Workshop on APA Style Afternoon Session III WSU College of Nursing October 24, 2008 Ellen Barton...

Workshop on APA StyleWorkshop on APA StyleAfternoon Session IIIAfternoon Session III

WSU College of NursingWSU College of NursingOctober 24, 2008October 24, 2008

Ellen BartonEllen BartonLinguistics/EnglishLinguistics/English

WSU Director of CompositionWSU Director of Composition

BartonBarton Workshop on APA StyleWorkshop on APA StyleWSU College of NursingWSU College of Nursing

Overview -- TopicsOverview -- Topics

writing processwriting process top-down and bottom-uptop-down and bottom-up

top-down – genres and outlinestop-down – genres and outlines bottom-up – language (paragraphs bottom-up – language (paragraphs

and sentences) and formatand sentences) and format draftsdrafts

11stst draft – finding info/outlining draft – finding info/outlining 22ndnd draft – organizing/APA headings draft – organizing/APA headings 33rdrd draft – editing and formatting draft – editing and formatting


Writing in APA StyleWriting in APA Style

what is good writing in APA style?what is good writing in APA style? CON faculty – “CON faculty – “stylestyle as well as format” as well as format”

voice in APA style is “formal,” “scientific voice in APA style is “formal,” “scientific writing” for an academic audiencewriting” for an academic audience

writing in APA style is “logical”writing in APA style is “logical” sections/headings and paragraphssections/headings and paragraphs

writing in APA style is “concise,” not writing in APA style is “concise,” not wordy or “creative”wordy or “creative”

writing in APA style is “clear”writing in APA style is “clear”



what is good writing in APA style?what is good writing in APA style? APA APA (2001, p. 10, pp. 31-40)(2001, p. 10, pp. 31-40)

tone in APA style is “professional,” i.e., tone in APA style is “professional,” i.e., formalformal, for “scientific journals”, for “scientific journals”

writing in APA style is “orderly,” i.e., writing in APA style is “orderly,” i.e., logicallogical

writing in APA style needs “economy of writing in APA style needs “economy of expression,” i.e., it is expression,” i.e., it is conciseconcise

writing in APA style is “precise,” i.e., writing in APA style is “precise,” i.e., clearclear



achieving qualities of good writing in achieving qualities of good writing in APA styleAPA style tone/voicetone/voice

write as a write as a researcherresearcher to an to an academic/professional audienceacademic/professional audience

logiclogic APA sections/headingsAPA sections/headings paragraphingparagraphing

conciseness and clarityconciseness and clarity sentencessentences


Logic = ParagraphingLogic = Paragraphing

APAAPA (2001, p. 36)(2001, p. 36) paragraph length – neither one sentence paragraph length – neither one sentence

nor one pagenor one page unity, cohesiveness, continuityunity, cohesiveness, continuity

structure of the paragraph (¶)structure of the paragraph (¶) topic sentence – unity/controlling ideatopic sentence – unity/controlling idea development -- cohesiveness/ development -- cohesiveness/

connections and continuity/terms connections and continuity/terms concluding sentence concluding sentence (if appropriate)(if appropriate)



¶ topic sentence – unity¶ topic sentence – unity state directly what paragraph is aboutstate directly what paragraph is about

Good communication is widely thought to be Good communication is widely thought to be essential to providing high quality end-of-life essential to providing high quality end-of-life care.care. (Intro -- background) (Intro -- background)

Phase 2 [EOL] discussions varied in length Phase 2 [EOL] discussions varied in length across the data set.across the data set. (Results) (Results)

Another way in which problems were presented Another way in which problems were presented differently . . . was the presence or absence of differently . . . was the presence or absence of treatment options.treatment options. (Results) (Results)

This study has three significant limitations.This study has three significant limitations. (Conclusion)(Conclusion)



¶ development -- cohesiveness¶ development -- cohesiveness each sentence related to topic sentenceeach sentence related to topic sentence

As shown in Table 1,As shown in Table 1, … (topic) … (topic) References to positive outcomes included References to positive outcomes included

[examples[examples] … (development)] … (development) each sentence related to previous and each sentence related to previous and

following sentencesfollowing sentences These percentage findings are supported by These percentage findings are supported by

a secondary comparisona secondary comparison … (conclusion) … (conclusion)



¶ development – continuity¶ development – continuity define terms and use those terms define terms and use those terms

consistently consistently … … [speaker] references to negative [speaker] references to negative

outcomes related to medical problemsoutcomes related to medical problems (findings overview, heading, topic sen)(findings overview, heading, topic sen)

… … references to negative outcomes took a references to negative outcomes took a variety of formsvariety of forms … (use of term) … (use of term)

do not change terms or create do not change terms or create synonyms for termssynonyms for terms use repetition in drafts use repetition in drafts (edit later)(edit later)



