Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt,...

28
7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 1/28 Carl Schmitt, political existentialism, and the total state RICHARD WOLIN Department of History, Rice University [Racial] homogeneity of the united German Volk is the most indis- pensable presupposition and foundation for the concept of political leadership of the German Volk. The thought of race ... is no theoreti- cally idle postulate. Without a basis in homogeneity the National Socialist state could not exist and its legal life would be unthink- able .... All questions and answers intersect with the demand for homogeneity, without which a total Fiihrerstaat could not subsist for a day. Carl Schmitt, State, Movement, Volk (1933) - It would be worthwile to study in detail the careers of those compara- tively few German scholars who went beyond mere cooperation and volunteered their services because they were convinced Nazis .... Most interesting is the example of the jurist Carl Schmitt, whose very ingenious theories about the end of democracy and legal government still make arresting reading. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism The foregoing citations raise a number of fascinating interpretive ques- tions concerning the political philosophy of Carl Schmitt - one of the leading German legal theorists of the Weimar years, whose whole- hearted support for Hitler's dictatorship remained a scandal that fol- lowed him to his grave in 1985 at the advanced age of 96. On the one hand, there is Arendt's characterization of Schmitt as a "convinced Nazi"; a statement certainly borne out by the facts of the years 1933- 1936, when Schmitt, inspired to new heights of prolificness, authored no fewer than five books and 35 tracts in support of the new Reich. During this phase, there were few depths to which Schmitt would not sink: he penned an essay in support of the bloody SA purge of June 30, 1934 - the famous "Night of the Long Knives" - with the ominous rifle, "The F/ihrer Protects the Law" The following year he authored an ar- Theory and Society 19: 389-416, 1990. 9 1990 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Transcript of Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt,...

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 1/28

C a r l S c h m i t t , p o l i t ic a l e x i s te n t i a l i s m ,a n d t h e t o t a l s t a t e

R I C H A R D W O L I N

Department o f History, Ric e U niversity

[ R a c i a l ] h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e u n i t e d G e r m a n V o l k i s t h e m o s t i n d i s -

p e n s a b l e p r e s u p p o s i t io n a n d f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f p ol it ic a l

l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e G e r m a n V o l k . T h e t h o u g h t o f r a ce . .. i s n o t h e o r e t i -

c a l l y i d l e p o s t u l a t e . W i t h o u t a b a s i s i n h o m o g e n e i t y t h e N a t i o n a l

S o c i a l i st st a t e c o u l d n o t e x i s t a n d i t s l e g al li f e w o u l d b e u n t h i n k -

a b l e . . . . A l l q u e s t i o n s a n d a n s w e r s i n t e r s e c t w i t h t h e d e m a n d f o r

h o m o g e n e i t y , w i t h o u t w h i c h a t o t a l Fiihrerstaat c o u l d n o t s u b s is t f o r a

day .

C a r l S c h m i t t , State, M ovem ent, Volk ( 1 9 3 3 )

- I t w o u l d b e w o r t h w i l e t o s t u d y i n d et a i l t h e c a r e e r s o f t h o s e c o m p a r a -

t iv e ly f e w G e r m a n s c h o la r s w h o w e n t b e y o n d m e r e c o o p e r a t i o n a n d

v o l u n t e e r e d t h e i r s e r v i c e s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e c o n v i n c e d

N a z i s . . . . M o s t i n t e r e st i n g is t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e j u r i s t C a r l S c h m i t t ,

w h o s e v e r y i n g en i o u s t h e o r i es a b o u t t h e e n d o f d e m o c r a c y a n d l eg a l

g o v e r n m e n t s t il l m a k e a r r e s t in g r e a d i n g .

H a n n a h A r e n d t, The Origins of Totalitarianism

T h e f o r e g o i n g c it a ti o n s r a i se a n u m b e r o f f a s c in a t in g i n t e r p r e ti v e q u e s -

t io n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o l it ic a l p h i l o s o p h y o f C a r l S c h m i tt - o n e o f t h el ea d in g G e r m a n le g al th e o r is ts o f th e W e i m a r y e a r s, w h o s e w h o l e -

h e a r t e d s u p p o r t f o r H i t l e r ' s d i c t a t o r s h i p r e m a i n e d a s c a n d a l t h a t f o l -

l o w e d h i m t o h is g ra v e in 1 9 8 5 a t t h e a d v a n c e d a g e o f 9 6 . O n t h e o n e

h a n d , t h e r e is A r e n d t ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a ti o n o f S c h m i t t a s a " c o n v i n c e d

N a z i" ; a s t at e m e n t c e r ta i n ly b o r n e o u t b y t h e f a ct s o f t h e y e a r s 1 9 3 3 -

1 9 3 6 , w h e n S c h m i t t, i n s p i re d t o n e w h e i g h ts o f p r o l if ic n e s s , a u t h o r e d

n o f e w e r t h a n f iv e b o o k s a n d 3 5 t r a c ts i n s u p p o r t o f t h e n e w R e i ch .

D u r i n g th is p h a s e , t h e r e w e r e fe w d e p t h s t o w h i c h S c h m i t t w o u l d n o t

s in k : h e p e n n e d a n e s s a y i n s u p p o r t o f t h e b l o o d y S A p u r g e o f J u n e 3 0 ,

1 9 3 4 - t h e f a m o u s " N i g h t o f t h e L o n g K n i v e s " - w i t h t h e o m i n o u s rifle ,

" T h e F / ih r e r P r o t e c t s t h e L a w " T h e f o l lo w i n g y e a r h e a u t h o r e d a n a r -

Theory and Society 1 9: 3 8 9 - 4 1 6 , 1 9 9 0 .

9 1 9 9 0 Klu we r Ac ade m ic Publ ishers . Printed in the Netherlands.

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 2/28

3 9 0

t i c l e v i g o r o u s l y e n d o r s i n g t h e N u r e m b e r g a n t i - s e m i t i c l e g i s l a t i o n o f

1 9 3 5 w i t h a n e q u a l l y d i s i n g e n u o u s ti tl e, " T h e C o n s t i t u t io n o f F r e e -

d o m ." 1 T h e s e f a c ts , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e r in g in g d e f e n s e o f "r a ci al h o m o -gene i t y" in State, M ovement, Folk c it ed f r o m a b o v e w o u l d s e e m t o c o n -

f i rm t h e f ir s t p a r t o f A r e n d t ' s d e s c r i p ti o n .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o d o j u s t i c e t o S c h m i t t ' s w o r k i n i t s e n t i r e t y , o n e

m u s t e q u a l l y c o n f r o n t t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f A r e n d t ' s p o r t r a y a l, i.e ., h is

" in g e n io u s t h e o r ie s a b o u t t h e e n d o f d e m o c r a c y a n d l eg a l g o v e r n m e n t "

- a r e f e r e n c e t o S c h m i t t ' s c o n v i c t i o n , d e v e l o p e d i n n u m e r o u s b o o k s

a n d a r ti c le s d u r i n g t h e W e i m a r y e a r s , th a t d e m o c r a c y h a d l o s t i ts le g i-

t im a c y a s a f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t i n th e t w e n t i e th c e n t u r y o w i n g to t h e

con t i nue d s t reng th , r a t he r t han t he de m i se o f , l i be r a l i n s ti tu t ions .

A r e n d t ' s r e m a r k i m p l i c i t l y r a i s e s w h a t h a s b e c o m e t h e e s s e n t i a l q u e s -

t i on fo r Schmi t t - s cho l a r sh ip ove r t he yea r s : name ly , i s t he r e a d i r ec t

c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d l e g a l w r i t i n g s i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s -

w h i c h a r e l a rg e ly c o n c e r n e d w i t h ju s t if y in g t h e n o t i o n o f p o l it ic a l d i c ta -t o r s h i p - a n d h i s av i d i n v o l v e m e n t i n th e N a z i r e g i m e i n t h e f o l lo w i n g

d e c a d e ? A s A r e n d t s u gg e sts , t h e a n s w e r t o th is q u e s t i o n is b y n o m e a n s

s t r a igh t fo rw ard . Schm i tt , un l i ke t he ma jo r i t y o f t he i n t e l lec tua l ad -

h e r e n t s o f N a z i s m , w a s i n n o w a y a h a c k . I n s t e a d , h e i s g e n e r a l l y re c o g -

n i zed a s pe rha ps t he m os t g i f ted po l it i ca l and l ega l t heo r i s t o f h i s gen -

e r a t i o n . I t i s t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p h a s e s o f

S c h m i t t's c a r e e r - N a z i a n d p r e - N a z i - t h a t s e rv e s a s th e fo c a l p o i n t o f

this essay.

T h e r e a r e t w o m a i n r e a s o n s t h a t c o m p e l a f l e s h r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

Schmi t t ' s l egacy a t t h i s t ime . F i r s t , MIT Pres s has r ecen t l y pub l i shed

t ra n s l a ti o n s o f t h r e e o f S c h m i tt 's m a j o r t e x ts f r o m t h e W e i m a r p e r i o d . 2

T h i s f ac t , c o u p l e d w i t h a 1 9 7 6 t ra n s l a ti o n o f w h a t w a s p e r h a p s

S c h m i tt 's m o s t i n fl u e n ti a l ( a n d c o n t r o v e r si a l) b o o k o f t h e s e y e a r s , The

Concept o f the Political (192 7) , 3 m ean s t ha t t he m os t s i gn if ican t o f h i s

e x t e n s i v e p r e - N a z i w r i t i n g s a r e n o w a v a i l a b l e t o a n E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g

r e a d e r s h i p f o r t h e f i r st ti m e .

S e c o n d , t h e m a j o r it y o f s e c o n d a r y c o m m e n t a r i e s o n S c h m i tt i n E n g l is h

t o d a t e h a v e b e e n o f a s t ra n g e l y a p o l o g e t i c c h a r a c t e r ; a f a c t t h a t s t a n d s

i n m a r k e d c o n t r a s t to t h e p o s t - w a r G e r m a n r e c e p t i o n o f S c h m it t's

w o r k , i n w h i c h h e h a s c e r t a i n l y f o u n d d i s c i p l e s , b u t a l s o s t r i d e n t

d e t r a c t o r s . 4 T o b e s u r e , in c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c , a nA n g l o - A m e r i c a n p o l it ic a l c o n t e x t w o u l d s e e m t o h a v e li tt le t o f e a r w i t h

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 3/28

391

r e sp e c t t o t h e m o r e a u t h o r i t a r i a n o v e r t o n e s o f S c h m i t t ' s p o l i t i c a l p h i -

l os o p h y. Y et t h e E n g l i sh l a n g u a g e c o m m e n t a r y o n S c h m i tt , m u c h o f it

v e r y r e c e n t , h a s b o r d e r e d o n w h i te w a s h : a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t h a s b e e nm a d e e i t h e r to d o w n p l a y S c h m i tt 's N a z i s m o r e x p l ai n it a w a y b y r e f e r -

e n c e t o t h e f o r c e o f p o l it ic a l c i rc u m s t a n c e s .5

M o s t n o t e w o r t h y in t h is r e s p e c t w a s a s p e ci al is s u e o f t h e j o u r n a l Telos

( 7 2 [ 1 98 7 ]) d e v o t e d t o S c h m i t t 's w o r k . T h e p r e su m e d i n t e n t w a s 1 ) t o

ind ic a te Schm i t t' s se rv iceab i li ty fo r a (p re sum ably ) l e f t-w ing c r i tique o f

p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e m o c r a c y ; a n d 2 ) t o p r e s e n t a " f r e s h " p o l it ic a ll y n o n -

p r e j u d i ci a l r e a d i n g o f S c h m i tt 's w o r k . B u t t h e r e su l t s in b o t h c a se s s e e m

to ha ve g r i evou s ly m is f ired .

