science in the West

True/False1. The word “science” is derived from the Latin scientia meaning “explanation.” False2. Many Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Lock and Immanuel Kant, rejected their

theological beliefs. False3. Isaac Newton’s Principia is held by many as the most influential scientific work in

chemistry. False4. Hooke accused Newton of plagiarizing his idea about gravitation and planetary motion. True5. A type of deism that is found today among American youth is called “moral therapeutic

deism.” True6. Nicolaus Copernicus’s Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres was banned by the church

because of its proposal of a heliocentric universe. False.7. Francis Bacon is known as the founding father of the empirical tradition of science. True8. St. Augustine of Hippo used scientific knowledge to inform his biblical interpretation, unlike

many other church fathers, who ridiculed science. True9. John William Draper revealed the medieval church’s attempt to discredit science through

banning human dissection, the number zero, and the idea of a spherical earth. False

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10. Medieval universities required students to study math and natural philosophy before they could move on to study theology. True

11. Both Martin Luther and John Calvin made critical statements about a heliocentric universe. True

12. Calvin believed that one could hold scientific theories that conflicted with a plain reading of Scripture. True

13. Many historians blame the decline in learning after the fall of the Roman Empire, a period known as the Dark Ages, on Christianity. False

14. Under the leadership of Maximillien Robespierre, deism became France’s official national religion. True

15. René Descartes is known as the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” True

Multiple Choice1. Which was NOT a characteristic of the Enlightenment?

A. An emphasis on reason and scienceB. Use of logic to discover theological truthC. Belief in the progress of mankindD. Scientific advancement in various areas

2. The beginning of the Enlightenment period can be traced to the work of:A. John Locke.B. Isaac Newton.C. René Descartes.D. Francis Bacon.

3. Newton contributed this to the development of science:A. Proposal of a heliocentric universeB. Explanation of the tidesC. Laws of kinematic motionD. B & CE. All of the above

4. The main effect of the Renaissance on science was that:A. It ensured that astrology provided a market for astronomical handbooks.B. It led to Christianity’s persecution of scientists.C. It produced art to accompany scientific findings.D. It brought areas of the occult into suspicion.

5. Of the following, who was NOT a main figure within seventeenth-century science?A. Blaise PascalB. Nicholas StenoC. Jean BuridanD. Martin Mersenne

6. Which church father was notoriously hostile towards pagan philosophy, the science of early Christians?

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A. TertullianB. Justin MartyrC. BasilD. Origen

7. Medieval Christian thinkers William of Conches and Thierry of Chartres believed that:A. Science and theology were irreconcilable.B. Science was God’s work.C. Certain aspects of science should be banned, but it was generally permissible.D. Science and theology were two separate, but noble, disciplines.

8. In the early thirteenth century, the church banned which of the following scientist’s work?A. PlatoB. AristarchusC. AristotleD. Averroës

9. This theologian reformed education in Germany to include more prominently math and astronomy during the Reformation:

A. Philipp MelanchthonB. Martin LutherC. Georg Joachim RheticusD. Erasmus Reinhold

10. Some historians believe that which of the following may have been the crucial cause of the new scientific philosophy in seventeenth-century England?

A. PuritanismB. ProtestantismC. CopernicanismD. A & BE. All of the above

11. The Scientific Revolution occurred in the:A. Fourteenth and fifteenth centuriesB. Fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesC. Sixteenth and seventeenth centuriesD. Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

12. The view that nature is a vast, impersonal machine of moving, interacting particles is called:A. Natural theology.B. Mechanical philosophy.C. Empiricism.D. Natural philosophy.

13. Which is NOT one of Aristotle’s four causes?A. Purpose causeB. Material cause

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C. Formal causeD. Efficient cause

14. This institution was the only one to survive the collapse of the late Roman Empire:A. The universityB. The consulC. The Catholic ChurchD. The political factions

15. This United States president exemplified the spirit of deism:A. John AdamsB. Thomas JeffersonC. James MadisonD. James Monroe

Module 3 — Genesis and Modern Science, Part 1

True/False1. The Pentateuch, including Genesis, names Moses as its author, which has caused many

challenges for the interpretation of the text. False2. The Genesis text presents Adam and Eve as historical individuals who lived in a particular

time and place. True3. John Walton sees Adam and Eve as historical people, but believes that aspects of their story

found in Genesis may not convey historical events. True4. The day-age view treats the creation days as six sequential, overlapping, short periods of

time. False5. The predominant meaning of the Hebrew word yôm in the Old Testament is an indefinite

period of time. False6. The 24-hour day view of creation is usually accompanied by a belief that the universe is six

thousand years old. True7. Both the evolutionary view and literal view of the fall assert that there is no necessary

contradiction between the Bible and science. True 8. The Genesis creation account is an exclusively unique account of how life came to be. False9. A canonical interpretation of Genesis 1 and 2 takes in account all biblical texts. True10. The factual view of Genesis 1 and 2 argues that the interpretation of the text should not be

literal or figurative. True11. By reading the Bible one can see that it presents a clearly ordered cosmology. False12. Ancient Near Eastern cosmic ontology focused on material, while modern Western cosmic

ontology focuses on order. False13. Most scientists today believe that the cosmos began with a big bang that led to the formation

of the universe. True14. Discussions of death in the Old Testament focus on the physical effects and have little

concern with afterlife. True15. There is a lack of Christians working in the field of anthropology in America. True

Multiple Choice

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1. The view that the days of creation in Genesis are divided into three days describing creative realms and then three days of creative acts is known as the:

A. Young-earth creationist view.B. Framework hypothesis.C. Day-age theory.D. Gap theory.

2. The first-couple view of Adam and Eve argues that:A. Portions of Genesis are figurative.B. The results of the Human Genome Project do not discredit a historical Adam and

Eve.C. The Genesis genealogies are unique.D. The New Testament references to Adam portray him as an archetype.

3. All of the following are areas of scholarly debate in Genesis EXCEPT the nature of the:A. Days of creation.B. Genealogies.C. Tower of Babel.D. Flood.

4. The meaning of the Hebrew word yôm translated “day” can be defined as:A. Part of the daylight hours.B. One rotation period of Earth.C. A long but finite time period.D. All of the above

5. The day-age view argues all of the following except:A. Scripture makes no claims about earth’s antiquity.B. The seventh day continues even now.C. God’s days are not the same as ours.D. Numbered days need not be 24-hours.

6. According to proponents of the 24-hour day view, the day-age view contradicts:A. The Bible.B. Evolutionary theory.C. the results of the Human Genome Project.D. A & BE. All of the above

7. The framework-hypothesis view asserts that:A. The original audience did not interpret Genesis literally.B. The days in Genesis are sequential 24-hour periods.C. The Genesis account allows for some scientific conclusions.D. The big bang model is valid.

8. The three main approaches to retaining the historical fall include all of the following EXCEPT:

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A. Accepting old earth creationism, but rejecting the evolution of humans.B. Accepting old earth creationism and the evolution of humans.C. Accepting young earth creationism and the evolution of humans.D. Asserting that Adam evolved from one of many hominids.

9. The evolutionary view of the fall states that the analogy between Adam and Jesus:A. Shows the need for a historical Adam.B. Does not require both to be historical figures.C. Isn’t equivalent.D. B & CE. A & C

10. Which of the following is not a fundamental principle of hermeneutics highlighted in the canonical view of Genesis?

A. The author’s intended messageB. Understanding the cognitive environment C. Symbolic interpretationD. Canonical interpretation

11. Governing presuppositions of the factual view of Genesis 1 and 2 include:A. Platonist philosophyB. Archeological discoveriesC. Evolutionary creationD. A & CE. All of the above

12. Which is NOT a similarity shared between the Genesis and other ancient creation accounts?A. God is not a created being.B. Watery darkness exists before creation.C. Light, day, and night are created before the sun, moon, or stars.D. God rests after creation of man.

13. The philosophical term that pertains to what it means for something to exist is:A. Creation.B. Ontology.C. Cosmology.D. Cosmic ontology.

