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IntroductionThe instructor’s manual for the volume Apologetics at the Cross: An Introduction for

Christian Witness in Late Modernism is intended to provide useful resources to assist in teaching an introduction course on apologetics. The material in the manual is divided into six sections.

The first section contains websites that are helpful in studying apologetics. The general category of apologetics is quite broad and covers many fields. Highlighted in this section are resources that will help further your study of the various topics covered in this book.

The second section titled “Chapter Summaries” contains six items. 1) Key terms are given, which are important words and phrases that show up in the chapter. Flash cards for these key terms are made available to the students. The flash cards contain the information that is provided in the glossary of the book, and they also, on occasion, contain additional information that is found in the chapter in order more fully to explain the terms and phrases. 2) Key points are the most crucial points that the chapter makes. 3) Chapter summaries give an overview of what is in each chapter. 4) Pedagogical suggestions give ideas about how to teach various items that are discussed in each chapter. 5) Other media sources/websites provide specific websites that are relevant for the material in the respective chapters. 6) Suggested essay questions are given, which seek broadly to address the main areas in each chapter.

The third section gives student learning objectives. These objectives give a brief overview of the main areas covered in each chapter of the book, and they provide an idea of what a student should know at the end of each chapter.

The fourth section contains chapter quizzes, which have ten true/false, and then a blend of ten fill in the blank and multiple-choice questions. Answers are given in bold type.

The fifth section gives sample syllabi. Two syllabi are given, one that is based on a Mon/Wed/Fri schedule and another based on a Tue/Thurs schedule. A brief course description is provided along with general intended learning outcomes for the course. The weekly course schedule gives readings from Apologetics at the Cross and it also provides dates on which chapter quizzes and exams could be given.

The final section contains a midterm and a final exam. These are both fifty questions in length and are comprised of questions from the chapter quizzes. Study guides for both the exams are made available to the students.

It has been a pleasure to work through Apologetics at the Cross and to prepare these educational resources. I sincerely hope that what follows will assist you in teaching the material.

Kevin RichardAdjunct Professor/PhD CandidateLiberty University, Rawlings School of DivinityFall 2017

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Table of ContentsSuggested Websites...................................................................................................................................3

Chapter Summaries.................................................................................................................................4

Student Learning Objectives.................................................................................................................48

Chapter Quizzes.....................................................................................................................................54

Sample Syllabi........................................................................................................................................83

Midterm and Final Exams....................................................................................................................92

Midterm and Final Exam Study Guides............................................................................................102

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Suggested Websites Reasonable Faith (William Lane Craig): www.reasonablefaith.org/ Stand to Reason: www.str.org/ Bethinking: www.bethinking.org/ Apologetics Index: www.apologeticsindex.org/ Apologetics.com: www.apologetics.com/ Christian Apologetics & Research Ministries: www.carm.org/ Impact Apologetics: www.impactapologetics.com/ Christian Research Institute: www.equip.org/ Historical Bible Society -- 10 Minute Apologetics:

http://www.historicalbiblesociety.org/blog/ Acts 17 Apologetics: http://www.acts17.net/ MoralApologetics.com: www.moralapologetics.com/ Ravi Zacharias International Ministries (RZIM): www.rzim.org Evangelical Philosophical Society: www.epsociety.org Douglas Groothuis: www.ivpress.com/groothuis/doug/ Reasons to Believe: www.reasons.org Apologetics 315: http://www.apologetics315.com/ Gary Habermas (Historicity of the Resurrection): www.garyhabermas.com Discovery Institute: www.discovery.org The Poached Egg: www.thepoachedegg.net Probe: www.probe.org Thinking Christian: www.thinkingchristian.net Reasons for Jesus: www.reasonsforjesus.com

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Chapter SummariesIntroduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross

I grew up in a Christian culture in which “defending the faith” was carried out by using the Bible as a weapon. Anyone who challenged my faith was treated as an enemy.1

Eugene Peterson

Key TermsApologetic (apologia in the Greek), Appeal, Defense, Contestability of Beliefs, Apologetics at the Cross

Key Points The most popular proof-text for apologetics comes from 1 Peter 3:15 where Peter writes

believers must always be ready to give answers (apologia) when asked for the reason we have the hope that we do.

However, when most people cite this verse as the ‘why’ for their apologetic they do not explain the passage enough and miss the surrounding context.

Peter’s focus is not necessarily on what to say – a war of words per se – but on how one must present the reason for hope, that is, with gentleness and respect. The manner of one’s delivery is just as (if not more) important as the content of one’s speech.

Apologetics, in its most basic sense, is “the practice of making an appeal and a defense for the Christian faith.”

Apologetics can be a defensive practice in the sense that it helps to answer why a person can believe in Christianity.

Likewise, apologetics can make an appeal for the Christian faith. An offensive apologetic gives reasons why a person should believe Christianity is true.

To be effective apologists, Christians must not only act and speak a certain way, they must also understand the culture and context in which they live.

Today, not only do people doubt their own faith, but in late Modernism the very framework of Christianity has been called into question. We live in an age of contestability of beliefs.

Chapter Summary The introduction of Apologetics at the Cross sets the narrative and tone for the remainder

of the book. The introduction is broken up into five sections, each addressing a relative aspect within the purview of the apologetic endeavor. The first section discusses one of the foundational passages in the Bible for apologetics – 1 Peter 3:15. This is the oft cited passage in Scripture serving as a proof-text for apologetics. In this passage Peter writes, “But in your hearts revere Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect.” The word answer, or in some translations defense, comes from the Greek word apologia and this is where we get the

1 From the endorsement for Dallas Willard, The Allure of Gentleness: Defending the Faith in the Manner of Jesus (New York: HarperCollins, 2015).

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term apologetic. In order to dispel any initial misunderstanding of someone brand new to this topic, apologetics is not about apologizing for Christianity. Quite the opposite, apologetics is focused on being ready to answer anyone who asks for the hope that Christians have, to demonstrate how and why Christianity tells a better story.

But this is not all there is to say about 1 Peter 3:15, and by isolating this proof-text from its surrounding context, one will, to their detriment, miss the fuller understanding of what Peter was conveying to his 1st Century audience. If you read this passage and think only of what you might say to someone in an apologetic context, then you have missed the larger context of 1 Peter 3. The what of your response to others is not nearly as important as how one presents reasons and correspondingly, how one behaves while doing so. It is important that good content is presented to those who ask and this is part of the apologetic process. Christians must remain life-long students, ever seeking to deepen their knowledge of God and the world around them; however, all the knowledge in the world will be missed if it is not presented with “gentleness and respect.” The Christians to whom Peter was writing faced rising persecution for their newfound faith and he is encouraging them not to give up the faith (cf. 1 Pet. 5:9, 12). In the midst of their persecution, both physical and psychological, Peter encourages these believers to remain steadfast and not to retaliate against their attackers but rather to rejoice in their suffering and allow their good behavior to be a positive witness for Christ. For Peter, the way of the Cross set the pattern of how Christians should engage apologetically with non-believers, even those who are hostile in speech and/or behavior.

The placement of this section in the book cannot be overlooked. Apologetics at the Cross is a call for the church in general, and the apologetic community specifically, to embrace a disposition of humility, gentleness, and respect as they engage those around them with the truths of Christianity.

A Working DefinitionAfter positioning apologetics in its proper context, the authors then move towards a

working definition of apologetics. This particular field of study is vast and covers numerous topics and areas of study, so narrowing down a definition is quite necessary. The authors state that apologetics, in its most basic form, is “the practice of making an appeal and a defense for the Christian faith.” Apologetics can be a defensive practice in the sense that it helps to answer why a person can believe in Christianity. A defensive apologetic is a response to some contention a person may have towards Christianity or a reason why he/she does not believe Christianity is true. Likewise, apologetics can make an appeal for the Christian faith. A positive or offensive apologetic gives reasons why a person should believe Christianity is true. The goal of apologetics, both appealing and defending, is to clear the debris, the stumbling blocks of doubt and skepticism, to make a path to the true stumbling block, Jesus Christ.

Our StoryIn this section the authors, Dr.’s Mark Allen and Josh Chatraw, share their personal

journeys into apologetics. This section helps the reader to answer the common question of “why apologetics?” Both authors testify that their journey into apologetics started from a place that did not consider apologetics a necessary endeavor in their respective lives. For Dr. Chatraw, his experience with practicing apologists left a not-so-pleasant taste and in his own words he decidedly remained committed to “evangelism and not arguments.” Dr. Allen found himself in a similar position where he did not practice apologetics because it had lost its usefulness and was a

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“relic of the past.” Obviously, however, their views towards apologetics changed as clearly indicated in the producing of this book. The catalyst that led them both to a different perspective of apologetics was people, that is, people and their questions. Dr. Allen and Dr. Chatraw came to have people in their lives that were asking specific questions, not only about Christianity but also life in general. Both men found that apologetics, when practiced faithfully and humbly, was a useful tool that helped to meet the spiritual needs of people in their lives.

The Change in CultureTo be effective apologists, Christians must not only act and speak a certain way, they

must also understand the culture and context in which they live. Apologetic dialogue does not occur in a vacuum and neither the defender of Christianity nor the one who questions it is immune to the effects of their own culture. Dr. Allen accurately captures a snapshot of the Western culture we live in when he writes: “Many issues which were formerly left to the halls of the academy are now being introduced to the masses, often by skeptics.” People in the pews are now faced with questions and arguments on a large scale and skepticism towards Christianity is fell on many fronts; Scripture, authority, tradition, all of these are called into question by the culture at large. Christians have long understood that doubt is a part of the Christian life. However, in the past, doubt within the Christian community occurred in a particular framework of beliefs. Christians doubted their own faith and whether or not they were a Christian. Today, not only do people doubt their own faith but in late Modernism the very framework of Christianity has been called into question. Faith is contested around every corner and as we reflect on our cultural context we begin to realize that apologetics is as important as ever.

A Vision for ApologeticsThe last section of this introduction lays out a brief sketch of the remainder of the book. In the chapters that follow, the authors present what they call Apologetics at the Cross: “a biblical, historical, philosophical, theological and practical vision for offering an appeal for Christianity in our contemporary context.” Throughout the rest of the book the authors use the analogy of building a house to describe their methodology. Here, I will closely follow their own chapter summaries combined with the house analogy. As with all house building, proper construction begins with laying a solid foundation. In Part I: The Foundation for Apologetics at the Cross (chapters 1-4) they lay the apologetic foundation to the house. Chapters one and two will lay a biblical foundation for apologetics. Chapters three and four will complete the foundation by providing a brief sketch of the historical development of apologetics since the early church. Once the foundation is laid, the rest of the house begins to slowly take shape. Part II: The Theological Structure of Apologetics at the Cross (chapters 5-9) will provide the walls and exterior for the apologetics house. In these chapters, the authors discuss contemporary methods (chapter 5) and outline a theological vision for apologetics (chapters 6–9). In Part III: The Practice of Apologetics at the Cross (chapters 10-13) they move to the interior of the house, exploring the practical outworking of Apologetics at the Cross. In these chapters, they address the items people immediately notice – paint, everyday décor, and furniture – the “finishing work” of any house project. Chapters ten and eleven focus on particular challenges in today’s culture and offer an “inside out” approach for apologetic conversations. Chapter twelve addresses the critiques, or “defeaters,” often leveled against Christianity. Finally, in chapter thirteen, they conclude with guidance on how to make a positive case for Christianity.

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Pedagogical Suggestions Create a handout to pass around to the class. On it will be 1 Peter 3 but it will not include

the chapter heading or verse numbers. Have them read the passage in its entirety and really focus on the context of the passage. Then, ask them to consider Peter’s message in light of the context.

Gather the students in groups to discuss what it might look like if they employed an apologetic at the Cross. What are the sorts of things they would say? What are their intentions? In the end, is the goal of apologetics to win the argument?

After having read the testimony of both authors, have the students reflect on the sentiments both authors have towards apologetics. Ask them to discuss their thoughts of apologetics and its usefulness. Does it have a proper place in the church? Do they think it will be able to engage their questions about faith? What is the purpose of doing apologetics?

Suggested Essay Questions Discuss the apologetic proof-text in 1 Peter 3:15. Should we use this verse as a proof-

text? Does the verse here encompass all of what Peter intended to convey about providing a defense of the Christian faith? What can we learn from Peter’s message to the believers he was addressing?

What has been your personal experience with Apologetics? Has your experience been positive or negative? Why have your apologetic interactions been positive or negative? If they have been negative, is there anything about this passage in 1 Peter that could improve apologetic engagement?

Discuss your initial thoughts on the cultural climate of late Modernism. How do you view doubt in the Christian walk? How might doubt differ in late Modernism verses, say, personal doubt during the Reformation?

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Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1

True to the cross of Jesus, Christian persuasion has to be cross-shaped in its manner just as it is cross-centered in its message.2

Os Guinness

Key Terms“Cross-colored lenses,” Sophism, 1 Cor. 2:1-5, Providential Care, Creation, Polemics, Miracles and Acts of Power, Historical Verification, Eyewitness Testimony, Evidence, Fulfilled Prophecy, Christians as Good Citizens

Key Points First Corinthians 2:1-5, upon closer examination, does not speak against apologetics;

rather, Paul enhances the biblical mandate of apologetics by demonstrating how to be effectively cultural and contextual.

Having “cross-colored lenses” is a vital foundation for apologetics; therefore, it is important to examine the many types of apologetic instances in the Bible.

The heavens act as an apologist for God (Ps. 19; Rom. 1). OT prophets often used apologetics in a polemical way speaking against false gods and

proclaiming the God of the Bible as the one true God. Miracles and Acts of Power are used all throughout Scripture by God through the

Prophets and Apostles to demonstrate His power and validate His existence and superiority.

Jesus performed miracles to validate his message of divinity and of the Kingdom of God. The Bible is full of evidence in which people can enhance their faith and trust. The lives of Jesus Christ’s followers ought to have an apologetic impact.

Chapter SummaryThis chapter and the next take an inductive approach to the biblical text and allows the

Bible itself to speak on how apologetics should be done. Before delving into the text however, the authors first discuss a very important passage by Paul that some suggest is a proof-text against apologetics. In 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 Paul writes to the Corinthian church that he did not come to them with eloquence or persuasion when he proclaimed the message of good news. Paul also states that he resolved to know nothing except Jesus Christ and him crucified. Some have understood this passage to mean that Paul did not advocate apologetics while engaging the culture and instead states that all we need to do is to preach Christ and him crucified. An initial reading of this passage might be confusing to the reader because we see Paul employing what appears to be apologetics in Acts 17. Is Paul disagreeing with himself? A further study of this passage and its context reveals that Paul is not advocating a Gospel-only approach, that is, one that avoids apologetic method; rather, he is alluding to a specific movement of his day called Sophism. Sophists were rhetoricians and their careers were based on their ability to use oratorical devices to persuade their audiences. It was in this context that Paul spoke against “eloquence and human wisdom.” He (Paul) saw how, in the context of the Corinthian church, the style of the

2 Os Guinness, Fool’s Talk: Recovering the Art of Christian Persuasion (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2015), 27–28.

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message had become more important than the content. Paul’s message to the Corinthian church was that the what of the message cannot be lost in the how of one’s approach. This is a brilliant demonstration of being effectively cultural and contextual. Furthermore, what initially seemed to be a proof-text against apologetics is actually support for a balanced approach. We must be winsome and persuasive in our engagement but we cannot jeopardize the content of the Gospel while doing so for it is the foundation of apologetics and should guide us in all we do.

Because the authors are convinced that having “cross-colored lenses” is a vital foundation for apologetics, they begin their study and spend more time than many introductory apologetic books on this biblical background. Over the next two chapters the authors highlight fifteen different categories or types of apologetics in the Bible. In this chapter specifically, they looked at six categories: Creation, General Revelation, and Providential Care; Polemics; Miracles and Acts of Power; Historical Verification, Eyewitness Testimony, and Evidence; Fulfilled Prophecy; and, Christians as Good Citizens. The six types listed in this chapter and the other nine in the next are not necessarily in any particular order and are not listed by rank, frequency, or importance.

The first apologetic category they discuss is Creation, General Revelation, and Providential Care. It may seem like these are three separate categories but all three are inter-related. The Psalmist in chapter 19 declares that the heavens act as an apologist for God. Authors of other ancient near-eastern literature also attest to the heavens declaring the magnificence of God. This aligns with Romans 1 where Paul writes that nature reveals God. We are given true knowledge of God through creation but at the same time humanity suppresses this revelation and this is problematic. Natural revelation is useful in apologetics. The biblical authors point to its declaration but we must remain aware of context and human sinfulness. Providential care is linked to creation all throughout the Old and New Testaments. In Acts 14 Paul and Barnabas tell how God left a witness in nature through the sending of rain in order to provide food. The abundance of provision is meant to act as a witness to the existence of God.

The second apologetic category discussed is polemics. In the Old Testament world, the primary question was not whether god(s) existed but which god(s) was true. Because of this OT prophets often employed polemics against false Gods. The OT prophets spoke with, against, and for their respective cultures. They spoke with the culture in the sense that they spoke within a particular cultural context. They spoke against the culture by challenging it often in the form of polemics. The authors note that the OT prophets would take familiar aspects of their culture (thought forms, stories, expressions, and motifs) and import new meaning into these aspects. Lastly the prophets spoke for the culture. Israel was God’s chosen people but they were chosen to be at the center of God’s redemptive plan in order to be a blessing to all people. They were to speak for the cultures in order to bring them into the truth.

The third apologetic category is OT miracles and acts of power. These acts of power serve as both a defense against alternative deities and support for the one true living God. We can see this clearly in the Moses narrative where God used Moses and Aaron to demonstrate His superiority over the gods of the Egyptians and Pharaoh. Another good example of this is when the prophet Elijah had the encounter with the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel. Here Elijah challenges the prophets of Baal to call on their god and have him demonstrate his power by sending fire from heaven. You likely know how this story plays out and we can see how God sends fire down from heaven as a sign of his existence and demonstration of his power. Others acts of powers are present in the NT as well in the life of Jesus and in the Early Church. Jesus performs miracles to validate his message about his divinity and the Kingdom of God. The

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Apostles of the Early Church were given power to perform miracles also as signs of authentication and authority of their proclamation. Miracles and acts of power are apologetics instances intended to demonstrate the power and reality of the living God.

The fourth apologetic category is another grouping of common items: Historical Verification, Eyewitness Testimony, and Evidence. The authors note that at the beginning of Luke’s Gospel, he claims to have access to eyewitness testimony about Jesus’ life and that this testimony serves as the content for what he is writing down. This statement is given so that the readers of Luke’s Gospel can have confidence in what is being written. In 1 Corinthians 15, perhaps one of the most important chapters on the historicity of the resurrection, Paul gives a list of eyewitnesses of the risen Christ and in doing so not only gives people reassurance of the message but encourages them to seek out the eyewitnesses for themselves if they so choose. John writes that the apostles saw Jesus with their eyes and were able to touch him with their hands. The authors mentioned above used eyewitness testimony to tell the story of Jesus and his resurrection. This evidence was given not only to persuade people of the truth but also to give them the opportunity to search out the truth themselves. Lastly, their use of testimony and evidence places the event firmly in history; for them the message of the Gospel was an event that happened (very importantly) in history and they proclaimed it as such.

The fifth category of apologetic method is the use of fulfilled prophecy. We can see throughout the NT, the authors and preachers used fulfilled prophecy as evidence of the veracity of Christianity. A large motif of the NT is the covenant faithfulness of God in and through the person of Jesus Christ. In Christ, God remained faithful to his promises which were sometimes given in the form of prophecy. The OT prophecies fulfilled by and in Christ were used to convince unbelieving Jews and to ground the faith of those who already believed.

The sixth, and last, category in this chapter is the apologetic role that Christians can have in their exemplary character and love for the other. The lives of Christ followers ought to have an apologetic impact to the world around them. The way Christians live and behave is evidence of the living God and the Spirit who dwells within them. Jesus calls his followers salt and light. As salt, we are to help preserve the world and uphold justice and goodness. As light, we are proclaimers of the Gospel not only in word but in deed. The life that Christians live can have a persuasive impact on a person’s perception of Christianity and can make it seem more plausible than not.

The chapter ends with this apologetic category and will resume the conversation in the following chapter (ch.3).

Pedagogical Suggestions Have the students discuss the role of evidence in relation to faith. A common

misconception among Christians is that we have a blind faith, yet the authors of the NT talk about signs, evidence, eyewitnesses, historical verification, etc. How are the two integrated?