F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e i s su e w e a r e g i v e n a p u t a t i v e

e x a m p l e o f t h e w a y in w h i c h S c h m i t ti a n " so l u ti o n s" m i g h t b e e m p l o y e d

w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o c o n t e m p o r a r y p o li ti ca l p r o b l e m s . A n d t h u s w e a r e

a sk e d t o l e a r n f r o m S c h m i t t ' s c r i t i q u e o f l i b e r a l i sm t h a t , w h e n u n d e r -

s tood so le ly in a l ega l i s t i c sense , " the obsess ive l e f t - l ibe ra l pu rsu i t o fe g a l i t a r i a n i sm a s a su p e r - l e g a l n o r m h a s d e b i l i t a t i n g c o n se q u e n c e s

b o t h i n t h e o r y a n d i n p r a c t i c e . '6 B u t d o e s t h e l e ft r e a l ly n e e d t h e w i s-

d o m o f C a r l S c h m i t t t o e x p l a in w h a t i s s e l f- e v id e n t : t h a t l a t e c a p i t a l ism

e x h ib i ts a c o n t r a d i c t o r y te n s i o n b e t w e e n formal and subs tant ive egal i -

tarian ism ? A n d tha t the inequitie s o f a mere ly form al ega l i t a r i an i sm

m u s t b e o v e r c o m e i n t h e d o m a i n o f s o c ia l p ra c t ic e i ts e lf ? M o r e o v e r ,

w h e r e r a d i c a l so c i a l c r i t i c i sm m a y u t i l i z e t h i s t e n s i o n a s t h e f r u i t f u l

b a s is f o r t h e t a sk o f id e o l o g y c ri ti c ism , S c h m i t t h i m se l f n e v e r t o o k t h eh i a t u s b e t w e e n b o u r g e o i s l e g al n o r m s a n d a c t u a l it y s er io u s ly . I n s t e a d ,

h is total cynicism r e g a r d i n g b o u r g e o i s p o l i t i c a l n o r m s ( "p a r l i a m e n t a r -

i a n ism " ) g o e s f a r t o w a r d e x p l a i n i n g th e e a se w i t h w h i c h h i s a u t h o r i t a r -

i a n v ie w s o f t h e 1 9 2 0 s - l ik e t h o s e o f so m a n y o t h e r W e i m a r " c o n s e r -

v a t iv e re v o l u t i o n a r i e s " - r a p i d l y t ra n s l a t e d i n t o a n u n q u a l i f i e d su p p o r t

f o r t h e p o l i c i e s o f N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i sm . B e c a u se S c h m i t t ' s p o l i t i c a l

t h e o r y i s d e v o i d o f p o s s ib i li ti e s o f a n i m m a n e n t c r i ti q u e o f b o u r g e o i s

i d e al s , h e c a n o n l y o f f e r u s a "negative modeP: h is f r a m e w o r k i n tr u t h

e x e m p l i f i e s t h e w a y i n w h i c h b o u r g e o i s so c i e t i e s shouM not be cr i t i -

cized. H i s p o l it ic a l d e c i s i o n o f 1 9 3 3 i s t h e p r o o f o f t h e p u d d i n g : a t o t a l

c r i ti q u e o f b o u r g e o i s n o r m s m e sh e s s e a m l e s s l y w i t h a t o t a l i ta r i a n p o l it -

i ca l op t ion .

I n t h e s a m e i s s u e , w e a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a n a n o d y n e a c c o u n t o f

S c h m i t t ' s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i sm ( e .g . , Jo se p h B e n -d e r s k y , " C a r l S c h m i t t a t N u r e m b e r g " ) . A n d t h u s S c h m i t t ' s m o r e

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 4/28

3 9 2

r e vu ls iv e m i s d e e d s d u r i n g t h e H i tl e r y e a r s ( su c h a s th o s e e n u m e r a t e d

i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h o f t his e s sa y ) a r e d i s m i s s e d a s t h e i n s i n c e r e

e f f o r t s o f a n o b se q u i o u s p e r so n a l i t y - t y p e t o i n g r a t i a te h i m se l f w i t h t h eN a z i d i c t a t o r sh i p . ( A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h is e s sa y , m o r e o v e r , B e n d e r sk y

t u g s a t o u r h e a r t s t r in g s b y in f o r m i n g u s t h a t S c h m i t t - w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d

w i t h a l a c ri t y i n a r e g i m e t h a t u n l e a sh e d a w a r r e su l ti n g in t h e d e a t h o f

so m e 4 0 m i l l io n p e r so n s - f o l lo w i n g h i s a r re s t b y t h e A l l i e s i n S e p t e m -

b e r 1 9 4 5 , w a s f o r c e d to l iv e i n a n i n t e r n m e n t c a m p f o r s o m e 1 8

m o n t h s w h i l e a w a i ti n g t r ia l a t N u r e m b e r g f o r w a r c r i m e s . ) Th i s is f o l -

l o w e d b y a t r a n sc r i p t o f S c h m i t t' s ( su c ce s s f u l) r e b u t t a l o f a ll ie d c h a r g e s

t h a t hi s o w n d o c t r i n e o f G r o s s r a u m se r v e d a s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l ba s is f o r

t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e o f L e b e n s r a u m . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e b i o -

g r a p h i c a l f a c t t h a t S c h m i t t h i m se l f w a s a c q u i t t e d o f " c r i m e s a g a i n s t

h u m a n i t y " h a r d l y p r o v i d e s c o m p e l l in g p r o o f t h a t S c h m i t t's o w n a u t h o r -

i t a ri a n p o l it ic a l d o c t r i n e s o f t h e 1 9 2 0 s a r e " a b o v e su s p i c i o n " I n t h is

r e sp e c t , B e n d e r sk y ' s p a r a l l e l e f f o r t ( "C a r l S c h m i t t a n d t h e C o n se r -

v a t i v e R e v o l u t i o n , " i n t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f Telos) f l a t ly to deny

S c h m i t t' s i n te l le c t u a l a ff in i ti es w i t h G e r m a n y ' s o x y m o r o n i c , c o n se r -v a t iv e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h i n k e r s ( S p e n g l e r, th e Ju n g e r b r o t h e r s , M o e l l e r

v a n d e r B r u c k , e t a l . ) i s l i k e w i se d i s i n g e n u o u s . Ev e n t h e su b t i t l e o f

B e n d e r s k y ' s o w n b o o k o n S c h m i t t - Car l Schmi t t : Theor i s t f o r t he

R e i c h - su g g es ts th a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p o l it ic s a n d t h e o r y in

S c h m i t t 's w o r k is f a r f r o m a d v e n t i ti o u s .

T h u s i n g e n e r a l, t h e m a j o r s t r a te g y o f d e n i al p r a c t i c e d b y t h e S c h m i t t

a p o lo g is ts h a s b e e n t o t r y to s e p a r a t e n e a t l y S c h m i t t t h e W e i m a r j u ri s t

a n d p o l i t i c a l p h i l o so p h e r f r o m S c h m i t t t h e l e g a l t h e o r i s t o f t h e N a z i

Machtergre i fung. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s r e v i s i o n i s t g r o u n d sw e l l , S c h m i t t ' s

w r i ti n gs o f th e 1 9 2 0s , r a t h e r t h a n p o i n t in g t h e w a y t o M a r c h 2 4 , 1 9 3 3

( t h e d a t e o f t h e En a b l i n g A c t , a l l o w i n g H i t l e r e s se n t i a l l y t o r u l e b y

d e c r e e ) , a im e d f u n d a m e n t a l l y at s t re n g t h e n i n g th e P r e s i d e n ti a l s y s t e m

o f W e i m a r a n d t h e n o t o r i o u s A r t i c l e 4 8 ( g r an t in g e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s to

t h e p r e s i d e n t ) , i n o r d e r t o s a v e t h e f ra g i le R e p u b l i c r a t h e r t h a n t oh a s t e n i t s d e m i se . I n t h i s r e a d i n g , S c h m i t t e m e r g e s a s a " t h e o r i s t o f

d e m o c r a t i c le g i ti m a c y " - a l b e it a d e m o c r a t i c le g i t im a c y d i v e s t e d o f th e

b u r d e n so m e f e t t e r s o f r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s . Ev e n i f i t i s a d i c t a t o r

w h o a c t u al ly g ov e r n s, h e ( o r s h e ) m u s t d o s o o n l y f o r t h e s a k e o f u p -

h o l d i n g t h e l e g it im a t e ly c o n s t i t u t e d o r d e r . S h e ( o r h e ) m a y a b r o g a t e -

b u t n o t a b o l i sh - t h e e x i s t in g c o n s t i tu t i o n . To b e su r e , t h e r e e x is ts a

s t r o n g b a s is f o r su c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n c e r t a i n o f S c h m i t t' s w r i ti n g s o f

t h e 1 9 2 0's ; m o r e o v e r , t hi s is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e w a y t h a t t h e m a s t e rh i m se l f w o u l d l i k e p o s t e r i ty t o v i e w h is h i s t o r ic a l c o n t r i b u t i o n . A t t h e

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 5/28

3 9 3

sam e t ime , t h is ap pr oa ch se l ec ti ve ly by pa s se s si gn if ican t and t r ou b l i ng

f a c ts , b o t h b i o g r a p h i c a l a n d t e x tu a l in n a t u r e .

O n e o f t h e m o s t p u z z l i n g i s s u e s i n S c h m i t t s c h o l a r s h i p h a s b e e n h i s

o s c i l l a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o a p p a r e n t l y i r r e c o n c i l a b l e t e n d e n c i e s : o n t h e

o n e h a n d , a r a d i c a l d e c i s i o n i s m , e m p h a s i z i n g a d e c i s i o n t h a t i s " b o r n

o u t o f n o t h i n g " a n d t h u s e n a c t e d e x n ih ilo , in fl a g ra n t d i s r e g a r d o f t h e

l egal and m ora l r equ i r em en t s o f t he ex i s ti ng soc io -h i s t o r i ca l s i t ua ti on ;

o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a c o n c r e t e O r d n u n g s d e n k e n - a " p h i l o s o p h y o f

o r d e r " - c o m m i t te d t o th e p r e s e r v a t io n o f t h e e xis tin g s y s te m c o m e

w ha t may . Schm i t t' s s t a tus a s a ph i l oso ph e r o f o rde r f o l l ow s l og i ca ll y

f rom h i s f unc t i ona l ( a s we l l a s t au to log i ca l ) de f i n i t i on o f l eg i t imacy : a

g iven o r de r i s " leg i tima t e" i f i t i s r eco gn i z ed a s such b y t he m a jo r i t y o f

i t s c i t i zens . Th i s de f i n i t i on o f l eg i t imacy i s a mere ly l og i ca l conse -

q u e n c e o f S c hm i tt 's a b a n d o n m e n t o f a ll m o r a l a n d p h i l o so p h i c a l " n o r -

ma t iv i sm" : i n t he absence o f a t heo re t i ca l concep t o f " j us t i ce" aga ins t

w h i c h a g iv e n p o l it ic a l o r d e r m i g h t b e m e a s u r e d , o n e i s i p s o f a c t o l e ft

wi th a f unc t i ona l de f i n i t i on o f l eg it imacy .

T h e s e s e e m i n g l y i r re c o n c i l a b l e p o s i ti o n s - d e c i s i o n i s m a n d a p h i l o s -

o p h y o f o r d e r - h a v e b e e n n o s m a ll s o u r c e o f c o n f u s io n , w i th v a r io u s

c r it ic s e m p h a s i z i n g o n e m o m e n t t o t h e e x c l u s io n o f t h e o t h e r . F o r

e x a m p l e , i n h i s e x c e l l e n t e s s a y o n S c h m i t t , K a r l L 6 w i t h s e i z e s o n t h e

c o n t e n t l e s s n e s s a n d i r ra t io n a l i sm o f S c h m i tt 's d e c i s i o n i s m i n o r d e r t o

m a k e t h e p o i n t t h at , i n s o f a r a s i t i s d e p r i v e d o f a p r i o r s u b s t a n t iv e

( re a d : n o r m a t i v e ) o r i e n ta t io n , S c h m i t t's d e c i s i o n i s m e n d s u p a s a m e r e"occas iona l i sm" : an ad ho c , op po r tun i s t i c ex pres s ion o f po l i t ica l will,

t h e s e l f - p r o j e c t io n o f a n a r b it ra r y , a u t h o r i ta r i a n p o w e r - t h e w i ll o f th e

sove re ign - up o n po l i t ica l r ea li ty . 7 T he i r ony he re o f co ur se i s t ha t

" o c c a s i o n a l i s m " i s t h e t e r m o f d e r i s i o n t h a t S c h m i t t u s e s t o f l a g e l l a t e

t h e r o m a n t i c m e n t a l it y in h i s 1 9 1 9 w o r k , Pol i t i ca l Romant i c i sm . In D ie

E n t s c h e i d u n g , a n o t h e r w i s e s t a n d a r d w o r k o n t h e c o n c e p t , C h r i s t i a n

v o n K r o c k o w a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e t h e s e t w o s t r a n d s o f S c h m i t t ' s

t h o u g h t t h r o u g h t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f p e r i o d i z a t io n : S c h m i tt " p r o -

g r e s s e d " f r o m b e i n g a d e c i s i o n is t d u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 0 s t o a p h i l o s o p h e r o f

c o n c r e t e o r d e r d u r i n g t h e N a z i y e a rs . Y e t , t hi s s o lu t i o n r e m a i n s u n c o n -

v i n c in g i n s o f a r a s b o t h e l e m e n t s - d e c i s i o n i s m a s w e l l a s O r d n u n g s -

d e n k e n - a r e a p p a r e n t i n S c h m i tt 's w r it in g d u r i n g t h e W e i m a r y e a rs .