14. Which of the following describes the way death is addressed in the Old Testament?A. Personification of deathB. Loss of Yahweh’s presenceC. Not always negativeD. A & BE. All of the above

15. This branch of anthropology studies what makes up cultural practice and the architectures of the mind that enable these cultural forms:

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A. PhysicalB. CognitiveC. SocioculturalD. Biological

Module 4 — Genesis and Modern Science, Part 2

True/False1. Many old earth creationists reject macroevolution. True2. Old earth creationism was developed by Christian men who believed that creation and the

flood and opposed evolution. True3. Most young earth creationists believe that the entire cosmos is less than twenty thousand

years old. False4. The most prominent contemporary American young earth organization is called the Institute

for Creation Research. False5. Evolutionary biologists understand apparent design within living things as an illusion. True6. A scientific and theologically sound approach to evolution is the notion that God designed

the laws of nature to make the origin and development of life possible. False 7. The identity of genes between chimpanzees and humans is 99 percent identical at the DNA

level. True 8. One cannot scientifically accept an old earth perspective and a universal flood. True 9. The theological view of the Genesis flood states that the theological message necessitates

belief that the flood covered the whole earth. True10. The evangelical nonprofit Answers in Genesis affirms six consecutive 24-hour days of

creation, but leaves room in their interpretation for theistic evolution. False11. The central tenet of progressive creationism holds that God miraculously intervened at

different times and in different ways to introduce new life forms. True12. Progressive creationism rejects the notion of universal common descent. True13. The science-apologetics ministry Reasons to Believe has been criticized by both the

mainstream scientific community and a large part of the evangelical community. False14. Astronomical evidence shows that the universe has been continually expanding. True15. Most scientists in the early part of the twentieth century did not think the universe had an

origin, but had existed forever. True

Multiple Choice1. Biblical problems with old earth creationism include:

A. The Genesis genealogies.B. Jesus’ statement that mankind was created at the beginning of creation.C. Animal death before sin.D. A & CE. All of the above

2. Which view asserts that science and Scripture do NOT answer the same questions, such that one can believe in an old earth and affirm Genesis?

A. Framework-hypothesisB. Day-age theoryC. Gap theory

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D. A & B

3. Most young earth creationists believe all of the following EXCEPT:A. Genesis is foremost historical.B. A young earth creationist view is necessary for salvation.C. Adam and Eve were historical persons.D. The fall has historical and theological implications.

4. Young earth creationism owes much of its positive scholarship and progress to which denomination?

A. CatholicB. MethodistC. Seventh Day AdventistD. Baptist

5. The critical view of young earth creationism points out that it:A. Is correct in asserting a change in the speed of light over time.B. Reads sections of creation in Genesis as literal.C. Should reject geocentrism.D. Is a viable approach, but not the best.

6. Which of the following is NOT a given definition for evolution according to evolutionary creationism?

A. Change over timeB. Natural mechanisms that produce change in organismsC. Universal common ancestryD. The gradual development of different species

7. Which does the critical view of evolutionary creationism state is deeply problematic for theistic evolution?

A. Neo-Darwinan natural selection mechanismB. Life-forms on earth changing over timeC. Darwin’s argument of gradual biological changeD. Universal common descent

8. The supportive view of evolutionary creationism gives a lengthily description of which animal’s evolution from terrestrial, four-limbed ancestors?

A. FishB. BearsC. DolphinsD. Snakes

9. Which of the following is a scientific objection to evolutionary creationism?A. Irreducible complexityB. Artificial selectionC. Intelligent designD. A & C

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E. All of the above

10. Which of the following is a Christian ministry that presents an evolutionary understanding of God’s creation?

A. Institute for Creation ResearchB. BioLogosC. Human Genome ProjectD. Intelligent Design Foundation

11. Which is a similarity between ancient Near Eastern myths and the Genesis flood narrative?A. The people are warned there is going to be a flood.B. The flood lasts over a year.C. The flood covers the globe.D. There is no need to store up wealth, for all humanity dies.

12. Evidence that the Bible affirms a global flood includes:A. The ark’s dimensions and cargo.B. The duration of the flood.C. The text’s universal language.D. B & CE. All of the above

13. Which of the following does the Gilgamesh Epic NOT share with the flood in Genesis?A. A flood is used to destroy humanity.B. A devoted follower is told to build an ark.C. Three birds are sent out; the last bird returns with a leaf.D. A promise is given never to flood the earth again.

14. Radiometric dating techniques were developed in the:A. Late eighteenth centuryB. Early nineteenth centuryC. Early twentieth centuryD. Late twentieth century

15. Who is the father of the modern creationist movement and founder of the Institute for Creation Research?

A. Henry M. MorrisB. Hugh RossC. Ken HamD. Francis Collins

Module 5 — Biological Evolution, Darwinism, and Intelligent Design

True/False1. “Ardi” is the given name of a hominin fossil skeleton who is part of the linage of the Homo

genus. False

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2. The unique-origin view argues that if synteny, shared codes usage, and pseudogenes can be explained functionally, common descent is undermined. True

3. Charles Darwin maintained that natural selection works only at the level of genes. False4. Ancient Roman philosophers were among the first to draw attention to the design in the

world and believe it required an explanation. False5. Critics of evolution argue that biological life is highly improbable under Darwinian evolution

and is highly specified. True6. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould argues that imperfections are the proof of evolution. True7. Changes driven by chance events are examples of the concept known as genetic risk. False8. “Earth-like” planets are ones similar enough to Earth to support higher life-forms. False9. Man-made machinery lacks the self-assembling cellular apparatuses that biological

machinery has. True10. Broad naturalists deny the existence of any irreducible teleology in nature. False11. There is debate around whether natural selection operates on an individual traits level or a

species level. True12. A philosophical interpretation of the anthropic principle asserts that God does not yet exist,

but the universe will continue to evolve until it becomes God. True13. While there are some scientists who argue that the human race shares common ancestry, this

is still a minority view within the science community. False14. According to intelligent design proponents, information, especially specified complexity, is

the key to detecting design. True15. Mechanical philosophy rid science of the Aristotelian notions of formal and final causality.

True

Multiple Choice1. Which of the following is NOT part of the genetic evidence in support of the evolutionary

creation view?A. Mutation rateB. DNA and RNA modificationC. Genetic scarsD. Synonymus vs. nonsynonymous coding

2. While critiquing common descent, Ann Gauger argues that:A. Phylogenetic trees are incongruent.B. Transfer of genes between species confuses gene histories.C. Short interspersed nuclear elements have no function.D. Genetic polymorphism disproves common descent.

3. Who was the British biologist and fellow of the Royal Society who first coined the term Darwinism?

A. Charles HodgeB. Benjamin Breckenridge Warfield C. Asa GrayD. Thomas Henry Huxley

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4. Whose inductive design argument serves as the basic line of reasoning for many other forms of design arguments?

A. Richard SwinburneB. John D. BarrowC. Frank J. TiplerD. William Paley

5. Darwinists do NOT appeal to evidence in which of the following areas?A. Probability calculationsB. Fossil recordsC. Comparative genomicsD. Biological evidence

6. Which biologist does NOT rely on theological claims in their arguments for common ancestry?

A. Stephen Jay GouldB. David Sloan WilsonC. Charles DarwinD. Jerry Coyne

7. A helpful analogy is that of the correspondences between biological evolution and:A. Automobiles.B. Clocks.C. Language.D. Flowers.

8. An example of fine-tuning is the:A. Mass density of the universe.B. Strong nuclear force.C. Required properties of water.D. All of the above

9. A commonly used illustration of the concept of irreducible complexity is a(n):A. Mousetrap.B. Aquarium.C. Car engine.D. Cellphone.

10. Which of the following argues that by its very nature science must leave out any appeal to the supernatural?

A. Neo-Darwininan synthesisB. Methodological naturalismC. Evolutionary creation viewD. Epigenetics

11. Which is NOT a notion of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection?A. Variability is non-differential.

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B. Variability is found in natural populations.C. Variability is heritable.D. Some variants have qualities that enable more effective reproduction.

12. Which of the following is defined as the idea that the universe appears to have been engineered to make possible the existence of human beings?

A. Fine-tuningB. Design argumentC. Anthropic principleD. Intelligibility of the universe

13. The genetic features shared by humans and great apes do NOT include:A. Mutation rate.B. Gradual increase of sophistication.C. Genetic scars.D. Frequency of synonymous and nonsynonymous differences between closely related

species.

14. Which group resists the idea of intelligent design?A. Theistic evolutionistsB. Young earth creationistsC. Atheistic evolutionistsD. All of the above

15. The intelligibility of the universe to the human mind begs explanation in which respect?A. OntologicalB. EpistemologicalC. TeleologicalD. A & BE. B & C

Module 6 — Selected Biblical and Theological Issues Related to Modern ScienceTrue/False1. Forty percent of the gospel of Mark’s narrative recounts miracles and exorcisms. True2. According to the article on the incarnation, while being tempted by Satan, Jesus was unaware

that he could not sin. True3. The prospects for life after death are much better in physicalism than in dualism. False4. The recent acronym ACTS created by the evangelical tradition presents a comprehensive

approach to prayer. False5. The term providence can be found throughout the New Testament when conceptualizing

God’s care and guidance of his creation. False6. The majority of physicians now exhibit positive beliefs concerning scientifically inexplicable

medical healings. True7. The doctrine of the Trinity addresses many of the concerns raised by both feminist and

panentheist theologians, who emphasize a dynamic relationality between God and the universe. True

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8. Human destiny and the destiny of the creation are intertwined, and creation should therefore not be perceived as dispensable. True

9. Michael Beresford Foster asserted that theological voluntarism leads inevitably to theoretical science. False

10. Evangelicals have largely been absent from the interdisciplinary dialogue surrounding eschatology and cosmology. True

11. Genesis is the only place in the Old Testament where the proclamation that humans are made in the image of God can be found. True

12. God’s immanence contradicts his transcendence; therefore, many theologians have argued that God is one or the other. False

13. Evangelical scholars affirm most of the tenets of open theism. False14. The tensed view of time asserts that God exists timelessly “outside” the four-dimensional

space-time block. False15. Jesus’ virginal conception isn’t a necessary precondition of the incarnation. True

Multiple Choice1. Who defined miracles as violations of the laws of nature?