Have the students discuss the impact of this chapter on how they view apologetics. Have they ever considered that these apologetic methods existed in the Bible? Does this offer another layer of depth and understanding to the Scriptures?

Ask the students which category or type of apologetic listed in this chapter do they find more applicable for our late modern culture.

Other Media Sources/Websites

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Dr. Gary Habermas’s website: Dr. Habermas is a leading scholar on the historicity of the resurrection of Jesus. http://www.garyhabermas.com/

Bible verses relating to apologetics: https://bible.knowing-jesus.com/topics/Apologetics Supplements to some of the types: http://www.reasons.org/ Jesus and the Eyewitnesses – Richard Bauckham: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=292NTf1cCNw On Biblical Prophecy:

o http://www.reasons.org/articles/articles/fulfilled-prophecy-evidence-for-the- reliability-of-the-bible

o https://answersingenesis.org/is-the-bible-true/4-fulfilled-prophecy/

Suggested Essay Questions What is the relation of 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 to 1 Peter 3:15. Paul seems to be speaking

against the apologetic endeavor in 1 Corinthians 2. Can we reconcile the two passages and if so how should we understand them to be in concert with one another?

Think of other events/narratives in the OT or in the NT (not mentioned in this chapter) and discuss how they are an instance of one of the six apologetic types discussed in this chapter.

What role does eyewitness testimony and evidence play in the belief that any given event happened? Does the eyewitness testimony mentioned in Luke, 1 Corinthians, and elsewhere help to strengthen the case for Christianity?

A common misconception among Christians is that we have a blind faith, yet the authors of the NT talk about signs, evidence, eyewitnesses, historical verification, etc. How are faith and evidence integrated, or should we rely on faith alone?

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Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2

High-order thinking is not so readily forced into preexisting categories.

Marilynne Robinson

Key TermsIntrapersonal witness, Holy Spirit Testimony, The Church, Image of God, Conscience, Personal experience, Apocalypticism, Logic and Reason, Answering Objections, Reframing, Suffering, Pagan Sources, Story-telling, Raising Questions

Key Points There is no one specific “biblical apologetic;” rather, there are many types because the

biblical authors, under God’s inspiration, were contextual and their persuasive arguments were geared towards the culture(s) they were engaging.

Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit witness are all forms of agential apologetics. Questions are often used as a way to disarm beliefs. The Bible answers objections often and does so by anticipating them and/or reframing the

objection. The Bible provides us with reasons for our suffering and provides the ultimate solution to

suffering – Jesus Christ. Apologetics in the Bible uses reason and logic in the situatedness of the culture. Apocalyptic literature serves as an apologetic tool by showing us an unseen reality and

providing hope to suffering communities. In some instances, pagan sources are used as an apologetic tool against the culture that

employs those sources. Story-telling as an apologetic category shows how Christianity tells the best story about

reality.

Chapter Summary Chapter two is a continuation of thought and theme from chapter one. In both of these

chapters the authors are examining the various apologetic methods and categories found in Scripture. Before continuing their discussion of the categories, Dr. Chatraw first reminds the reader that there is no one definitive approach to apologetics in the Bible. There is not one specific type that can be labeled “biblical apologetics;” rather, there are many types because the biblical authors, under God’s inspiration, were contextual and their persuasive arguments were geared towards the culture(s) they were engaging. The Scriptures do not give us modern day readers a step-by-step guide to do apologetics, but it does offer tools and principles that we can apply to our current situations. The rest of the chapter will add nine more biblical apologetic categories to the six already explored in the previous chapter.

The seventh category (the first in this chapter) is Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit Testimony. These are three distinct but related apologetic agents. An intrapersonal witness testifies to the reality of God. This intrapersonal witness exists in us because of the types of beings we are and how God relates to humanity. The Ecclesial component is an interpersonal apologetic relationship, a corporate body of evidence that both edifies the body of Christ and reaches the lost. Life in the church, when lived out faithfully amongst believers, is an apologetic

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for the reality of God. A church that loves one another, cares for one another, forgives one another, etc., embodies and puts on full display the power of the risen Christ to the non-Christian community. The Holy Spirit also acts as an apologist. The Spirit plays an active role not only in the world at large but in the lives of individuals as he is drawing people to God, helping us to understand and receive the gospel. The Church is dependent on the Holy Spirit to achieve its apologetic purposes which in turn reveals the Spirit’s role as a powerful apologist in the world.

The eighth category is Raising Questions with an Intent to Undermine or Disarm False Beliefs. In the Bible God often uses a particular methodology whereby he asks questions to challenge and undermine false beliefs. One example of this is found in the story of Job when he questions God and God responds by asking a series of probing questions that are intended to demonstrate and reveal Job’s limited knowledge of the created world (Job 38-41). Another prominent example of this category is Jesus’ many interactions with the Jewish religious leaders. Jesus quite masterfully employed this method of question asking and he effectively disarmed their false beliefs (Matt. 21:25; 22:20).

The ninth category is Answering Objections. This category may seem broad and very obvious and the authors admit that all apologetics in the Bible would fall under this category, but they also wanted to show how the Bible responds to anticipated objections: explanations and reframing. Here is one example of an objection and a corresponding explanation: How could the Messiah be crucified on a cross when everyone crucified on a cross is cursed? Paul explains in Galatians 3:13-14 that in order to redeem us from the curse of the law, Jesus has to become a curse for us. The other way in which objections are answers is in the form of reframing. The Scriptures often redraw our mental maps and reframe our perceptual models. An example of this is when the prophet Habakkuk makes a complaint to God concerning the prevailing injustice in Judah. Instead of answering Habakkuk directly, God reframes the discussion and tells Habakkuk how he will carry out judgment on Judah.

The tenth category is Reasons for Suffering. There are many examples of suffering in the Bible and there are equally as many laments given by those people who suffer. The authors note that one of the most common apologetic methods the Bible uses to address the problem of suffering is to invite the sufferer to engage God with honest grief and complaint. The Bible gives us an apologetic for suffering; it provides us with many reasons as to why suffering exists in the world (sin, disobedience, human disregard and abuse, soul-making, following Christ, etc.). In the midst of suffering found in the Bible we see that God suffers too. God meets us in our suffering through the person of Jesus. Jesus’ own anguish on the cross is the apologetic par excellence for suffering in the world as his suffering brings life and restoration to a broken world.

The eleventh category is Logic and Reason. The reader might not expect to see this category in a list of biblical apologetic types and this is one of the reasons why the authors included the category. The Bible does employ logic to demonstrate the reasonableness of theological positions. The biblical authors do not employ reason in a vacuum; rather, they reason within the given context of the various audiences, cultures to which they are communicating. The point of demonstrating that the biblical authors used logic and reason was to show the limits of reason in any given context. Three reasons develop regarding why we must keep a balanced perspective about the limits of reason. First, we must always ask ourselves “whose rationality?” Western concepts of reason are quite different from that of the premodern Near Eastern culture. Second, we must recognize that God is far beyond humanity’s grasp. There will always be mystery in concert with logic and reason. Third, people are more than minds. Human beings are

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much more than intellectual creatures, we are also desiring and believing beings. We must take all of these factors into account when employing reason and logic.

The twelfth category is Apocalyptic Apologetic. Apocalyptic literature can help a suffering faith community in the midst of trials when it seems that God is silent and inactive. The authors point out three apologetic aspects of Apocalypticism in the Bible. First, Apocalypticism shows us a reality that we cannot see with our own eyes. It teaches us that there is an ongoing cosmic battle between God and Satan, angels and demons, good and evil. This unveiling shows us some of the cause of evil and suffering in the world – the evil actions of those in the supernatural realm. Second, this type of literature demonstrates the sovereignty of God, his ultimate plan and final victory in this cosmic battle. Lastly, Apocalypticism teaches us that all things will be made right in the end, justice will prevail, and God will bring everything into his peace and righteousness.

The thirteenth category is Arguments from Pagan Sources. In Paul’s speech before the Athenian philosophers at Mars Hill he uses a line from one of their poets – “We are [God’s] offspring” – and then uses this line to argue against their plausibility structures. He is contextualizing his argument by appealing to their poets but at the same time he is re-forming it in order to critique their idolatry and pagan beliefs. This demonstrates that we can reason within secular narratives and then use those same narratives as an effective apologetic tool.

The fourteenth category is Jesus’ Unique Authority. The authors point out in this section that Jesus’ teaching and ministry possessed an apologetic value in that it has a “self-testifying, self-authenticating ring of authority to it.” We can see this demonstrated in Scripture whenever Jesus taught and/or performed miracles. The crowds would wonder at the way he spoke as one who had authority and not as their teachers of the law (cf. Matt. 7:29). When Jesus sent out his disciples to make disciples, his authority was sent with them. That authority still remains today and Jesus’ teachings can attract people who are far from God.

The last category the authors identify is Story. The authors demonstrate that the Bible is one large narrative but it is also made up of many shorter stories that both teach us something and fit into the larger narrative. Story telling plays an important role in apologetics because as Christians we believe that the message of the Bible and the story of Christianity tells a better story about reality than other prevailing worldviews. Telling the story of Christianity is not only telling a better story about the world, but it is telling the best story. The story of creation – fall – redemption – restoration– tells about God’s plan for the world and how we have salvation in Christ.

Pedagogical Suggestions Like the last chapter, ask the students which category(s) or type(s) of apologetic listed in

this chapter do they find might be more persuasive for our late modern culture and why? Like the apostle Paul, set up a scenario in which students in the classroom employ a

pagan source (in our context it might be a cultural maxim or ethical belief) then address the class and try and do the same thing Paul did and use their own source/belief against them while demonstrating the truth of Christianity.

Raising questions to objections in order to disarm false beliefs is a difficult apologetic category to use in dialogue. So often when someone disagrees with our position or makes a challenging claim the initial impulse is reactionary. We should not react but instead understand and analyze. Asking questions puts one on the offensive but this takes

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practice. Give an objection to Christianity (make is audacious and bold) then have the students only respond by asking questions that are meant to disarm.

Other Media Sources/Websites Bible verses relating to Apologetics: https://bible.knowing-jesus.com/topics/Apologetics Supplement to some of the types: http://www.reasons.org/ Reasons for suffering: https://bible.org/illustration/reasons-human-suffering The authority of Jesus: https://www.christiancourier.com/articles/1572-authority-of-

jesus-christ-the

Suggested Essay Questions Why is Story-telling considered an apologetic category? In what ways can we use story-

telling and imagination to apologetically engage the modern culture? A popular theme in modern fictional literature and media is apocalyticism or post-

apocalyptic. Discuss why this may be the case and what Christian themes manifest in this type of theme. Suggest how we can use modern post-apocalyptic stories in an apologetic way.

Give three objections to Christianity. Respond to each objection by only asking questions meant to disarm that false belief.

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Chapter 3: Apologetics within the Great Tradition: Part 1

Poring over the traditions of Christian practice and reflection is not ‘an impossible return to the past’ but an opportunity to see the present situation of theology for what it is: as a moment in the

history of redemption.3

John Webster

Key TermsPatristic Period, Gnosticism, Marcionism, Manichaeism, Arianism, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Augustine, Athanasius, Justin Martyr, Origen, Clement, Eusebius, Chrysostom, Middle Ages, Nestorianism, Eutychianism, Boethius, John Damascene, Theodore Abū Qurrah, Anselm, Aquinas

Key Points The early church faced many threatening heresies in those formative years: Gnosticism,

Marcionism, Manichaeism, and Arianism. The early church fervently responded to the heresies that threatened the church as seen in

the works of these church fathers: Irenaeus, Tertullian, Augustine, and Athanasius. The Jews had a number of contentions to Christianity and the church fathers responded to

them accordingly. In the early church period, Greek and Roman challenges came in the form of political and

cultural challenges as well as philosophical challenges. The church faced a few heretical challenges in the Middles Ages for which the church

continued to respond. The church also faced significant Jewish and Muslim challenges in the Middle Ages. The Middle Age period saw two quite famous Christian thinkers emerge – St. Anselm of

Canterbury and St. Thomas Aquinas.

Chapter Summary

Chapter three is the beginning of a two-part journey through the history of apologetics. This chapter and the next are part of the apologetic foundation that the authors will later build on. In these two chapters, the author will span the 2000 year history of apologetics highlighting significant people, movements, and methods. This part of the foundation is important because we need to build on the apologetic traditions that have come before us. One might even be surprised to see that some of the same apologetic issues that the church faces now have been addressed before.

The early years of the church, which scholars call the Patristic Period, was not an easy time. These formative years in the church saw many challenges to key fundamental doctrines of Christianity. The early church’s apologetic history is chronicled by the particular heretical doctrine that was creeping into the church at the time. The following heresies are the ones which were the most threatening beliefs in the early church. Gnosticism was the belief that salvation

3 John Webster, “Ressourcement Theology and Protestantism,” in Ressourcement: A Movement for Renewal in Twentieth-Century Catholic Theology, ed. Gabriel Flynn and Paul D. Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 493.

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came from secret knowledge that only few people possessed. Furthermore, one could get to God only through a series of lesser gods called Aeons. Jesus was believed to be one of these Aeons. Marcionism was another heresy the early church faced. Marcionism can be remembered by the term “dichotomy.” Marcionism taught that some of the Bible was good and some of it was bad; the spirit is good and material is bad; Jesus is good and loving, the God of the Old Testament is bad, mean, and angry; Gospel is good, Law is bad; Jesus is not actually human, he is only divine. Manichaeism combined Christianity with other religions into this one homogenous religion. Jesus was not really born, he did not suffer, and he did not rise from the dead. Manichaeism also proposed a cosmic dualism view of good and evil; God is good but impeded by evil forces. Arianism, the last of the heresies discussed, believed that Christ was created by God the Fauther.

Each one of these heresies offered appealing answers to tough questions that people had within Christianity. But just because they offered appealing and often easy answers, they, at the same time, went against fundamental Christian doctrines. The church responded to these heresies and the authors highlighted the key figures in church history to engage with and defend the church against these heresies. Irenaeus, the Bishop of Lyon, wrote against Gnosticism in Against Heresies. In it he claims that the knowledge of the truth, the truth of Christianity, has never been a secret and the rule of faith has been passed down publicaly. Tertullian wrote against the Marcionites and argued that the Old and New Testaments testify to the one true creator God and that while God is loving he is also just when he judges sin. Augustine, who was a Manichaean himself for ten years, wrote against this heresy defending, among many things, the physical resurrection of Christ. Lastly, Athanasius was a leading figure against the Arian heresy. He supported the doctrine that Jesus was fully God. One of the arguments was this: Only God can save humanity, Jesus saves humanity; therefore, Jesus is God.

Most of these heresies arose from those who were somewhat a part of the Christian community. There were also challenges to Christianity from non-Christian sources. One such religious group that posed challenges to Christianity was the Jews. One can imagine the kind of questions that Jewish groups would pose to Christians: “Why do you not practice the Mosaic Law?” “Why do you believe in multiple gods, God is one (Deut. 6:4)?” “Why do Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah promised in the Old Testament?” Justin Martyr, in his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, provides the church with a dialogical response to the Jewish challenges and at the same time provides an example of how to engage others in love and respect.

The early church also faced challenges and false allegations from the Greeks and the Romans. The allegations against the church might seem surprising: Christians are immoral, Christians are incestuous, Christians are cannibals, Christians practice infanticide, Christians are atheists, Christianity undermines civic loyalty and national stability, Christianity is new. The apologists of the early church took those challenges head on and systematically refuted these false allegations against Christianity. These apologies came from Christian authors such as Aristides, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Tertullian.

The Christian faith in the early church period also faced philosophical challenges: Certain events in the Bible cannot be verified as truly historical, the miracles Jesus and his disciples performed are inauthentic, Greek philosophers discovered truth without special revelation, Christians reject reason and rely on blind faith, pagan religion is necessary for people to flourish. Like the allegations against Christianity given by the Greeks and the Romans, the Early Church responded in both a general and specific way and did so by employing a

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number of various methods such as metaphor, expositions, cumulative case, sarcasm, dialogue, paradox, and many others.

The last section of history discussed in this chapter is the church of the Middle Ages which they date AD 476 – AD 1500. This period of the church faced similar challenges to the periods before it but also challenges that had not yet been experienced. The job of the apologists during this time was to continue to synthesize and solidify doctrine by uniting, filtering, and categorizing the wide range of existing thought. Challenges to the faith came from many fronts. There were still heretical issues to face in the church (i.e. Nestorianism and Eutychianism). There were also threats from outside the faith from Jews and the newly formed religion of Islam. This period also saw two great theologian/philosophers emerge onto the scene – Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas, each contributing in their own way to the classical arguments for God’s existence.

The next chapter begins with the Reformation and the church’s inward turn toward issues of salvation, church, and authority.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have the students split into various groups of heretical and non-heretical camps. Have

them take on that argument and form a mock debate over the various issues faced in the early church.

The professor can also choose to take on the persona of a challenger to Christianity from either the Early Church period or the Middle Ages and then have the class respond to them accordingly.

Other Media Sources/Websites Christian Apologists and Early Heresies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=vXJIbvsb00s “The Importance of Church History in Apologetics”:

http://www.historicalbiblesociety.org/importance-church-history-apologetics/ “Anselm: Ontological Argument for God's Existence”: http://www.iep.utm.edu/ont-arg/ Article on Aquinas’s “The Five Ways”: http://philosophy.lander.edu/intro/aquinas.shtml

Suggested Essay Questions What were Aquinas’s Five Ways to prove God’s existence? In the essay discuss each of

the ways and discuss whether or not this gives us proof that God exists. Of the four major heresies that faced the early church (Gnosticism, Marcionism,

Manicheism, and Arianism) pick one and discuss the central features of that heretical system. Once you have done that identify the responses to that heresy highlighting the central points of the argument.

Pick one of the responses from the Middle Ages. Identify the corresponding challenge against Christianity and discuss how that response answers that challenge.

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Chapter 4: Apologetics within the Great Tradition: Part 2

The doctrinal heritage of the past is thus both a gift and a task, an inheritance and a responsibility. What our forebears in the Christian faith passed down to us must be

appropriated, in order that we may wrestle with it within our own situation, before passing it on to those whose day has yet to be dawn.4

Alister McGrath

Key TermsProtestant Reformation, Martin Luther, Counter-Reformation, Enlightenment, Empiricism, Rationalism, Individualism, Descartes, Spinoza, Lock, Voltaire, Hume, Kant, Pascal, Pascal’s Wager, Hugo Grotius, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Watchmaker, Leibniz, Schleiermacher, Kierkegaard, Apologetics of Beauty, Kuyper, Warfield, Van Til (presuppositional apologetics), Edward Carnell (Combinationalism), Literary Apologetics (Chesterton, Lewis), Karl Barth, Hans Urs von Balthasar, Newbigin (Christ and Culture)

Key Points As we travel through church history, we see that whenever times and locations

change, effective apologetics adjust to meet new challenges. The longevity of any apologetic methodology depends on its grounding in the cross. The Protestant Reformation challenged perceived abuses of the Catholic church both

doctrinally and in praxis. The Catholic church responded to the Reformers as well as continued the church’s efforts

to rebut the challenges of various faiths outside of the church. The Enlightenment brought a whole new set of challenges to the Christian faith and

apologetics. The Enlightenment/modernity paradigm has influenced the Christian apologetic response

in both positive and negative ways: positively, the church has to continue to develop, be creative, and contextualize their content and methodology, and negatively, in that sometimes the commitment to contextualization leads to a compromise of the fundamentals of the faith.

Chapter Summary This chapter picks up historically where the previous left off. In the previous chapter the

authors discussed the history of apologetics from the founding of the church up through to the Middle Ages. The current chapter begins with the Reformation and will take us up to the present time. Reformation and Apologetics may not seem like two themes that go together and this is primarily due to the theological inward turn during this time. Martin Luther meant for his thesis against the Catholic church to be an internal theological discussion, one which would call for reform from within but as we know from history, that is not how things played out. The nailing of the 95 theses to the chapel door in Wittenberg sparked a revolution of sorts resulting in fierce and even hostile disagreements about many topics – theological, ecclesiological, soteriology, etc.

4 Alister McGrath, The Genesis of Doctrine: A Study in the Foundation of Doctrinal Criticism (Grands Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 200.

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During this time there was still a need for apologetics. Luther, and those reformers who followed, challenged the value of Aristotelian philosophy and the use of reason in coming to faith. He further argued that philosophy and reason must yield to the foolishness of the cross and that they both only operate within the framework of faith.