T h e k e y t o -t h is i n t e rp r e t iv e q u a n d a r y i s t o b e f o u n d i n S c h m i tt 's pol i t i -

ca l ex i s ten tia l ism. I t i s t h i s ca t egory t ha t s e rves a s t he l e i tmot i f o f h i sW e i m a r w r it in g s c a p a b l e o f r e c o n c i li n g i r re c o n c i l a b l e s - h i s a p p a r e n t l y

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 6/28

3 9 4

i n e x p l ic a b l e a lt e r n a ti o n b e t w e e n d e c i s i o n i s m a n d a p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n -

c r e t e o r d e r - a n d t h a t a l s o g o e s fa r t o a c c o u n t f o r th e a l a c r it y w i t h

w h i c h S c h m i t t c o n v e r t s t o N a t i o n a l i s m S o c i a li s m in 1 9 3 3 . T h u s , i f t h em a i n t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n a t i s s u e i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c h m i t t ' s

c h e c k e r e d i n t e l l e c t u a l c a r e e r h a s b e c o m e " w h a t w e r e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l

c o m p o n e n t s o f S c h m i t t' s p o li ti c a l t h o u g h t i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h a t p r e d i s -

p o s e d h i m t o e n v i s a g e t h e N a z i d i c t a t o r s h i p a s b o t h a d e l i v e r a n c e

f r o m W e i m a r a n d t h e f u l fi ll m e n t o f h i s in n e r m o s t p o l i ti c a l l o n g in g s ? " -

t he r e a r e spec i f i c " ex is t en ti a li st " p r e cep t s t ha t a l l ow h im to un i t e bo th a

r a d i c a l d e c i s i o n i s m w i t h a c o n c r e t e p h i l o s o p h y o f o r d e r . T h e r e is li tt le

d o u b t t h a t h e p e r c e i v e d t h e c o n s u m m a t e u n i o n o f th e s e t w o d o c t ri n e s

t o b e t h e F i i h r e r s t a a t o f A d o l f H i t le r . 8

T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i n t e ll e c tu a l c l im a t e i n t h e W e i m a r y e a r s t h a t p r e -

p a r e d t h e g r o u n d f o r G e r m a n y ' s t u r n t o f a s c i s m i s a s u b j e c t t h a t h a s

r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s ? A b o v e a l l , a c r i s i s - m e n t a l i t y

p e r v a d e d - a f a c t i n t e g r a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e d i r e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c

u n c e r t a i n t ie s o f t h e e a r l y W e i m a r y e a r s - a n d a v a r ie t y o f " c ri si s p h i -l o s o p h i e s " e m e r g e d i n r e s p o n s e . W i t h o u t d o u b t , e x i s te n t ia l is m - o r a s

it w a s k n o w n i n t h e l at e 1 9 2 0 s , E x i s t e n z p h i l o s o p h i e - w a s t h e m o s t s u c -

c e s sf u l. A s a p h il o s o p h y , it m a n a g e d t o f o r m a l i z e t h o u g h t s a b o u t t h e

" c r i s i s o f t h e W e s t " t h a t h a d b e e n c u r r e n t i n G e r m a n i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e

s i n c e N i e t z s c h e ' s d a y a n d t h a t h a d r e c e i v e d a n a p o c a l y p t i c a l f o r m u l a -

t i on fo r t he pos t -war gene ra t i on i n Speng l e r ' s i n f l uen t i a l T h e D e c l in e o f

t h e W e s t ( 1 9 2 3 ) . T h i s c r i s i s p h i l o s o p h y s e e m e d t o a c c e n t u a t e N i e t z -

sche ' s ins ight tha t a l l t r ad i t iona l Wes tern va lues - re l ig ious , e th ica l , as

we l l a s po l it i ca l - ha d l os t t he i r va l id i ty . H en ce , i t r e i n fo rced t he v i ew

tha t a l l a l t e rna t i ves t o t he i nhe r i t ed w or ld -o rde r , i f t hey w ere t o be r ea l

a l te rna t ives , h ad t o be r ad i ca l . I n t he ca se o f ex is t en ti a li sm , t h e dev a lua -

t i o n o f a l l t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s m e a n t t h a t h u m a n e x i st e n c e , i n its b r u t e

fac t i v i t y , b e c a m e a v a l u e in a n d o f i ts e lf - t h e o n l y v a l u e th a t r e m a i n e d ,

a s it w e r e . S u c h i n si g h ts f e d i n t o t h e " n o n - n o r m a t i v e " n a t u r e o f d e c i-

s io n i sm , i n b o t h it s H e i d e g g e r i a n a n d S c h m i tt ia n v a r ia n t s, 1~ w h e r e t h e

d e c i s i o n m u s t b e m a d e e x n ih i lo - i n t o t a l d i s r e g a rd o f t h e c u l t u ra l ly

d o m i n a n t v a l u e p a r a d i g m s , w h i c h m e r e l y s e r v e t o t r a p a u t h e n t i c d e c i -

s i o n o n c e m o r e i n t h e n e t h e r r e g i o n s o f in a u th e n ti ci ty .

T h e r e i s y e t a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s m q u a " c r i s i s p h i l o s o p h y "

t h a t m e r i t s a t t e n t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t a t h a n d . B y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e b r u t e

p r i m a c y o f h u m a n e x is te n c e, d e n u d e d o f a ll s u p p o r ti n g v a l u e s t ru c -

t u r e s , t he r e s ee m s t o be on ly on e ce r t a i n ty l e f t i n life : t he i nev i t ab i l it y o fd e a th . T h e e x t e n t to w h i c h H e i d e g g e r h e r e m a k e s a v ir tu e o f a n e c e s s it y

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 7/28

3 9 5

is w e l l k n o w n : a n t i c i p a t io n o f d e a t h ( V o r la u f en - z u m - T o d e) b e c o m e s t h e

ex i s t en t i a l f oca l po in t o f S e i n u n d Z e i t , t h e h a l l m a r k o f a n a u t h e n t ic

ex i s t ence . He idegge r ' s a t t empt t o co r r e l a t e "dea th" and " au then t i c i t y , "h o w e v e r , w a s f a r fr o m a n i so l a te d o c c u r r e n c e : in G e r m a n y o f th e i n t e r-

w a r p e r i o d , t h e r e a r o s e a v e r it a b l e " m e t a p h y s i c s o f d e a th , " w i t h t h e l at -

t e r u n d e r s t o o d a s a t y p e o f e x is te n t ia l c u l m i n a t io n o f h u m a n l if e it se lf .

T h e m o s t n o t a b l e i ll u s tr a ti o n o f t hi s te n d e n c y o c c u r s i n E r n s t J ii n g er 's

u n a b a s h e d c e l eb r a ti o n o f t h e Fron ter l ebn i s ( " fr o n t e x p e r i e n c e " ) d u r i n g

t h e s e y e a r s in w o r k s s u c h a s Im Stahlgewi tter (S t or m o f S tee l) , i n w h i c h

e n t h u s i a s t i c b a t t l e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t e n c u l r n i n a t e i n s c e n e s o f g l o r i o u s

de a th ) 1 S imil ar ly , i n Spen g l e r o ne f i nds t he adag e t ha t "war i s t he c r ea -

tor of a ll g rea t th ings . "12 A n d in Th e C on cep t o f t he Po l it ica l, i n w h i c h

S c h m i tt c o i n s h is f a m o u s " f r i e n d - e n e m y " d i s t in c t i o n a s t h e u l t im a r a ti o

o f po l i t i ca l l i f e , we f i nd ou r se lves i n c l ose p rox imi ty t o J i Jnge r ' s d i s -

c o u r s e o f m a r t i a l b l u s te r : " W a r, th e r e a d i n e s s f o r d e a t h o f fi gh ti ng m e n ,

t h e p h y s i c a l a n n i h il a ti o n o f o t h e r m e n w h o s t a n d o n t h e s i d e o f t h e

e n e m y , a l l t ha t has no norm at i ve , ra ther an ex i s t en tia l m ean ing , i n d e e d ,

i n t he r ea l i t y o f a s i t ua t i on o f r ea l s t r ugg le aga ins t a r ea l enem y, and no ti n w h a t e v e r i d e al s, p r o g r a m s , o r n o r m a t i v e c o n c e p t s . " ~3

I n c h o a t e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t i m p u l s e s c o l o r e d S c h m i t t ' s a p p r o a c h t o l e g a l

s t u d ie s v e r y e a r l y o n . I n o n e o f h is f ir s t p u b l i s h e d w o r k s ( G e s e t z u n d

Urteil - 1 9 1 2 ) , S c h m i t t v i g o r o u s l y c o n t e s t s t h e i d e a t h a t a le g a l o r d e r

m a y b e t r e a te d a s a c l o s e d s y s te m o f n o r m s . H e f o rc e f u ll y d e n i e s, f o r

e x a m p l e , t h a t in a p a rt i c u la r c a s e , o n e c o u l d r e a c h a c o r r e c t d e c i s i o n b y

a p r o c e s s o f d e d u c t i o n o r g e n e r a l iz a t io n o n t h e b a s i s o f e x is ti n g l eg a l

r u l e s . I n s t e a d , h e e m p l o y s t h e n o t i o n o f " c o n c r e t e i n d i f f e r e n c e " t o

i l l u s t r a t e h i s con t en t i on t ha t t he r e wi l l a lways ex i s t a measure o f irre-

ducible par t icular i ty i n a g i v en c a s e t h a t d e f i e s m e c h a n i c a l s u b s u m p t i o n

u n d e r g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s ) 4 F o r S c h m i tt t h e m o m e n t o f " c o n c r e t e in d if -

f e r e n c e " r e p r e s e n t s a t y p e o f " vi ta l su b s t ra t e ," t h a t e l e m e n t o f p u r e l if e

o p p o s e d t o t h e f o r m a l i s m o f l a w . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h i s e m p h a s i s

on t he i r r a t iona l i sm o f t he pa r t i cu l a r ca se fo r Schmi t t 's f u tu r e a s a l ega l

s c h o l a r a r e c r u c ia l: t h e y p o i n t o f n e c e s s i t y i n t h e d i r e c t io n o f t h e p a r a -

m o u n t c y o f t h e ju r i d ic a l d e c i s i o n it se l f a s a m e a n s o f s u r m o u n t i n g l eg a l

f o r m a l i s m . T h e f a i l i n g s o f a c o n s i s t e n t n o r m a t i v i s t s t a n c e e n d o w t h e

m o m e n t o f d e c i s i o n w i t h a c e r ta i n e x t ra - le g a l a r b it ra r in e s s : t h e dec i s ion

a l o n e is c a p a b l e o f b r id g i n g t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e abst rac tness o f l aw an d

the fu l lnes s o f l if e. The seeds o f Schmi t t ' s l a t e r dec i s i on i s f i c po l i t i ca l

p h i l o s o p h y a r e a l r e a d y f u ll y i n p l a ce .

T he ex i s ten t i a l c l e f t be tw ee n un ive r sa l and pa r t i cu l a r i s f u r t he r ex -

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 8/28

3 9 6

p l o r e d i n h is 1 9 1 4 w o r k , The Va lue o f t he S ta te an d t he S ign i fi cance o f

t he Ind i v idua l , o n e o f S c h m i tt 's f ir s t f o r a y s i n to t h e d o m a i n o f p o l it ic a l

p h i l o so p h y p r o p e r . I n t h i s p h a se , S c h m i t t' s e a r l y C a t h o l i c i sm is t o t h e

f o r e, a s h e t a k e s u p t h e q u e s t io n o f th e r e la t io n b e t w e e n t h e s t a te a n d

c iv il so ci et y . U n su r p r i s i n g ly , i n S c h m i t t' s c o n c e p t i o n t h e b a l a n c e m u s t

b e t o t a ll y r e so l v e d i n t h e s ta t e's f av o r. H e r e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l is m e r e l y " a

m ea ns t o the e ssence , t he st a te is wha t i s m os t im po r tan t " La w i ts e l f h a s

n o v a l id i ty p r i o r t o t h e s ta t e. I n s t e a d , i t m u s t p a s s t h r o u g h " t h e s t a t e a s

a m e d i u m " i n w h i c h i t u n d e r g o e s " a sp e c if i c m o d i f i c a t io n . '1 5 T h e s t at e ,

i n i ts e x t ra - le g a l c a p a c i t y a s p u r e " e x e c u t iv e a u t h o ri ty , " is d e e m e d t h e

u l t i m a t e a r b i t e r o v e r q u e s t i o n s o f " c o n c r e t e i n d i ff e r e n c e " : i t is t h e s t a te

tha t m us t in the l a s t ana lys is decide . B y s u b o r di n a ti n g t h e a u t o n o m y o f

t h e l e g a l sp h e r e t o " r e a so n s o f s t a t e " S c h m i t t s t ri p s c i vi l so c i e t y o f a n y

i n d e p e n d e n t , o p p o s i t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l . S u c h a r g u m e n t s f o r e s h a d o w t h e

e x t r e m e t h e o r e t i c a l d e v a l u a t i o n o f l i b e r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t w o u l d

c h a r a c t e r i z e s o m u c h o f hi s w o r k i n t h e 1 9 2 0s .