A. AugustineB. Thomas AquinasC. Isaac NewtonD. David Hume

2. Which church council(s) confirmed the doctrine of the incarnation?A. NicaeaB. ConstantinopleC. ChalcedonD. A & C

3. Which is NOT included in a physicalist approach to life after death?A. Existence of an immaterial soulB. Re-creationC. Two identically structured bodiesD. Persons that are constituted by bodies and persist

4. The idea that God leaves room for improvisation and divine responsiveness to human prayer aligns with:

A. Classic theism.B. Open theism.C. Closed theism.D. Auto-theism.

5. The text notes that which idea is deeply linked with the doctrine of providence?A. InerrancyB. SanctificationC. CreationD. Depravity

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6. Which fact about the resurrection of Jesus is acknowledged even by most skeptical scholars?A. Jesus died by crucifixion.B. James, the brother of Jesus, was convinced that he encountered the risen Jesus.C. Saul the persecutor was convinced that he encountered the risen Jesus.D. All of the above

7. Which is NOT one of the characteristics of the Trinity according to orthodoxy Christian theology?

A. EternalityB. ThreenessC. OnenessD. Equality

8. This is defined as the command to take care of God’s creation and to draw out, work with, and benefit from its inherent potentialities:

A. Creation careB. Cultural mandateC. ConservationD. Christian ecology

9. This is the view that the activity of God is an activity of reason, so that there is nothing mysterious or inscrutable in his nature:

A. Voluntarist theologyB. Naturalist theologyC. Rationalist theologyD. Empiricist theology

10. Which eschatological scenario asserts that the universe is infinite in size and keeps expanding limitlessly, which will lead to its ultimate destiny?

A. The Big FreezeB. The Big CrunchC. The Big BangD. The Big Fry

11. The best understanding of the “image of God” is that it is a:A. Characteristic.B. Property of human beings.C. Bestowed title.D. Status.

12. Which of the following is an attempt to reconcile God’s transcendence and immanence by asserting that the world is in, but not identical to God?

A. DeismB. PanentheismC. OmnismD. Transtheism

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13. Which is NOT a claim of open theism?A. God is temporal, not timeless.B. Human free will is libertarian, not compatibilist.C. Time is static, not dynamic.D. The only way out of determinism is to deny God knows the future.

14. The Judeo-Christian view of time asserts that time is:A. An objective feature of the world.B. Circular.C. Static.D. Present tense centric.

15. The belief that the actual process of Jesus’ birth was so miraculous that it left Mary intact as a virgin with her hymen un-ruptured arose in what century?

A. SecondB. ThirdC. FourthD. Fifth

Module 7 — Anthropology, Theological and ScientificTrue/False1. The materialist view proposes that consciousness was likely produced as a by-product of the

brain during its initial development. True2. Most evolutionary psychologists conclude that genes explain the content of human

psychological states and the behavior of creatures. False3. The replicator-first approach posits that life arose from a series of organized energy-

converting reactions that were eventually encapsulated and produced replicators. False4. The notion of free will creates problems for the arguments of materialism. True5. C. S. Lewis devised the argument from reason, which attempts to make a case against

naturalistic philosophy. False6. Anthropology is composed of the most secular professoriate in American universities. True7. The biggest coordinated effort ever attempted in the history of biology was the Human

Genome Project. True8. Many materialists claim that the familiar mental states of our commonsense self-

understanding do not really exist and can be understood as patterns of neural activation. False

9. Emile Durkheim contributed to the field of moral psychology with his cognitive developmental approach. False

10. Studies in neuroscience trace flagrant immoral activity, including psychopathic and antisocial behavior, to impairments in the brain. True

11. The term person refers to a rational, independent, and autonomous agent who may or may not have a body. True

12. A strength of modern psychology is its understanding of the connection between research concepts and metaphysical assumptions within empirical research. False

13. The study of the psychology of religion had success in the first third of the twentieth century, but then fell out of vogue for more than forty years. True

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Multiple Choice1. This philosopher argued that consciousness is so unique that it is best understood as a mental or spiritual substance that exists in its own right:

A. Thomas NagelB. René DescartesC. Daniel DennettD. Michael Ruse

2. In naturalistic evolutionary psychology, this is what supplements genes and accounts for the content of people’s thoughts:

A. The selfB. ReasonC. CultureD. Memes

3. Who is a proponent of a naturalistic account of the origin of life?A. Alexander OparinB. William DembskiC. Michael BeheD. Stephen Meyer

4. Which of the following is NOT a dualist argument?A. EpiphenomenalismB. Irreducible nature of qualiaC. IntentionalityD. Free will

5. The argument from reason targets which ideology?A. NaturalismB. MaterialismC. PhysicalismD. All of the above

6. Which is NOT a sub-field of anthropology?A. Biological anthropologyB. Sociocultural anthropologyC. Developmental anthropologyD. Linguistics

7. The goal of the human genome project was to determine the sequence of all coding units, which equaled:

A. Two million.B. 12 million.C. Three billion.D. Six billion.

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8. What type of materialism claims that one can identify mental states with physical or functional states of the brain?

A. EliminativeB. ReductiveC. NonreductiveD. Dialectical

9. The character development approach of moral psychology is based on the work of:A. Emile DurkheimB. Jean PiagetC. Lawrence KohlbergD. James Rest

10. This group acknowledges evolutionary predispositions, yet denies their sinfulness, asserting that only conscious, willful disobedience counts as sin:

A. Strong biologismB. Weak biologismC. SuprabiologismD. Intrabiologism

11. Who asserted that the soul is the immortal aspect of the person that survives the death of the physical body?

A. PlatoB. AristotleC. TertullianD. Christian Smith

12. Modern psychology originated in the:A. Early 1700sB. Late 1800sC. Early 1900sD. Late 1900s

13. Which researcher worked within the psychology of religion?A. Edwin StarbuckB. William JamesC. Sigmund FreudD. All of the above

Module 8 — Key Scientific Disciplines and Concept in Christian PerspectiveTrue/False1. The most famous quantum cosmologist is Stephen Hawking, whose “no boundary proposal”

accurately summarizes current quantum cosmological models. False2. John Bell challenged Albert Einstein’s idea on quantum physics by asserting EPR missed the

point of quantum-mechanical descriptions by ignoring the different contexts of measurement. False

3. One of the most well-known features of quantum physics is the wave-particle duality. True

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4. Most cosmologists agree that our universe has a beginning, but that the multiverse is eternal. False

5. The nineteenth century saw an explosion of neurobiological research, with recognition of cerebral localization for speech. True

6. General relativity is the most exhaustively tested and firmly established principle in physics. True

7. Chaos theory applies to chaotic systems that are correctly described by precise deterministic physical laws. False

8. Neuroscience and cognitive science both represent the same level of explanation. False9. Exotic matter interacts strongly with photons, but exists in concentrations insufficient to emit

detectable light. False10. When quantum theory was first proposed, Albert Einstein reacted negatively towards the

theory. True11. Principles of physics are considered meaningful only if they can be expressed by

mathematical equations. True12. Isaac Newton realized that the equivalence between gravity and acceleration could be

described by the geometry of space-time. False13. Special relativity implies that no object without mass can ever reach the speed of light in a

vacuum. False14. Although the social sciences employ scientific methods, they are considered to be “soft”

sciences rather than “hard” sciences. True15. Since its inception, American sociology has viewed science and religion as inherently

incompatible. True

Multiple Choice1. Contemporary scientific cosmology began with the work of:

A. Isaac Newton.B. Albert Einstein.C. Stephen Hawking.D. John Wheeler.

2. Which interpretation of quantum physics tries to restore causality to quantum phenomena by privileging position and introducing a pilot wave?