The Catholic church did not sit idly by as the Reformers broke away from the church. Catholics led a counter-reformation against the Protestant reformers which had polemical and apologetic responses to their challenges. During this time, the Catholics not only produced responses to the inward challenges but also continued to direct apologetic challenges outward, targeting those outside the church. One area in particular that the Catholics continued to challenge was Islam which by this point had significant and growing influence in the world.

Following on the heels of the Reformation, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries led to an apologetic transition for the church. Perhaps as a direct result of all the infighting in the church, the rise of the Enlightenment created a whole new set of problems for apologetics and the focus of the church was once against shifted outward. The Enlightenment elevated man’s capacity to reason, self-determination, and the value of human progress through science. The fundamental doctrines of Christianity came under direct assault during this time as great thinkers and philosophers began to challenge the way people had thought about the world for centuries. Empiricism, Rationalism, and Individualism were driving themes of the Enlightenment and were thought to operate outside of faith, apart from God’s direct guidance and involvement. Christian apologists responded to the Enlightenment and Modernity by crafting their arguments in a way to provide a rational defense of the Christian faith. Some of the most noted apologists during this time were: Blaise Pascal, Hugo Grotius, Joseph Butler, William Paley, and Gottfried Leibniz. Each person made significant contributions to the defense of Christianity.

The nineteenth century and into the twentieth saw the lasting impact the Enlightenment and modernity had on apologetics. The church continued to see various responses and arguments against Enlightenment thinking. The apologetic starting points varied as some methodologies began within Modernity’s own logic while others began with divine revelation and faith. Those like Schleiermacher, who operated within the confines of modernity, were innovative in their apologetic arguments but, attempting to be overly contextual, ended up compromising on the orthodoxy of the cross. Other Christian thinkers, like Abraham Kuyper, saw the futility of operating within the modernistic framework and shed those assumptions as a philosophical and theological starting point. Kuyper formulated a worldview approach to Christianity and argued that it was only a Christian view of the world that can truly makes sense of reality. From the Kuyperian vein came many influential Christian apologist and theologians such as Cornelius Van Til and B. B. Warfield. The Kuyperians were not the only ones to positively reclaim orthodox Christianity through apologetics. Other significant apologists during this time were Edward Carnell, Francis Schaeffer, Lesslie Newbigin, G. K. Chesterton, C. S. Lewis, etc.

The chapter concludes with these apologists and the authors note it may be odd to end with those who died in the twentieth century because apologetics is still very much alive today (e.g. Craig, Habermas, Frame, Plantinga, Keller, etc.). The reason the authors end here is that these apologists and others are developed in more detail through the remaining chapters as their contributions help to form the content of what is to come.

Pedagogical Suggestions

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Because this chapter moves so rapidly through a few centuries, it may be difficult for students to keep track of the chronology of thought from person to person. In order to help with the confusion, and to appeal to the visual learners in the class, compose a timeline on the board that displays the flow of thought and highlights the significant moments in the development of apologetics throughout.

Have the students research and study a particular apologetic response mentioned in this chapter and have them explain the salient features of the argument(s) and suggest in what ways that particular argument is responding to the secular arguments of its day.

Other Media Sources/Websites Supplemental videos and articles from the History Channel on the Enlightenment:

http://www.history.com/topics/enlightenment William Paley’s Natural Theology (See ch.1 and the Watchmaker

argument):https://books.google.com/books/about/Natural_Theology.html?id=RQcDAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button#v=onepage&q=watch&f=false

Cartesian Skepticism: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLKrmw906TM Famous people of the Enlightenment:

https://www.biographyonline.net/people/famous/enlightenment.html 100 Modern Christian apologists (A-Z): http://www.apologetics315.com/2009/06/100-

christian-apologists.html The official website of C. S. Lewis: http://www.cslewis.com/us/ Reclaiming the World (Part 1, 2) – Francis Schaeffer (poor video quality):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1j13gT2uqYs

Suggested Essay Questions Pick two apologetic arguments which respond to Enlightenment thinking. Discuss the

salient features of the argument and show how they accept/reject the modernist framework and seek to present a positive case for Christianity.

Literary apologetics is becoming a more popular area of study especially as the popularity of C. S. Lewis grows. Discuss how the genre of literary apologetics formed and who were some of the major contributors to this methodology.

Of the various apologetic responses given in this chapter, which method or combination of methods appeals to you most. Discuss why this is and how those reasons might also be shared by others. Is there something about the Enlightenment or modernity that has created this appeal? Something that is deficient or lacking in those secular frameworks?

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Part II: The Theological Structure for Apologetics at the Cross

Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methods

If we are truly personal, as created by God, then each individual will differ from everyone else. Therefore each man must be dealt with as an individual, not as a case or statistic or machine . . . There is no set formula that meets everyone’s needs, and if only applied as a mechanical formula, I doubt if it really meets

anyone’s need—short of an act of God’s mercy. 5

Francis Schaeffer

Key Terms

Classical apologetics, Evidential apologetics, Presuppositional apologetics, Experiential/Narratival apologetics, Reformed Epistemology, Cumulative Case

Key Points Because apologetics is practiced by human beings, apologists are often nuanced and do

not fit neatly into defined categories; however, there are general categories (methods) that reflect certain commitments regarding apologetics.

Classical apologetics is known as the “two-step model” because it argues first for a general theism and then argues more specifically for Christian theism.

Evidential apologetics is known as the “one-step model” because it starts with historical arguments for the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.

Presuppositional apologetics contends with providing evidence to the unbeliever and asserts that unless the truth of Christianity is presupposed there is no possibility of rationality, truth, or proving anything.

Experiential/Narratival apologetics does not appeal to man’s rationality but makes an appeal to the other existential-type experiences of life and how Christianity is the best explanation of that reality.

Each of these versions have strengths to admire and weaknesses we must be aware of and avoid.

There are soft and hard forms of each method which correspond to the apologist and his position relative to the other methods outside his own.

Chapter Summary This chapter summarizes four apologetic approaches and discusses their potential

strengths and weaknesses. First, however, a reminder is provided to the reader regarding the use of charts and categories and their inherent limitations. The combination of apologetic method and human application is quite often nuanced and so the given quadrants in the beginning of this chapter give us a framework to help understand the methods but it can be challenging when one tries to put an actual apologist into a specific category. Furthermore, within each category there is a soft and hard version. The soft version of each approach (and those who hold them)

5 Francis Schaeffer, The God Who is There, (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 130.

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recognizes the validity of other approaches and is not entirely sealed off from the others while the hard version tends to be sealed off from the others in isolation and application.6

The authors begin the discussion of the apologetic method with the two evidence-based approaches – Classical and Evidential. Classical apologetics uses what is often referred to as a “two-step approach,” which argues first for theism and then more specifically for Christian theism. Proponents of this model believe that a person must accept the likelihood of the general proposition “God exists” before then can accept that the specific God of Christianity exists. Classical apologists tend to display a higher degree of confidence in what human reason combined with general revelation can achieve apart from special revelation. Some of the potential strengths of classical apologetics includes: one, it emphasizes the Bible’s endorsement of using evidence and logic to persuade; and two, it has promoted the development of serious scientific, philosophical, and historical evidence for Christianity.

Evidential apologetics is similar to the Classical Method in that it has a similar degree of confidence in human reason but it differs in “step.” This method is known as the “one-step approach” because it bypasses arguments for God’s existence (some general form of theism) and goes straight to the God of Christianity. In general, Evidentialists will start their apologetic by focusing on the historical case for either the reliability of the Bible, the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, or a combination of all these. As the authors note, the potential strengths of evidential apologetics are that it quickly takes others to the historical elements of the gospel (Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection) and this method has promoted rigorous historical argumentation for Christianity.

Presuppositional apologists, or presuppositionalists, are less optimistic about the capacity of human reason and what can be achieved apart from special revelation. As the name suggests, adherents of this model emphasize that every single person is colored by their presuppositions and assumptions thus impacting the way they view the world. Presuppositionalists do not appeal to evidence because they believe it enforces human autonomy and makes man out to be the judge of God; rather, they appeal to the presupposition that unless one begins with God there is no possibility of proving anything, no possibility of truth at all. This method has a number of strengths: first, it reinforces the importance of Scripture; two, it emphasizes that non-Christians assume presuppositions which negatively impact their reasoning ability; and three, it emphasizes that sin damages the whole person.

Experiential/Narratival apologetics (E/N following) have similar commitments as the presuppositionalists regarding people’s framework and their reasoning capacities but they differ in the way they appeal to truth of Christianity. E/N apologists interact with unbelievers by inviting them to embrace a story that better comports with reality. This method and its adherents believe it is Christianity lived out and not Christianity in propositions that will truly convey the reality of Jesus. The potential strengths of this method include: the right emphasis on human desire and imagination, stressing the importance of the corporate church as a living apologetic, and lastly, its concern with understanding how living in different cultures shapes people’s experiences in life.

Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, things it emphasizes and things it can tend to neglect. Rather than supporting any one methodology, the authors advocate that regardless of

6 Due to space restrictions, the summary will not discuss how each method plays out in a hard or soft way but that aspect of the study is quite significant and offers valuable insight as to how the methods and those who hold to them engage with the other methodologies. Furthermore, each method listed has potential weaknesses along with the strengths, again for the sake of space and brevity those were left out of the summary.

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which method one adheres to, it is best to hold that method in a soft way. Furthermore, at the beginning and end of the chapter the authors liken these methods to drawing a map for someone who is lost and emphasize that when doing apologetics, we are not drawing these maps for ourselves but for others. Our apologetic method should be other-centered and focused on the same destination – the gospel – but if the focus is on others then the map we draw on how to get to the destination will vary.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students develop a presentation and be ready to field questions for an apologetic

method that is either not their own preference or one which they disagree with in principle.

Have students pair up into groups of two and have them construct an imaginative dialogue between two people (one lost and one saved) in which the saved person is doing apologetics from a particular method.

The Experiential/Narratival approach has the potential to appeal to human beings in a way that the other models do not. Have your students reflect on this model and discuss/analyze the ways this method can be incorporated into the arts. Furthermore, have them discuss how we can use movies/literature as analogous to the Christian narrative.

Other Media Sources/Websites “Does Presuppositional Apologetics Reject the Use of

Evidence?”:http://www.historicalbiblesociety.org/presuppositional-apologetics-reject-evidence/

“Five Apologetic Methods”: http://www.apologeticsindex.org/374-five-apologetics-methods

Presuppositional vs Evidential vs Classical Apologetics - R. C. Sproul, PhD: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VH7BZwn9x1w

“Does God Exist: The Experiential Apologetic (RZIM)”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwjFEJA_T7k

Suggested Essay Questions The presuppositionalists will contend that the evidential-based methods neglect the

cognitive effects of sin on the unbeliever and allow him/her to be the judge of God. Respond to this charge:Are the presuppositionalists correct? What biblical support can be given to support/refute this claim? Should Christians abandon providing evidences and arguments?

Within the evidential-based arguments are the Classical and Evidential methods. When providing evidence for Christianity, should we employ the “two-step method” (Classical) or the “one-step method” (Evidential)? What are the potential strengths and weaknesses of each approach as it pertains to the process of defending/appealing to Christianity with unbelievers?

What advantages does the Experiential/Narrative method have over the other models? Is there something about our humanity that this model appeals to which the others cannot? Consider the statement that human beings are more than simply thinking-things in your response.

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Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deed

Christian witnesses are not only speakers but sufferers too . . . Christ’s passion is a model for how we should stake truth claims today—as a suffering witness: “Christ is the truth [but] to be the truth is the only true explanation of what truth is.” The witness to the truth is one whose life

displays the rightness of the believing, and thus the rightness of the belief.7

Kevin J. Vanhoozer

Key TermsApologetics at the Cross, word, deed, the gospel, Holy Spirit, long-suffering testimony, personal transformation, holistic service

Key Points Everything we reflect on in apologetics should be viewed in light of the cross. As we take people to the cross in word and deed the gospel should be reflected in all we

do. The gospel announces who Jesus is, what Jesus did, and what Jesus secured. It would be a mistake to think that apologetics is the same thing as the gospel. The use of rational arguments is a tool that the Holy Spirit can use to bring people to

Christ. Apologetics also includes our deeds as a means to help clear the debris in the

unbeliever’s path.

Chapter Summary After a thorough chapter on various apologetic methods, the authors now begin to present

their own methodology and through this we see the title of the book – Apologetics at the Cross – truly come into focus. Following Paul’s lead, the authors note that the cross should be the foundation of apologetics. All apologetic content and methodology should be viewed in light of the cross. The centrality of the gospel to apologetics is the reason the book is entitled such with the word cross serving as a shorthand for the entire gospel message. Thus, as we take people to the cross through word and deed the gospel should be reflected in all that we do.

The discussion about apologetic methodologies between apologists is necessary and raises important theological and epistemological questions. These debates garnish a lot of attention and it is understandable; however, the discussions often lead to disunity and results in a tribalism. This tribalism, as the authors suggest, has perhaps diverted attention away from the focus of apologetics – the gospel – and how it should provide the central emphasis for all we do. This chapter and the remaining chapters in part two of the book offer gospel implications as rallying points for apologetics.

Since the gospel is the central emphasis for apologetics it is necessary to explain what is meant by “the gospel.” The authors state that the gospel is three things: it announces who Jesus is, announces what Jesus did, and promises what Jesus secured. The centrality of the gospel

7 Kevin J. Vanhoozer, First Theology: God, Scripture, and Hermeneutics (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 364–365. Vanhoozer’s quote in this passage is from David J. Gouwens, Kierkegaard as a Religious Thinker (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 218.

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though should not confuse the differences between apologetics and evangelism. Apologetics is not the same thing as the gospel and apologetics should be seen as a tool to clear debris out of people’s paths as they are being led to the gospel. The authors admit and have shown that genuine saving knowledge does not come through reason and evidence but they do submit that reason and arguments help to open people up to the possibility of such revelation. Furthermore, they clear away the misconception that presenting evidence and reason is pitted against the role of the Holy Spirit in salvation. The two works in concert with one another and presenting good arguments for Christianity serves as one of the means by which the Spirit can use.

Our words can be used to help clear the debris but so too can our deeds, more specifically, the faithful lives of Christians corporately living out the gospel. The authors suggest that modern apologetics has often faltered in not stressing this point enough. Our apologetic appeals are most faithful to the gospel and perhaps most effective when they are embedded within a corporate witness marked by long-suffering testimony, personal transformation, and holistic service. Each of these aspects of personal and corporate action serve as a reminder of what was emphasized in the previous chapter, the need for other-centeredness in our apologetic approach. The Holy Spirit uses our words in apologetics but he also uses our deeds. How Christians act serves as an apologetic witness to the life-changing power of the gospel.

Pedagogical Suggestions I would spend some significant time discussing the differences between apologetics and

evangelism. Teach the students what evangelism is and the need for special revelation and how apologetics is slightly different and how it uses reasons and arguments from both special and general revelation.

Emphasize the often-neglected role that our deeds can play in the apologetic endeavor. The means and delivery of our arguments are perhaps more important than what we say.

Other Media Sources/Websites See Book 4 ch. 10 of Mere Christianity on the role of Christian action in apologetics

Suggested Essay Questions How might the centrality of the gospel impact our apologetic method, both in the means

of delivery and the content of our arguments? Consider this question: “Isn’t apologetics the same as evangelism?” Interact with this

question and explain how and why apologetics and evangelism are not the same thing and how it would be easy to confuse the two. Furthermore, since they are related, explain how the two (apologetics and evangelism) work together.

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Chapter 7: Cruciform Humility before God and Others

Apologetics is not, primarily, about me . . . I ought to be commending the faith to my neighbor primarily for her benefit, to the glory of God. I ought not to be

engaging in apologetic conversation out of some need of my own, whether a need to save face, or show up an enemy, or congratulate myself on my fervor.

Apologetics, again, is a form of Christian speech, and as such it is always and only to offer a gift to the recipient—not aggrandize the speaker.8

John Stackhouse

Key TermsApologetic of glory, apologist at the cross, humility before God, humility before others, cultural idols, strong empiricism, unrealistic expectations, pattern for tone

Key Points The cross serves paradoxically as a symbol of both strength and humility. Apologists can either engage in an apologetics of glory or be an apologist at the cross. An apologist at the cross has a humility before God and others. We must avoid the idol of cultural acceptance especially in the areas of ethics and

knowledge. Jesus and Paul provide us with a particular tone for engaging those inside and outside of

the faith. The book of Proverbs provides us with many practical lessons for engaging others in

humility.

Chapter Summary Continuing the overall theme of part two of Apologetics at the Cross, the authors

continue to develop the method of the book’s name-sake. In this chapter, we will see further how the cross impacts apologetic engagement with a lost world. The cross, the underlying focus of apologetics, serves as a symbol of both strength and humility. Drawing upon Martin Luther’s contrast of a theologian of glory and a theologian of the cross, the authors contrast the cross and glory regarding apologetics. An apologist of glory engages others in order to seek honor, power, and his own personal satisfaction. He tends to be prideful in his own abilities and gets a thrill out of ‘beating’ his opponents. This apologist faces the temptation to reduce Christianity into something culturally palatable for the sake of his own success. In contrast, an apologist at the cross will engage others with humility, honesty, and a bold confidence in the seeming foolishness of the cross.

Another relevant aspect of Luther’s work to apologetics is his concern that the message of Christianity would be compromised for the sake of fashionable trends. The apologist at the cross is aware of this danger and while seeking to be contextually relevant to the culture they avoid compromising what might be deemed foolishness. An apologist at the cross humbly engages others but submits authority to the revelation of Scripture and so produces a humility to

8 John G. Stackhouse Jr., Humble Apologetics: Defending the Faith Today (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 141.

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God, supremely, and a humility before others. The remainder of the chapters discusses the two tiers of humility.

The context of any culture always provides challenges to apologetics but the enduring danger to the Christian tradition of apologetics is the constant pressure to compromise. The pressure to compromise can be both internal and external. God and his Word can make us uncomfortable. Also, there is the ever-present temptation to trim down Christianity to make it more palatable but we must avoid the idol of cultural acceptance. Compromise can manifest in many forms but two significant forms are ethics and knowledge. People often demand absolute knowledge of God’s existence but that is not what we have been given. This demand is a leftover of modernism and can be divided into strong empiricism and unrealistic expectations. There are many reasons why these two are problematic both theologically and practically. The apologist at the cross recognizes the limitations of knowledge and does not attempt to provide coercive proof for Christianity and sees the beauty that exists in mystery. Furthermore, the apologist realizes that a strong and compelling case can be made for Christianity, a case that does not exceed the bounds of our human limitations but provides good reasons to believe Christianity is true.

Humility before others is the other disposition an apologist at the cross must maintain. This posture is different than the humility before God most notably in the fact that we do not subject ourselves to the authority of the unbeliever. Humility before others is rooted in an other-centered approach to apologetics that upholds the fundamental principle of treating others as persons and not as objects. Most apologists know this in theory but the practice of apologetics can reveal something entirely different and ineffective. The New Testament gives us a pattern for tone when engaging those outside the faith. Both Jesus and Paul faithfully demonstrate a tone of gentleness a patience when they engage the lost. Few persons, if anyone, are drawn to the Christian faith through hard dialogue and rigid argumentation.

To finish that chapter, the authors provide the readers with six practical apologetic lessons from the book of Proverbs that help the apologist at the cross remain humble before others. First, listen and take others seriously (Prov. 18:13). Second, avoid falsely representing the other side (Prov. 21:28). Third, resist assuming motives (Prov. 20:5). Fourth, when you can, find points of agreement to affirm (Prov. 15:1). Fifth, resist focusing on the periphery (Prov. 13:10). Sixth, avoid being unnecessarily antagonistic (Prov. 20:3). This last point helps to sum up the chapter. There is a time and a way to speak bluntly and truthfully but our tone must always be with gentleness and respect. We must submit to what God’s Word tells us, namely, that apologetics and all that it entails depends on the redeeming work of the Spirit.

Pedagogical Suggestions Navigating the “leftovers” of modernism can be difficult especially when you are not

familiar with them or do not realize when they are being used. Walk the students through some arguments against Christianity that display a strong empiricism or unrealistic expectations. Perhaps you take on the role of the antagonist to Christianity and assume the persona of a person with those arguments.

Have the students journal/reflect on their experience (if any) with apologetics. Do they find that they generally displayed an apologetic of glory or were they an apologist at the cross? Furthermore, ask them to reflect on why they pursued their own glory (if they did) and what was the motivation behind the action.