D i e D i k t a t u r ( 1 9 2 1 ) r e p r e se n t s a t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f S c h m i t t' s e a r l y f a sci -n a t i o n w i th t h e e x c e p t i o n in t h e l eg a l s p h e r e t o t h e d o m a i n o f p o li ti ca l

t h e o ry . H e r e , S c h m i t t e s ta b li sh e s o n e o f t h e t h e m e s t h a t w o u l d c h a r a c -

t e r i z e h i s p o li ti c a l t h o u g h t t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s: pol i t i cs m u s t a s s u m e

p r i m a c y o v e r legality. T h e l o n g s t an d i n g W e s t e r n i d e al o f t h e cons t i tu-

t io n a l g o v e r n m e n t ( o r in G e r m a n p a r l an c e , t h e Rechtss taat ) - i .e., the

i d e a t h a t i t is a c e r t a i n s e t o f n o r m a t i v e p r in c i p le s , a s e m b o d i e d i n t h e

con s t i tu t ion q ua bas i s o f l ega l ity , tha t a cc ou n t fo r a s t a te ' s " iden t i ty" - is

t h u s s e r io u s l y j e o p a r d i z e d . I n Die D ik ta tur , su b t it le d , "F r o m t h e B e g i n -

n in g s o f th e M o d e r n C o n c e p t o f S o v e r e ig n t y t o P r o l e t a r i a n C la s s

S t r u g g l e " S c h m i t t c o u n t e r p o se s " so v e r e i g n ty " t o " c la s s s t r u g g l e " H i s

p o i n t i s t h a t i t f a l l s d u e t o t h e s t a t e t o e m p l o y " e x t r a - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

m ean s" to p re se rv e i tse l f aga ins t in t e rna l d i so rde r ( i.e ., c la ss s t rugg le) as

w e l l a s e x t e r n a l t h r e a ts . H e n c e , it is n o t so m u c h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n b u t a

" lo g ic o f t h e c o n c r e t e e x c e p t i o n " t h a t f o r m s t h e b a s is o f t h e s t at e . I t is

t h e s t a te a l o n e t h a t r e ta i n s u lt i m a t e p o w e r o f d e c i s i o n t o s u s p e n d c o n -d i t io n s o f p o l it ic a l n o r m a l c y b y d e c l a r i n g a s t a t e o f e x c e p t i o n . I n t h is

w ay , S c h m i t t t r a n sp o se s K i e r k e g a a r d ' s " t e le o l o g ic a l su sp e n s i o n o f t h e

e t h ic a l " f r o m t h e m o r a l t o t h e p o l i ti c a l sp h e r e .

H o w e v e r , i n S c h m i t t ' s v i e w , d i c t a t o r sh i p m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i sh e d f r o m

n o r m a l d e s p o ti s m . T h e f o r m e r is e m p o w e r e d to s u s p e n d t h e e xi st in g

c o n s t i t u ti o n , b u t n o t t o p r o m u l g a t e a n e w o n e . To sa ti sf y t h is c o n d i t i o n ,

S c h m i t t f o r m u l a t e s t h e d i s t in c t io n b e t w e e n " c o m m i s s a r ia l " a n d " s o v er -e i g n " d i c t a t o r sh i p - t h e f o r m e r is e n a c t e d f o r a sp e c if i c p o l it ic a l p u r -

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 9/28

3 9 7

p o s e , t h e p o w e r s o f t h e l a tt e r a r e in p r i n c i p le u n l i m i te d . R e g a r d l e s s o f

the s incer i ty o f Schm i t t' s be l i e f in th i s d i s t inc t ion , i t i s c lea r tha t h i s in-

t e r e st i n t h e e x c e p t i o n o v e r a n d a g a in s t t h e n o r m r e s u lt s n e c e s s a r il y i n ap r o n o u n c e d d e v a l u a t io n o f n o r m a l c o n d i t io n s o f c o n s t it u ti o n a l it y /

l e g al it y a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g o v e r v a l u a t i o n o f " e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s ? '

And i t was t hese conv i c t i ons t ha t l ed t o h i s h igh ly i n f l uen t i a l

" la t it u d in a r ia n " i n t e r p r e ta t i o n o f A r t i c l e 4 8 o f t h e W e i m a r c o n s t i tu t i o n ,

i n w h i c h h e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r e s i d e n t i a l e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s s h o u l d

es sen t i a ll y be f r ee d o f co ns t i t u t i ona l r e s tr a i n ts . 16

I f o n e c o u l d s a y t h a t t h e W e i m a r R e p u b l i c 's e s s e n c e o r i d e n t it y w a s

e m b o d i e d i n i ts c o n s t i tu t i o n , t h e n S c h m i tt c e r t a i n ly d i s p l a y e d li tt le c o n -

c e r n f o r i t s i d e n t i t y . H e m a y h a v e b e e n t h e c h a m p i o n o f a d i c t a t o r i a l

p r e s i d e n t ia l s y s te m , b u t n o t o f W e i m a r d e m o c r a c y , a s w e a r e t o l d in

s o m e a c c o u n t s ) 7 T h e i n a c tu a l p r a c t ic e p a p e r - th i n d i st in c t io n b e t w e e n

c o m m i s s a r i a l a n d s o v e r e ig n d i c t a to r s h i p w o u l d s o o n f al l b y t h e w a y s i d e

i n S c h m i tt 's w o r k o f th e 1 9 2 0 s . W e a r e le f t i n s t e a d w i th t h e c o n c e p t o f

d i c t a t o r s h ip t o u t c o u r t , s t r i p p e d o f c o n f u s i n g a n d e x t r a n e o u s i n t e ll e c-tua l subt le t i es .

Tha t i n ac tua l p r ac t i ce Schmi t t c a r ed ve ry l i t t l e f o r t he d i s t i nc t i on i s

i l l u s t r a t ed by h i s f a i l u r e t o ob j ec t t o t he " sove re ign d i c t a to r sh ip" o f

A d o l f H i t l e r i n 1 9 3 3 . A s F r a n z N e u m a n n is q u i c k t o re m i n d , " T h e i d e a

o f t h e to t a li ta r i a n s t a te g r e w o u t o f t h e d e m a n d t h a t a ll p o w e r b e c o n -

cen t r a t ed i n t he han ds o f t he p r e s ide n t " - p r ec i s e ly Schmi t t' s st ra t egy . I t

is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a ll th a t t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a li st s p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s

n o t a s t h e d e s t r o y e rs , b u t a s t h e s a v io u r s o f d e m o c r a c y . N e u m a n n g o e s

o n t o i d e n t if y n o n e o t h e r t h a n C a r l S c h m i t t a s " t h e id e o l o g i s t o f t h is

sham ? ' t 8

Schmi t t ' s nex t work , Political Theo logy ( 1 9 2 2 ) , w a s o n e o f h i s m o s t

i n f l u e n t i a l . I t c o n t a i n s w h a t i s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o n s e q u e n t f o r m u l a -

t i o n o f h i s d e c i s i o n i s t i c t h e o r y o f s o v e r e i g n t y : " S o v e r e i g n i s h e w h od e c i d e s o n t h e s t a t e o f e x c e p t i o n " p r o c l a i m s S c h m i t t i n t h e b o o k ' s

op en in g sen t enc e . I t is a c la im tha t i s in no ne ed o f a r a ti ona l j u s t if i ca -

t io n . M o r e p r e c is e ly , it w o u l d b e i n c a p a b l e o f s u c h j u s ti fi c a ti o n , i n s o f a r

a s i n S c h m i t t's v i ew , " T h e e x c e p t i o n c o n f o u n d s t h e u n i t y a n d o r d e r o f

t h e r a ti o n a li s t s c h e m e " ( P T , 1 4 ). T h e p o w e r o f d e c i s i o n i s g r o u n d e d i n

a n i n si g h t s u p e r i o r t o t h e s u b a l t e r n c a p a c i t i e s o f h u m a n r a t io c i n a t io n ,

w h i c h in a n y e v e n t a re o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e u n d e r t h e p r o s a i c c o n d i ti o n s o f

" n o r m a l l i f e " T h e s u p e r i o r c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e x c e p t i o n a l d e c i s i o n l ie s i nt h e f ac t th a t it p r o v e s c a p a b l e o f e x p lo d i n g s u c h m u n d a n e p a r a m e t e r s

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 10/28

3 9 8

o f e x i s te n c e . A s S c h m i t t a f f ir m s t i m e a n d a g a in , f o r c e f u l l y a n d u n a m -

b i g u o u s l y , t h e d e c i s i o n o n t h e s t a t e o f e x c e p t i o n p o s se s se s a h i g h e r ,

existential significance. I t d e f ie s t h e s t a n d a r d s o f r a t i o n a l ism b y v i r t u eof i ts shee r existence. I n su m m a r y , S c h m i t t' s m a t u r e p o l it ic a l p h i l o so p h y

is an existential decisionism. I t p e r s i s te n t l y w i t h d r a w s f r o m t h e t r i b u n a l

o f h u m a n r e a s o n i n o r d e r t h e r e b y t o p r o c la i m w i t h im p u n i t y c er t ai n

h ighe r , ex i s t en ti a l t ru ths .

O n e o f t h e m o s t s t ri k in g f e a t u r e s o f S c h m i tt 's d e f i n i t io n o f so v e r e i g n t y

is a c o n s i s t e n t e m p l o y m e n t o f e x is t en t ia l is t p h r a se o l o g y . F o r e x a m p l e ,

h e u n d e r l i n e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s t a te o f e x c e p t i o n as

a " G r e n z b e g r i f f . . . p e r t ai n i n g t o t h e o u t e r m o s t s p h e r e . . . . S o v e r e ig n t y

m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b o r d e r - l i n e c a s e " h e o b s e r v e s ,

" a n d n o t w i t h r o u t i n e " ( P T , 1 4 ) . Th e b o r d e r - s i t u a t i o n i s t h e p l a c e i n

w h i c h " D a s e i n g l i m p s e s t r a n s c e n d e n c e , a n d i s t h e r e b y t r a n s f o r m e d

f r o m p o ss i b l e t o r e a l Ex i s t e n c e "1 9 B y t r e a t in g t h e d e c i s i o n o n t h e s t a te

o f e x c e p t i o n i n su c h f a sh i o n , S c h m i t t t r i e s t o i n v e s t i t w i t h a h i g h e r ,

e x i st e n ti a l m e a n i n g a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n o r m a l c y o f " r o u t i n e life ." It ssu p e r i o r i t y d e r i v e s f r o m it s shee r existence: " T h e existence o f t h e s t a te

i s u n d o u b t e d p r o o f o f i t s s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e v a l i d l e g a l n o r m . T h e

d e c i s i o n f r e e s i ts e l f f r o m a ll n o r m a t i v e ti e s a n d b e c o m e s i n t h e t r u e

s e n se a b s o lu t e . . . . T h e n o r m is destroyed in the e x c e p t io n " h e o b s e r v e s

( P T , 1 2 ; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) .

S c h m i t t ' s p o l i t i c a l p h i l o so p h y e n d o w s t h e e x c e p t i o n w i t h a t y p e o f

"m a g i c a l o m n i p o t e n c e ? ' Th i s p r a c t i c e a l l o w s h i m t o r e so l v e c e r t a i n

i n t r a c t a b l e "o n t o l o g i c a l " p r o b l e m s t h a t p l a g u e h i s f r a m e w o r k : a b o v e

all, t h e s e e m i n g l y u n b r i d g e a b l e g u l f b e t w e e n t h e a b s t r ac t a n d t h e c o n -

c r e t e , b e t w e e n c o n c e p t a n d l i f e , a p a r a m o u n t c o n c e r n f o r L e be ns -

phi losophie in a ll it s v a ri a n ts . Th u s , t h e s t a te o f e x c e p t i o n r e p r e se n t s

t h e p r o sp e c t o f a n e x i s t e n t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f l i f e i n i t s r o u t i n i z e d

e v e r y d a y n e ss , i ts e l e v a t io n t o a h i g h e r p l an e . T h e n o r m m u s t b e

" d e s t r o y e d " i n s o f a r a s it r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e ig n o f t h e m e r e l y " c o n c e p -

t u a l , " t h e " a b s t r a c t , " t h e " a v e r a g e ? ' U n d e r su c h c o n d i t i o n s , t h e su b -

s t a n c e o f l if e i n i ts "p u l sa t in g f l u id i ty " i s p r e v e n t e d f r o m c o m i n g t o t h e

f o re . T h e c a r d i n a l v i r tu e o f t h e e x c e p t i o n , t h e n , f r o m t h e v a n t a g e p o i n t

o f pol i t ica l ex is tent ia li sm , is tha t i t explodes the r o u t i n i z a t i o n to w h i c h

l if e i s su b j e c t e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f j u r i d ic a l n o r m a l c y . F o r S c h m i t t ,

" T h e e x c e p t i o n i s t h a t w h i c h c a n n o t b e s u b s u m e d ; i t d e f i e s g e n e r a l

cod i f i ca t ion ; " all t ha t r e m a ins i s the "d ec i s ion in ab so lu te pur i ty"

( e r , 1 3 ) .