A. BohmianB. ParadoxC. Copenhagen D. Many worlds

3. These allow particles to pop into existence from nothing, and some scientists believe they could be tied to the beginning of the existence of the universe:

A. Laws of natureB. ParadoxesC. PhotonsD. Quantum fluctuations

4. The most natural explanation of the cosmology data directly implies the existence of which multiverse?

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A. Really large multiverseB. Quantum multiverseC. Inflationary bubble multiverseD. Beyond observation multiverse

5. Which conceptual problem in cognitive neuroscience addresses the notion that when we think, we think of the idea we have in our mind, rather than having direct comprehension of the object of our thought?

A. IntentionalityB. QualiaC. Mental representationD. Mereological fallacy

6. Who developed the theory that demonstrated that if the universe contains mass and if the equations of general relativity reliably describe movements in the universe, then everything in the universe has a beginning?

A. George EllisB. Stephen HawkingC. Roger PenroseD. All of the above

7. The chaos theory contributes to the idea that our universe is:A. Closed.B. Open.C. Deterministic.D. Unknown.

8. Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of the mind that embraces:A. Linguistics.B. Anthropology.C. Artificial intelligence.D. All of the above

9. What percent of the cosmos is made up of dark matter and dark energy?A. 50 percentB. 65 percentC. 80 percentD. 99 percent

10. This concept demonstrates the existence of a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain characteristics of physical particles can be known and measured:

A. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principleB. Borde, Guth, Vilenkin singularity theoremC. Complementarity principleD. Inflationary universe theory

11. Which is NOT a subject of classical physics?

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A. MechanicsB. TheromodynamicsC. General relativityD. Electromagnetism

12. General relativity predicts that objects should produce distortions of the geometry of space-time known as:

A. Euclidean geometry.B. Gravitational waves.C. Equivalence principle.D. Black holes.

13. Special relativity provides the equation:A. E=mc2.B. ∑ F=ma.

C. ρ vac=Λ c2

8 πG.

D. c= λf .

14. Social science was design to study:A. Biology.B. Structure of matter.C. Chemical reactions.D. Human behavior.

15. The founder of modern sociology is:A. August Comte.B. Christian Smith.C. Os Guinness.D. Robert Wuthnow.

Module 9 — Ethical and Bioethical Issues

True/False1. Pope Francis’s encyclical letter addressing different ecological issues, including global

warming, was rejected by the Ecological Society of America. False2. When evaluating the temperature of the earth, the absorption of sunlight by the atmosphere is

comparatively small. True3. Climate is defined as the static, average weather of the earth. False4. The four principles of principilism are autonomy, non-maleficence, benevolence, and justice.

True5. Most of the stem cells that are in clinical use at present are embryonic stem cells. False6. Human experimentation is subject to the Human Dignity Code to maintain ethical standards.

False7. Charles Darwin’s evolutionary ethics asserts our natural history shapes our moral sense

alone. False8. The intrinsic value of nature philosophy is manifested in New Age movement. True

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9. While germline modification is not supported by United States government, in the United Kingdom scientists are currently modifying DNA. True

10. Some couples use genetic testing to ensure that a genetic abnormality is not prevented. True11. Plato asserted that all animate things have a nutritive soul and a reproductive soul that sustain

their lives. False12. The virtues of sympathy, fairness, self-control, and duty are universal moral norms. True13. The Bible does not explicitly condemn abortion. True14. Scientists have been cloning human and animal genes for many decades. True15. Christian ethics is set in the framework of the individual’s relationship to God. True

Multiple Choice1. This gas has a steady and continuous presence throughout the atmosphere at all temperatures:

A. OxygenB. Carbon dioxideC. HydrogenD. Nitrogen

2. According to the natural-variations view, the fundamental compound that is responsible for climate change is:

A. Water.B. Carbon dioxide.C. Hydrogen.D. Nitrogen.

3. The natural-variations view disagrees with which statement?A. A warmer world is more conducive for life.B. Carbon dioxide enhances plant growth.C. The earth would be cooling if carbon dioxide was not increasing.D. Human impact on climate centers on land-use changes.

4. Bioethics is primarily concerned with answering questions of this nature:A. MoralB. MedicalC. LegalD. Biological

5. Undifferentiated cells that have not begun down the developmental pathway that dictates that they become a certain type are called:

A. Multipotent cells.B. Plastic cells.C. Pluripotent cells.D. Embryonic cells.

6. Most ethical quandaries within scientific research arise in:A. Discarded outliers.B. Plagiarism in proposing.C. Fabrication of data.

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D. Falsification of results.

7. In Charles Darwin’s four-stage model of developing moral sense, what comes after understanding the superiority of social instincts?

A. Language is used to express the common good.B. Social instincts aid survival and reproduction.C. Instruction allows moral behavior to become habitual.D. Social instincts are reinforced.

8. The instrumental value of nature that is based on nature providing for human needs is called the:

A. Intrinsic value.B. Theistic value.C. Utilitarian value.D. Provisional value.

9. Which is NOT listed as a scientific method of manipulating human genetics?A. In the germ cells of a sperm of eggB. In a human embryo in vitroC. In the fetal period of developmentD. In adults’ DNA

10. Prenatal genetic testing can be done by:A. Testing the blood.B. Ultrasound imaging.C. Amniocentesis.D. All of the above

11. Which is NOT one of the six basic elements out of which all living organisms are composed?A. NitrogenB. CalciumC. PhosphorousD. Sulfur

12. This moralist wrote the classic natural law text Two Treatises on Government:A. AristotleB. John LockeC. AquinasD. Immanuel Kant

13. Those who argue that an embryo is NOT a unified individual organism from conception assert that:

A. The totipotent cells act independently.B. The pluripotent cells act independently.

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C. The totipotent and pluripotent cells act independently.D. The totipotent and pluripotent cells act in concert for the good of the whole.

14. This is defined as the artificial replication of what occurs naturally in monozygotic twinning:A. Embryonic cloning B. Somatic cell nuclear transferC. Spemann cloningD. Nuclear transfer cloning

15. In Christian ethics, the ultimate source for morality is:A. God’s commands.B. God’s character.C. God’s relationship with man.D. God’s Word.

Modules 10–11 — Philosophy of Science and Christian Faith, Parts 1 and 2True/False1. The concursus view of divine action asserts that God never circumvents natural laws, but

works within the processes of creation. False2. There is no scientific observation or theory established showing that the universe is causally

closed. True3. The problem of evil for an evolutionary creationist can be observed by the fact that about 99

percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. True4. According to the progressive creationist view, God designed the laws of physics such that

negative consequences mount as behavior worsens. True5. Critical realists make efforts to discover “covering laws” of social behavior and effect. False6. The first premise of the cosmological argument, that everything that exists has a cause of its

existence, is widely affirmed in the science community. True7. Scientific methods are not designed to detect or uncover meaning. True8. A scientific claim or theory cannot be accepted as true if it is not subjected to scientific

testing. False9. According to free-will theodicy, God created a world that includes natural laws that allow

natural evil, which fosters the development of morally and spiritually mature persons. False10. A good case can be made that the commonsense view of truth is William James’s pragmatist

theory. False11. The two leading schools of thought in psychology, Freudian psychoanalysis and B. F.

Skinner’s behaviorism, are both strongly hard determinist. True12. G. W. F. Hegel’s critique of the standard definition of knowledge dating back to Plato

completely challenged the notion that justified true belief is sufficient for knowledge. False13. According to most orthodox ways of thinking about much of reality, to the degree that things

exist objectively, that existence is dependent on an acting, perceiving, or thinking subject. False

14. An important objection to the principle of sufficient reason is the big conjunctive contingent fact. True

15. The nature and legitimacy of teleology and teleological explanation have been challenged in biology and psychology. True

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Multiple Choice1. The concursus view of divine action contends that mention of this doctrine is lacking is theological discussions of divine action:

A. The incarnationB. The TrinityC. The Holy SpiritD. God’s omnipotence

2. Which is NOT an objection to the engaged-governance view of divine action?A. God of the gaps theoryB. Makes God incompetentC. Apparent randomnessD. Makes God inconsistent

3. This view of the problem of evil is skeptical of human ability to discern and understand the reasons God has for allowing the evils we see in the world:

A. Skeptical theismB. Critical theodicyC. Natural evilD. Hiddenness of God

4. Which is NOT an aspect of the progressive creationist view of evil?A. Present evil is gratuitous.B. Two-Creation ModelC. Earth has an optimized physics for overcoming evil.D. New creation physics

5. Critical realism is applied in this area:A. Philosophy of perceptionB. Science and religion movementC. Positivism in academic sociologyD. All of the above

6. According to this argument, there must be a beginning cause of the universe that is itself external to the universe, but not everything in the universe must have a cause:

A. Cosmological argumentB. Kalam argumentC. Teleological argumentD. Fine-tuning argument

7. Scientific methods presuppose:A. The inescapability of logical lawsB. Truth existsC. A mind-independent worldD. A & BE. All of the above

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8. This view states that when doing science, only physical, testable explanations should be considered and pursued:

A. InstrumentalismB. Methodological naturalismC. AntirealismD. Metaphysical naturalism

9. The most widely known and used theodicy was crafted by:A. Thomas AquinasB. Alvin PlantingaC. IrenaeusD. Augustine

10. This view of truth asserts that a proposition is true if and only if it coheres with the set of beliefs already believed:

A. Coherence viewB. Pragmatist viewC. Richard Rorty’s viewD. Correspondence view

11. One of the earliest, most prominent hard determinists was:A. René Descartes.B. David Hume.C. Democritus.D. Thomas Aquinas.