¶ concluding sentence¶ concluding sentence summary – relate back to topic sentencesummary – relate back to topic sentence

[Three features] combine to set some [Three features] combine to set some limitations on the analysis presented belowlimitations on the analysis presented below … (topic sentence)… (topic sentence)

Despite these limitations, this is the first Despite these limitations, this is the first study to compare interaction in decision-study to compare interaction in decision-making and non-decision making EOL making and non-decision making EOL discussionsdiscussions ... (concluding sentence) ... (concluding sentence)



editing individual paragraphsediting individual paragraphs check every paragraph for structurecheck every paragraph for structure

is there a clear and direct topic sentence? is there a clear and direct topic sentence? (unity)(unity)

does each sentence clearly relate to the topic does each sentence clearly relate to the topic sentence? (cohesiveness)sentence? (cohesiveness)

does each sentence clearly relate to the does each sentence clearly relate to the preceding and following sentences? preceding and following sentences? (cohesiveness)(cohesiveness)

is each new term defined, and is that term is each new term defined, and is that term used consistently? (continuity)used consistently? (continuity)

does the concluding sentence relate back to does the concluding sentence relate back to the topic sentence?the topic sentence?



multiple ¶s in sections/headingsmultiple ¶s in sections/headings logic expressed through transitions in logic expressed through transitions in

topic sentences topic sentences (APA, 2001, pp. 32-34)(APA, 2001, pp. 32-34) addition links -- addition links -- in additionin addition, , similarlysimilarly, ,

furthermorefurthermore, , firstfirst, , secondsecond … … contrast links – contrast links – butbut, , howeverhowever, , althoughalthough, ,

neverthelessnevertheless, , in contrastin contrast cause-effect links -- cause-effect links -- becausebecause, , as a resultas a result, ,

thereforetherefore, , consequentlyconsequently logical transitions in topic sentences avoid logical transitions in topic sentences avoid

abrupt shifts across ¶s abrupt shifts across ¶s (APA, 2001, p. 33)(APA, 2001, p. 33)



multiple ¶s in section/headingmultiple ¶s in section/heading ¶ topic sentences w/ transitions in Results ¶ topic sentences w/ transitions in Results

section section (Aldridge & Barton, 2007)(Aldridge & Barton, 2007) As mentioned aboveAs mentioned above, Phase 2 … typically , Phase 2 … typically

culminates in a summary section . . .culminates in a summary section . . . As shown in Table 3As shown in Table 3, . . . (data), . . . (data) To put this in terms of casesTo put this in terms of cases, . . . (analysis), . . . (analysis) In sumIn sum, [decision-making discussions] . . . , [decision-making discussions] . . .

ConverselyConversely, [non-decision-making discussions] , [non-decision-making discussions] … (conclusion)… (conclusion)



editing across ¶s in sections/ editing across ¶s in sections/ headingsheadings

read each topic sentence across read each topic sentence across ¶s ¶s is the order of paragraphs logical?is the order of paragraphs logical?

e.g., sequence of studies in Background/ Lit e.g., sequence of studies in Background/ Lit review sections/headingsreview sections/headings

e.g., data before analysis in Resultse.g., data before analysis in Results are the topic sentences related by are the topic sentences related by

transitions?transitions? e.g., similar studies before contrasting e.g., similar studies before contrasting

studies in Background/Lit reviewstudies in Background/Lit review


Writing in APA Style -- LogicWriting in APA Style -- Logic

2nd draft – organize for logic!2nd draft – organize for logic! genre – IMRD research articlegenre – IMRD research article sections/headings – I, M, R, Dsections/headings – I, M, R, D

subsections w/in IMRD sectionssubsections w/in IMRD sections w/in sections/headings, order of ¶sw/in sections/headings, order of ¶s

read topic sentences for logicread topic sentences for logic w/in ¶s, topic sentence and developmentw/in ¶s, topic sentence and development

revise for unity, cohesiveness, and revise for unity, cohesiveness, and continuitycontinuity


Sentences = Sentences = Conciseness and ClarityConciseness and Clarity

33rdrd draft – editing! draft – editing! (APA, 2001, chap. 2)(APA, 2001, chap. 2)

3 “rules” for conciseness 3 “rules” for conciseness (try them!)(try them!) watch sentence lengthwatch sentence length write complete sentenceswrite complete sentences edit out wordinessedit out wordiness

4 “rules” for clarity 4 “rules” for clarity (try them!)(try them!) use active voiceuse active voice use verb tense consistentlyuse verb tense consistently use pronouns carefullyuse pronouns carefully don’t use anthropomorphismsdon’t use anthropomorphisms