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 11/28

3 9 9

In t h is r e s p e c t , S c h m i tt 's p o l it ic a l p h i l o s o p h y r e p re s e n t s a p l e a fo r w h a t

o n e m i g h t c a l l "p o l it ic a l vi ta li sm . " Th i s f a c t b e c o m e s c l e a r w h e n , i n t h e

f ir s t c h a p t e r o f Po l i t ical Theology , he exp l i c it ly iden t i f i e s a "ph i losop hyo f c o n c re t e l if e " a s t h e c o n c e p t u a l b a si s o f h i s i n t e ll e c t u a l e n t e rp r i s e :

" P r e c is e ly a p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n c r e t e li fe m u s t n o t w i t h d r a w f r o m t h e

e x c e p t i o n a n d t h e e x t r e m e ca s e , b u t m u s t b e i n t e r e s t e d i n it t o t h e h i g h -

es t degre e" (PT, 13). F ro m t he s t an dp o in t o f po l it i ca l ex i s t en ti a l ism, the

r u l e r e m a i n s m i r e d i n e v e ry d a y n e s s. I t k n o w s n o g r e a tn e s s , a n d m e r e l y

f u r t h e r s t h e r is in g t id e o f m e d i o c r i t y s o c h a r a c te r is t ic o f m o d e m d e m o -

c ra t ic s o c ie t ie s . Th u s i n h i s d e c i s io n i s ti c p r e f e r e n c e fo r t h e e x c e p t i o n

o v e r a n d a g a i n s t t h e ru l e , it is c l e a r th a t S c h m i t t h a s d ru n k d e e p l y f ro m

t h e v i ta li st p h i l o s o p h i c a l c u r r e n t s o f th e p e r i o d : "T h e e x c e p t i o n is m o r e

interest ing than the rule ," h e d e c l a r e s . "Th e ru l e p ro v e s n o t h i n g , t h e

e x c e p t i o n p ro v e s e v e ry t h i n g : I t c o n f i rm s n o t o n l y t h e ru l e b u t a l s o it s

e x i s te n c e , w h i c h d e r i v e s o n l y f ro m t h e e x c e p t i o n . I n t h e e x c e p t i o n th e

p o w e r o f r e a l life b r e a k s t h r o u g h t h e c r u s t o f a m e c h a n i s m t h a t h a s

be co m e torp id b y repet it ion" (P T , 1 5; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) .

H e r e , S c h m i t t p u r v ey s m a n y o f t h e s t a n d a rd c o m p o n e n t s o f th e G e r -

m a n c o n s e r v a t iv e - r e v o l u ti o n a r y c r it iq u e o f m o d e r n i t y a s p o p u l a r i z e d

b y t h i n k e r s s u c h a s S p e n g l e r a n d J u n g e r . T h e e x c e p t i o n , b y v i r tu e o f it s

" t r a n s c e n d e n t " c a p a c i ti e s, p o s s e s s e s t h e "p o w e r o f r ea l l if e " n e c e s s a ry

t o p e n e t r a t e t h e b e n u m b i n g m e c h a n i s m o f a r e if ie d c ap it al is t w o r ld . T o

b e s u r e , s u c h ro m a n t i c a n t i -c a p i ta l is t m o t i f s h a d b o t h t h e i r " r ig h t " a n d

" le ft " va r i an t s . 2~ I t is no t tha t the m ot iva t io na l im pe tu s b eh ind such c r i t -

i c i sm s is i t s e lf g roun d le s s . R a the r , i t is the fac t tha t in Schm i t t' s ca se , the

e m p h a s i s o n t h e e x c e p t i o n to t h e e x c l u s io n o f a ll n o r m a t iv i s m , p r o c e -

d u ra l i sm , a n d i n s ti t u ti o n a l c h e c k s, al lo w s h i m t o d e g e n e r a t e in t o a n

a d v o c a t e o f c h a r i s m a t ic d e s p o t i sm .

O n e o f t h e c e n tr a l t e n e ts o f Pol i t i ca l Theo logy is t h a t a l l m o d e r n p o l i ti -

c a l c o n c e p t s a r e m e r e l y s e c u l a r i z e d t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s . A n d t h u s ,

o n e o f S c h m i t t 's c h i e f a i m s a s a l e g a l p h i l o s o p h e r a n d p o l i ti c a l th e o r i s t

w a s t o r e i n t r o d u c e a s t ro n g " p e r s o n a l" e l e m e n t i n m o d e m p o li ti cs , a n

e l e m e n t t h a t h a d f a l le n b y t h e w a y s i d e w i t h t h e e c l i p s e o f p o l it ic a l a b s o -

l ut is m . H e n c e , t h e e m p h a s i s o n t h e " p e r s o n a l " a s p e c t o f t h e e x c e p t i o n a l

d e c i s io n . B u t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g g r e a t e r a t s ta k e . I n t e rm s o f t h e t h e o -

log ica l ana log ie s tha t Sch m i t t con s ide rs e s sen t i a l, t he excep t ion s h o u l d

p l a y a r o le in m o d e m p o li ti cs c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f t h e m irac le in rel i-

g ious lif e. Th e p rac t i c e o f "po l i ti ca l theo logy " a im s a t no th ing l e s s than

t h e " t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n " o f t h e d e b a s e d b o d y p o l i t i c - w h i c h i n t h em o d e m a g e h a d b e e n s h a ck l e d b y t h e a l l- e n co m p a s s in g r o u ti n e o f a

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 12/28

4 0 0

l eg a l f o r m a l i sm - i n t o t h e p o l i ti c al ly v i ta l e t h e r o f t h e s t a te o f e x c e p -

t io n ; a f e a t , m o r e o v e r , t h a t c a n o n l y b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y t h e c h a r is m a t i c

s o v e r e i g n , t h e m o d e r n - d a y a n a l o g u e t o t h e d i v i n e m o n a r c h o f a b s o -lu t i s t t ime s,zl

I t is o f f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t to n o t e t h a t i n Political Theology the ea r l i e r d i s -

t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t w o t y p e s o f d ic t a t o r sh ip , c o m m i ssa r i a l a n d so v e r ei g n ,

v a n i sh e s e n t i re l y . I n s t e a d , o n e i s l e f t w i t h t h e i d e a o f d i c t a t o r sh i p i n a ll

i t s a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t a r k n e s s . S c h m i t t c o n t e n d s t h a t i n a n e m e r g e n c y

s it u at io n , t h e p o w e r s o f t h e s o v e r e ig n m u s t b e " u n l i m i t e d " T h i s m e a n s

t h a t, "F r o m t h e l ib e r a l c o n s t it u t io n a l p o i n t o f v ie w , t h e r e w o u l d b e n o

j u r i sd ic t i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e a t a ll" ; f o r t h e so v e r e i g n " s t a n d s o u t s i d e t h e

n o r m a l l y v a l id l e g a l sy s t e m " ( P T , 7 ). Th a t t h e so v e r e i g n w o u l d h a v e t o

s h a r e j u r is d i c ti o n a l c o m p e t e n c e o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r a s t at e o f

e m e r g e n c y e x is ts o r h o w l o n g it m a y c o n t i n u e i s d is m i s s e d b y S c h m i t t

a s a n u n w a r r a n t e d " li be ra l c o n s t it u ti o n a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . . . w h i c h

a t t e m p t s t o su p p r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n o f so v e r e ig n t y b y a d i v is i o n a n d

m u t u a l c o n t r o l o f c o m p e t e n c e s " ( PT , 1 1). T h e g l o r y o f t h e s o v e r e ig nm u s t r e m a i n in d iv is ib le a n d u n t a i n t e d b y p o w e r -s h a r in g . T h is c o n c l u -

s i o n i s f u ll y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h S c h m i t t 's p e r s i s t e n t d e g r a d a t i o n o f l i b e ra l

i n s ti tu t io n s , w h i c h a r e c a p a b l e o f " e n d l e s s c o n v e r sa t i o n " b u t n e v e r a n

u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n .

S c h m i t t a tt e m p t s t o p r o v i d e h i s t h e o r y o f d i c ta t o r s h ip w i t h h i st o r ic o -

p h i lo s o p h i c al g r o u n d i n g i n t h e d i s c u s si o n o f t h e " c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y

p h i l o s o p h e r s o f s ta t e" - d e M a i s tr e , B o n a l d , D o n o s o C o r t t s - t h a t c o n -

c l u d e s Political Theology. A c c o r d i n g t o S c h m i t t ' s p h i l o s o p h y o f h i s -

t o r y , 22 p o l it ic a l l if e s in c e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a s f a l le n i n t o a s t a te

o f p e r m a n e n t d e c l in e . W h e r e a s i n t h e a b s o lu t is t e r a t h e t w o p i ll ar s o f

t h e s t a te - G o d a n d so v e r e ig n - o c c u p i e d t h e i r r i g h tf u l p o s i t i o n o f

s u p r e m a c y , si n c e th e n , t h e s e c o n c e p t s h a v e s u f f e r e d n o t h i n g b u t h u m i -

l ia ti o n a n d d e b a s e m e n t a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e r is in g b o u r g e o i s c la ss a n d it s

so c ia l is t su c c e s so r s . I n t h e s e c u l a ri z in g d o c t r i n e s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n dn i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s , t h e c o n c e p t o f " G o d " w a s s u p p l a n t e d b y t h e i d e a

o f " m a n " a n d t h e m a j e s ty o f th e s o v e re ig n p r o p e r w a s i r r e p a r a b l y d e c i -

m a t e d b y t h e n o t i o n o f p o p u l a r s o v er ei gn ty . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e d e v e l-

o p m e n t s , " T h e d e c is io n i st ic a n d p e r s o n a l is t ic e l e m e n t in t h e c o n c e p t o f

so v e r e i g n t y w a s l o s t" ( P T , 4 8 ) . M o r e g e n e r a ll y , t h is p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t io n

w i t n e s s e d t h e s a c ri fi c e o f t h e s u b l i m e v i rt u e s o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e i n f a v o r

o f t h e p r o s a i c v a l ue s o f i m m a n e n c e . T h e c o n c e r t e d a s s a u lt a g a in s t t r a-

d i t io n a l r e li g io s i ty c o u l d o n l y e n d i n a t h e i sm , d i so r d e r , a n d " a n a r c h i cf r e e d o m , ' It w a s t h e c h i e f m e r i t o f t h e C a t h o l i c p h i l o s o p h e r s o f s t a te t o

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 13/28

4 0 1

h a v e c o n f r o n t e d t h i s s i t u a t i o n h e a d o n a n d t o h a v e n e v e r s h i e d a w a y

f r o m d r a w i n g t h e l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n : d i c t a t o r s h i p a l o n e c o u l d s a v e t h e

w o r l d f r o m t h e g o d le s s era o f s e c u la r h u m a n i s m . ( J / i nge r expres ses a

s imi l a r t hough t i n B l i it te r u n d S t e in e , w h e n h e o b s e r v e s , "T o t h e e x t e n t

t h a t t h e r a c e d e g e n e r a t e s , a c t i o n t a k e s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f deci s ion ." )

D o n o s o C o r t 6 s , " o n e o f th e f o r e m o s t r e p r e se n t a ti v e s o f d e c is io n i st ic

t hi nk in g a n d a C a t h o l ic p h i l o s o p h e r o f t h e s t a t e . . , c o n c l u d e d i n re f er -

e n c e t o t h e r e v o l u t io n o f 1 8 4 8 t h a t t h e e p o c h o f r o y a l is m w a s a t a n e n d .

R o y a l i s m is n o l o n g e r b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o k i n g s. T h e r e f o r e l e g i ti m a c y

n o l o n g e r e x i s t s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e . F o r h i m t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e

so lu t i on : d i c t a to r sh ip" (PT , 51 -52) .

I n t h e r e as o n i n g b e h i n d S c h m it t's p r a i s e o f D o n o s o C o r t 6 s , th e r e

e c h o e s c l e a rl y o n e o f t h e s t a n d a r d j u s ti f ic a t io n s o f f a s c is t d i c t a t o r sh i p

f r o m a C a t h o l i c p o i n t o f v i ew : t h e c a s e s o f F r a n c o ' s S p a i n a n d P i n o -

c h e t ' s C h i l e i m m e d i a t e l y l e a p t o m i n d . S c h m i t t n e v e r t r i e d t o h i d e h i s

v i ew tha t " a l l au then t i c po l i t i ca l t heo r i e s p r e suppose man a s ' ev i l ' , t ha t

is, i n n o w a y a s u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l , r a t h e r a s ' d a n g e r o u s ' " ( P T , 6 1 ).T h i s u n d o u b t e d l y a c c o u n t s i n p a r t f o r h is s tr o n g p e r s o n a l i d e n t if i c a ti o n

w i t h D o n o s o C o r t 6 s , " w h o s e c o n t e m p t f o r m a n k n e w n o l i m i t s " a n d

w h o m S c h m i t t la u d s a s " a s p ir it u a l d e s c e n d a n t o f th e G r a n d i n q u is i to r s "

( PT , 5 7 - 5 8 ) . I n D o n o s o C o r t 6 s ' v ie w , e v il h a d t r iu m p h e d t o s u c h

a n e x t e n t i n t h e m o d e m w o r l d t h a t o n l y a m i r a c l e c o u l d d e n y i t u l t i -

m a t e v i c to r y . T h e b a t t l e - li n e h e s a w b e i n g d r a w n i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n -

t u r y - t h a t b e t w e e n C a t h o l i c i s m a n d a t h ei s ti c s o c ia l is m - w a s n o t j u s t

an o th e r i n a long se r i e s o f h i s t o r i ca l s tr ugg le s ; ra t he r , i t w as Arm ag -

g e d o n . A c c o r d i n g t o D o n o s o C o r t 6 s , t h e r e f o r e , p o l i t i c a l d i c t a t o r s h i p

w a s n o t o n l y a p o l it ic a l, b u t a theolo gica l necess ity . A t s t ake was t he s a l-

v a t i o n o f m e n ' s s o u ls . T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t S c h m i tt h i m s e l f v i e w e d a

s e c u l a r iz e d v e r s i o n o f D o n o s o C o r t 6 s ' a r g u m e n t a s a h i s to r i ca l im p e r -

a t iv e i f a d e c i s i o n w a s t o b e r e a c h e d , t h e p r e v a r i c a t i o n s o f e n d l e s s d i s -

c u s s i o n a v o i d e d , a n d t h e e s s e n c e o f th e p o l i t ic a l s a v e d . S c h m i t t's o w n

r e f le c t io n s o n t hi s t h e m e c o u l d h a r d l y b e l e ss e q u iv o c a l:

T h e t r u e s i g n i fi c a n c e o f th o s e c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y p h i l o s o p h e r s o f s t a te l ie s

p r e c is e l y in t h e c o n s i s t e n c y w i th w h i c h t h e y d e c i d e . T h e y h e i g h t e n e d t h e

m o m e n t o f d e c i s i o n to s u c h a n e x t e n t th a t t h e n o t i o n o f le g it im a c y , t h e i r

s t a r ti n g p o i n t , w a s f in a ll y d is s o l v e d . A s s o o n a s D o n o s o C o r t 6 s r e a l i z e d th a t

t h e p e r i o d o f m o n a r c h y h a d c o m e t o a n e n d . .. h e b r o u g h t h i s d e c i s i o n i s m t o

a lo g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n . H e d e m a n d e d a p o l it i ca l d i c t a t o r s h i p . I n . . . d e M a i s t r e

w e c a n a l so s e e a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e s ta t e t o t h e m o m e n t o f d e c is i o n , t o a p u r e

d e c i s i o n n o t b a s e d o n r e a s o n o r d i s c u s s i o n a n d n o t j u s ti f y in g it s el f, th a t i s , t o

a n a b s o l u t e d e c i s i o n c r e a t e d o u t o f n o t h i n g n e s s . B u t t h i s d e c i s i o n i s e s s e n -

t i al l y d i c t a t o r s h i p , n o t l e g it i m a c y . (PT5 7, 5 8 ) 2 3

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 14/28

4 0 2

Schmi t t ' s The Crisis o f Parliamentary Dem ocracy i s o f t en c i t ed a s ev i -

d e n c e o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c in c l in a ti o n s o f h is t h o u g h t d u r i n g t h e W e i m a r

Rep ub l i c . H i s bas ic a rg um en t is tha t l ibe ra l in s t i tu t ions e ssen t i a l ly in -v a l i d a t e d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c s , m a k i n g t h e se t w o p o l i t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s

f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n c o m p a t i b le w i th o n e a n o t h e r . T h r o u g h a n e x t r e m e l y

se le c ti v e r e a d i n g ( a n d m i s - r e a d in g ) o f b o t h p o l it ic a l t r a d it i o n s , S c h m i t t

b u i l d s a n e f f e ct iv e c a se. H e d e f i n e s d e m o c r a c y a s t h e " i d e n t i t y o f r u l e r s

a n d r u l e d " t h u s c a r e fu l ly s k ir ti n g o t h e r h i s to r ic a ll y p r o m i n e n t i n t e rp r e -

t a ti o n s o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c t ra d i t io n . C o n v e r se l y , l i b e ra l i sm - w h i c h

S c h m i t t i d e n t if i e s w i t h t h e i n s ti tu t i o n s o f p a r l i a m e n t , f r e e d i s c u s s io n ,

a n d p u b l i c it y - i n e s se n c e su b v e r t s t h e p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o s e l f - d e t e r m i n a -

t io n , i n so f a r a s a v a r i e t y o f c li q u e s a n d i n t e r e s t g r o u p s h a v e s e i z e d h o l d

o f t h e se i n s t it u t io n s m e r e l y to e x p l o i t t h e m f o r t h e i r o w n p r i v a t e g ai n .

H e n c e , " c o n s t i t u ti o n a l ism " ( h e r e , a c o d e - w o r d f o r l ib e r a li sm ) h a s f o r -

f e i t e d i ts v a l id i t y a s a p o l i ti c a l p r i n c i p l e i n t h e m o d e r n w o r l d a n d s t a n d s

u r g e n tl y in n e e d o f r e p la c e m e n t . T h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n p r o c e e d s s e a m -

l e ss l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f S c h m i t t' s o w n c h o i c e o f a su c c e s so r : p l e b is c i-

t a r i an d ic t a to r sh ip . 24

T o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t S c h m i t t m e a n s b y d e m o c r a c y , i t is h e l p fu l to r e ca ll

N e u m a n n ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e N a z i s , t o o , p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e

c h a m p i o n s o f d e m o c r a c y , i.e., as t h e p a r t y t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e a u t h e n -

t ic e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a r w i ll. S c h m i tt 's f o r m u l a f o r d e m o c r a c y -

" t h e i d e n t it y b e t w e e n r u le r s a n d r u l e d " - m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d i n a s im i -

l a r v e in . N e e d l e s s t o s ay , t h e i d e a o f "p a r t i c ip a t o r y d e m o c r a c y " c o u l d

n o t b e f u r t h e r f r o m h i s m i n d . N o r t h e v a r i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s o f " d i r e c td e m o c r a c y , " c e r t a i n ly a l o g i ca l a l te r n a t iv e i f o n e c h o o se s t o r e j e c t p a r -

l i a m e n t a r i a n i sm i n to t o . S c h m i t t s t u d i o u s l y a v o i d s t a k i n g d e m o c r a c y

s e r io u s l y i n th e e t y m o l o g i c a l s e n s e - " r u le o f t h e d e m o s " - n o r w o u l d

h e b e m u c h i n t e r e s te d i n t h e A r i s t o t e li a n d e f in i ti o n o f t h e t e r m , " r u li n g

a n d b e i n g r u l e d in t u r n " H e n c e , li ke th e N a z is ' c o m m i t m e n t t o p o p u -

li sm , S c h m i tt 's c o m m i t m e n t t o d e m o c r a c y is a p s e u d o - c o m m i t m e n t .

W i th t h e h i g h ly te n d e n t i o u s s e p a r a t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y f r o m i ts s u p -

p o r t i n g l i b e r a l i n s ti t u ti o n s - s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s , c h e c k s a n d b a l a n c e s ,

p u b li ci ty , e t c. - h e h a s su c c e e d e d i n r e n d e r i n g al l m o d e m h i s to r i c a l

i n c a r n a t i o n s o f t h e t e r m m e a n i n g l e s s - p r e c i s e l y h i s o b je c t . To c o n c e i v e

o f t h e d e m o c r a t i c R e v o l u ti o n s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y m i n u s t h e s u b -

s t r u c t u r e o f c iv il l ib e r ti e s ( f r e e d o m o f sp e e c h , t h e p r e s s , a s se m b l y , e t c. )

t h a t w a s th e i r n e c e s s a r y c o n c o m i t a n t a n d r a i s o n d '6 t r e is a m o n u m e n t a l

n o n se q u i t u r in h i s t o r ic a l r e a so n i n g ( a l t h o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o n o f " c a e sa r -

i sm " r e s u r r e c te d b y R o b e s p i e r r e a n d t h e C o m m i t te e o f P u b li c S a f et y

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 15/28

4 0 3

d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n p r o v i d e s S c h m i tt w i t h t h e

t y p e o f h is t o ri c a l p r e c e d e n t h e n e e d s ).25

V i a t h e s p e c i o u s s e p a r a t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y f r o m l ib e ra li sm , S c h m i tt h a s

i n e f f e ct l ai d o u t t h e c o n c e p t u a l a n d l e g al g r o u n d w o r k f o r t h e t u r n

t o w a r d t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n o r " t o t a l s t a te " i n G e r m a n y . H i s to r ic a ll y , l ib e r -

a l in s t it u t io n s h a v e p r o v i d e d a b u l w a r k f o r c iv il so c i e ty a g a in s t u n w a r -

r a n t e d e n c r o a c h m e n t s b y t h e s ta te . I n d e s t r o y i n g t hi s s a f e g u a rd , t h e

t r u l y r e g re s s i v e f e a t u r e s o f S c h m i t t's p o l it ic a l p h i l o so p h y c o m e t o t h e

f o r e. Th u s f o r S c h m i tt , t h e i n d i v id u a l c e ase s t o b e a p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e

fo r po l i t ica l the or y a l toge the r . Ins t ead , the s t a t e is con s i s t en t ly por t ray ed

a s t h e so l e e m b o d i m e n t o f a u th o r it y . O n e c a n n o t e v e n s a y i t is t h e so l e

e m b o d i m e n t o f "r ig h t, " s i n c e t h e c o n c e p t o f ri g h t lo se s a ll i ts m e a n i n g

i n a s i t u a t io n w h e r e t h e c h i e f v i r t u e o f t h e so v e r e i g n is h i s o r h e r c a p a c i -

t y to f o r m u l a t e d e c i s i o n s e x n ih i lo , in d i s r e g a r d o f e v e r y n o r m a t i v e o r

j u r i d i c a l p r e c e d e n t .

L e s t t h e r e b e a n y d o u b t a s t o t h e s p e c i f i c c o n s t i t u e n t s o f d e m o c r a c ya c c o r d i n g t o S c h m i t t , t h e e v i d e n c e i n The Cr isis o f Parliamentary

Democracy is f a i rl y u n e q u i v o c a l . Th e m a j o r c r i t e ri o n , a s sp e c i f i ed in

t h e P r e f a c e to t h e S e c o n d E d i t io n , is t h e c o n c e p t o f " n a t io n a l h o m o -

g e n e i t y " a d i s ti n c t p r e c u r so r o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a li st c o n c e p t o f " r a c ia l

h o m o g e n e i t y ." I n S c h m i tt 's f r a m e w o r k , " h o m o g e n e i t y " p la y s t h e r o l e i n

d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y f o r m e r l y p l a y ed b y " e q u al it y " - a c o n c e p t S c h m i tt

d i sm i s s es o u t r ig h t a s p a r t o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l b a g g a g e o f t h e l ib e r al m e n -

ta lity . O f c o u r se , w h e n t h e c o n c e p t o f "n a t i o n a l h o m o g e n e i t y " i s e r e c t -

ed a s a po l i t i ca l idea l , it fo l lows log ica l ly tha t any th ing tha t p ose s a pos -

s ib l e t h r e a t t o i ts p u r i t y m u s t b e a n n i h i la t e d . To b e su r e , S c h m i t t d o e s

n o t s h r i n k i n t h e l ea s t f r o m d r a w i n g p r e c i se l y t hi s c o n c l u s io n : " D e m o -

c r a c y r e q ui re s , t h e r e fo r e , fi rs t h o m o g e n e i t y a n d s e c o n d - i f t h e o c c a -

s ion a r i se s - elimination or eradication of heterogeneity" (CPD 9).

Schm i t t' s rhe to r i c is chilling . H e l eaves i t t o th e go ose -s t epp ing he i r s o f

h i s p o l it ic a l i d e a s t o sp e c i f y w h a t f o r m su c h " e r a d i c a t i o n o f h e t e r o -

g e n e i t y " w i ll ta k e . I n so f a r a s h is A n g l o - A m e r i c a n ap o l o g is t s a r e a l w a y s

a r g u i n g f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h is w o r k s i n "h i s t o ri c a l c o n -

t e x t " l e t u s t a k e t h e i r su g g e s t io n to h e a r t i n t h is c a se b y i n q u i r i n g w h a t

e t h n i c o r r e l ig i o u s g r o u p m i g h t h a v e p o se d a t h r e a t t o t h e n a t i o n a l i n -

t e g ri ty o f t h e G e r m a n s i n t h e y e a r 1 9 2 6 , a n d t h u s m i g h t h a v e s e rv e d a s

t h e u n s p o k e n t a rg e t o f S c h m i tt 's a t t ac k ?

' ~ d e m o c r a c y d e m o n s t r a t e s its p o li tic al p o w e r b y k n o w i n g h o w t o

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 16/28

4 0 4

r e f u s e o r k e e p a t b a y s o m e t h i n g f o r e i g n a n d d i s s im i l a r t h a t t h r e a t e n s i ts

h o m o g e n e i t y , " a d d s S c h m i t t (i bi d. ), in a f o r m u l a t i o n t h a t a n t i c i p a t e s h is

i n s i s t e n c e a y e a r l a t e r in The Concept of the Politicalo n t h e n e c e s s i ty o f

e x t i r p a ti n g t h e "domestic enemy" I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p i n m i n d t h a t

S c h m i tt 's d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n e e d t o " e r a d i c a t e h e t e r o g e n e i t y " i s i n n o

w a y a n a c c i d e n t a l b y - p r o d u c t o f h i s p o l it ic a l th o u g h t . I n s t e a d , i t f o l lo w s

q u i t e l o g ic a l ly f r o m h i s c o n t e m p t o f p o l i ti c a l p l u r a l i s m a s p a r t a n d

p a r c e l o f t h e l i b e r a l h e r i t a g e t o b e j e tt i s o n e d .