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Other Media Sources/Websites “Rationalism vs. Empiricism” – Peter Markie:

https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=rationalism-empiricism

The Basics of Philosophy – Empiricism: http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_empiricism.html

Suggested Essay Questions List and discuss the six practical apologetic lessons from the book of Proverbs. With each

lesson, provide the verse/context for that lesson and a practical way it can be applied. Create a hypothetical scenario in which someone presents a defeater against Christianity

but you are critical of either their strong empiricism and/or unrealistic expectations. I am looking for a creative and thoughtful analysis of their objection as well as a response.

Reflect on your experience (if any) with apologetics. Do you find that you generally displayed an apologetic of glory or were you an apologist at the cross? Furthermore, reflect and then discuss why you pursued your own glory (if you did) and what was the motivation behind the action (pride, honor, vanity, glory, fear, etc.).

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Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

The reality is that every person embraces his or her worldview for a variety of rational, emotional, cultural, and social factors.9

Timothy Keller

Key TermsHeart, native rationality, cultural rationality, basic logic, frameworks of rationality, law of identity, law of non-contradiction, law of the excluded middle, stories, desiring beings, intellectually reflective being, moral beings, worshipping beings

Key Points The biblical use of the words heart and mind is quite different than the modernistic use of

the terms and reminds us that we are not compartmentalized beings. Our apologetic endeavors should appeal to the whole person. Human beings are intellectually reflective and moral beings who worship. A healthy apologetic method will remember that human beings are thinking, believing,

and desiring creatures. Sometimes we need to move beyond rational arguments in our apologetic methods and

appeal to others through story and imagination. Even though human beings are complex we should not neglect reason or providing good

reasons to believe Christianity is true.

Chapter Summary The impetus for this chapter is the belief that human beings are not compartmentalized

beings. Often, apologetics is viewed as a heady, intellectual endeavor with all manner of formal arguments and lofty dialogue which only appeals to a few who are naturally inclined to such things. We have already seen in chapter six how Jesus ministered to the whole person (spiritually and physically) foreshadowing a future, embodied salvation. Supporting this holistic view of salvation, Scripture uses “heart” to describe the center of a person’s being. We can contrast this with the contemporary uses of “heart” and “head” which tend to compartmentalize our desires and our rationality. Since human beings are holistic beings, that has a significant impact on how apologetics should be done. It reminds us that our persuasive efforts cannot force someone to convert simply by appealing to the intellect because human beings are much more complex than that.

The authors then direct our attention to three specific aspects of a theological anthropology, that humans are 1) intellectually reflective and 2) moral beings who 3) worship. We have already seen that some apologetic methods appeal to the intellect and while this is an important part of apologetics it can leave the false impression that coming to the Christian faith can be reduced to sorting out all the facts. Considering that we are holistic beings, it reminds us that we do use intellect while making decisions but we never make them on a purely intellectual basis. Along with being intellectually reflective, humans are also moral beings who have the capacity to reflect on the good and the right. Not all humans will agree on what the good entails but all humans (and cultures) have moral standards and make moral judgments. Lastly, humans

9 Timothy Keller, Making Sense of God: An Invitation to the Skeptical (New York: Viking Press, 2016), 4.

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are worshipping beings. All people worship something as ultimate regardless of how irreligious they may appear to be.

James K. A. Smith has similar anthropological commitments. He, too, sees the danger of reducing the person to a mere thinking-thing. Smith suggests that the best model of human persons is the human being as primarily a lover, an embodied agent of desire. Channeling Augustine’s notion of sin as disordered love, Smith points out that the problem is not that we love things in the world but that we love things in the wrong order, loving the created things of the world more than the Creator.

How then does apologetics help to refocus our disordered loves? What makes someone want to believe? A holistic view of human persons should expand our apologetic methods. The diversity and complexity of the world calls for diverse and complex engagement. This understanding opens up the possibilities for other forms of persuasion. Storied, imaginative, moral, and aesthetic appeals should all have a place in our persuasive efforts. All of these have the ability to strike at people’s hearts and cast a vision of the good life (the Christian life) and help to redirect people to their proper teleological end.

In this chapter, the authors are not narrowing apologetics but widening it. Furthermore, what they are trying to avoid is two extremes on a spectrum – on the one hand an over-emphasis on appealing to the intellect and on the other, rejecting the use of evidence-based appeals altogether. With this in mind, the authors finish the chapter with a discussion on logic and rationality, more specifically, a dialectical discussion between native rationality and cultural rationality and between basic logic and frameworks of rationality. All basic communication and persuasion is grounded in the basics of logic but whenever someone attempts to justify any action or belief as rational they must appeal to something more than and over and above the basic laws of logic (a point that will be further emphasized in later chapters, especially ch. 11).

In closing, each person we engage with is a holistic being and as such our apologetic appeals should engage the whole person. This universe is God’s universe and as such it is full of resources that point beyond the material world, resources that move beyond but do not neglect the intellect. The reality of holistic human beings provides us with the opportunity to be creative apologists who appeal to multi-dimensional people.

Pedagogical Suggestions An important aspect of apologetics is story-telling and imagination. This aspect, however,

has largely been neglected in apologetics. Help the students to discover the literary appeal for apologetics through the works of Tolkien, Lewis, and others.

Building on the last sections of the chapter, discuss the role of basic logic in communication. Then discuss what various cultures (either within the US or outside, etc.) have established as frameworks of rationality.

Other Media Sources/Websites “Apologetics and the Role of Plausibility Structures” by Joe Carter:

https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/apologetics-and-the-role-of-plausibility-structures/

James K.A. Smith: You Are What You Love: The Spiritual Power of Habit: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HChKd1aW-hI&t=624s

“An Introduction to ‘Theological Anthropology’” – Charles Cameron (PDF): https://theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/anthropology_cameron.pdf

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Suggested Essay Questions C. S. Lewis is a prime example of an apologist who appealed to the imagination through

story. Choose one of his fictional narratives and discuss how and in what ways the story makes an apologetic appeal for Christianity.

Create an apologetic methodology that includes reason, story, imagination, etc. How do we apply this methodology in various circumstances? Furthermore, what would you say to someone who disagreed with your methodology and only focused on one end of the spectrum?

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Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Cross

The gospel provides the stance from which all culture is to be evaluated; but the gospel . . . is always embodied in some cultural form.10

Lesslie Newbigin

Key TermsContextualization, cultural plausibility structures, pragmatics, 1 Cor. 9:19-23, culture, me-centered approach, others-centered approach, secularism

Key Points The message of the gospel is true for all people but the message itself was delivered to

and revealed in a particular culture. Following Paul’s lead, apologists are to take their listener seriously and at the same time

allow the gospel to set the limits of contextualization. Both Peter and Paul contextualized their apologetic approaches based on the group of

people they were engaging. The assumptions and attitudes of the culture we live in orient and shape us so deeply that

we usually don’t give much thought to them. Cultural plausibility structures refer to the beliefs we deem plausible because the people

around us support them.

Chapter SummaryThe gospel message is truth for all people at all times but it was revealed in a particular

culture into a particular context. Furthermore, whenever the gospel is presented it is contextualized through the language and thought forms of the culture it is being shared in. The apostle Paul provides us with some examples of contextualization in Scripture. No single passage can comprehensively describe Paul’s methodology for ministry as he was always contextualizing his message. For the authors’ purposes here, however, 1 Corinthians 9:19-23 serves dually as a key text in understanding Paul’s ministry and as a capstone to what has been discussed thus far in the book. Essentially Paul states that has become all things to all people, that he will do whatever is contextually necessary to help people understand the gospel without compromising its message. From this we can take away two points regarding apologetics: one, apologists are to take their listeners seriously; and two, the gospel sets the limits of contextualization.

Using the major speeches in Acts as a case study, the authors discuss and evaluate the various apologetic methods to three various groups – Jews, Greeks, and the Romans. To each group, the speaker contextualizes his message but never compromises the core of the gospel for the sake of relatability. In Acts 2:14-36 we see Peter’s apologetic to the Jews at Pentecost. Peter reaches out to his Jewish listeners in three ways. First, Peter demonstrates that Jesus has ushered in specific scriptural expectations that the Jewish people had for events surrounding the coming messiah and the establishing of God’s kingdom. Second, he makes appeals to OT prophetic passages which were sources of authority to the Jews. Third, he uses language that would have been considered acceptable to his audience.

10 Lesslie Newbigin, Foolishness to the Greeks: The Gospel and Western Culture (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 41.

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Paul’s speech at Mars Hill gives us a glimpse of his apologetic to the Greeks. He develops his apologetic argument in three major steps. First, Paul builds a relational bridge by relating to the Greeks in their belief in supernatural beings, their desire to worship, their sense that they might be missing something, and their belief in a god who is the source of all life. Next, Paul challenges the culture by drawing upon their assumptions and showing the inconsistencies of their conclusions. Lastly, Paul then connects his audience to Jesus.

We also see Paul’s apologetic to the Romans in Acts 24-26. The Romans had a negative view of Christians and Paul was tasked to demonstrate that Christianity was not a danger to the empire. It should be noted that the authors point out here that studies have demonstrated how Paul’s speeches to Roman officials in these passages conform to patterns that were common in Roman legal proceedings. In Acts 24 Paul is brought before the Roman governor Felix. Paul responds to each accusation against him in the pattern conforming to Roman legality and their rules of evidence. There are two more instances where Paul was brought before officials and he again displayed similar methodology to persuade and contextualize his case of innocence.

If we are to present an other-centered apologetic, then we must contextualize our approach but that requires us being aware of the cultures we are engaging. The topic of contextualization will be developed further in a later chapter and in the remainder of the chapter the authors address these two important questions: (1) what do we mean by the term “culture?” and (2) how significant are cultural assumptions to apologetics? A person within their given culture will orient and shape a person in a significant but subtle way. Unbeknownst to us, the culture provides us a grid or a framework through which we interpret the world. It is important as apologists that we understand how people’s assumptions and beliefs are historically and culturally conditioned in what the authors call ‘cultural plausibility structures.’ The challenge with plausibility structures in apologetics is that these frameworks go largely unnoticed and therefore uncriticized or unchallenged.

With this idea of cultural plausibility structures in place, the authors are prepared for the coming chapters. These largely pre-reflective frameworks through which we view the world form our default interpretations but they are by no means immune from critique. Too often Christians do not recognize the existence of cultural and sub-cultural frameworks through which secular people filter evidences and proofs. In the next chapter, we move to the application portion of the book, picking up right where things left off by working to answer this question: How do you get someone to open up and examine their own web of beliefs and assumptions?

Pedagogical Suggestions Since culture is the air we breathe and largely goes unreflective, have the student think

about what aspects of life (food, family, religion, clothes, etc.) are influenced by culture; then, have them consider how their particular culture thinks/act in those aspects of life.

Before unpacking in detail how Peter and Paul contextualized their message to the various audiences, have the students read all three stories and then see if they can detect specific components that are unique to their apologetic methodology.

Other Media Sources/Websites

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“What is Contextualization? Presenting the Gospel in Culturally Relevant Ways” – Ed Stetzer: http://www.christianitytoday.com/edstetzer/2014/october/what-is-contextualization.html

“Making Sense of God: An Invitation to the Skeptical” (Talks at Google) – Tim Keller: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uIvOniW8xA&t=3069s

“Acts 17 and Cultural Contextualization” – Scott Aniol: http://religiousaffections.org/articles/articles-on-culture/acts-17-and-cultural-contextualization/

“Putting Contextualization in its Place” Anonymous (likely to protect author who is involved with oversees missions): https://www.9marks.org/article/putting-contextualization-its-place/

Suggested Essay Questions Of the three Acts speeches, pick two and discuss the apostle’s (Peter of Paul)

contextualization of the gospel message to fit his audience. How did he engage in their plausibility structures? What apologetic lessons can we learn?

What do we mean by the term “culture” and how significant are cultural assumptions to apologetics? Why do we need to be aware of culture while engaging in apologetics? What is the relation between an other-centered approach to apologetics and culture?

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Part III: The Practice of Apologetics at the Cross

Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Out

Christianity does not set faith against thinking. It sets faith against assuming.11

Timothy Keller

Key TermsInside/Out approach, Premodernism, Modernism, Late Modernism, age of the Spinmeister, immanent frame, nova effect, a spin, a take, “A” and “B” doctrines

Key Points There are three basic periods in the history of Western culture: Pre-modernism,

Modernism, Late Modernism. Two influential aspects of late modernism are the immanent frame and the age of the

spinmeister. Christian apologists have the option of providing a spin or a take. The “Inside Out” model is a method for engaging others in an others-centered way while

remaining focused on the gospel. Another effective model of engagement is the use of “A” and “B” doctrines in dialogue. The Christian story offers the greatest explanatory power for human experience.

Chapter Summary Returning to the house analogy, this chapter is the beginning of Part 3 of the book and it

is time to install the most visible aspects of the building project. Up to this point a solid structure has been built and now the paint, the flooring, and the furnishings (the features that everyone sees) will be installed. Before establishing specific strategies of engaging the cultural trends of late modernism and plausibility structures, the authors discuss the historical shifts (Premodernism Modernism Late Modernism) that have led to where we are and two salient features of late modernism – the immanent frame and the age of the spinmeister – which have emerged. The most widely used term for the current meta-cultural trend is postmodernism, but the authors chose instead to refer to it as late modernism. They did so because to call it postmodern suggests that we live in an age that is the very opposite of modernism. This is not true however, and key principles of the Enlightenment are still at work.

Two influential aspects of late modernism are highlighted because of their impact on apologetics. The first is the immanent frame which refers to how people in the current cultural context view everything in terms of a natural, rather than supernatural, order. The modern imagination is reduced to the immanent and there is no over-arching, supernatural meaning or purpose to life. The current cultural context could also be described as the age of the spinmeister. In the age of the spinmeister, people have a general distrust for authority figures because they feel like they are the recipients of a bad sales job. Facts are spun in order to convince you of all manner of things (products, ideas, worldviews, political positions, or simply a pair of shoes).

With this background in place, the authors now provide a specific approach which has been termed “inside out” and it is a frame of reference which the Christians can internalize and

11 Cited from twitter, August 28, 2014.

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apply to a wide array of apologetic situations. This model insists that the gospels be at the center of apologetic dialogue and suggests that apologists focus on points where Christianity overlaps with the views of the other person. The first step of the model is to go inside, to discern what can be affirmed and what needs to be challenged in a person’s worldview. Once you have affirmed you helped that person to see the blind spots in their assumptions by taking their beliefs to their logical conclusions. As you do this you are moving outside, moving eventually to Christianity and the gospel.

When you move to the outside and challenge their worldview the argument must necessarily move beyond their assumptions and introduce the Christiain worldview. At this point, however, the Christian apologist can deliver their response with the posture of a spin or a take. A spin is someone’s view of the world that is an overconfident picture of the way things are and they see their view as obvious and tend to brush off those who disagree. Both holding and presenting your view as a spin is a recipe, as the authors note, for mutual caricature and unsympathetic listening. This will make beneficial dialogue difficult to maintain. The second option is to hold and present one’s view as a take. A take embraces a picture of reality while at the same time recognizing the contestability of said view. A person who inhabits the world in this way is willing to admit there are weaknesses in their view and that there is some plausibility in other takes as well. A take on reality does not relativize truth rather it admits of the human condition and offers epistemic humility. The authors submit that we all have takes but that a distinctly Christian take has the greatest explanatory power.

Pedagogical Suggestions Show the students modern commercial clips and have them see the way in which media

offers a spin on things. How have we been engineered to think and buy? Have them discuss their views on authority and what are the reasons for subtle or explicit distrust.

Provide them with a hypothetical scenario in which you the professor take on the role of someone who has a specific grievance with Christianity. State your grievance and have them apply the inside out model of apologetic engagement with you in conversation.

Other Media Sources/Websites Commercials to use to show how they try and persuade and sell you an idea rather than a

producto Matthew McConaughey Lincoln commercial:https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=FoGGDKV88Fgo Lebron James Cleveland Cavaliers “Together”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=n6S1JoCSVNU “Is Tolerance Intolerant? Pursuing the Climate of Acceptance and Inclusion”:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uyTa5r4GG4M “How (Not) To Be Secular: Responding To A New Millennium” - James K.A. Smith:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QPY6VLuEPQ&t=1657s “Our Secular Age” – James K. A. Smith: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=H5B4XbZvD-8&t=583s

Suggested Essay Questions

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Create a hypothetical situation in which you interact with someone who has a specific grievance against Christianity. Use the Inside/Out method in response to this person.

Discuss the three basic periods in the history of Western culture and provide the salient features of each. Furthermore, what are some specific characteristics of the Late Modern period and how do they impact our apologetic approach?

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Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernism

There is a generalized sense in our culture that with the eclipse of the transcendent, something may have been lost.12

Charles Taylor

Key TermsModern pluralism, theological pluralism, the ethics of authenticity, expressive individualism, self-authorizing morality, religious lethargy, therapeutic turn, identity

Key Points The challenge of modern pluralism is met with the opportunity for Christians to be more

intentional and sincere about their faith. An ethic of authenticity pervades the culture in which expressive individualism, being

true to oneself, is the highest good. Religious lethargy, a natural outworking of the immanent frame, sees people trying to

construct their own webs of meaning apart from any transcendent meaning or purpose. The therapeutic turn trades sin for sickness, righteousness for good feelings, and the

pastor for the psychiatrist. Christians must remember that in any fallen culture there will be aspects of Christianity

that will seem crazy, foolish, or dangerous. We must remain true to the gospel, which challenges all human cultures at certain points.

Chapter Summary This chapter picks right up where chapter ten ended. In this chapter, the authors use the

inside out approach to explore challenges and opportunities that exist within our current cultural context. Furthermore, they seek to develop answers to the questions posed at the conclusion of the previous chapter: What are some of the ways we can connect the human and cultural aspirations of late modernism to the gospel? In what way does the Christian story offer the greatest explanatory power for human experience?

The first challenge is the concept of modern pluralism. Throughout history, there have always been pluralistic societies, but in those societies, there tended to be one dominant culture. This tended to mean that the dominant culture and their beliefs did not have to contend with the minority views as theirs was the view that was generally accepted and unquestioned. Modern pluralism as it exists today is different because there no longer exists one dominant religious culture that is given overwhelming credibility or is beyond being challenged. But within each challenge is an underlying opportunity. Modern pluralism can seem daunting but it also challenges Christians to be more intentional about their faith both internally and externally. The authors employ the inside out method to theological pluralism and reveal the inconsistencies of this cultural tendency (inside). Then they move out and show how Christianity is both an exclusive all-inclusive message that upholds the dignity of each person.

The second challenge is the ethics of authenticity. There is a widespread phenomenon in Western culture referred to as expressive individualism. It is this notion that individuality must be lived out in opposition to anything or anyone who would try and conform the individual to a

12 Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap, 2007), 307.

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model imposed from the outside. You must be true to yourself and resist the shackles of exterior expectations. The opportunities for Christian apologists within this context are many. Intimately connected to an ethic of authenticity are matters of identity, justice, and community. With each of these opportunities the inside part of the model affirms that all of these are aspects of reality to champion but at the same time a secular worldview will not have many resources to ground these intuitions. Christianity has many resources at its disposal to tell a robust story of human identity, the concept of justice, and the grounding and ontology of community.

Third is the concept of religious lethargy. Given all of the characteristics of late modernism mentioned to this point, religious lethargy is a natural outflow of supernatural erosion. The second story of the house (the supernatural realm) has been removed and with it the perception that one needs God to find meaning and purpose in life. People have constructed their own webs of meaning and so what is missing in their life, if anything, hardly looks like a god-shaped hole. The everyday experiences of life, the sense of awe we feel towards beauty, our notions of the good life and death are all opportunities to both affirm and then challenge these unreligious webs of meaning. People want to fill their life with meaning but once again their resources are limited or they are borrowing from Christianity without even realizing it.

Lastly is the concept of the therapeutic turn. Indicative of the therapeutic turn is the turning from sin to sickness, from righteousness to good feelings, from a moral register to a therapeutic one. Religion is not the answer because it teaches that the problem with the human condition is sin and the notion of sin is rejected. The opportunities in this concept are the high view of human dignity that remains and, believe it or not, the sinfulness of idolatry. The authors note that even though the culture has reduced sin to a sickness to be treated they cannot escape the disappointment, despair, and discontent of their lives. Because human beings worship something as ultimate, their hearts make idols out of their desires. We know that these idols are futile attempts to find meaning and it is only when the heart and its desires are properly focused that one finds true fulfillment.