12. This epistemological view denies basic beliefs, insisting that each belief is only justified in terms of the system of beliefs of which it is a part:

A. ExternalismB. FoundationalismC. ContextualismD. Coherentism

13. This individual famously distinguished the primary and secondary qualities of objects:A. John LockeB. Francis BaconC. David HumeD. Immanuel Kant

14. The most well-known of scholars to express the principle of sufficient reason was:A. Plato.B. Gottfried Leibniz.C. Aristotle.D. Thomas Aquinas.

15. This account of teleology maintains that teleological facts are grounded in the nature of an organism or substance:

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A. Agent accountB. Nonreductive Aristotelian accountC. Reductive accountD. Extrinsic account

Module 12 — Models for Relating Christianity and ScienceTrue/False1. Treating the relationship between science and theology as a one-way street is typical of the

compartmentalism model. False2. The dialogue view of science and theology advocates that where science or theology is

unclear, we need a living dialogue that does not privilege one over the other. True3. According to the traditional reconciliation approach, what needs to be reconciled is the Bible

and the natural world. False4. The conservative reconciliationists attach more authority to tradition than the traditional

reconciliationists. True5. The goal in determining context is to produce an accurate translation of the biblical text into

the language of the reader. False6. Within twenty years of the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, most

of the American intelligentsia supported the general concept of organic evolution. True7. The new atheism spiked in popularity right after the terrorist attacks that occurred in New

York, Washington, DC, and Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001. True8. When naturalistic theories of religion were popular, they were widely accepted by American

scholars in the academic world. False9. All areas of philosophy are involved in philosophy of religion. True10. A regenerative religious experience is one in which special abilities, gifts, or blessings are

manifested. False11. The argument that it was a biblical view of nature that supported the rise of modern

empirical science is highly debated by historians of science. False12. Conflicts between science and religion arise when comparing biblical statements to scientific

theories because of individuals’ interpretations of Scripture. False 13. The day-age view as well as the young earth position can be considered concordist views.

True14. Today historians of science generally no longer favor a conflict model. True15. Francis Collins argues the intelligent design argument falls into a God of the gaps theory.

True

Multiple Choice1. This view sees science and theology as belonging to fundamentally different realms of inquiry and therefore cannot clash:

A. ComplementarianismB. TraditionalismC. DialoguismD. Compartmentalism

2. This field of science was the inspiration of complementarianism and clashes with classical theology:

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A. Quantum mechanicsB. ThermodynamicsC. ElectromagneticsD. Special relativity

3. One of Barbour’s four models, which pushes beyond dialogue between distinct disciplines and tries to effect a synthesis of science and theology is the:

A. Conflict model.B. Independence model.C. Dialogue model.D. Integration model.

4. Stenmark’s sub-categories of the reconciliation model include this category, which asserts that both science and theology may need to change some of what they have claimed:

A. ConservativeB. TraditionalC. LiberalD. Radical

5. Which is NOT one of the three main components of biblical hermeneutics?A. LanguageB. AuthorC. TextD. Reader

6. This theologian and principal of Princeton Theological Seminary, published What Is Darwinism? in which he claimed that evolution was “tantamount to atheism”:

A. Edward HitchcockB. Benjamin B. WarfieldC. Charles HodgeD. Henry Ward Beecher

7. Which of the following is NOT a proponent of new atheism:A. Richard DawkinsB. Daniel DennettC. Sam HarrisD. Thomas Nagel

8. This naturalistic theory of religion believes that all religions are concerned with spiritual beings that differ only in quantity and magnitude:

A. AnimismB. MagicC. ManismD. Naturism

9. The question of God’s interaction with nature, which led to the development of philosophy of religion, was uppermost for intellectuals in this century:

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A. SixteenthB. SeventeenthC. Nineteenth D. Twentieth

10. William James characterized this mystical experience as the experiencer believes that he has learned something important from the experience:

A. PassivityB. TransiencyC. Noetic qualityD. Ineffability

11. This scientist suggested that science and religion do not share the same domain or subject matter, but constitute non-overlapping magisteria:

A. Stephen Jay GouldB. Ian BarbourC. Johannes KeplerD. Peter Harrison

12. Isaiah 28:23–29, which speaks of the farmer learning from God by working the soil, is an example of:

A. General revelationB. Natural revelationC. Creation revelationD. Special revelation

13. Concordists do NOT believe that:A. Scripture concords with scientific conclusions.B. When contradictions appear to arise, Scripture is used to interpret nature.C. Specific biblical references speak to the scientific understanding of the universe.D. Ultimately, there is no contradiction between Scripture and nature.

14. An influential exponent of conflict thesis, this intellectual presented a paper on the intellectual development of Europe with relation to Charles Darwin’s theories:

A. Thomas HuxleyB. Andrew Dickson WhiteC. Samuel WilberforceD. John William Draper

15. The God of the gaps theory encourages:A. DeismB. AgnosticismC. AtheismD. Dualism

Module 13 — Key Thinkers in the Science and Faith Discussion

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True/False1. Carl Sagan was a proponent of the search for signs of intelligent life elsewhere in the

universe. True2. As an adamant atheist, Sam Harris has also argued against the spiritual atheist movement,

which seeks to carve out a naturalistic spirituality for those who don’t believe in God. False3. Alvin Plantinga is a member of the intelligent design movement. False4. In his book, The Language of God, Francis Collins criticizes various traditional creationist

positions, including the intelligent design movement. True5. David Hume went so far as to deny both the concept of spiritual substances and the concept

of self, attempting to demolish the notion that humans could actually know who they are. True

6. C. S. Lewis’s writings revealed he was a proponent of theistic evolution. False7. Richard Dawkins was confirmed in the Anglican Church and embraced Christianity until his

mid-teens. True8. Alister McGrath argues that natural theology must be rejected in light of the teachings of

evangelical Christianity. False9. Several intellectuals have pointed out the inconsistencies and oversights in Stephen

Hawking’s philosophical pronouncements. True10. Wolfhart Pannenberg asserted that theology is in no way an inferior science. True11. John Polkinghorne is recognized as one of the few members of the Royal Society who is also

ordained clergy. False12. Bernard Ramm advocated for theistic evolution as a way to appropriately apply science and

theology. False

Multiple Choice1. This figure argued for the benefits of veracity in human conduct, but without basing this duty on the inherent dignity of human nature or on any divine command:

A. Carl SaganB. David HumeC. C. S. LewisD. Sam Harris

2. This scientist and his partner showed that if the theory of general relativity is correct, then there must have been a singularity from which universal space-time and everything in it began:

A. David HumeB. Stephen HawkingC. Carl SaganD. Bernard Ramm

3. The most momentous contribution to the decline of empiricism was this individual’s acerbic criticism of the traditional theory of causation:

A. David HumeB. Stephen HawkingC. Bernard RammD. John Polkinghorne

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4. This figure was asked to replace the co-discoverer of the structure of DNA, James Watson, to head up the project to determine the sequence of the three billion code letters that make up the human genome:

A. Alister McGrathB. Wolfhart PannenbergC. John PolkinghorneD. Francis Collins

5. This figure sought an alternative to the fundamentalist tendency to circle the wagons and the modernist tendency to dismiss the Bible in response to science, and also founded the progressive creation view:

A. John PolkinghorneB. C. S. LewisC. Bernard RammD. Alister McGrath

6. This theologian sought to overcome revelation’s seclusion from reason by locating an overlapping center between the hard sciences and the science of God’s self-revelation:

A. Alister McGrathB. C. S. LewisC. Wolfhart PannenbergD. Francis Collins

7. This scholar’s biggest scientific contribution was their popularization of the knowledge of the gene as the principal unit of selection:

A. Richard DawkinsB. Sam HarrisC. Carl SaganD. Wolfhart Pannenberg

8. This scholar argued that the probability that humans would have developed truth-aimed, reliable belief-producing mechanisms, given naturalism and contemporary evolutionary theory, is low:

A. Francis CollinsB. Alister McGrathC. Alvin PlantingaD. Bernard Ramm

9. This figure has consistently maintained the position that science and Christianity are cousins, each different, yet each seeking truth:

A. Alister McGrathB. John PolkinghorneC. C. S. LewisD. Francis Collins

10. This figure is best known as the co-creator and host of the 1980 PBS miniseries Cosmos, which brought an infectious enthusiasm for astronomy into millions of living rooms:

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A. Bernard RammB. John PolkinghorneC. Carl SaganD. Wolfhart Pannenberg

11. This figure argued that attributing the development of human reason to a non-rational process like natural selection ends up undermining our confidence in reason itself:

A. Alvin PlantingaB. Francis Collins C. Alister McGrathD. C. S. Lewis

12. In his series A Scientific Theology, this scholar argues that far from being bitter enemies, science and theology are natural dialogue partners with much to learn from each other:

A. Alister McGrathB. C. S. LewisC. John PolkinghorneD. Francis Collins

Module 14 — Looking Ahead: Cutting-Edge Issues in Contemporary ScienceTrue/False1. Applied artificial intelligence seeks to create thinking machines that can succeed in arbitrary

cognitive tasks, effectively emulating all aspects of human cognition. False2. Panspermia is a theory about the origin of life pertaining to the spread of genetic information

and life. False3. String theory allows the reconciliation of quantum mechanics with a theory of gravity. True4. Some scholars estimate that intelligent life-forms have emerged in as many as 106 planets in

our galaxy, making the probability of extraterrestrial contact very high. False5. Ray Kurzweil argues that nanotechnology will ultimately make it possible to turn death into a

soluble problem. True

Multiple Choice1. Which is an example of artificial general intelligence?

A. Chess playingB. IBM’s WatsonC. Data miningD. None of the above

2. Panspermia argues that:A. Microbial life can be viably transported through space.B. The universe is infinite in time and extent.C. The origin of life ultimately derives from God, just not on Earth.D. The appearance of novel DNA on Earth throughout its history is due to evolution.

3. The overarching theory that has been developed and encompasses all the various string theories is called:

A. Bosonic string theory.

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B. Standard model.C. M-theory.D. Grand unified theory.

4. When addressing questions pertaining to extraterrestrial life-forms scientists employ this equation:

A. Drake equationB. Fundamental theoremC. Schrödinger equationD. Ohm’s law

5. Which is NOT one of Kurzweil’s cosmic evolution epochs:A. TechnologyB. Space and TimeC. Biology and DNAD. Physics and Chemistry

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Mid Term Exam

Mid Term ExamTrue/False1. All of the available observations of the universe are consistent with the big bang theory.

True2. The conclusion of an inductive argument is intended to be a necessary consequence of the

premise. False 3. Both Martin Luther and John Calvin made critical statements about a heliocentric universe.

True4. The identity of genes between chimpanzees and humans is 99 percent identical at the DNA

level. True5. Naturalists affirm that there is no evidence for a soul or mental agent supervising the body

and brain. True6. Charles Darwin maintained that natural selection works only at the level of genes. False7. Most young earth creationists believe that the entire cosmos is less than twenty thousand

years old. False8. Nicolaus Copernicus’s Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres was banned by the church

because of its proposal of a heliocentric universe. False9. Creation revelation is defined as “the knowledge of God that is disclosed through nature.”

False10. The majority of physicians now exhibit positive beliefs concerning scientifically inexplicable

medical healings. True11. Francis Bacon was known as the founding father of the empirical tradition of science. True12. Many materialists claim that the familiar mental states of our commonsense self-

understanding do not really exist and can be understood as patterns of neural activation. False

13. The central tenet of progressive creationism holds that God miraculously intervened at different times and in different ways to introduce new life forms. True

14. Ancient Near Eastern cosmic ontology focused on material, while modern Western cosmic ontology focuses on order. False

15. The day-age view treats the creation days as six sequential, overlapping, short periods of time. False

16. Critics of evolution argue that biological life is highly improbable under Darwinian evolution and is highly specified. True

17. Progressive creationism rejects the notion of universal common descent. True18. The predominant meaning of the Hebrew word yôm in the Old Testament is an indefinite

period of time. False19. Both the evolutionary view and literal view of the fall assert that there is no necessary

contradiction between the Bible and science. True20. Many old earth creationists reject macroevolution. True21. Broad naturalists deny the existence of any irreducible teleology in nature. False22. While there are some scientists who argue that the human race shares common ancestry, this

is still a minority view within the science community. False23. The prospects for life after death are much better in physicalism than in dualism. False

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24. The materialist view proposes that consciousness is likely produced as a by-product of the brain during its initial development. True

25. Most evolutionary psychologists conclude that genes explain the content of our psychological states and behavior of creatures. False

Multiple Choice 1. This branch of anthropology studies what makes up cultural practice and the architectures of the mind that enable these cultural forms:

A. Physical B. CognitiveC. SocioculturalD. Biological

2. The meaning of the Hebrew word yôm translated “day” can be defined as:A. Part of the daylight hours.B. One rotation period of Earth.C. A long but finite time period.D. All of the above

3. Young-earth creationism owes much of its positive scholarship and progress to which denomination?

A. CatholicB. MethodistC. Seventh Day AdventistD. Baptist

4. An example of fine-tuning is the:A. Mass density of the universe.B. Strong nuclear force.C. Required properties of water.D. All of the above

5. Which of the following argues that by its very nature science must leave out any appeal to the supernatural?

A. Neo-Darwininan synthesisB. Methodological naturalismC. Evolutionary creation viewD. Epigenetics

6. The beginning of the Enlightenment period can be traced to the work of:A. John Locke.B. Isaac Newton.C. René Descartes.D. Francis Bacon.

7. Scientific investigation and special revelation:A. Are mediated through practices that involve reason and experience.B. Require granting of provisional authority.C. Are open-ended dialogues.D. All of the above

8. Isaac Newton contributed this to the development of science:119

A. Proposal of a heliocentric universeB. Explanation of the tidesC. Laws of kinematic motionD. B & CE. All of the above

9. Which does the critical view of evolutionary creationism state is deeply problematic for theistic evolution?

A. Neo-Darwinan natural selection mechanismB. Life-forms on earth changing over timeC. Darwin’s argument of gradual biological changeD. Universal common descent

10. The main effect of the Renaissance on science was that:A. It ensured that astrology provided a market for astronomical handbooks.B. It led to Christianity’s persecution of scientists.C. It produced art to accompany scientific findings.D. It brought areas of the occult into suspicion.

12. The Scientific Revolution occurred in the:A. Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.B. Fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.C. Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.D. Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

13. Darwinists do NOT appeal to evidence in which of the following areas?A. Probability calculationsB. Fossil recordsC. Comparative genomicsD. Biological evidence

14. Empiricism asserts all of the following except:A. Experience, sense perception, and induction are the basis for knowledge.B. Deduction and innate thoughts contribute to knowledge.C. Knowledge depends on the use of senses.D. Experience leads to simple ideas that can build on one another to become complex.

15. The framework-hypothesis view asserts that:A. The original audience did not interpret Genesis literally.B. The days in Genesis are sequential 24-hour periods.C. The Genesis account allows for some scientific conclusions.D. The big bang model is valid.

16. Which is a similarity between ancient Near Eastern myths and the Genesis flood narrative?A. The people are warned there is going to be a floodB. The flood lasts over a yearC. The flood covers the globeD. There is no need to store up wealth, for all humanity dies

17. The idea that God leaves room for improvisation and divine responsiveness to human prayer aligns with:

A. Classic theism.B. Open theism.C. Closed theism.

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D. Autotheism.18. Which church father was notoriously hostile towards pagan philosophy, the science of early Christians?

A. TertullianB. Justin MartyrC. BasilD. Origen

19. Which is NOT a theme of postmodernism?A. Truth is socially constructed.B. Metanarratives are helpful to interpret patterns.C. Methodological objectivity is impossible.D. Texts are inherently unstable.

20. Which of the following is NOT a fundamental principle of hermeneutics highlighted in the canonical view of Genesis?

A. The author’s intended messageB. Understanding the cognitive environmentC. Symbolic interpretationD. Canonical interpretation

21. Who defined miracles as violations of the laws of nature?A. AugustineB. Thomas AquinasC. Isaac NewtonD. David Hume

22. Which is NOT one of the characteristics of the Trinity according to orthodox Christian theology?

A. EternalityB. ThreenessC. OnenessD. Equality

23. In naturalistic evolutionary psychology, this is what supplements genes and accounts for the content of people’s thoughts:

A. The selfB. ReasonC. CultureD. Memes

24. The goal of the Human Genome Project was to determine the sequence of all coding units, which equaled:

A. Two million.B. 12 million.C. Three billion.D. Six billion.

25. What type of materialism claims that one can identify mental states with physical or functional states of the brain?

A. EliminativeB. ReductiveC. Nonreductive

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D. Dialectical

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Final ExamTrue/False1. Within twenty years of the publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, most

of the American intelligentsia supported the general concept of organic evolution. True2. As an adamant atheist, Sam Harris has also argued against the spiritual atheist movement,

which seeks to carve out a naturalistic spirituality for those who don’t believe in God. False3. When evaluating the temperature of the earth, the absorption of sunlight by the atmosphere is

comparatively small. True4. There is no scientific observation or theory established showing that the universe is causally

closed. True5. The concursus view of divine action asserts that God never circumvents natural laws, but

works within the processes of creation. False6. The four principles of principilism are autonomy, non-maleficence, benevolence, and justice.