G i v e n t h e s e o r i e n t a t i o n s , i t is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t The Crisb of Parlia-

mentary Democracyc u l m i n a t e s i n a g l o w i n g p a n e g y r i c t o t h e a c h i e v e -

m e n t s o f I ta l i a n f a s c is m . A s S c h m i t t o b s e r v e s :

Until now the dem ocracy of mank ind and parliamentarianism has only once

been contemptuously pushed aside through the conscious appeal to my th,and that w as an example of the irrational power of the national my th. In hisfamous speech of O ctober 1922 in N aples before the m arch on Rom e, M us-

solini said, "We have created a m yth, this my th is a belief, a noble enthusiasm;

it do es not need to be reality, t is a striving and a hop e, belief and courage.Ou r myth is the nation, the great nation which we w ant to m ake into a con-crete realityfor ourselves."(CPD,75-76)

" T h e t h e o r y o f m y t h is th e m o s t p o w e r f u l s y m p t o m o f th e d e c l in e o f

t h e r e la t i v e r a t io n a l i s m o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y t h o u g h t " h e c o n t i n u e s , n o t

l e a s t o f a l l i n s o f a r a s i t o f f e r s t h e p o s s i b i li t y o f e s t a b li s h i n g " a n a u t h o r -

i ty b a s e d o n t h e n e w f e e l in g f o r o r d e r , d i s c ip l i n e , a n d h i e ra r c h y ."

S c h m i t t' s p o li ti c a l d o c t r i n e s c o n s i s t e n t l y a t t e m p t t o r e a s s e r t a c h a r i s-

m a t i c d i m e n s i o n t h a t h a s s u p p o s e d l y b e e n l o s t i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

p o l i t ic a l li fe . T h i s e x p l a i n s h i s f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n a s a t y p e

o f e x i st en t ia l " b o u n d a r y - s i t u a t i o n " hi s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e s o v er -

e i g n t y o f d e c i s i o n a n d i t s c a p a c i t y t o r e s t o r e t h e d w i n d l i n g " p e r s o n a l

e l e m e n t " o f p o l i t i c s , a n d h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r r a t i o n a l i s m o f p o l i t i c a l

m y t h . I t is c u r io u s t h e r e f o r e t o n o t e t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o p e r a t i o n o f

d i a m e t r i c al l y o p p o s i t e t e n d e n c i e s i n h is w o r k , t e n d e n c i e s t h a t p u s h i n

t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a d i s e n c h a n t e d f u n c t io n a l i sm . T h i s f u n c t i o n a l i s m

d e r i v e s in n o s m a l l m e a s u r e f r o m S c h m i tt 's a g n o s t i c re f u s a l t o s p e c i f y

a n y s u b s t a n t i v e e n d s f o r d e c i s io n i s t ic p o li ti c s. B e c a u s e h i s d e c i s i o n i s m ,

a s d e v o i d o f s u b s t a n t iv e g o a l s , r e m a i n s e s s e n t i a ll y c o n t e n t l e s s , t h e r e is

i n p r in c i p l e o n l y o n e e n d t o w h i c h t h e d e c i s i o n i st i c s o v e r e ig n c a n d i r e c t

h i s ( o r h e r ) e n e r g i e s , a n d a r a t h e r u n e x a l t e d e n d a t t h a t : t h e e n d o f

p o l it ic a l s e l f- p r e s e rv a t i o n . I n p a r t t h is r e s u l t is a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f

S c h m i tt 's s e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e p o l i ti c a l t h e o r y o f a b s o l u ti s m : w h e n o n e

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 17/28

4 0 5

d o e s a w a y w i t h t h e " d i v i n e r i g h t o f k i n g s " a r g u m e n t , t h e r e i s l i t t l e l e f t

f o r t h e o r i s ts o f th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s ta t e to f a ll b a c k o n e x c e p t H o b b e s ' s

" m u t u a l r e la t i o n o f p r o t e c t i o n a n d o b e d i e n c e " - i .e ., a fu n c t i o n a l i st" O r d n u n g s d e n k e n " a s s u g g e s t e d b y S c h m i t t' s p r a i s e f o r t h e v i r tu e s o f

" o r d e r , d i sc i p li n e , a n d h i e r a r c h y " ju s t c i te d . O f c o u r s e , t h e r e a d i n g o f

H o b b e s h e r e is a h i g h ly s e le c ti v e o n e : r e t a in e d is th e i m a g e o f t h e s o v e r -

e i g n s ta n d i n g o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e n o r m a l l y v a li d le g a l s y s te m ; r e j e c te d

is H o b b e s t h e f o u n d e r o f m o d e r n c o n t r a c t t h e o ry , s in c e th is r e a d i n g

l e av e s H o b b e s v u l n e r a b l e t o l ib e r a l in t e r p r e t a t i o n s , e .g ., a s a p r e c u r s o r

o f t h e i d e a o f p o p u l a r s o v e re ig n t y (p r e ci se ly t h e c o n c l u s i o n R o u s s e a u

w o u l d d r a w f r o m h is r e a d in g o f H o b b e s ) .

Y e t , i n t h e p r o s a i c t e r m i n u s o f S c h m i tt 's p o l it ic a l t h o u g h t - i .e ., i ts u l ti -

m a t e e m p h a s i s o n q u e s t i o n s o f f u n c t i o n a l s e l f- p r e s e rv a t i o n - h i s e x is -

t e n t i a l i s t p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e h a s m e r e l y c o m e f u l l c i r c l e . W h e n s h e e r

" e x i st e n c e " is p o s i t e d a s a p r i m a r y v a l u e , w h e n c e a l l o t h e r v a l u e s fo l -

l o w , i t i s o n l y lo g i c a l t o p e r c e i v e n a k e d s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n a s t h e h i g h e s t

e n d o f p o l i ti c a l li fe .

I n The Con cept o f the Pol i ti ca l ( 1 9 2 7 ) S c h m i tt th i n k s t h r o u g h t h e i m p l i -

c a t io n s o f a p o l it ic a l d o c t r i n e p r e d i c a t e d o n t h e c o n c e p t o f s e lf -p r e s e r-

v a t i o n w i t h f r i g h t e n i n g c o n s i s t e n c y . T h e r e s u l t i s a g l o r i f i e d s o c i a l

D a r w i n i s m i n w h i c h c o n s i d e r a t io n s o f f o re i g n p o l ic y d o m i n a t e t o t h e

p o i n t w h e r e d o m e s t ic p o l it ic s a re s t r i p p e d o f all i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d

i n t e g r i t y . B u t i n p o i n t o f f a c t , t h e p r i m a c y o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y m e a n s :

" w a r " a s t h e u l t i m a t e , e x i s t e n t i a l " l i m i t - c o n d i t i o n " o f p o l i t i c s . T h ew h o l e a n a l y s is l e a d s i n e v i t a b l y t o w a r d a j u s t if i c a t io n o f th e " t o t a l s t a t e "

w h o s e r a i s o n d ' f t r e i s t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t y o f w a r . H e n c e , f o r

S c h m i tt , t h e s u p r e m a c y o f t h e f r i e n d - e n e m y d i s ti n c t io n i n p o l it ic s .

H e r e , t o o , S c h m i tt 's i d e a s m u s t b e c a r e f u ll y d is t in g u i s h e d f r o m t h o s e o f

H o b b e s . F o r H o b b e s , t h e s t at e o f n a t u r e o r be l l um om ni um c on t r a

o m n e s m u s t b e o v e r c o m e in t h e c o n t r a c t t h a t e s t a b li s h e s c iv il s o cie ty .

F o r S c h m i t t , c o n v e r se ly , t h e s t a te o f w a r a m o n g n a t i o n s o p e n s u p d i s-

t in c t l y p o s i ti v e p r o s p e c t s : " w a r " a s t h e h i g h e s t in s t a n c e o f t h e p o l i ti c a l.

T h i s is o n e o f th e r e a s o n s S c h m i tt i ns is ts t im e a n d a g a i n t h a t w e r e a

s i n g l e , i n t e r n a t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n ( f o r e s h a d o w e d b y t h e L e a g u e o f

N a t i o n s ) t o s u p p l a n t t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e , t h e p o l i t i c a l w o u l d d i s a p p e a r

f r o m l i f e a l t o g e t h e r : f o r a l o n g w i t h t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e n a t i o n -

s ta te , t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f w a r t o o w o u l d d i s a p p e a r . 26 I n H o b b e s i a n

f a s h i o n , S c h m i t t a t t r i b u t e s a r a t h e r u n e l e v a t e d , f u n c t i o n a l r o l e t op o l i t i c s i n t i m e s o f p o l i t i c a l n o r m a l c y : t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f i n t e r n a l

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 18/28

4 0 6

"pea ce , secur i ty , an d o r de r" (BP, 46) . It is on ly in t imes o f war , con-

v e rse ly , t h a t t h e p r o sp e c t o f " e x i s te n t ia l g r e a t n e s s " e m e r g e s , p r o sp e c t s

u n k n o w n t o p e r i o d s o f fa c ti ca l n o r m a l c y : " T o d ay , t h e c a s e o f w a r i s t h e'dec i s ive ca se ' [ErnsO~all]. O n e c a n s a y t h a t h e r e , a s e l s e w h e r e , t h e

e x c e p t i o n a l c a se h a s a n e sp e c i a l l y d e c i s i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n w h i c h t h e

inner m ea n in g o f t h ings is revea led . F o r o n l y in a c t u a l b a t tl e is t h e m o s t

e x t r e m e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l g r o u p i n g o f f r i e n d a n d e n e m y

sh o w n . F r o m t h is m o s t e x t r e m e p o s si b il it y t h e l if e o f m e n g a in s a sp e c i -

f i c po l i t ica l tens ion" (BP, 35 ; em pha s i s add ed) .

Th u s , f o r S c h m i t t , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f w a r i s t h e u l t i m a t e i n s t a n c e , t h e

i n h e r e n t p r e su p p o s i t i o n o f a l l p o l it ic s . I f, th e r e f o r e , h u m a n l if e is u n -

avo idab ly po l i ti ca l, wa r is t he p in nac le o f a l l g rea t po l i ti c s . F o r S c h m i t t,

"Po l i t i c s means intens ive l ife [ intensives Le be n] " '27 A s t h e d e c i s i v e

i n s t a n c e o f p o l it ic s , w a r i n S c h m i tt 's e y e s ta k e s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a n

e x i s te n t ia l b o u n d a r y - s i t u a t i o n ; i t is t h e l i tm u s - t e s t o f w h e t h e r a n a t i o n

posse sses po l i t ica l subs tan ce .

A s t h e ul t ima rat io of po l i ti c s , w a r m us t be jus t i f i ed in ex i s t en t i a l t e rm s .

Th us , f o r S chm i t t, "T he spec i f ica l ly po l i t ica l d i s t inc t ion , to w hich po l i t -

i c a l a c t s a n d m o t i v e s c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k , i s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

f r i e n d a n d e n e m y " (B P, 2 6) . T h e s e c o n c e p t s m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d " in

t h e i r concrete , ex is tent ial sen se . . . . T h e c o n c e p t s o f fr ie n d , e n e m y , a n d

s t ru g g l e r e c e i v e t h e i r r e a l m e a n i n g e sp e c i a l l y i n so f a r a s t h e y r e l a t e t o

a n d p r e se r v e t h e r e a l p o s s ib i li ty o f p h y s i c a l a n n ih i l at io n . W a r f o l lo w s

f r o m e n m i t y , f o r t h e l a t t e r i s t h e ex i s ten t ia l nega t ion o f ano ther b e ing '( B P , 2 7 , 2 8 ; e x a m p l e a d d e d ) . D i sp e l l i n g a n y c o n c e i v a b l e a m b i g u i t i e s

c o n c e r n i n g h i s p r o g r a m , S c h m i t t c o n t i n u e s b y d e f i n i n g t h e "p o l i ti c al

e n e m y " in t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s : "H e i s t h e o t h e r , t h e a l ie n , a n d i t su f fi c es

t h a t i n h i s e s se n c e h e i s so m e t h i n g ex is tentia lly o th er an d a l ien in an

espec ia l l y i n t ens i ve sense . . ; (BP, 3 3 ; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) . F o r S c h m i t t ,

"W a r , t h e r e a d i n e s s f o r d e a t h o f f ig h t in g m e n , t h e p h y s i c a l a n n i h i l a t io n

o f o t h e r m e n w h o s t a n d o n t h e s id e o f t h e e n e m y , a ll t h a t h a s n o n o r m a -

five, o n l y a n e x is te n ti a l m e a n i n g ' ( B P , 49) .

B u t a c l o se r lo o k r e v e a ls t h a t S c h m i tt 's e m p h a s i s o n t h e u l t i m a t e m a r -

t ia l te l o s o f p o li ti c s m e r e l y s e r v e s a s a c o v e r f o r t h e m a n i f e s t p a u c i t y o f

i n tr i n si c p o l it ic a l c o n t e n t i n h i s o w n t h i n k in g . F o r , d e sp i t e t h e c o l o r f u l

e x i st e nt ia l is t rh e t o r i c , t h e r e i s n o su r m o u n t i n g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f u n d a -

m e n t a l p o l i t i c a l v a l u e w e a r e l e f t w i t h i s n a k e d s e l f - p r e se r v a t i o n .