Pedagogical Suggestions As with previous lessons, the opportunity for in-class practice presents itself. With each

of the challenges, have the students apply the inside out method to each of the areas of opportunity.

Other Media Sources/Websites “Learn How to Do Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century with Ravi Zacharias”:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2zrHxbucOM “What kind of religion makes sense in a secular age?” – Charles Taylor:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAuHmRSxZY4 “How Youth Like Me Learn Expressive Individualism” – Jaquelle Crowe:

https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/how-youth-like-me-learn-expressive-individualism/

Suggested Essay Questions Pick one of the late modern challenges to Christian apologetics and discuss its salient

features. Then apply the inside out method to one of the areas of opportunity within that section.

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Discuss the challenges which exist in our current cultural context. Describe and explain their salient features and how each one of them are rooted in the specifics of late modernism.

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Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaters

“The riddles of God are more satisfying than the solutions of men.”13

G. K. Chesterton

Key TermsDefeaters, restrictive, sexual ethic, hypocrisy, reason and science, problem of evil, logical problem of evil, experiential problem of evil, coming-of-age narrative, scientism, Trinity, reliability

Key Points Doing apologetics is like drawing a map for a person. Each person needs a specific map

tailored to them; in the same way apologists must craft their responses to the person they are engaging.

There are many defeaters that people level against Christianity. In this chapter, eight of the most common are discussed.

The inside out approach can be applied to each defeater as the authors provide a trajectory for future apologetic conversations.

Christianity has an ample amount of resources to adequately respond to all of the defeaters in this chapter. In the end, Christianity tells a better story.

Chapter SummaryDealing with defeaters is perhaps the most common part of doing apologetics. People

have serious issues with Christianity and it is the job of the apologist to help clear that debris from the road. In this chapter, the authors present several common defeaters and then offer guidance for responding to them. The responses are not exhaustive but instructive and this is purposeful. If you remember in chapter five the analogy of a road map then you recall that our directions need to be person specific. Thus, how to respond to defeaters is not a specific step-by-step method that works the same for all people. The authors strike a middle ground approach providing the reader with basic instructions and examples for dealing with defeaters while keep the technicalities to a minimum while keeping the inside out approach in mind as the broader backdrop.14

The first defeater states that Christianity is too restrictive and does not give people the opportunity to flourish. This view is quite common, that Christianity takes the fun out of life and God wants to take all joy out of life. Christianity as restrictive is common likely because most unbelievers and many Christians even see it as merely a set of rules which to obey but this couldn’t be further from the truth as Jesus taught that he came to give life (John 10:10). But before one tries to defend Christianity, remember the inside out approach we need to affirm then challenge. Christians and non-Christians can agree that human flourishing is a great good but

13 G. K. Chesterton, G. K. C. as M. C.: A Collection of 37 Rare G.K. Chesterton Essays, ed. J. P. de Fonseka (1929; repr., Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015), 282.

14 This chapter is one of the longest in the book and the authors cover many defeaters (8 in total) and so here in the summary I will try and capture the most salient points but will regretfully have to leave some important information out. Furthermore, space only affords me the option to discuss a few of the defeaters but not all, and I have chosen the most common ones.

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why should we assume that flourishing only comes from following one’s heart? Here, one of the cultural assumptions from chapter 11, expressive individualism, emerges. It is with this assumption, the authors suggest, that the problem emerges. Turning inward to discover the true self will promise freedom, but it cannot deliver for human beings since they will always be slave to something that is exterior to them. Christianity teaches something that is counterintuitive to late modernism, that in order to save your life you must lose it.

The second defeater – the Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are homophobic – is also quite common, especially in the sexually inundated Western culture. The late modern assumption still pervades and the turn to the self as the ultimate authority is ever-present. Christians can affirm that sex is good and it is a means to human flourishing, but not its end. Apologists can challenge the late modern mantra that we must act on our desires, that our desires lead to flourishing. One can assume that even this person has restrictions on sexual activity not only for themselves but on certain kinds of sexual acts. But this is not consistent with their belief of turning to the self for true authenticity and authority, what is right or wrong for one person should have no bearing on someone else. As the Christian moves out at this point, he/she can show how sex is a great good, but because it was designed by God it has a telos, which means it has boundaries in which to flourish. Christianity does not dehumanize by restricting sex, it actually liberates our humanity and provides true flourishing.

The last defeater to mention here in the summary concerns the problem of evil. The existence of evil and suffering in the world is perhaps, as the authors suggest, the human problem and is not just a problem for religion and belief in God. In order to draw the roadmap for this defeater you should first get to know what kind of problem the person has. The defeater of evil can either be an intellectual problem, an experiential problem, or both. Depending on the person’s particular grievance, the apologist should respond accordingly. Entering inside the person’s plausibility structure, affirm what can be affirmed regarding the problem of evil. The points to challenge can be many as it depends on their take of what evil is and why they experience it. The authors go through a number of experiential and logical scenarios and provide the readers with different ways to challenge based on their belief.

Of course, there are many more defeaters in the chapter and even more that weren’t discussed in this chapter. Nevertheless, the ones discussed in the chapter are the most common objections apologists will face in the culture. This chapter has equipped the reader with trajectories that will hopefully help guide future conversations with an others-centered mindset and approach. The next chapter is the final chapter in the book and the authors will be offering their own model for making a positive case for Christianity.

Pedagogical Suggestions Like past pedagogical suggestions, have the students pair off into groups and have them

construct a dialogue that deals with a common defeater and applies the inside out method to the conversation.

The professor/teacher should take on the persona of a person with a defeater (specifically the Problem of Evil). Have the students ask questions and respond to you and have them 1) try and discern the specific problem of evil and then 2) have them continue on in dialogue applying the inside out approach.

Other Media Sources/Websites

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On the reliability of Scripture o Sean McDowell: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-cyppKwWLo8 o “Deciding the Canon of Scripture: A Look into the Concept of Self-

Authentification”: http://www.historicalbiblesociety.org/deciding-canon-scripture-concept-self-authentication/

“The Problem of Evil: C. S. Lewis Speaks to Life’s Most Difficult Questions” – Art Lindsley: http://www.cslewisinstitute.org/webfm_send/636

“Faith vs. Reason” – Dr. Jason Lisle: https://answersingenesis.org/apologetics/faith-vs-reason/

Suggested Essay Questions Pick one of the eight defeaters. Discuss the details of this defeater and then apply the

inside out method as a hypothetical response to the defeater. Consider the two aspects of the problem of evil: the logical and the experiential. Discuss

the differences between the two types and then construct a response to both as well.

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Chapter 13: Making a Case

It is for this reason that the present age is better than Christendom. In the old Christendom, everyone was a Christian and hardly anyone thought twice about it. But in the present age the

survivor of theory and consumption becomes the wayfarer in the desert, like St. Anthony; which is to say, open to signs.15

Walker Percy

Key TermsSignposts, intelligibility, fine-tuning, holistic persuasion, a take, proofs, moral realism, miracles, historical events, unlikely disciples, Jewish paradigm shift, multiple appearances

Key Points Christian persuasion should be holistic. Christian apologists can use the signposts of life as a means of pointing to a transcendent

reality beyond the material world. The Christian story answers the deep questions of life that every person seeks to answer. The death and resurrection of Jesus is the central part of the Christian story. Christians have good historical evidence to believe the resurrection happened. While apologetics should be contextual, it should also be formed out of the right context. The wisdom of the cross, so central in drawing the right apologetic map for the right

situation, grows within the rich soil of God’s people singing, reading, feasting, praying, and confessing around God’s Word.

Chapter Summary The final chapter of the book is where the authors make their final case for Christianity.

Building on all that has come before, the authors remind the reader that our apologetic appeals should be holistic because human beings are holistic beings. Humans do not exclusively think their way through life and so as Christian apologists try and persuade others of the veracity of Christianity, it must be done through more than just logical arguments. Apologetics at the Cross calls the church to 1) live out an apologetic that undermines misconceptions of Christianity and embodies a more compelling and beatific vision of life (chapters 6–8), 1) help others see the problems with their own backgrounds and frameworks that cause them to approach Christianity as implausible (chapters 9–11) and 2) offer intelligent responses to objections and reasons for committing to Christ (chapters 12–13). In this way, Apologetics at the Cross is not a narrowing of the apologetic task, but a broadening of it.

To begin their positive case for Christianity, the authors note that they are providing signposts to Christianity which is a more modest approach than offering coercive proofs for God. Using these signposts, the authors produce a Christian take which they believe offers the deepest, richest, and most coherent view of reality. Next, the questions that are posed in this section on signposts can be used to prompt others to consider the best way to interpret these signs. The questions that are asked include: Why can we make sense of the universe? Why is it that the universe seems fine-tuned for life? What makes best sense of the consensus that the universe had a beginning? How can moral realism be grounded? What is the best explanation for the

15 Walker Percy, Signposts in a Strange Land (New York: Open Road Media, 2011), 314.

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numerous eyewitness accounts of miracles? The answers to these questions are not obvious, although a strong appeal is made that these questions can point to a transcendent reality beyond our universe. Furthermore, these questions and their explanations can help in opening the door to the story of Christianity.

In chapter eight, the authors made an appeal to stories as part of an apologetic method and they discussed how they provide a significant framework for us to experience the world. All people are challenged to answer for themselves the deep questions of life – Who are we? What is the problem with the world and its solution? Where are we going? – and these questions are not answered simply by the use of reason and logic but also with stories which can powerfully shape our lives. We live in a world of competing stories but it is the conviction of Apologetics at the Cross that the Christian story has the best and most powerful answers to these universal questions of life. The Christian story tells human beings who they are—they are image bearers of God; it tells us the solution to this broken world, a God who enters this world and suffers so the world may be redeemed; and, it answers where we are going, death was defeated, and those who are in Christ will be resurrected to eternal life.

The centrality of the Christian story rests on the death and subsequent resurrection of Jesus. Without the resurrection, Jesus remains a righteous Jewish zealot who was wrongfully accused and executed, but if the resurrection did happen, then Jesus is God and the whole of human history is radically transformed. Why do Christians believe that the resurrection happened though? Is it merely a subjective experience of risenness, or did it truly happen in human history? Christians have good reasons to believe that the resurrection happened as a literal event in history and the authors devote the remainder of the chapter exploring those reasons. Staying true to their overall message, the authors’ disposition is modest, as they do not claim to have 100% proof, and fair in that they are honest about not being unbiased or impartial nor demanding the unbeliever be either.

The conclusion of the chapter is also in some ways a conclusion to the book as well. The authors remind the reader that apologetics should start with the conviction that a Christian apologetic must arise from the gospel of Jesus Christ. The gospel is both the goal and the lens through which we should do apologetics. Furthermore, a healthy apologetic is rooted in the local church and should be central in the formative process of Christian apologetics. As the chapter concludes the authors leave these final words of wisdom: “The wisdom of the cross, so central in drawing the right apologetic map for the right situation, grows within the rich soil of God’s people singing, reading, feasting, praying, and confessing around God’s Word. Thus, as you put apologetics to practice, practice apologetics out of a commitment to a local church, rooted in the gospel.”

Pedagogical Suggestions Revisit the method of story-telling. Play certain scenes from various movies that evoke

certain kinds of emotions. Show the students how they impact us not only through how they make us feel but the message they communicate as well. Play the clip provided below from The Lord of the Rings. Although this movie may not have been thought of in an apologetic way, this clip teaches us about good and evil, justice, and good triumphing over evil. This is a powerful scene (signpost) that evokes a visceral response which Christians can use to make appeals to Christianity.

Viewing the resurrection as a historical event can be a challenging concept for someone who has never thought of it in that way before. Spend extra time working through the

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evidences for the resurrection and help the students to see why it is we have good reasons to believe Christianity is true and having faith means putting our trust in those reasons.

Other Media Sources/Websites To help demonstrate the power of story (in media as well), show this clip from The Lord

of Rings: The Return of the King: Battle of Pelennor Fields – Rohirrim Charge: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l8yOdAqBFcQ

On the historicity of the resurrection see: www.garyhabermas.com

Suggested Essay Questions In this essay, present the resurrection as a historical event. Discuss the limitations of

historical inquiry and what can be demonstrated. Then present the evidences surrounding the resurrection and demonstrate why Christians have good reasons for believing Christianity is true.

In this essay, discuss the use of story in contrast with logic and reason. What role can story play in our apologetic method? What questions can the story of Christianity answer in a robust and satisfying way?

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Student Learning ObjectivesIntroduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross

Students should be able to:1. Discuss the context of the apologetic proof-text found in 1 Peter 3:15.2. Discuss how the context of 1 Peter 3:15 shapes how we should approach apologetic

engagement.3. Provide a basic definition of apologetics.4. Explain what a defensive apologetic is and give some examples of it.5. Explain what an offensive apologetic is and give some examples of it.6. Understand that to be effective apologists, Christians must not only act and speak a

certain way, they must also understand the culture and context in which they live.7. Briefly explain certain characteristics of the late modern cultural framework and its

relation to authority and doubt.

Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1

Students should be able to:1. Discuss the context of 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 and demonstrate how Paul was not speaking

against apologetics and was actually being quite contextual and cultural in his message of the Gospel.

2. Explain what is meant by having “cross-colored lenses” as a foundation for apologetics.3. Discuss how creation and all that is within act as an apologetic for God’s existence.4. Explain how the OT prophets often used apologetics in a polemical way towards other

religions.5. Discuss how miracles and acts of power are used by God through his prophets and

apostles throughout Scripture to demonstrate his existence, power, and superiority.6. Explain how Jesus validated his message of divinity through miracles.7. Discuss how the authors of the NT used evidences and other means to establish the truth

claims of the resurrection of Jesus.8. Discuss how the church can act as an apologetic for the existence of God by, at the very

least, explaining the implications of the Salt and Light analogy.

Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2

Students should be able to:1. Explain that there is no one specific “biblical apologetic;” rather, there are many types

because the biblical authors, under God’s inspiration, were contextual and their persuasive arguments were geared towards the culture(s) they were engaging.

2. Explain each aspect of the agential apologetic category – Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit witness.

3. Explain how the biblical authors and characters often used question asking as a way to disarm false beliefs.

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4. Discuss how the Bible answers objections often and does so by anticipating them and/or reframing the objection.

5. Provide the biblical reasons for suffering and explain how Christianity provides the ultimate solution to suffering – Jesus Christ.

6. Discuss the use of reason and logic in Scripture and explain the significance and relevance of situatedness for today.

7. Explain how Apocalyptic literature serves as an apologetic tool.8. Discuss how some biblical authors used pagan sources in an apologetic way to point to

the truth of Christianity.9. Discuss story-telling as an apologetic category and show how Christianity tells the best

story about reality.

Chapter 3: Apologetics within the Great Tradition: Part 1

Students should be able to:1. List and describe the heresies faced by the early church: Gnosticism, Marcionism,

Manichaeism, and Arianism.2. List and discuss the key figures in the early church that defended the church against the

above heresies: Irenaeus, Tertullian, Augustine, and Athanasius.3. Discuss some of the challenges posed to the church by Jews and identify that it was Justin

Martyr who worked to resolve the challenges in Dialogue with Trypho.4. Discuss the Greek and Roman challenges to Christianity (both Political/Cultural and

Philosophical challenges) and how the church responded accordingly.5. Discuss the main heretical challenges in the early Middle Ages and explain some of the

key features of each.6. Discuss the major contributions to Christian apologetics from both Anselm and Aquinas.

Chapter 4: Apologetics within the Great Tradition: Part 2

Students should be able to:1. Explain the critiques given by the Protestant Reformation in response to the perceived

abuses of the Catholic church both doctrinally and in praxis.2. Discuss the Catholic Church’s response to the Reformers as well as highlight their

continued efforts to rebut the challenges of various faiths outside of the church.3. Discuss the Enlightenment principles and explain how and why they brought a whole

new set of challenges to the Christian faith and apologetics.4. Discuss some of the prominent Enlightenment thinkers and their contributions to

philosophy.5. Discuss how the Enlightenment/modernity paradigm has influenced the Christian

apologetic response in both positive and negative ways: positively, the church has to continue to develop, be creative, and contextualize their content and methodology, and negatively, in that sometimes the commitment to contextualization leads to a compromise of the fundamentals of the faith.

6. List and explain the various apologetic methodologies and types that were developed during this time.

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Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methods

Students should be able to:1. Discuss and explain the central features and components of the apologetic method chart

given in the beginning of the chapter.2. Explain the salient features of Classical apologetics as well as be able to list and discuss

the strengths and weaknesses of this model.3. Explain the salient features of Evidential apologetics as well as be able to list and discuss

the strengths and weaknesses of this model.4. Explain the salient features of Presuppositional apologetics as well as be able to list and

discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this model.5. Explain the salient features of Experiential/Narratival apologetics as well as be able to list

and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this model.6. Discuss and explain the differences between a soft and hard version of any model.7. Explain why the map analogy is used while discussing the apologetic method and how

that will help Christians to be other-focused.

Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deed

Students should be able to:1. Explain what it means to do apologetics in light of the cross.2. Discuss what is meant by taking people to the cross in word and deed.3. Explain each component of what the gospel announces: who Jesus is, what Jesus did, and

what Jesus secured.4. Explain this phrase: It would be a mistake to think that apologetics is the same thing as

the gospel.5. Explain and discuss the role of the Holy Spirit in the role of apologetics.6. Explain how and in what manner our deeds are a means to help clear the debris in the

unbeliever’s path.

Chapter 7: Cruciform Humility before God and Others

Students should be able to:1. Explain how the cross paradoxically serves as a symbol of both strength and humility.2. Discuss the differences between an apologetic of glory contrasted with an apologetics at

the cross.3. Discuss the two phrases ‘humility before God’ and ‘humility before others’ and how

humility looks in relation to the two (i.e. God and others).4. Discuss the two idols of cultural acceptance (ethics and knowledge) and the salient

features of each (especially the “leftovers” of modernism).5. Discuss how Christians are to have a humility before others in relation to the New

Testament pattern for tone.6. Discuss the various practical apologetic lessons from the book of Proverbs.

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Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

Students should be able to:1. Explain the differences between the biblical use of the words heart and mind in relation

to the modern use of the terms.2. Explain why our apologetic endeavors should appeal to the whole person.3. Discuss and explain the belief that human beings are intellectually reflective and moral

beings who worship.4. Discuss the need for and the components of a healthy apologetic method remembering

that human beings are thinking, believing, and desiring creatures.5. Explain why it is sometimes necessary to move beyond rational arguments in our

apologetic methods and appeal to others through story and imagination.6. Discuss the balance that should form between reason-based arguments and other types of

persuasion. Explain the potential risks of neglecting either one.

Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Cross

Students should be able to:1. Discuss that the message of the gospel is true for all people but how that message itself

was delivered to and revealed in a particular culture.2. Discuss the significant aspects of Paul’s statements in 1 Corinthians 9:19-23 and how that

relates to apologetics.3. Explain and discuss the details of both Peter and Paul’s contextualization of their

apologetic approaches based on the group of people they were engaging.4. Discuss how the assumptions and attitudes of the culture we live in orient and shape us so

deeply that we usually don’t give much thought to them and explain why it is important for us to be aware of them.

5. Discuss the nature of cultural plausibility structures and their significance in relation to other-centered apologetics.

Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Out

Students should be able to:1. Discuss and describe the three basic periods in the history of Western culture: Pre-

modernism, Modernism, Late Modernism.2. Discuss and describe the two influential aspects of late modernism: the immanent frame

and the age of the spinmeister.3. Explain the differences between providing a spin or a take.4. Discuss the “Inside Out” model as a method for engaging others in an others-centered

way while remaining focused on the gospel.5. Discuss the details of “A” and “B” doctrines in dialogue and how to apply them to

apologetics.6. Explain how the Christian story offers the greatest explanatory power for human

experience.

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Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernism

Students should be able to:1. Discuss the challenge of modern pluralism as well as provide the opportunities it

provides for Christianity.2. Discuss the challenges of an ethic of authenticity and list some of its salient features as

well as the opportunities provided to Christianity.3. Discuss the challenge of religious lethargy as well as list the opportunities it provides

Christian engagement.4. Discuss the therapeutic turn and provide some of its salient features. Furthermore,

provide the opportunities this challenge presents Christianity.5. Apply the inside out method to each of these challenges and demonstrate how, with each

opportunity, we can apply the inside out model.6. Explain why Christians must remember that in any fallen culture there will be aspects of

Christianity that will seem crazy, foolish, or dangerous and how they must remain true to the gospel, which challenges all human cultures at certain points.

Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaters

Students should be able to:1. Explain and discuss the salient features of the Christianity is too restrictive defeater

(defeater #1) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.2. Explain and discuss the salient features of the Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing

defeater (defeater #2) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

3. Explain and discuss the salient features of the Christians are a bunch of hypocrites defeater (defeater #3) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

4. Explain and discuss the salient features of the faith is for people who believe things without any evidence defeater (defeater #4) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

5. Explain and discuss the salient features of the problem of evil defeater (defeater #5) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

6. Explain and discuss the salient features of the judgment and wrath defeater (defeater #6) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

7. Explain and discuss the salient features of the Bible is unreliable defeater (defeater #7) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

8. Explain and discuss the salient features of the Christian doctrine of the trinity is confusing and illogical (defeater #8) as well as apply the inside out method to the multiple facets of this defeater.

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Chapter 13: Making a Case

Students should be able to:1. Discuss why Christian apologetic persuasion should be holistic.2. Discuss how Christian apologists can use the signposts of life as a means of pointing to a

transcendent reality beyond the material world.3. Demonstrate how the Christian story answers the deep questions of life that every person

seeks to answer.4. Explain how the death and resurrection of Jesus is the central part of the Christian story.5. Discuss and present the good historical evidences Christians have for believing the

resurrection happened.6. Explain how Christian apologists should be contextual but also how to be formed in the

right context.7. Discuss why the wisdom of the cross is so central in drawing the right apologetic map for

the right situation and how it grows within the rich soil of God’s people singing, reading, feasting, praying, and confessing around God’s Word (i.e., the Church).

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Chapter QuizzesIntroduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross

True/False1. First Peter 3:15 serves as a proof-text for apologetics. True2. One can accurately understand what Peter says about defending the faith from just

reading 1 Peter 3:15 itself. False3. The what of your apologetic response to others is far more important than how one

presents reasons and arguments. False4. The authors state that apologetics, in its most basic form, is “the practice of making an

appeal and a defense for the Christian faith.” True5. A defensive apologetic is a response to some contention a person may have towards

Christianity or a reason why he/she does not believe Christianity is true. True6. A positive or offensive apologetic gives reasons why a person should believe Christianity

is true. True7. In their personal testimonies about apologetics, both authors always had a positive view

of it and its functionality in ministry. False8. Many issues which were formerly left to the halls of the academy are now being

introduced to the masses, often by skeptics. True9. The authors choose to label our current cultural context as “Late Modernism.” True10. In Apologetics at the Cross, the authors use the analogy of building a house to describe

their methodology. True

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Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1

True/False1. When understood in its proper context, 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 serves as a proof-text against

doing apologetics. False2. In 1 Corinthians 2 Paul alludes to a movement of his day known as sophism. Sophists

were rhetoricians who maintained public careers based on their ability to speak and follow oratorical conventions. True

3. In order to win people to the gospel, Paul was not willing to be flexible in his persuasive efforts. False

4. Other religions in the ancient Near East looked upon natural revelation yet claimed that the sun is itself a manifestation of a god(s). True

5. We are given true knowledge of God through nature but the problem lies not with the revelation of God in nature, but rather with people who suppress and twist the revelation and end up worshipping creation rather than the Creator. True

6. To maintain a balanced view of the Old Testament, one must remember the prophets spoke not only against the culture of their day, but also with and for it. True

7. Ancient Near Eastern cultures, though interested in “how the world works and how it came to work that way,” searched for answers in a very different place, in the supernatural realm. True

8. Jesus performed miracles to validate exclusively his message about the Kingdom of God. False

9. Jesus does contradict the Old Testament’s story but, at the same time, brings it to its intended goal. False

10. The lives of Jesus Christ’s followers ought to make an apologetic impact. True

Multiple Choice1. It was in the context of _____________ that Paul spoke against “eloquence and human

wisdom” in 1 Corinthians 2:1-5.a. Epicureanismb. Sophismc. Stoicismd. Platonism

2. According to Psalm 19:1–6, the heavens act as an apologist for God! This is an example of which apologetic type?

a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Fulfilled Prophecy

3. This statement “In the Old Testament world, the primary question was not whether or not a god or gods existed, but which god was true” highlights which apologetic type in Chapter 1?

a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimony

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d. Creation and General Revelatione. Christians as good citizens

4. In the context of polemics, the biblical creation account speaks _________ the surrounding culture, defending its view of creation against the prevailing cosmological narratives.

a. forb. withc. againstd. All of the above

5. In 1 Kings 18, when Elijah challenges the prophets of Baal, this is an example of which apologetic type?

a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Fulfilled Prophecy

6. In 1 Corinthians 15 Paul asserts that Jesus appeared after his resurrection to “Cephas (Peter), and then to the Twelve.” This would be an example of which apologetic type?

a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Christians as Good Citizens

7. On the Day of Pentecost, the Holy Spirit enables the disciples to speak in foreign languages. This would be an example of which apologetic type?

a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verificationd. Creation and General Revelatione. Fulfilled Prophecy

8. The humble, cruciform lives of God’s people are meant to be an apologetic for the reality of the kingdom of heaven. This would be an example of which apologetic type?

a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Christians as Good Citizens

9. Jesus’ fulfillment of all OT hope would be an example of which apologetic type?a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Fulfilled Prophecy

10. In the first verse of the Gospel of Luke, Luke, the author, appeals to which apologetic type?

a. Polemic

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b. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Fulfilled Prophecy

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Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2

True/False

1. The Bible often uses questions as a rhetorical device in order to disarm false beliefs. True

2. Today, it is unlikely that God uses personal experiences as an apologetic to bring people to himself. False

3. Life in the church, that is, the way the church lives together, is meant to be a witness to the reality of God. True

4. The Scriptures often redraw our mental maps and reframe our perceptual models. True5. The authors do not think that suffering points to the existence of God. False6. The Apocalyptic Apologetic category can teach us about the sovereignty of God. True7. Paul uses pagan sources during his speech at Mars Hill. True8. According to the section on suffering, the authors point out that the Bible suggests that

people who suffer should not engage God with honest grief and complaint. False9. God’s primary biblical apologetic for suffering is grounded in his own anguish on a

cross. True10. In the Gospels, Jesus’ teaching style was unique to that of other Rabbis because he

(Jesus) spoke as one with his own authority. True

Multiple Choice

1. This statement, “The God of the Bible becomes completely human and hurts in every way that we do—from physical pain, social rejection, misunderstanding, hatred, violence, and death” would fall under which apologetic category in the Bible?

a. Arguments from Pagan sourcesb. Raising questions in order to disarmc. Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit Testimonyd. Reasons for Sufferinge. Apocalyptic Apologetic

2. That human beings have a conscience acting as a witness to the reality of God is an example of which apologetic category in the Bible?

a. Logic and Reasonb. Raising questions in order to disarmc. Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit Testimonyd. Answering Objectionse. Apocalyptic Apologetic

3. “John’s baptism – where did it come from? Was it from heaven, or of human origin?” is an example of which apologetic category?

a. Logic and Reasonb. Raising questions in order to disarmc. Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit Testimonyd. Reasons for Sufferinge. Apocalyptic Apologetic

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4. Consider this exchange and then determine which apologetic category it would fall under: Question: “Why did Jesus not fast?” Response: “How can the guests of the bridegroom fast while he is with them?” (Mark 2:18-22)

a. Answering Objectionsb. Logic and Reasonc. Raising questions in order to disarmd. Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit Testimonye. Apocalyptic Apologetic

5. In general, the Scriptures call for speakers and writers to employ rational arguments that would make sense to those receiving their message. What apologetic category would this fall under?

a. Answering Objectionsb. Reasons for Sufferingc. Logic and Reasond. Storye. Jesus’ Unique Authority

6. In Paul’s speech before Athenian philosophers on Mars Hill, he quotes the pagan poet Aratus (ca. 315–240 B.C.): “We are [God’s] offspring.” Which apologetic category applies?

a. Answering Objectionsb. Reasons for Sufferingc. Logic and Reasond. Arguments from Pagan Sourcese. Jesus’ Unique Authority

7. Persecuted and afflicted believers are not persevering in vain, because God has a glorious plan for their future. This is an example of which apologetic category?

a. Reasons for Sufferingb. Logic and Reasonc. Raising questions in order to disarmd. Personal, Ecclesial, and Holy Spirit Testimonye. Apocalyptic Apologetic

8. The imago Dei, conscience, and wisdom are all aspects of which type of witness?a. Intrapersonalb. Interpersonalc. Holy Spirit

9. The grand biblical narrative moves in what order?a. new creation-fall-creation-redemptionb. creation-fall-redemption-new creationc. fall-creation-redemption-new creationd. none of the above

10. The authors state that this specific apologetic category is perhaps the most pervasive in Scripture with some of the most obvious of this type being found in the Gospels and Acts.

a. Arguments from pagan sourcesb. Apocalyptic apologeticc. Reasons for Suffering

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d. Storye. Logic and Reason

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Chapter 3: Apologetics within the Great Tradition: Part 1

True/False

1. Gnosticism taught specifically that there was a time when Jesus did not exist. False2. Irenaeus claimed that the knowledge of the truth is no secret because a Rule of Faith has

been handed down publicaly to the entire church. True3. Tertullian is considered to be one of the earliest of the Latin church fathers and wrote

Against Marcion. True4. The heresy that Augustine practiced before his conversion was Gnosticism. False5. One of the arguments for the deity of Christ used by Athanasius went as follows: Only

God can save humanity. Jesus saves humanity. Therefore, Jesus is God. True6. According to the chapter, the early church faced two types of challenges from the

Hellenistic culture: 1) political/cultural and 2) philosophical. True7. The Apology of Trypho on Behalf of Christians (c.125), written by Trypho, was perhaps

the first formal Christian apology written after the composition of the NT books. False8. Theophilus, in his work To Autolycus, demonstrates that Christianity’s roots are ancient

because those roots are established in the most ancient writings of the OT. True9. In his work Contra Celsus, Origen offers a point-by-point refutation against the attack

that Christianity undermines the structure of society. True10. Some of the early church fathers used both sarcasm and irony to defend Christianity

against certain attacks. True

Multiple Choice1. “Only those with secret, insider knowledge may reach God” is a salient feature of which

Early Church heresy?a. Arianismb. Manicheismc. Gnosticismd. Marcionism

2. Which Early Church heresy was syncretistic and sought to create one great world religion?

a. Arianismb. Manicheismc. Gnosticismd. Marcionism

3. This statement, “Jesus is good, loving, and peaceful; the Creator God of the Old Testament is bad, mean, and angry…” applies to which Early Church heresy?

a. Arianismb. Manicheismc. Gnosticismd. Marcionism

4. “There was a time when Christ did not exist” is a salient feature of which Early Church heresy?

a. Arianismb. Manicheism

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c. Gnosticismd. Marcionism

5. Anselm is credited as the originator of which classical argument for God’s existence?a. Moral Argumentb. Cosmological Argumentc. Teleological Argumentd. Ontological Argument

6. Justin Martyr is known for his apologetic work against which group?a. Romansb. Jewsc. Greeksd. Muslims

7. Who wrote the famous book entitled The City of God?a. Justin Martyrb. Irenaeusc. Augustined. Origen

8. Which early church apologist viewed the paradoxes of the Christian faith not as challenges but as arguments for the validity of the faith?

a. Tertullianb. Justin Martyrc. Eusebiusd. Clement of Alexandria

9. Which heretical challenge and battle against it persisted into the Middle Ages?a. Gnosticismb. Manichaeism c. Euytchianismd. Arianism

10. Which one of these themes is not part of Aquinas’ Five Ways to Demonstrate God’s existence?

a. Unmoved Moverb. First Causec. Necessary Beingsd. Contingent Beings

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Chapter 4: Apologetics within the Great Tradition: Part 2

True/False

1. Martin Luther believed that philosophy and reason must yield to the foolishness of the Cross. True

2. During the period of the Reformation, the Catholic church focused solely on developing apologetic arguments against the Protestant Reformers. False

3. The Enlightenment celebrated the goodness of human nature and the value of human progress through faith. False

4. Three of the salient terms/themes of the Enlightenment were: Empiricism, Rationalism, and Individualism. True

5. Joseph Butler is sometimes referred to as “the philosopher of Anglicanism” and these three words encapsulate his response to the deists of his time: analogy, probability, and cumulative. True

6. Gottfried Leibniz came up with the famous teleological Watchmaker argument. False7. Friedrich Schleiermacher is often called the father of modern theological liberalism. True8. Cornelius Van Til is the father of presuppositional apologetics. True9. Presuppositional apologetics uses positive arguments in an attempt to establish Christian

theism. False10. Lesslie Newbigin attempted to work out Augustine’s maxim that one must begin with

faith in order to reason rightly, aiming to build upon the foundation of divine revelation rather than mere reason. True

Multiple Choice

1. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who specifically believed that humans can progress as long as they are guided solely by their own rational thoughts and individual freedom?

a. John Lockeb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

2. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who taught that because miracles are not empirically verifiable, no testimony would be sufficient to establish a miracle?

a. François Marie Arouet de Voltaireb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

3. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who thought that Individual empirical investigation and reasoned reflection, and not the pressure of an external authority or majority or an innate store of ideas received at birth, are the ultimate sources of true knowledge?

a. John Lockeb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

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4. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who taught that we can know things only as they appear to us, not as they actually are?

a. John Lockeb. François Marie Arouet de Voltairec. Immanuel Kantd. René Descartes

5. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who thought that miracles were impossible because they would violate the inviolable laws of nature and contradict reason and that Moses did not write the first five books of the Bible?

a. John Lockeb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

6. Who is best known for “The Wager” as an apologetic response to Enlightenment thinkers?

a. Hugo Grotiusb. Gottfried Leibnitz c. Søren Kierkegaardd. Blaise Pascal

7. Who created and developed the Best of All Possible Worlds theodicy?a. Blaise Pascalb. Cornelius Van Tilc. Gottfried Leibnizd. Søren Kierkegaard

8. Which Christian thinker emphasized the “leap of faith” that every person must choose to make in order to achieve self-actualization?

a. Søren Kierkegaardb. Friedrich Schleiermacherc. B. B. Warfieldd. Lesslie Newbigin

9. Abraham Kuyper is best known from bringing this word/idea into Christian thought.

a. Aestheticsb. Cumulative Casec. Worldviewd. Apologetics

10. This person wrote Everlasting Man and was a central influence in C. S. Lewis’s conversion.

a. Lessie Newbiginb. G. K. Chestertonc. Francis Schaefferd. Cornelius Van Til

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Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methods

True/False1. A proponent of hard classical apologetics would insist that a logical argument for theism

must precede a historical argument for the resurrection of Jesus. True2. A possible danger of evidence-based approaches is that they can view humans as

primarily thinking beings. True3. The Evidential method of apologetics is known as the “two-step method.” False4. The Classical method of apologetics emphasizes that there is no neutral starting point

from which a person can see and interpret the world. False5. The goal of Presuppositional apologetics is to explicitly undermine a non-Christian’s

worldview. True6. For an Experiential/Narratival apologist, offering reasons for belief in Christianity is off

the table. False7. One of the weaknesses of Experiential/Narratival apologetics is that it can minimize

propositional truths and cognitive appeals. True8. Reformed Epistemology can still affirm that a variety of rational arguments can be

valuable and correctly argue a Christian does not need to “prove” Christianity for belief in Christianity to be considered rational. True

9. The authors suggest that the best apologetic methods are person-specific. True10. One of the strengths of the Experiential/Narratival method is it has promoted rigorous

historical argumentation for Christianity. False

Multiple Choice1. The use of the kalam cosmological argument is an example of the application of which

apologetic method?a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

2. The authors use which analogy to best demonstrate our need for other-centered apologetics?

a. Compassb. Rulerc. Mapd. Thermometer

3. Promoting the development of serious scientific and philosophical evidence for Christianity is the strength of which apologetic method?

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

4. Which two methods have a higher degree of confidence in human reason?a. Classical and Presuppositionalb. Evidential and Experiential/Narrativalc. Presuppositional and Experiential/Narratival

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d. Classical and Evidential5. Cornelius Van Til is the father of which apologetic model?

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

6. Which two methods have a lesser degree of confidence in human reason?a. Classical and Presuppositionalb. Evidential and Experiential/Narrativalc. Presuppositional and Experiential/Narrativald. Classical and Evidential

7. This method emphasizes that true Christianity is not reducible to a proposition, rather it is a life and story to be lived out.

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

8. This method tends to focus on providing historical evidence for the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus.

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

9. N. T. Wright’s book Simply Christian serves as an example of a soft version of which apologetic type?

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

10. Gary Habermas is an exemplar of which soft apologetic method?a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

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Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deed

True/False1. The word cross serves as a strategic shorthand for the entire gospel in the title

Apologetics at the Cross. True2. The authors suggest that modern apologetics has excelled in emphasizing the role of our

actions in apologetics. False3. According to the authors, part of what the gospel announces is who Jesus is. True4. The problem with contemporary universities is that while they equip students with

knowledge they do not equip them with the right virtues. True5. Living lives of virtue and wisdom was not intended to make Christians stand out from

everyone else in culture. False6. There is a need to pit the Holy Spirit against apologetics and we should be sure to

distance the roles of each. False7. According to the chapter, the Gospel is not the same thing as Apologetics. True8. Genuine salvation is available through reason and genuine arguments alone. False9. Apologetics should be seen as a tool to clear debris from the path of unbelievers. True10. Apologists can run the risk of failing to see the individual they are speaking to as having

both cognitive and physical needs. True

Multiple Choice1. The theologian Kevin Vanhoozer stresses that good apologetics is more about which of

the following?a. Character formationb. Becoming the right sort of personc. A person of apologetic virtued. All of the above

2. The gospel announces which of the following? a. What Jesus promisedb. What Jesus tookc. Who Jesus isd. None of the abovee. Both A and C

3. According to the chapter, modern Christians have much to learn from the early church regarding what aspect of apologetics?

a. Commitments to the poorb. The role of reasonc. Apologetic argumentsd. Both A and C

4. Those who have been transformed by the Spirit of God are to display _________ and _________ in response to skeptical critics.

a. gentleness and contemptb. respect and gentlenessc. gentleness and reasond. None of the above

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5. Our deeds form part of the apologetic process and according to the chapter the corporate body of Christ should be distinguished by these things:

a. Long-suffering Testimonyb. Personal Transformationc. Holistic Serviced. All of the abovee. Both A and B

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Chapter 7: Cruciform Humility before God and Others

True/False1. The future glory Christians will have in Christ helps us to carry our cross with bold

humility as we live in and engage with the world. True2. An apologist at the cross possesses both a humility before God and a humility before

others. True3. Strong empiricism stipulates that we should accept something as true when it is

fundamentally arrived at through inferences or abduction. False4. A strong empiricism will accept a limited amount of proofs, proofs such as “five plus five

equals ten” or “bachelors are unmarried men.” True5. Alvin Plantinga stated that there is no argument which will fully persuade everyone or

absolutely prove Christianity. True6. The two main idols of cultural acceptance listed in this chapter are ethics and personal

freedom. False7. Sin does not really affect our reasoning structures (e.g. the way we think and reason).