True7. In his book, The Language of God, Francis Collins criticizes various traditional creationist

positions, including the intelligent design movement. True8. A scientific claim or theory cannot be accepted as true if it is not subjected to scientific

testing. False9. The two leading schools of thought in psychology, Freudian psychoanalysis and B. F.

Skinner’s behaviorism, are both strongly hard determinist. True10. One of the most well-known features of quantum physics is the wave-particle duality. True11. Several intellectuals have pointed out the inconsistencies and oversights in Stephen

Hawking’s philosophical pronouncements. True12. Chaos theory applies to chaotic systems that are correctly described by precise deterministic

physical laws. False13. The problem of evil for an evolutionary creationist can be observed by the fact that about 99

percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. True14. Treating the relation between science and theology as a one-way street is typical of the

compartmentalism model. False15. Richard Dawkins was confirmed in the Anglican Church and embraced Christianity until his

mid-teens. True16. Special relativity implies that no object without mass can ever reach the speed of light in a

vacuum. False17. Scientists have been cloning human and animal genes for many decades. True18. The virtues of sympathy, fairness, self-control, and duty are universal moral norms. True19. A regenerative religious experience is one in which special abilities, gifts, or blessings are

manifested. False20. The argument that it was a biblical view of nature that supported the rise of modern

empirical science is highly debated by historians of science. False21. According to the progressive creationist view, God designed the laws of physics such that

negative consequences mount as behavior worsens. True22. An important objection to the principle of sufficient reason is the big conjunctive contingent

fact. True23. Pope Francis’s encyclical letter addressing different ecological issues, including global

warming, was rejected by the Ecological Society of America. False

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24. Charles Darwin’s evolutionary ethics asserts that our natural history shapes our moral sense alone. False

25. Principles of physics are considered meaningful only if they can be expressed by mathematical equations. True

Multiple Choice1. Contemporary scientific cosmology began with the work of:

A. Isaac Newton.B. Albert Einstein.C. Stephen Hawking.D. John Wheeler.

2. This field of science was the inspiration of complementarianism and clashes with classical theology:

A. Quantum mechanicsB. ThermodynamicsC. ElectromagneticsD. Special relativity

3. Panspermia argues that:A. Microbial life can be viably transported through space.B. The universe is infinite in time and extent.C. The origin of life ultimately derives from God, just not on Earth.D. The appearance of novel DNA on Earth throughout its history is due to evolution.

4. This view states that when doing science, only physical, testable explanations should be considered and pursued:

A. InstrumentalismB. Methodological naturalismC. AntirealismD. Metaphysical naturalism

5. This scientist and his partner showed that if general relativity is correct, then there must have been a singularity from which universal space-time and everything in it began:

A. David HumeB. Stephen HawkingC. Carl SaganD. Bernard Ramm

6. Which interpretation of quantum physics tries to restore causality to quantum phenomena by privileging position and introducing a pilot wave?

A. BohmianB. ParadoxC. CopenhagenD. Many worlds

7. When addressing questions pertaining to extraterrestrial life-forms, scientists employ this equation:

A. Drake equationB. Fundamental theoremC. Schrödinger equationD. Ohm’s law

8. Which is NOT a subject of classical physics?124

A. MechanicsB. TheromodynamicsC. General relativityD. Electromagnetism

9. An influential exponent of conflict thesis, this intellectual presented a paper on the intellectual development of Europe with relation to Charles Darwin’s theories:

A. Thomas HuxleyB. Andrew Dickson WhiteC. Samuel WilberforceD. John William Draper

10. The overarching theory that has been developed and encompasses all the various string theories is called:

A. Bosonic string theory.B. Standard model.C. M-theory.D. Grand unified theory.

11. Which is NOT one of the three main components of biblical hermeneutics?A. LanguageB. AuthorC. TextD. Reader

12. General relativity predicts that objects should produce distortions of the geometry of space-time known as:

A. Euclidean geometry.B. Gravitational waves.C. Equivalence principle.D. Black holes.

13. Which is an example of artificial general intelligence?A. Chess playingB. IBM’s WatsonC. Data miningD. None of the above

14. Stenmark’s subcategories of the reconciliation model includes this category, which asserts that both science and theology may need to change some of what they have claimed:

A. ConservativeB. TraditionalC. LiberalD. Radical

15. Which is NOT an objection to the engaged-governance view of divine action?A. God of the gaps theoryB. Makes God incompetent C. Apparent randomnessD. Makes God inconsistent

16. This figure argued for the benefits of veracity in human conduct, but without basing this duty on the inherent dignity of human nature or on any divine command:

A. Carl Sagan

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B. David HumeC. C. S. LewisD. Sam Harris

17. According to the natural-variations view, the fundamental compound that is responsible for climate change is:

A. WaterB. Carbon DioxideC. HydrogenD. Nitrogen

18. William James characterized this mystical experience as the experiencer believes that he has learned something important from the experience:

A. PassivityB. TransiencyC. Noetic qualityD. Ineffability

19. According to this argument, there must be a beginning cause of the universe that is itself external to the universe, but not everything in the universe must have a cause:

A. Cosmological argumentB. Kalam argumentC. Teleological argumentD. Fine-tuning argument

20. Bioethics is primarily concerned with answering questions of this nature:A. MoralB. MedicalC. LegalD. Biological

21. Which is NOT one of the six basic elements out of which all living organisms are composed?A. NitrogenB. CalciumC. PhosphorousD. Sulfur

22. This theologian sought to overcome revelation’s seclusion from reason by locating an overlapping center between the hard sciences and the science of God’s self-revelation:

A. Alister McGrathB. C. S. LewisC. Wolfhart PannenbergD. Francis Collins

23. Which is NOT an aspect of the Progressive-Creationist view of evil?A. Present evil is gratuitous.B. Two-creation modelC. Earth has an optimized physics for overcoming evil.D. New creation physics

24. This account of teleology maintains that teleological facts are grounded in the nature of an organism or substance:

A. Agent accountB. Nonreductive Aristotelian account

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C. Reductive accountD. Extrinsic account

25. In Christian ethics, the ultimate source for morality is:A. God’s commandsB. God’s characterC. God’s relationship with manD. God’s Word

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Sample SyllabusChristianity and Science

Name:Class time:Credits:Office location:Office hours:Email:Phone:

DESCRIPTION:Now more than ever there is the impression in many quarters of society that science and Christianity are at serious odds with one another with irreconcilable differences. How are Christians supposed to respond to findings of science, and how might Christianity and science find a way forward? This class is aimed to foster and develop such a conversation.

OBJECTIVES:Upon completion of the course, the student will:1. Be better informed on the current issues of science and faith.2. Be able to provide models of faithful engagement among Christians and scientists.3. Be able to correct misunderstandings and flawed assumptions about the nature and role of

science and Christian theology.4. Be able to provide a framework for critical engagement with both science and Christian

theology to address contemporary issues.5. Be equipped with a robust knowledge of the current issues facing both scientists and

Christian theology.6. Enhance and deepen his or her Christian faith.7. Be able to integrate scientific knowledge and the Christian faith.

BASIC TEXTS:1. The Holy Bible, New International Version. 2011.2. The Dictionary of Christianity and Science. Edited by Paul Copan, Tremper Longman III,

Christopher L. Reese, and Michael Strauss. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017.ISBN-13: 978-0310496052. 704 pages. $59.99

COURSE REQUIREMENTS:The course requirements are as follows:

1. Class Participation (10%)

Each student is expected to attend consistently and come prepared to participate in an informed manner. Class participants may be asked to lead portions of class discussion. These expectations apply to auditors as well. Participants should always advise the professor in advance if they are unable to attend. It is important to arrive at class on time, since the class will generally wait until all members are present before beginning.

2. Reading (20%)128

There will be regular reading assignments from the textbook. These need to be read in preparation for class lectures and discussions. Class participants are also encouraged to make summary notes of everything they read. Though this is a time-consuming task, it will help you retain the information for the exams.