Sentences = ConcisenessSentences = Conciseness

watch sentence lengthwatch sentence length (APA, 2001, p. 36)(APA, 2001, p. 36)

write short sentences first! (8-12 words)write short sentences first! (8-12 words) combine closely related sentences combine closely related sentences

later (12-24 words)later (12-24 words) (if you can’t), find long sentences and (if you can’t), find long sentences and

shorten!shorten! 24+ words, 3 lines or more24+ words, 3 lines or more

short sentences make grammar short sentences make grammar manageable and avoid awkwardnessmanageable and avoid awkwardness



editing topic sentences for lengthediting topic sentences for length short and effectiveshort and effective

Roberts and Sarangi (2005) outline the Roberts and Sarangi (2005) outline the following steps for a discourse analysisfollowing steps for a discourse analysis..

long and ineffectivelong and ineffective As shown in Table 3, in the 13 summary As shown in Table 3, in the 13 summary

sections of decision-making discussions, 11 sections of decision-making discussions, 11 (85%) included one or more unmitigated (85%) included one or more unmitigated statements implying terminal status, as statements implying terminal status, as whenwhen . . . [33 more words!] . . . [33 more words!]

separate! (topic sentence from separate! (topic sentence from development) development)



write complete sentenceswrite complete sentences a complete (simple) sentence has a a complete (simple) sentence has a

subject and predicatesubject and predicate subject has head nounsubject has head noun predicate has main verbpredicate has main verb SV agreement – N/V SV agreement – N/V (APA, 2001, p. 44-47)(APA, 2001, p. 44-47)

longer (compound, complex) sentences have longer (compound, complex) sentences have multiple clauses, each with a subject and multiple clauses, each with a subject and predicate (and SV agreement)predicate (and SV agreement)

if you can’t easily identify the subject-predicate if you can’t easily identify the subject-predicate structure of your clauses and sentences, your structure of your clauses and sentences, your reader can’t, either!reader can’t, either!



correct sentence errorscorrect sentence errors fragment – incomplete sentencefragment – incomplete sentence

Phase 3 of the EOL discussion is Holistic Phase 3 of the EOL discussion is Holistic Decision-Making. Decision-Making. Where the frame of the Where the frame of the patient’s wishes is established and an patient’s wishes is established and an inferential decision is madeinferential decision is made. .

edit to two complete sentencesedit to two complete sentences don’t forget a cohesive link w/in ¶don’t forget a cohesive link w/in ¶

edit to one complex sentenceedit to one complex sentence watch punctuationwatch punctuation



correct sentence errorscorrect sentence errors run-on – 2 clauses no punctuationrun-on – 2 clauses no punctuation

Phase 3 of the EOL discussion is Holistic Phase 3 of the EOL discussion is Holistic Decision-Making the frame of the patient’s Decision-Making the frame of the patient’s wishes is established and an inferential wishes is established and an inferential decision is made.decision is made.

connect two clauses w/ a semi-colonconnect two clauses w/ a semi-colon if clauses are closely relatedif clauses are closely related

connect two clauses w/ a comma plus connect two clauses w/ a comma plus conjunctionconjunction

, and/but/or, and/but/or



correct sentence errorscorrect sentence errors comma splice – 2 clauses, comma onlycomma splice – 2 clauses, comma only

Phase 3 of the EOL discussion is Holistic Phase 3 of the EOL discussion is Holistic Decision-Making, the frame of the patient’s Decision-Making, the frame of the patient’s wishes is established and an inferential wishes is established and an inferential decision is made.decision is made.

connect two clauses w/ a semi-colonconnect two clauses w/ a semi-colon connect two clauses w/ a comma plus connect two clauses w/ a comma plus

conjunction conjunction (, and/but/or)(, and/but/or) write two complete sentenceswrite two complete sentences



edit out wordiness edit out wordiness (APA, 2001, p. 34-36)(APA, 2001, p. 34-36) is every word necessary?is every word necessary?

R&S (2005) have outlined the following R&S (2005) have outlined the following steps for a discourse analysissteps for a discourse analysis..

which words could go?which words could go? are any words redundant?are any words redundant?

the following stepsthe following steps the stepsthe steps the reason is becausethe reason is because becausebecause a total of 68 participantsa total of 68 participants 68 participants68 participants

edit every sentence!edit every sentence!


Conciseness -- ExerciseConciseness -- Exercise

choose one “ugly” sentence you wrote this choose one “ugly” sentence you wrote this morningmorning edit for concisenessedit for conciseness

shorten length to 8-12 wordsshorten length to 8-12 words write 2 sentences if necessary!write 2 sentences if necessary!

check for sentence errorscheck for sentence errors SV agreementSV agreement fragment, run-on, comma splicefragment, run-on, comma splice

edit out wordinessedit out wordiness how does it sound?how does it sound?