False8. If the Bible does not solve a tension explicitly, we can still legitimately suggest how

things might fit together. True9. Jesus and Paul were usually tougher on insiders than outsiders. True10. The book of Proverbs helps us connect wisdom with humility. True

Multiple Choice1. An apologetics of glory engages others in apologetic encounters in order to achieve:

a. Honorb. Powerc. Personal Satisfactiond. All of the above

2. An apologist at the cross engages others with:a. Humilityb. Honestyc. Timid confidenced. All of the abovee. Both A and B

3. The two analogies (apologetics of glory and apologist at the cross) were inspired by which Reformer/Theologian?

a. John Calvinb. Martin Lutherc. Ulrich Zwinglid. Baltazaar Humbeier

4. Which phrase goes best with the idol of ethics?a. “Christianity limits my freedom.”b. “There is not enough evidence for God.”c. “The God of the Bible is violent and commands evil acts.”d. None of the above

5. Which of the following applies to Unrealistic Expectations?

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a. Expects a God’s eye-view of the worldb. Does not accept anything unless empirically verifiedc. Is self-refuting and impracticald. None of the above

6. Which biblical character do the authors use to help us understand the concept of mystery in Scripture?

a. Abrahamb. Estherc. Jeremiahd. None of the Above

7. Which analogy was used to describe an apologist who treats the other person as an object?

a. Bullyb. Bank robberc. Gunslingerd. Mean boss

8. Which passage from Proverbs reminds us to avoid being unnecessarily antagonistic?a. Proverbs 20:3b. Proverbs 15:1c. Proverbs 21:28d. Proverbs 18:13

9. Which passage from Proverbs reminds us to first listen and take others seriously?a. Proverbs 20:3b. Proverbs 15:1c. Proverbs 21:28d. Proverbs 18:13

10. Which practical apologetic lesson(s) was NOT listed?a. Resist assuming motivesb. Avoid falsely representing the other sidec. Find points of agreementd. None of the above

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Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

True/False1. The biblical usage of the words heart and mind” reminds us that we are

compartmentalized beings. False2. Focusing primarily on more logical, philosophical, and empirical apologetics methods

can leave the false impression that apologetics is exclusively an intellectual activity. True

3. God created humans as moral beings but they are not solely responsible for the decisions they make. False

4. The authors state that all humans and cultures have a moral standard but they do not all agree on a particular one. True

5. All people worship something no matter how irreligious they may appear to be. True6. James K. A. Smith suggests that the best model for human persons is humans as

primarily “believing” beings. False7. We are holistic beings who think, believe, and desire. True8. Modern marketing agencies have learned from practice what theologians have said for

centuries: the human heart is restless – it is an “idol factory.” True9. Worship, baptism, and the celebration of the Lord’s Supper serve as visual apologetics

for the gospel. True10. What the authors are offering in this chapter (and book) is a necessary narrowing of the

apologetic method. False

Multiple Choice1. The biblical usage of the word heart usually refers to which aspects of the human

psyche?a. Mostb. Allc. Fewd. None of the Above

2. Which anthropological aspect is not part of the theological model given by the authors?a. Moral beingsb. Worshipping beingsc. Intellectually reflectived. None of the above

3. To which model does this statement apply? “Our mind is who we are, our body is merely incidental.”

a. Humans as primarily “believing” beingsb. Humans as primarily “thinking” beingsc. Humans as primarily “desiring” beings

4. Which analogy is used to demonstrate the interplay between thinking, believing, and desiring?

a. Child-birthb. A close friendshipc. Marriaged. Parenting

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5. Which philosopher stressed the importance of story by explaining that everyone believes a story about their life and about history itself?

a. Charles Taylorb. Alister McGrathc. N.T. Wrightd. Augustine

6. In apologetics, stories are not only effective for subverting other false stories, but perhaps even more significantly for striking at people’s hearts and casting a vision of the ______ life.

a. aestheticb. joyousc. goodd. contemplative

7. This describes the universally shared internal mechanisms that work to produce basic beliefs.

a. Cultural rationalityb. Native rationalityc. Basic logicd. Frameworks of rationality

8. This refers to the frameworks assumed by a culture which further define the sorts of things considered plausible to believe.

a. Cultural rationalityb. Native rationalityc. Basic logicd. Frameworks of rationality

9. This is what is used in elementary mathematics and in certain assumed rules for communicating and thinking that seem to be universal.

a. Cultural rationalityb. Native rationalityc. Basic logicd. Frameworks of rationality

10. This is broader assumed system(s) of thought linked to specific historical and social locations which people (consciously or unconsciously) operate under, impacting how they make and receive arguments.

a. Cultural rationalityb. Native rationalityc. Basic logicd. Frameworks of rationality

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Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Cross

True/False1. Whenever the gospel is being presented in any culture, it is being contextualized. True2. No single passage can comprehensively describe how the apostle Paul approached his

ministry to unbelievers. True3. Paul suggests that to contextualize is to abandon the gospel message. False4. Acts 17 teaches us about Paul’s contextualization to the Romans. False5. Paul was a student of Greek culture because he committed to spending time studying

their culture. True6. Paul sees that there is some truth in the Greek culture but only if it is applied to the true

God. True7. The speech before Felix the governor was an example of Jewish contextualization. False8. The Romans viewed early Christians as immoral and seditious. True9. Cultural plausibility structures refer to the beliefs we deem plausible because the people

around us support them. True10. Understanding plausibility structures is not exactly vital for apologetics but should

influence our apologetic method from time to time. False

Multiple Choice1. Which NT author provides us with some of the most immediate examples of

contextualization?a. Markb. Paulc. Peterd. John

2. Which aspect of our apologetic endeavor sets the limits of and propels contextualization?a. Pragmaticsb. Cultural trendsc. The gospeld. None of the above

3. For Paul, “ministry” meant a synthesis of what applied to real life situations?a. Evangelismb. Apologeticsc. Theologyd. All of the above

4. These three components were part of an apologetic to which group: the Spirit has been poured out, wonders and signs have occurred, Jesus fits the criteria expected of the Messiah?

a. Jewsb. Greeksc. Romansd. All of the above

5. Consider this point: “He relates to their belief in supernatural beings.” Which audience was this contextualization directed to?

a. Jews

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b. Greeksc. Romans

6. To which culture do we see patterns of engagement that were similar to legal proceedings of that culture?

a. Jewsb. Greeksc. Romans

7. To which culture did the apologetic method include quotes from the people’s own philosophers and poets?

a. Jewsb. Greeksc. Romansd. None of the above

8. Which analogy was used to display how unaware we can be of our own culture?a. Tripb. Storyc. Type of foodd. Smell

9. As Christian apologists, it is important that we understand how people’s assumptions and beliefs are ___________ conditioned.

a. historicallyb. culturallyc. externallyd. Both A and B

10. Appealing to the authority of prophetic passages of the OT was a contextualization to which group?

a. Jewsb. Greeksc. Romans

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Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Out

True/False1. Many of the assumptions of the pre-modern era align well with Christianity. True2. Modernism can be described as a turn to the self’s individual reason for ultimate

authority. True3. The hopes of Pre-modernism were dashed when it eventually became apparent that

human reason alone was unable to curb violence or provide a universal system of morality. False

4. Late modernity has been profoundly shaped by the modern turn to the self. True5. Talk of cultural trends and traditions is something that only plagues graduate-level

philosophy and should not influence our apologetic method. False6. “Stay on a simple message,” “appeal to emotions,” and “project self-assurance” are all

strategies of the immanent frame. False7. “What can we affirm and what do we need to challenge” are questions from the inside

part of the inside out model. True8. The Christian framework, while overlapping in certain ways, is largely on the “outside”

of the assumed framework. True9. Keller uses the analogy of stones and logs to describe A and B doctrines. True10. After creating space by working inside of an unbeliever’s plausibility structures or

“take,” you will be in a better position to persuade them of the relevancy and truth of the Christian “spin.” False

Multiple Choice1. Which basic period does this description refer to? People assumed that God or the gods

had created the world.a. Pre-modernismb. Modernismc. Late modernism

2. Which basic period does this description refer to? It exposed the alleged “neutrality” of persons as a myth.

a. Pre-modernismb. Modernismc. Late modernism

3. Which basic period does this description refer to? It rejected the truth propagated by traditional authorities.

a. Pre-modernismb. Modernismc. Late modernism

4. This aspect of late modernism refers to how people view everything in terms of a natural, rather than a supernatural, order.

a. Immanent frameb. Plausibility structurec. Age of the spinmeisterd. The Big ME

5. This analogy was used to describe the immanent frame:

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a. A sand castleb. A skyscraperc. A tunneld. A two-story house

6. This aspect of late modernism refers to people’s distrust of things that seek to change our perceptions.

a. Immanent frameb. Plausibility structurec. Age of the spinmeisterd. The Big ME

7. This is characterized by an overconfident picture through which to view the world.a. A Spinb. A Bouncec. A Taked. A Leap

8. This is described as embracing a picture of reality that realizes the contestability of belief.a. A Spinb. A Bouncec. A Taked. A Leap

9. This doctrine represents Christian beliefs that a particular culture finds difficult to accept, if not all together repulsive.

a. A doctrineb. B doctrinec. C doctrine

10. This doctrine represents Christian beliefs that are generally affirmed in a given culture.a. A doctrineb. B doctrinec. C doctrine

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Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernism

True/False1. Late moderns have absorbed a cultural narrative that no longer assumes a divinely-

ordered world in which there are God-given ways to live. True2. C. S. Lewis points out that the reason beauty fills us with joy and breaks our hearts is that

it points to a reality beyond itself. True3. Religious lethargy has explicitly led to religious skepticism. False4. Religious skepticism defeats itself when it grounds religious belief solely in cultural

contexts. True5. The gospel is very exclusive toward people groups but not in its message. False6. Regarding expressive individualism, the most important thing that you can do

as an individual is throw off the shackles of exterior expectations and be “true to yourself.” True

7. According to the authors, self-authorizing morality holds personal happiness as the highest good. False

8. Human relationality and our common sense of community challenges the ethics of authenticity. True

9. The lyrics from “After the Storm” by Mumford and Sons reveals that despite the prevalence of religious lethargy in late modern culture, there is underlying fear of death that remains. True

10. The human heart is inevitably driven by something that it worships and desires above all else. True

Multiple Choice1. Identity is an opportunity within which cultural challenge?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

2. Which cultural challenge seeks to construct its own web of meaning and believes to have provided the significance it needs for life apart from God?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

3. The everyday stuff opportunity is part of which cultural challenge?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

4. A high view of human dignity is specifically an opportunity in which cultural challenge?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

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5. Which cultural challenge turns inward and calls a person to be true to their self?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

6. Which cultural challenge shows us that within the culture there is a contestability of all belief systems?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

7. Which cultural challenge replaces sin with sickness?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

8. The opportunity death affords our apologetic discussion is part of which cultural challenge?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

9. The reality of beauty in the world is an opportunity to counter which cultural challenge?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

10. The notion of justice and the desire to right the wrongs in society is an opportunity to counter which cultural challenge?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

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Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaters

True/False1. According to the beliefs of expressive individualism, human flourishing occurs when

we follow our heart. True2. Humanist philosopher Luc Ferry observes that despite the web of meaning the late

modern creates for himself, he is still deeply frustrated because he can’t shake the feeling he is here for more than the acquisition of material possessions. True

3. Saying “no” to some desires is not an important part of genuine human flourishing. False

4. Christians have long recognized that all sins have the same consequences. False5. The secular philosopher John Gray points out that it is not only religion that can go

bad…any human activity has the potential for evil. True6. The challenging part of discussing Christianity’s past abuses with slavery is that the

Bible advocates a pro-slavery theology. False7. Scientific methods are not based on reason alone and it is not really possible to adopt

a theory for discovering truth that doesn’t require faith. True8. Even though naturalistic scientific reasoning proceeds by assuming only natural

causes, it can actually touch on the question of God. False9. The logical problem of evil relates to how people understand and deal with bad things

that happen in their own lives. False10. Richard Bauckham argues that the names present within the Gospels themselves are

meant to assure the readers of their accuracy. True

Multiple Choice1. Just follow your heart, a result of expressive individualism, best fits in which category of

defeater?a. “Christianity is too restrictive.”b. “The Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are homophobic.”c. “Christians are a bunch of hypocrites.”d. “Faith, in contrast to reason and science, is for people who

believe things without any evidence.”2. The issue of authority and the implications of the resurrection are part

of the response to which defeater?a. “Christianity is too restrictive.”b. “The Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are

homophobic.”c. “Christians are a bunch of hypocrites.”d. “Faith, in contrast to reason and science, is for people who

believe things without any evidence.”3. Remember the importance of word and deed best fits in which category of defeater?

a. “Christianity is too restrictive.”b. “The Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are homophobic.”c. “Christians are a bunch of hypocrites.”d. “Faith, in contrast to reason and science, is for people who

believe things without any evidence.”

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4. The coming-of-age narrative goes with which defeater?a. “Christianity is too restrictive.”b. “The Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are homophobic.”c. “Christians are a bunch of hypocrites.”d. “Faith, in contrast to reason and science, is for people

who believe things without any evidence.”5. The scientific method cannot account for which of the following?

a. Logical and mathematical truthsb. Basic beliefsc. Beauty and aesthetic judgmentsd. Ethical judgmentse. All of the above

6. Whenever someone suffers it is because they have committed a corresponding evil action. Which category does this statement fit in?

a. The Moralistic Religious Takeb. The Fatalistic Takec. The Evil as Illusion Taked. The Cosmic Conflict Take

7. Buddhism is a prime example of this take in the experiential response to the problem of evil.

a. The Moralistic Religious Takeb. The Fatalistic Takec. The Evil as Illusion Taked. The Cosmic Conflict Take

8. The concepts of forgiveness and justice are highlighted in this defeater.a. “I can’t believe in God because there is so much evil and suffering in the world.”b. “I can’t believe in a God of judgment and wrath.”c. “The Bible is unreliable and cannot be taken seriously.”d. “The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is confusing and illogical.”

9. Eyewitness testimony and careful research are mentioned in response to which defeater?a. “I can’t believe in God because there is so much evil and suffering in the world.”b. “I can’t believe in a God of judgment and wrath.”c. “The Bible is unreliable and cannot be taken seriously.”d. “The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is confusing and illogical.”

10. The notion of eternal, other-centered love is part of the response to which defeater?a. “Christianity is too restrictive.”b. “The Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are homophobic.”c. “The Bible is unreliable and cannot be taken seriously.”d. “The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is confusing and illogical.”

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Chapter 13: Making a Case

True/False1. Christian persuasion should be holistic. True2. As Christians living in the late modern era, it would be proper to simply give an

unbeliever logical arguments for Christianity. False3. Only shallow truths can be proven absolutely; the deepest answers of life are beyond

absolute proof. True4. Various philosophers have argued that, in fact, if naturalism and

evolution are both true, “our cognitive faculties would very likely not be reliable.” True

5. According to the authors, currently, there is far more of a consensus among scientists than one might expect that the universe had a beginning. True

6. Perhaps the best way to ground morality, as the authors suggest, is to ground it in culture. False

7. Both natural laws and divine miracles have a common source: the Creator. True8. Due to lack of evidence, many New Testament scholars today agree that Jesus did not die

at the hands of the Romans by crucifixion. False9. The unlikely discipleship of Paul and James provide us with a good reason to believe the

resurrection happened. True10. The worship of a crucified and resurrected Messiah was scandalous within the first-

century world and calls for an explanation. True

Multiple Choice1. Apologetics at the Cross calls the church to:

a. live out an apologetic that undermines misconceptions of Christianity and embodies a more compelling and beatific vision of life

b. help others see the problems with their own backgrounds and frameworks that cause them to approach Christianity as implausible

c. offer intelligent responses to objections and reasons for committing to Christd. Both A and Ce. All of the above

2. Who is quoted as saying “The eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility . . . the fact that it is comprehensible is a miracle”?

a. Albert Einsteinb. Stephen Hawkingc. John Polkinghorned. John Lennox

3. The gut reaction to the extreme violence the Bosnian Serb armed forces used against the Bosnian Muslims in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre reminds us that morality is

a. illusoryb. irresistiblec. preferentiald. non-existent

4. Regarding morality, the authors explicitly state that science does not provide this.a. Moral practices

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b. Moral normsc. Moral obligations

5. When thinking about miracles, which point(s) below is valid?a. Miracles are not normal events.b. Miracles by nature are not repeatable.c. Not every claimed miracle is actually a miracle.d. All of the above

6. C. S. Lewis argues that the divine art of miracle is not an art of ___________ the pattern but feeding new events into that pattern.

a. destroyingb. suspendingc. violatingd. breaking

7. The authors note that sociologists have increasingly emphasized that religion isa. not going awayb. slowly fading awayc. quickly fading awayd. None of the above

8. The work of scholars, such as N. T. Wright, has shown that the resurrection of Jesus was a(n) _________ notion with first-century Greeks.

a. popularb. expectedc. unpopulard. plausible

9. Many Jews looked forward to a future ________ bodily resurrection. a. corporateb. individualc. sequentiald. gradual

10. Which ancient historian provides Christianity with historical evidence for the persecution of early Christians?

a. Josephusb. Tacitusc. Eusebiusd. All of the above

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Sample SyllabiApologetics at the Cross: An Introduction for Christian Witness in Late Modernism

Syllabus (Mon/Wed/Fri)

I. Course description:This course will introduce students to an apologetic that is grounded in the gospel and is prepared to engage with a Western culture rooted in Late Modernism. This course will provide a broadening of the typical approaches to apologetics as the methods in this book reflect the holistic nature of human beings (as thinking, believing, and desiring beings). Furthermore, the student will receive a comprehensive overview of the many apologetic types found in Scripture as well as the history of apologetics in Christendom. The Late Modern culture in the West is complex; this class will familiarize students with the plausibility structures of the current culture and will prepare students to defend the faith from many common defeaters by providing a framework for dialogue through the Inside Out approach.

II. Books

Chatraw, Joshua and Allen, Mark. Apologetics at the Cross: An Introduction for Christian Witness. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2018.

III. Intended learning outcomes:At the end of this course, students will be expected to:

1. Explain and defend the biblical mandate for apologetics. Furthermore, students should have a contextualized understanding of 1 Peter 3:15 and be able to demonstrate the impact this has on how we do apologetics. Also, students will be able to discuss why 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 is not an anti-apologetic passage and actually strengthens Paul’s case for apologetics.

2. Discuss and develop the foundation for apologetics found in Scripture.3. Discuss and develop the foundation for apologetics found in the history of Christian

apologetics.4. Discuss the contemporary models for doing apologetics.5. Be able to explain the theological vision for doing apologetics presented in the book.6. Be able to explain and discuss the practical outworking of Apologetics at the Cross.7. Discuss the salient features of the Late Modern culture.8. Discuss the salient features of the Inside Out method.9. Apply the Inside Out method to various scenarios and defeaters to Christianity.10. Provide a holistic case for Christianity that appeals to the whole person.

III. Outline of the weekly course schedule:Week 1

Mon – Introduce the course Wed – Introduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross

o Read AATC pp. Fri – Introduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross cont’d.

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o Read AATC pp. Week 2

Mon – Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #1 (Introduction Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1o Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1o Read AATC pp.

Week 3 Mon – Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #2 (Chapter 1 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2o Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2o Read AATC pp.

Week 4 Mon – Chapter 3: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 1

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #3 (Chapter 2 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 3: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 1o Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 3: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 1o Read AATC pp.

Week 5 Mon – Chapter 4: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 2

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #4 (Chapter 3 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 4: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 2o Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 4: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 2o Read AATC pp.

Week 6 Mon – Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methods

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #5 (Chapter 4 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methodso Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methodso Read AATC pp.

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Week 7 Mon – Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deed

o Quiz #6 (Chapter 5 Quiz)o Read AATC pp.

Wed – Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deedo Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deed o Read AATC pp.

Week 8 Mon – Chapter 7: Cruciform Humility before God and Others

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #7 (Chapter 6 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 7: Cruciform Humility before God and Others Fri – Midterm (Chapters 1-7)

Week 9 Mon – Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

o Read AATC pp. Wed – Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

o Read AATC pp.o Quiz #8 (Chapter 7 Quiz)

Fri – Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospelo Read AATC pp.

Week 10 Mon – Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Cross

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #9 (Chapter 8 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Crosso Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Crosso Read AATC pp.

Week 11 Mon – Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside

Outo Read AATC pp. o Quiz #10 (Chapter 9 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Out

o Read AATC pp. Fri – Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Out

o Read AATC pp.

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Week 12 Mon – Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernism

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #11 (Chapter 10 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernismo Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernismo Read AATC pp.

Week 13 Mon – Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaters

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #12 (Chapter 11 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaterso Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaterso Read AATC pp.

Week 14 Mon – Chapter 13: Making a Case

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #13 (Chapter 12 Quiz)

Wed – Chapter 13: Making a Caseo Read AATC pp.

Fri – Chapter 13: Making a Caseo Read AATC pp.

Week 15 Mon – Personal freedom and corporate responsibility

o Quiz #14 (Chapter 13 Quiz) Wed – Paul’s interpretation of Scripture Fri – Ethical balance and care for the poor in Paul

Week 16 Mon – Problematizing violence in Paul Wed – Review for final Fri – Final (Chapters 8-13)

Grading Scheme (w/o paper/project)

Quizzes (14 @ 50pts each) 700ptsMid-Term Exam 150ptsFinal Exam 150pts

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Total 1000pts

Grading Scheme (w/ paper/project)

Quizzes (14 @ 30pts each) 420ptsProject 200ptsMid-Term Exam 190ptsFinal Exam 190pts

Total 1000

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Apologetics at the Cross: An Introduction for Christian Witness in Late ModernismSyllabus (Tues./Thurs.)