3. Midterm and Final Exam (40%)

There will be two exams for this course, a midterm and a final. Each exam will consist of multiple choice and true/false questions based on the articles from the dictionary. The midterm will cover the first seven modules and then final will cover the last seven modules. The questions are aimed at assessing the large issues of the articles.

4. Research Paper (30%)

The paper is an opportunity to display your understanding of the key features of a particular issue within the course. The other purpose of this paper is to highlight from the course, its readings and your own particularly significant conclusions and reflections about the relationship between Christianity and science. Be authentic and avoid sanctimonious (i.e., hyper-spiritual) language and tone.

These personal reflections should be integrated with your additional reading of sources listed in the course bibliography. In addition to the course text, students should be prepared to list at least five other sources they consulted to fulfill this requirement. Students should endeavor as much as possible (but again without artificiality) to develop a recognizable thematic unity to their paper.

The papers will be graded on rubric of content, depth of insight, and clarity of expression. They should be 9–11pages in length. Papers are to be in correct research paper format. Each paper should include a cover page, sub-headings within the text of the paper, and a table of contents reflecting these sub-headings. The pages should be stapled. Students should employ gender-inclusive language wherever possible and appropriate.

Suggested Topics: 1. The historical Adam and the Humane Genome Project2. How to read Genesis 1–23. Ancient, biblical, and modern cosmological accounts4. The fall and human origins5. Models of evolutionary theory versus creationism6. History of an idea or person, for example:

1. tracing how Church fathers and modern day scientists and theologians interpret the flood accounts in Genesis)

2. or even a scientific topic like the life, work, and reception of Charles Darwin.7. The philosophical and theological possibility of miracles8. Responding to the new atheism movement.

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CALCULATION OF GRADES:Participation 10%Reading 20%Exams 40%Research Paper 30%

TOTAL 100%

GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH PAPERS:

1. Writing StandardsScripture references may be made in convenient parentheses within the body of the text. Students may choose to use either footnotes or endnotes. In either case bibliographies are essential. Keep within recommended page limits; marks will be deducted for excessive length.

Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers, 8th ed. (2013), which is available from the bookstore as well as on reserve in the Library, is the standard for paper format. Alternative standard formats with which the student may be more familiar will also be accepted, as long as exact pagination is noted in all citations. On the more important rules of writing, students are also encouraged to consult William Strunk, Jr. and E. B. White’s little classic, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. (2000).

2. Criteria for Grading The criteria that will be used in grading the papers will be:

Quality (breadth and depth) of research Strength of arguments Clarity of thought Balance between awareness of others’ opinions and personal synthesis Insightfulness of discussion Clear outline and logical organization Care and accuracy in documentation of sources Grammar, spelling, and style Format and neatness

CLASS SCHEDULEWeek Topic Reading Assignment

1 Module 1 See Reading Schedule for each week

2 Module 2

3 Module 3

4 Module 4

5 Module 5

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Week Topic Reading Assignment

6 Module 6

7 Module 7

8 Midterm Exam Midterm Exam

9 Module 8

10 Module 9

11 Modules 10–11

12 Module 12 Research Paper Due

13 Module 13

14 Module 14

15 Final Exam Final Exam

READING OUTLINE:Each week’s assignment consists of reading articles from the course textbook.

Module 1: Foundational TermsReading Assignments:

1. Big Bang Theory2. Naturalism3. Nature4. Religion5. Revelation6. Science7. Scientific Method8. Scientific Proof9. Empiricism10. Laws of Nature11. Logic12. Mythology13. Occam’s Razor14. Pantheism, Panentheism15. Paradox16. Postmodernism17. Pseudoscience18. Theism19. Theology20. Worldview

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Module 2: Historical Development of Science in the WestReading Assignments:

1. Enlightenment, the2. Newton, Isaac3. Science and Renaissance/Early Modern Christianity4. Science and the Church Fathers5. Science and the Medieval Ages6. Science and the Reformation7. Science, Origins of8. Scientific Revolution9. Aristotle’s Four Causes10. Bacon, Francis11. Dark Ages12. Deism13. Descartes, René14. Natural Philosophy15. Pascal, Blaise

Module 3: Genesis and Modern Science, Part 1Reading Assignments:

1. Genesis, Book of2. Adam and Eve

• First Couple View3. Days of Creation (3 articles, opposing viewpoints)

• Day-Age View• 24-Hour Day View• Framework-Hypothesis View

4. Fall, the (2 Articles, opposing viewpoints)• Literal View• Evolutionary View

5. Genesis, Interpretation of Chapters 1–2• Canonical View• Factual View

6. Cosmology, Biblical7. Cosmology, Ancient8. Creation (Including Ancient Near Eastern Accounts)9. Death (Including Animal, Human, and Relation to the Fall)10. Anthropology

Module 4: Genesis and Modern Science, Part 2Reading Assignments:

1. Creationism, Old Earth• Critical View• Supportive View

2. Creationism, Young Earth• Critical View• Supportive View

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3. Evolutionary Creationism • Critical View• Supportive View

4. BioLogos5. Genesis Flood (Including Ancient Near Eastern Accounts)

• Global View• Theological View

6. Gilgamesh Epic7. Radiometric Dating8. Answers in Genesis 9. Institute for Creation Research10. Progressive Creation11. Reasons to Believe12. Singularity, The (Cosmological)13. Universe, Origin of

Module 5: Biological Evolution, Darwinism, and Intelligent DesignReading Assignments:

1. Evolution, Human• Evolutionary Creation View

1. Unique Origin View2. Darwinism3. Design Argument4. Evolution and Probability 5. Evolution and Theology6. Evolution, Biological7. Fine-Tuning of Universe and Solar System 8. Irreducible Complexity9. Methodological Naturalism10. Natural Selection11. Anthropic Principle12. Common Ancestry13. Intelligent Design14. Intelligibility of the Universe

Module 6: Selected Biblical and Theological Issues Related to Modern ScienceReading Assignments:

1. Miracles2. Incarnation3. Life after Death4. Prayer5. Providence6. Resurrection of Jesus7. Trinity, the8. Cultural Mandate9. Divine Voluntarism10. Eschatology

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11. Image of God12. Immanence, Transcendence13. Open Theism14. Time15. Virgin Birth

Module 7: Anthropology, Theological and Scientific Reading Assignments:

1. Consciousness2. Psychology, Evolutionary3. Life, Origin of4. Mind-Body Problem5. Near Death Experiences6. Reason, Argument from7. Anthropology8. Human Genome Project9. Mind10. Moral Psychology11. Original Sin12. Person13. Psychology14. Psychology of Religion

Module 8: Key Scientific Disciplines and Concepts in Christian PerspectiveReading Assignments:

1. Cosmology, Contemporary2. Multiverse3. Neuroscience4. Quantum Physics5. Space and Time6. Chaos Theory7. Cognitive Science8. Dark Matter and Energy9. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle10. Physics11. Relativity, General Theory of12. Relativity, Special Theory of13. Social Sciences14. Sociology

Module 9: Ethical and Bioethical IssuesReading Assignments:

1. Climate Change• Global Warming View• Natural Variations view

2. Bioethics3. Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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4. Ethics in Science5. Ethics, Evolutionary6. Ethics, Environmental7. Genetic Enhancement8. Genetic Testing9. Life10. Morality11. Abortion12. Cloning13. Ethics, Christian

Modules 10-11: Philosophy of Science and Christian Faith, Parts 1 and 2Reading Assignments:

1. Divine Action• Concursus View • Engaged-Governance View

2. Evil, Problem of• Evolutionary-Creationist View • Progressive-Creationist View

3. Critical Realism4. God, Existence of5. Science, Limits of6. Science, Philosophy of7. Theodicy8. Truth, Theories of9. Determinism 10. Epistemology11. Objectivity 12. Sufficient Reason, Principle of13. Teleology

Module 12: Models for Relating Christianity and ScienceReading Assignments:

1. Science and Theology• Dialogue View• Reconciliation View

2. Hermeneutics, Biblical and Science3. Science and Fundamentalism4. New Atheism5. Religion, Naturalistic Theories of6. Religion, Philosophy of7. Religious Experience8. Science & Religion, Models of Relating9. Two Books Metaphor10. Concordism11. Conflict Thesis12. God of the Gaps

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Module 13: Key Thinkers in the Science and Faith DiscussionReading Assignments:

1. Plantinga, Alvin2. Collins, Francis3. Dawkins, Richard4. Harris, Sam5. Hawking, Stephen6. Hume, David7. Lewis, C. S.8. McGrath, Alister9. Pannenberg, Wolfhart10. Polkinghorne, John11. Ramm, Bernard12. Sagan, Carl

Module 14: Looking Ahead: Cutting-Edge Issues in Contemporary ScienceReading Assignments:

1. Artificial Intelligence2. Panspermia3. String Theory4. Extraterrestrial Life5. Singularity, the

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