Sentences = ClaritySentences = Clarity

use the active voice use the active voice (APA, 2001, pp. 41-42)(APA, 2001, pp. 41-42)

active – subject, verb, objectactive – subject, verb, object We present a comparative discourse We present a comparative discourse

analysis . . .analysis . . . passive – object, be+verb, subjectpassive – object, be+verb, subject

A comparative discourse analysis is A comparative discourse analysis is presented . . . (wordy and less direct)presented . . . (wordy and less direct)

edit for active voice in Intro, edit for active voice in Intro, Background, Results, DiscussionBackground, Results, Discussion

use passive (sometimes) in Methoduse passive (sometimes) in Method



use verb tense consistently use verb tense consistently (APA, 2001, p. 33)(APA, 2001, p. 33) past tensepast tense (find verb w/ (find verb w/ yesterdayyesterday ... ...))

Intro (background/lit review)Intro (background/lit review) MethodMethod Intro (purpose, background)Intro (purpose, background)

present tensepresent tense (find verb w/ (find verb w/ todaytoday …) …) Intro (problem, claims/thesis)Intro (problem, claims/thesis) ResultsResults Discussion/ConclusionDiscussion/Conclusion

edit every sentence!edit every sentence!



use pronouns carefully use pronouns carefully (APA, 2001, p. 37)(APA, 2001, p. 37)

pronoun-previous noun agreementpronoun-previous noun agreement singular noun, singular pronounsingular noun, singular pronoun

an EOL physician with an EOL physician with his or herhis or her patient patient plural noun, plural pronounplural noun, plural pronoun

EOL physicians and EOL physicians and theirtheir patients patients error -- a patient and error -- a patient and theirtheir physician physician

use pronouns to avoid repetition, but use pronouns to avoid repetition, but make sure they refer clearly to their make sure they refer clearly to their nouns!nouns!



use pronouns carefullyuse pronouns carefully avoid “simple” pronouns avoid “simple” pronouns (APA, 2001, p. 37) (APA, 2001, p. 37)

thisthis, , thatthat, , thesethese, and , and thosethose as subjects as subjects of sentencesof sentences

One function of Phase 4 is to lay out One function of Phase 4 is to lay out specifically the process of moving from specifically the process of moving from therapeutic to comfort care. This is therapeutic to comfort care. This is characterized by its mix of medical . . . and characterized by its mix of medical . . . and lay language.lay language.

This phaseThis phase or, even better or, even better, , Phase 4Phase 4 don’t use bare don’t use bare thisthis as a subject! as a subject!



don’t use anthropomorphismsdon’t use anthropomorphisms (APA, 2001, p. 38)(APA, 2001, p. 38)

human subject, human verbhuman subject, human verb participants reportedparticipants reported

inanimate subject, inanimate verbinanimate subject, inanimate verb Table 1 showsTable 1 shows, , Figure 1 illustratesFigure 1 illustrates

error – inanimate subj, human verberror – inanimate subj, human verb data saysdata says data indicatedata indicate results revealresults reveal results indicateresults indicate

usage of usage of datadata – plural noun, avoid – plural noun, avoid showshow check w/ your advisor re. check w/ your advisor re. data showdata show


Clarity -- ExerciseClarity -- Exercise

choose one sentence in the passive voice choose one sentence in the passive voice and edit it to active voiceand edit it to active voice

choose one sentence in the wrong tense choose one sentence in the wrong tense and edit itand edit it e.g., lit review sentence – pres to paste.g., lit review sentence – pres to past e.g., discussion sentence – past to prese.g., discussion sentence – past to pres

find a sentence w/ find a sentence w/ thisthis as a subject and as a subject and edit it to a noun phraseedit it to a noun phrase

look for sentences w/ look for sentences w/ datadata as the subject – as the subject – edit the verbedit the verb



edit for conciseness!edit for conciseness! edit every sentence for lengthedit every sentence for length edit every sentence for completenessedit every sentence for completeness edit every sentence for wordinessedit every sentence for wordiness

edit for clarity! edit for clarity! edit for active voice in Intro, Results, Discedit for active voice in Intro, Results, Disc edit for past tense in Background, Methodedit for past tense in Background, Method edit for present tense in Intro, Results, Discedit for present tense in Intro, Results, Disc avoid avoid thisthis and and thatthat as sentence subjects as sentence subjects edit out anthropomorphismsedit out anthropomorphisms

proofread every sentence for grammar, spelling, proofread every sentence for grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation!capitalization, and punctuation!



READREAD absorb APA style in useabsorb APA style in use

WRITEWRITE plan time to write multiple draftsplan time to write multiple drafts

11stst draft – outline and write draft – outline and write 22ndnd draft – revise and organize draft – revise and organize

sections/headings and paragraphssections/headings and paragraphs 33rdrd draft – edit paragraphs and draft – edit paragraphs and

sentencessentences

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