I. Course description:This course will introduce students to an apologetic that is grounded in the gospel and is prepared to engage with a Western culture rooted in Late Modernism. This course will provide a broadening of the typical approaches to apologetics as the methods in this book reflect the holistic nature of human beings (as thinking, believing, and desiring beings). Furthermore, the student will receive a comprehensive overview of the many apologetic types found in Scripture as well as the history of apologetics in Christendom. The Late Modern culture in the West is complex; this class will familiarize students with the plausibility structures of the current culture and will prepare students to defend the faith from many common defeaters by providing a framework for dialogue through the Inside Out approach.

II. Books

Chatraw, Joshua and Allen, Mark. Apologetics at the Cross: An Introduction for Christian Witness. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2018.

III. Intended learning outcomes:At the end of this course, students will be expected to:

1. Explain and defend the biblical mandate for apologetics. Furthermore, students should have a contextualized understanding of 1 Peter 3:15 and be able to demonstrate the impact this has on how we do apologetics. Also, students will be able to discuss why 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 is not an anti-apologetic passage and actually strengthens Paul’s case for apologetics.

2. Discuss and develop the foundation for apologetics found in Scripture.3. Discuss and develop the foundation for apologetics found in the history of Christian

apologetics.4. Discuss the contemporary models for doing apologetics.5. Be able to explain the theological vision for doing apologetics presented in the book.6. Be able to explain and discuss the practical outworking of Apologetics at the Cross.7. Discuss the salient features of the Late Modern culture.8. Discuss the salient features of the Inside Out method.9. Apply the Inside Out method to various scenarios and defeaters to Christianity.10. Provide a holistic case for Christianity that appeals to the whole person.

III. Outline of the weekly course schedule:

Week 1 T – Introduce the course – Introduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross

o Read AATC pp. R – Introduction: An Invitation to Apologetics at the Cross cont’d.

o Read AATC pp.

Week 2

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T – Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #1 (Introduction Quiz)

R – Chapter 1: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 1o Read AATC pp.

Week 3 T – Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #2 (Chapter 1 Quiz)

R – Chapter 2: Apologetics in the Bible: Part 2o Read AATC pp.

Week 4 T – Chapter 3: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 1

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #3 (Chapter 2 Quiz)

R – Chapter 3: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 1o Read AATC pp.

Week 5 T – Chapter 4: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 2

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #4 (Chapter 3 Quiz)

R – Chapter 4: Apologetics in the Great Tradition: Part 2o Read AATC pp.

Week 6 T – Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methods

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #5 (Chapter 4 Quiz)

R – Chapter 5: Making Sense of the Methodso Read AATC pp.

Week 7 T – Chapter 6: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deed

o Quiz #6 (Chapter 5 Quiz)o Read AATC pp.

R – Chapter 7: Taking People to the Cross through Word and Deedo Read AATC pp.

Week 8 T – Chapter 7: Cruciform Humility before God and Others

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #7 (Chapter 6 Quiz)

R – Midterm (Chapters 1-7)

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Week 9 T – Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

o Read AATC pp. R – Chapter 8: Appealing to the Whole Person for the Sake of the Gospel

o Read AATC pp.o Quiz #8 (Chapter 7 Quiz)

Week 10 T – Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Cross

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #9 (Chapter 8 Quiz)

R – Chapter 9: Contextualization through the Lens of the Crosso Read AATC pp.

Week 11 T – Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Out

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #10 (Chapter 9 Quiz)

R – Chapter 10: Preparing to Engage (not Spin) in Late Modernism from the Inside Outo Read AATC pp.

Week 12 T – Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernism

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #11 (Chapter 10 Quiz)

R – Chapter 11: Engaging in Late Modernismo Read AATC pp.

Week 13 T – Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaters

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #12 (Chapter 11 Quiz)

R – Chapter 12: Dealing with Defeaterso Read AATC pp.

Week 14 T – Chapter 13: Making a Case

o Read AATC pp. o Quiz #13 (Chapter 12 Quiz)

R – Chapter 13: Making a Caseo Read AATC pp.

Week 15 T – Personal freedom and corporate responsibility

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o Quiz #14 (Chapter 13 Quiz) R – Paul’s interpretation of Scripture

Week 16 T – Problematizing violence in Paul

o Review for final R – Final (Chapters 8-13)

Grading Scheme (w/o paper/project)

Quizzes (14 @ 50pts each) 700ptsMid-Term Exam 150ptsFinal Exam 150pts

Total 1000pts

Grading Scheme (w/ paper/project)

Quizzes (14 @ 30pts each) 420ptsProject 200ptsMid-Term Exam 190ptsFinal Exam 190pts

Total 1000

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Midterm and Final ExamsName: _________________

Apologetics at the CrossMidterm exam – with answers

Each question is worth two points.

True/False

1. First Peter 3:15 serves as a proof-text for apologetics. True2. One can accurately understand what Peter says about defending the faith from just

reading 1 Peter 3:15 itself. False3. The what of your apologetic response to others is far more important than how one

presents reasons and arguments. False4. A defensive apologetic is a response to some contention a person may have towards

Christianity or a reason why he/she does not believe Christianity is true. True5. A positive or offensive apologetic gives reasons why a person should believe Christianity

is true. True6. In Apologetics at the Cross, the authors use the analogy of building a house to describe

their methodology. True7. When understood in its proper context, 1 Corinthians 2:1-5 serves as a proof-text against

doing apologetics. False8. The lives of Jesus Christ’s followers ought to make an apologetic impact. True9. The Bible often uses questions as a rhetorical device in order to disarm false beliefs.

True10. Today, it is unlikely that God uses personal experiences as an apologetic to bring people

to himself. False11. Life in the church, that is, the way the church lives together, is meant to be a witness to

the reality of God. True12. The Scriptures often redraw our mental maps and reframe our perceptual models. True13. Irenaeus claimed that the knowledge of the truth is no secret because a Rule of Faith has

been handed down publicaly to the entire church. True14. Martin Luther believed that philosophy and reason must yield to the foolishness of the

Cross. True15. Three of the salient terms/themes of the Enlightenment were: Empiricism, Rationalism,

and Individualism. True16. A proponent of hard classical apologetics would insist that a logical argument for theism

must precede a historical argument for the resurrection of Jesus. True17. A possible danger of evidence-based approaches is that they can view humans as

primarily thinking beings. True18. The Classical method of apologetics emphasizes that there is no neutral starting point

from which a person can see and interpret the world. False

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19. The goal of Presuppositional apologetics is to explicitly undermine a non-Christian’s worldview. True

20. For an Experiential/Narratival apologist, offering reasons for belief in Christianity is off the table. False

21. Reformed Epistemology can still affirm that a variety of rational arguments can be valuable and correctly argue a Christian does not need to “prove” Christianity for belief in Christianity to be considered rational. True

22. One of the strengths of the Experiential/Narratival method is it has promoted rigorous historical argumentation for Christianity. False

23. According to the chapter, the Gospel is not the same thing as Apologetics. True24. Genuine salvation is available through reason and arguments alone. False25. Apologetics should be seen as a tool to clear debris from the path of unbelievers. True

Multiple Choice

1. It was in the context of _____________ that Paul spoke against “eloquence and human wisdom” in 1 Corinthians 2:1-5

a. epicureanismb. sophismc. stoicismd. platonism

2. Jesus’ fulfillment of all OT hope would be an example of which apologetic type?a. Polemicb. Miracles and Acts of Powerc. Historical Verification and Eyewitness Testimonyd. Creation and General Revelatione. Fulfilled Prophecy

3. In Paul’s speech before Athenian philosophers on Mars Hill, he quotes the pagan poet Aratus (ca. 315–240 B.C.): “We are [God’s] offspring.” Which apologetic category applies?

a. Answering Objectionsb. Reasons for Sufferingc. Logic and Reasond. Arguments from Pagan Sourcese. Jesus’ Unique Authority

4. The grand biblical narrative moves in what order?a. new creation-fall-creation-redemptionb. creation-fall-redemption-new creationc. fall-creation-redemption-new creationd. none of the above

5. The authors state that this specific apologetic category is perhaps the most pervasive in Scripture with some of the most obvious of this type being found in the Gospels and Acts.

a. Arguments from pagan sourcesb. Apocalyptic apologeticc. Reasons for Suffering

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d. Storye. Logic and Reason

6. Anselm is credited as the originator of which classical argument for God’s existence?a. Moral Argumentb. Cosmological Argumentc. Teleological Argumentd. Ontological Argument

7. Justin Martyr is known for his apologetic work against which group?a. Romansb. Jewsc. Greeksd. Muslims

8. Who wrote the famous book entitled The City of God?a. Justin Martyrb. Irenaeusc. Augustined. Origen

9. Which one of these themes is not part of Aquinas’ Five Ways to Demonstrate God’s existence?

a. Unmoved Moverb. First Causec. Necessary Beingd. Contingent Beings

10. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who specifically believed that humans can progress as long as they are guided solely by their own rational thoughts and individual freedom?

a. John Lockeb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

11. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who taught that because miracles are not empirically verifiable, no testimony would be sufficient to establish a miracle?

a. François Marie Arouet de Voltaireb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

12. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who thought that Individual empirical investigation and reasoned reflection, and not the pressure of an external authority or majority or an innate store of ideas received at birth, are the ultimate sources of true knowledge?

a. John Lockeb. René Descartesc. Benedict de Spinozad. David Hume

13. Among the Enlightenment thinkers, who taught that we can know things only as they appear to us, not as they actually are?

a. John Locke

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b. François Marie Arouet de Voltairec. Immanuel Kantd. René Descartes

14. Who created and developed the Best of All Possible Worlds theodicy?a. Blaise Pascalb. Cornelius Van Tilc. Gottfried Leibnizd. Søren Kierkegaard

15. Which Christian thinker emphasized the “leap of faith” that every person must choose to make in order to achieve self-actualization?

a. Søren Kierkegaardb. Friedrich Schleiermacherc. B. B. Warfieldd. Lesslie Newbigin

16. Abraham Kuyper is best known for bringing this word/idea into Christian thought.a. Aestheticsb. Cumulative Casec. Worldviewd. Apologetics

17. The use of the kalam cosmological argument is an example of the application of which apologetic method?

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

18. The authors use which analogy to best demonstrate our need for other-centered apologetics?

a. Compassb. Rulerc. Mapd. Thermometer

19. Promoting the development of serious scientific and philosophical evidence for Christianity is the strength of which apologetic method?

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

20. Which two methods have a higher degree of confidence in human reason?a. Classical and Presuppositionalb. Evidential and Experiential/Narrativalc. Presuppositional and Experiential/Narrativald. Classical and Evidential

21. Cornelius Van Til is the father of which apologetic model?a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositional

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d. Experiential/Narratival22. Which two methods have a lesser degree of confidence in human reason?

a. Classical and Presuppositionalb. Evidential and Experiential/Narrativalc. Presuppositional and Experiential/Narrativald. Classical and Evidential

23. N. T. Wright’s book Simply Christian serves as an example of a soft version of which apologetic type?

a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

24. Gary Habermas is an exemplar of which soft apologetic method?a. Classicalb. Evidentialc. Presuppositionald. Experiential/Narratival

25. The gospel announces which of the following? a. What Jesus promisedb. What Jesus tookc. Who Jesus isd. None of the abovee. Both A and C

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Name: _________________

Apologetics at the CrossFinal exam – with answers

Each question is worth two points.

True/False1. An apologist at the cross possesses both a humility before God and a humility before

others. True2. Strong empiricism stipulates that we should accept something as true when it is

fundamentally arrived at through inferences or abduction. False3. Alvin Plantinga stated that there is no argument which will fully persuade everyone or

absolutely prove Christianity. True4. God created humans as moral beings but they are not solely responsible for the decisions

they make. False5. James K. A. Smith suggests that the best model for human persons is humans as

primarily “believing” beings. False6. We are holistic beings who think, believe, and desire. True7. Whenever the gospel is being presented in any culture, it is being contextualized. True8. Paul suggests that to contextualize is to abandon the gospel message. False9. Understanding plausibility structures is not exactly vital for apologetics but should

influence our apologetic method from time to time. False10. Many of the assumptions of the pre-modern era align well with Christianity. True11. Modernism can be described as a turn to the self’s individual reason for ultimate

authority. True12. The hopes of Pre-modernism were dashed when it eventually became apparent that

human reason alone was unable to curb violence or provide a universal system of morality. False

13. Late modernity has been profoundly shaped by the modern turn to the self. True14. Talk of cultural trends and traditions is something that only plagues graduate-level

philosophy and should not influence our apologetic method. False15. “What can we affirm and what do we need to challenge” are questions from the inside

part of the inside out model. True16. Late moderns have absorbed a cultural narrative that no longer assumes a divinely-

ordered world in which there are God-given ways to live. True17. According to the beliefs of expressive individualism, human flourishing occurs when we

follow our heart. True18. Saying “no” to some desires is not an important part of genuine human flourishing. False19. Even though naturalistic scientific reasoning proceeds by assuming only natural causes, it

can actually touch on the question of God. False20. The logical problem of evil relates to how people understand and deal with bad things

that happen in their own lives. False21. As Christians living in the late modern era, it would be proper to simply give an

unbeliever logical arguments for Christianity. False

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22. Only shallow truths can be proven absolutely; the deepest answers of life are beyond absolute proof. True

23. Various philosophers have argued that, in fact, if naturalism and evolution are both true, “our cognitive faculties would very likely not be reliable.” True

24. Perhaps the best way to ground morality, as the authors suggest, is to ground it in culture. False

25. The worship of a crucified and resurrected Messiah was scandalous within the first-century world and calls for an explanation. True

Multiple Choice

1. The two analogies (apologetics of glory and apologist at the cross) were inspired by which Reformer/Theologian?

a. John Calvinb. Martin Lutherc. Ulrich Zwinglid. Baltazaar Hubmeier

2. The biblical usage of the word heart usually refers to which aspects of the human psyche?

a. Mostb. Allc. Fewd. None of the Above

3. Which anthropological aspect is not part of the theological model given by the authors?a. Moral beingsb. Worshipping beingsc. Intellectually reflectived. None of the above

4. To which model does this statement apply? “Our mind is who we are, our body is merely incidental.”

a. Humans as primarily “believing” beingsb. Humans as primarily “thinking” beingsc. Humans as primarily “desiring” beings

5. To which culture do we see patterns of engagement that were similar to legal proceedings of that culture?

a. Jewsb. Greeksc. Romans

6. To which culture did the apologetic method include quotes from the people’s own philosophers and poets?

a. Jewsb. Greeksc. Romansd. None of the above

7. Which analogy was used to display how unaware we can be of our own culture?

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a. Tripb. Storyc. Type of foodd. Smell

8. As apologists, it is important that we understand how people’s assumptions and beliefs are ___________ conditioned.

a. historicallyb. culturallyc. externallyd. Both A and B

9. Which basic period does this description refer to? It exposed the alleged “neutrality” of persons as a myth.

a. Pre-modernismb. Modernismc. Late modernism

10. This aspect of late modernism refers to how people view everything in terms of a natural, rather than a supernatural, order.

a. Immanent frameb. Plausibility structurec. Age of the spinmeisterd. The Big ME

11. This analogy was used to describe the immanent frame:a. A sand castleb. A skyscraperc. A tunneld. A two-story house

12. This is characterized by an overconfident picture through which to view the world.a. A Spinb. A Bouncec. A Taked. A Leap

13. This is described as embracing a picture of reality that realizes the contestability of belief.a. A Spinb. A Bouncec. A Taked. A Leap

14. This doctrine represents Christian beliefs that a particular culture finds difficult to accept, if not all together repulsive.

a. A doctrineb. B doctrinec. C doctrine

15. This doctrine represents Christian beliefs that are generally affirmed in a given culture.a. A doctrineb. B doctrinec. C doctrine

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16. Which cultural challenge seeks to construct its own web of meaning and believes to have provided the significance it needs for life apart from God?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

17. The everyday stuff opportunity is part of which cultural challenge?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

18. Which cultural challenge replaces sin with sickness?a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

19. The desire to right the wrongs in society is an opportunity to counter which cultural challenge?

a. Modern pluralismb. The ethics of authenticityc. Religious lethargyd. The therapeutic turn

20. The coming-of-age narrative goes with which defeater?a. “Christianity is too restrictive.”b. “The Christian sexual ethic is dehumanizing and Christians are homophobic.”c. “Christians are a bunch of hypocrites.”d. “Faith, in contrast to reason and science, is for people

who believe things without any evidence.”21. The scientific method cannot account for which of the following?

a. Logical and mathematical truthsb. Basic beliefsc. Beauty and aesthetic judgmentsd. Ethical judgmentse. All of the above

22. Buddhism is a prime example of this take in the experiential response to the problem of evil.

a. The Moralistic Religious Takeb. The Fatalistic Takec. The Evil as Illusion Taked. The Cosmic Conflict Take

23. Apologetics at the Cross calls the church to:a. live out an apologetic that undermines misconceptions of Christianity and

embodies a more compelling and beatific vision of life b. help others see the problems with their own backgrounds and frameworks that

cause them to approach Christianity as implausible c. offer intelligent responses to objections and reasons for committing to Christ

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d. Both A and Ce. All of the above

24. Who is quoted as saying “The eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility . . . the fact that it is comprehensible is a miracle”?

a. Albert Einsteinb. Stephen Hawkingc. John Polkinghorned. John Lennox

25. The gut reaction to the extreme violence the Bosnian Serb armed forces used against the Bosnian Muslims in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre reminds us that morality is

a. illusoryb. irresistiblec. preferentiald. non-existent

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Midterm and Final Exam Study GuidesMidterm

- Discuss the apologetic proof-text 1 Peter 3:15 and its relation to 1 Corinthians 2:1-5.- Provide the given definition of apologetics as well as distinguish between offensive and

defensive apologetics.- Discern the salient features of the apologetic types found in Scripture.- Identify the main points and examples of the apologetic types in Scripture.- Identify the main arguments of apologists throughout the Christian tradition leading up to

the Reformation.- Identify who or what the apologists in the tradition leading up to the Reformation were

writing/speaking against.- Identify the main arguments/contributions of the Christian apologists from the

Reformation to the present.- Discuss who or what the apologists from the Reformation to the present were arguing

against.- Answer questions relating to the Enlightenment/modernity paradigm.- Answer questions relating to the influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and the major

idea they proposed.- Know the details of the apologetic methods discussed in chapter 5

o Classical apologetics Two-step approach

o Evidential apologetics One-step approach

o Presuppositional apologeticso Experiential/Narratival apologetics

- Answer questions relating to Reformed Epistemology.- Know the difference between hard and soft forms of each model.- Know what is meant by taking people to the cross in word and deed.- How does the cross serve as strategic shorthand for the entire gospel and how does that

relate to apologetics at the cross?- Know the relationship between sharing the gospel and apologetics.- What is the role of personal transformation in apologetics?

Final

- How does the cross serve as a symbol of both strength and humility?- What is an apologetics of glory?- What is an apologist at the cross?- What are the idols of cultural acceptance?

o Ethics and submitting to God’s authorityo Knowledge and realizing the limits of creaturely knowledge

- What is strong empiricism?- What are unrealistic expectations?- What are the six lessons learned from the study of humility and wisdom in Proverbs?

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- Know the three specific aspects of a theological anthropology; namely, that humans are 1) intellectually reflective and 2) moral beings who 3) worship.

- Know the three anthropological models discussed in concern with Smith and which model of human beings he proposes and why (“desiring” beings).

- Be familiar with the section that discusses why reasons are not always enough.- Why do we need story and imagination as part of the apologetic method?- What are the differences between native rationality and cultural rationality?- What are the differences between basic logic and frameworks of rationality?- What is Paul’s philosophy of ministry?- Know the different contexts of the Acts speeches and how Paul and Peter change their

message based on the audience.- What is a cultural plausibility structure and the purpose of the analogy of odor?- Know the salient features of Pre-modernism, Modernism, and Post-modernism.- What is the immanent frame and the age of the spinmeister and how do they relate to

apologetics?- What is a spin and what is a take?- Know the details of the inside out approach.- Know the cultural characteristics of Late modernism and how the inside out method is

applied to each.- Know the opportunities within the cultural characteristics.- Know the salient features of the defeaters in chapter 12.- Know how the inside out approach applies to the defeaters.- What is the definition of signposts and how does it differ from proofs?- What are the signposts the authors discuss and what is the Christian take?- Know the details of the positive case for Christianity presented in chapter 13.- What are the details and evidences presented for the resurrection of Jesus?

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