I n d e e d , t h i s p o s i t i o n f o ll o w s l o g ic a ll y f r o m t h e o r ig i n a l e x i s te n t ia l p o i n to f d e p a r t u r e , v iz ., t h e u n m i t i g a t e d c o n t i n g e n c y o f al l h u m a n e x i s te n c e .

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 19/28

4 0 7

I n p u r su i n g t h i s e x i s t e n t i a l i s t t a c k , S c h m i t t c o n sc i o u s l y a b a n d o n s a l l

h i g h e r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f p o l it ic a l li fe , q u e s t i o n s h e h a s t i ly

e q u a t e s w i t h t h e n o r m a t i v i s t t r a d i t i o n h e i s so e a g e r t o b e d o n e w i t h .Th e so l e i m p o r t a n t f a c t is t h a t a s t a te e x is ts , n o t t h e sp e c i f i c c o n t e n t o r

end s o f i ts ex i s t ence . In th is r e sp ec t , L6w i th 's c r i t ique p ro ves jus t i fi ed :

i n so f a r a s S c h m i t t ' s n o t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l i s d e v o i d o f i n d e p e n d e n t

c o n t e n t , it, t o o , i s a m e r e "o c c a s io n a l ism ? ' I t, t o o , m e r e l y s t a n d s i n t h e

se r v i c e o f o t h e r , "u n p o l i ti c a l p o w e r s " - a b o v e a ll, t h e p o w e r s o f w a r. I n

the l a s t ana lys i s, t he spec i f i c i ty o f the po l i ti ca l sphe re , wh os e p re s e rva -

t i o n S c h m i t t v i e w e d a s h i s p r i m a r y i n t e ll e c tu a l ta sk , i s i ts e l f e c l i p se d -

s a c r i fi c e d o n t h e a l t a r o f A r e s , a s it w e r e . A b a n d o n e d i s a w h o l e s e r ie s

o f p o l it ic a l q u e s t i o n s w h o s e p o s i n g a c c o u n t s f o r t h e b i r t h o f p o li ti c a l

p h i l o so p h y i n t h e W e s t : q u e s t i o n s a b o u t j u s t i c e , t h e v i r t u o u s c i t i z e n ,

a n d , m o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e "g o o d l i f e ? ' I n S c h m i t t ' s p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y w e

t ra de the "go od l i f e " fo r "m ere lif e" : the ex i s t en t ia l r igh t o f se l f -p re se r -

va t ion .

I n h i s w r it in g s o f t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s , S c h m i t t d i s c e r n s a t r e n d a t w o r k t h a tp r e sa g e s a r e t u r n o f t h e p o li ti ca l: th e r e - e m e r g e n c e o f n e w Kam pf ge -

biete o r " a r e a s o f s tr u g gl e" in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d . T h e k e y v a r ia b l e in

t h is n e w l y e m e r g e n t e q u a t i o n is t e c h n o l o g y , w h i c h , in t h e t w e n t i e t h

c e n t u ry , s e e m s t o h a v e s u r p a s s e d e c o n o m i c s as t h e s in g u la r d e t e r -

m i n a n t o f c u l t u r a l l i f e . A d v o c a t e s o f a " r e l i g i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l

p r o g r e s s" l o n g b e l i e v e d th a t t h e r i s e o f t e c h n o l o g y r e p r e s e n t e d a n o t h e r

s t ag e i n t h e n e u t r a l i z a t io n o f p o l it ic s , a v e r d i c t S c h m i t t w i sh e s v i g o r o u s -

l y t o c o n t e s t. R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g " m e c h a n i s ti c " a n d s o u l l e s s " a s m a n y o f

h i s G e r m a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s c o m p l a i n e d , S c h m i t t s e e s " a n a c t i v i s t i c

m e t a p h y s ic " at w o r k i n t e c h n o lo g y t h a t p r o m i s e s t h e " u n b o u n d e d

p o w e r a n d d o m i n a t io n o f m a n o v e r n a tu r e , e v e n ov e r h u m a n p h y s i cs "

its elf. 28 R a t h e r t h a n r e p r e se n t i n g o n e m o r e s t a g e i n a 4 0 0 y e a r p r o c e s s

o f p o l it ic a l "n e u t ra l iz a t io n , " t e c h n o l o g y e m b o d i e s p r o sp e c t s f o r a

m o m e n t o u s r e t u r n o f t h e p o l iti ca l o n a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d l y g r a n d i o s e

s ca le . F o r t h e h i st o ri c al ly u n i q u e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n o f

t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e t w e n t i e th c e n t u r y o p e n s u p c o n c r e t e p r o s p e c ts f o r

t h e r e a l iz a t i o n o f t h e "tota l state?' S c h m i tt d e sc r i b e s t h i s p r o c e s s a s f o l-

lows:

T h e p r o c e s s o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s s p h e r e s o f c u l -

t u r a l l i f e h a s a r r i v e d a t i t s e n d , b e c a u s e i t h a s a r r i v e d a t t e c h n o l o g y . T e c h -

n o l o g y i s n o l o n g e r a n e u t r a l b a s is , in t h e s e n s e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f n e u t r a l iz a -

t i o n , a n d e v e r y s t r o n g p o l i ti c s w i ll m a k e u s e o f it . T h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y c a n

t h u s b e u n d e r s t o o d i n a c u l t u ra l s e n s e a s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l c e n t u r y o n l y in a

p r o v i s i o n a l w a y. I t s u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g w i ll b e r e v e a l e d w h e n i t is k n o w n w h a t

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 20/28

4 0 8

t y p e o f p o l i ti c s is s tr o n g e n o u g h t o m a s t e r t h e n e w t e c h n ol o g y , a n d w h a t a r e

t h e r e a l f r i e n d / e n e m y g r o u p i n g s t h a t a r i s e o n t h i s n e w b a s i s . 29

S c h m i t t d e v e l o p s h i s t h e o r y o f t h e " t o t a l s t at e " in t w o k e y e s sa y s f r o m

t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s , " T h e T u r n t o w a r d t h e T o t a l S t a t e " a n d " T h e C o n -

t i n u e d D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e T o t al S t a te i n G e r m a n y ? ' F o r S c h m i tt , t h e

v i r t u e o f t h e t o t a l s t a te is t h a t t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f

p o l i t i c s i s e c l i p se d a s t h e s t a t e u n d e r t a k e s t h e " se l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

soc iety . . . . Po l i ti c s in t e rven es in a ll sp he r e s o f l i f e , ' r e m ark s Schm i t t;

" t h e r e i s n o n e u t r a l s p h e r e " A s a n e x a m p l e , h e c i t e s t h e m o d e r n i m -

p e r a t iv e s o f p o li ti c al a r m a m e n t , w h i c h c o n c e r n "n o t o n l y t h e m i li ta r y ,

b u t a ls o t h e i n d u s tr ia l a n d e c o n o m i c p r e p a r a t i o n f o r w a r? ' E v e n t h e

" i n te l le c t u a l a n d m o r a l f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c i t i ze n s" is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o

t h i s t o t a l i z i n g n e t w o r k . S c h m i t t s e e s w e l c o m e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f su c h

t r e n d s i n t h e t h e o r y o f " to t al m o b i l iz a ti o n " a d v a n c e d b y " a r e m a r k a b l e

r e p re s e n ta t iv e o f t h e G e r m a n Frontsoldaten" Er n s t " J i i n g e r ' s f o r m u l a

p r o v e s t h a t a s e l f -o r g a n i z a t io n o f so c i e t y i n t o t h e s t a te i s in p r o c e s s ,

l e a d in g f r o m t h e n e u t r a l s t at e o f t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y t o t h e t o t al s t a te o ft h e 2 0 t h c e n t u ry . ' 3 ~ T h e o n l y p o s s i b l e o b s t a c l e S c h m i t t e n v i s i o n s t o t h e

u l t i m a t e t r i u m p h o f t h e t o t a l s t a t e is t h e r e s i d u a l p a r t y p l u r a li sm o f t h e

W e i m a r p e r i o d . 31

S c h m i t t 's t h e o r y o f t h e t o ta l s t a te - w h o se p r e sc i e n c e a s a n a n a l y s is o f

k e y d e v e l o p m e n t s in t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p o li ti cs c a n h a r d l y b e d e n i e d -

w a s f o r m u l a t e d p r i o r t o t h e N a z i s e i zu r e o f p o w e r in 1 9 3 3 . I t h a s b e e n

a r g u e d t h a t S c h m i t t ' s l e g a l o p i n i o n o n t h e " e q u a l c h a n c e " q u e s t i o n i n

1 9 3 2 ( su g g e st in g t h a t e x t r e m i s t p o l it ic a l p a r t i e s w h o d i d n o t r e sp e c t th e

c o n s i t u t i o n b e d e n i e d a n " e q u a l c h a n c e " o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n )

m i g h t h a v e j e o p a r d i z e d h i s s t a t u s i n t h e e y e s o f t h e N a z i p o w e r e l i t e .

W h a t e v e r t h e t r u t h c o n c e r n i n g t h e se a l le g a ti o n s , 32 i t c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t

p r e v e n t th e N a z i g o v e r n m e n t f r o m s u m m o n i n g t h e i r p r e st ig i o u s n e w

c o n v e r t t o d r a f t t h e i n f a m o u s Gleichschaltung l e g i s l a t i o n o f A p r i l

1 9 3 3 . S c h m i t t c o o p e r a t e d w i t ha l a c r i t y . 33

I n h i s f i r s t m a j o r w o r k o f t h e N a z i y e a r s , Sta te , M ovem ent , Volk,

S c h m i t t t r i e d t o r e c o n c i l e h i s t h e o r y o f t h e t o t a l s t a te w i t h P a r t y i d e o l -

o g y . T h e t r i p a r ti t e c o n c e p t i o n o f so v e r e i g n t y e x p r e s se d i n t h e t it le o f

S c h m i t t 's 1 9 3 3 w o r k r e p r e se n t s a n a t t e m p t t o b r i n g h i s t h i n k i n g i n li n e

w i t h t h e n e w N a t i o n a l S o c ia l is t re a li ty . T h e o p e n i n g p a g e s a r e q u i c k t o

p r o c l a i m t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e W e i m a r c o n s t i tu t io n o n t h e b a s is o f th e

En a b l i n g A c t o f M a r c h 2 4 , 1 9 3 3 . I r o n ic a ll y , i n w h a t a t t h e ti m e p o s -se s se d t h e l e g a l s t a t u s o f a t e m p o r a r y , c o m m i ssa r i a l d i s t a t o r sh i p , o r

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 21/28

4 0 9

l im i t e d g r a n t in g o f e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s, S c h m i tt p e r c e i v e d a s o v e re ig n o r

p e r m a n e n t d i c t a to r s h ip . S i n ce t h e W e i m a r c o n s t i tu t io n w a s i n c a p a b l e

o f d i s ti n g u is h i n g f r i e n d f ro m e n e m y , i t d e s e rv e d t o p e r i sh , a rg u e d

S c h m i t t. H e c h o s e t o v i e w t h e R e i c h s t a g e l e c t io n s o f M a rc h 5 , 1 9 3 3 , i n

w h i c h t h e N a t i o n a l S o c ia li st s c a p t u r e d m e re l y 4 3 .9 % o f t h e v o t e , a s a

" p l e b i s c i t e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e G e r m a n p e o p l e r e c o g n i z e d A d o l f

H i t l e r . . . a s t h e p o li ti ca l F ii h r e r o f t h e G e r m a n Wolk:TM Schm i t t' s a rgu-

m e n t s h e r e , h i s a l a c r i t o u s s u p p o r t o f t h e " s o v e re i g n d i c t a t o r s h i p " o f

A d o l f H i tl e r, i n n o w a y c o n s t i tu t e a b r e a k w i t h h is e a r l i e r p o s it i o n s, b u t

r e p r e s e n t t h e i r lo g i ca l c o m p l e t i o n . A s h e s a y s a t o n e p o i n t w i t h r e f e r -

e n c e t o t h e p o l it ic a l "p lu r a l is m " t h a t p r e s e n t e d i t se l f a s t h e s c o u rg e o f

W e i m a r : " In t h e o n e -p a r t y s t a t e o f N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t G e rm a n y , t h e

d a n g e r o f a p lu ra lis tic d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f G e r m a n y ... h a s b e e n

v a n q u i s h e d ? 35

T h e r e i s n o s m a ll m e a s u r e o f i ro n y in t h e f a c t t h a t d e s p i t e S c h m i t t's

f a w n i n g su b s e r v i e n c e to N a z i i d e o l o g y o n a l m o s t e v e r y p o i n t i n S t a t e ,

M o v e m e n t , V o l k - th e " F i i h r e r p r i n z i p " a n d r a ci a l " h o m o g e n e i t y " a r ep ra i sed a s the subs tance o f Na t iona l Soc ia l i s t l ega l i ty ; a s i s the move-

m e n t i n g e n e r a l f o r its k e e n a t t e n t io n t o " a u t h e n t i c F o l k s s u b s t a n z " - t h e

b o o k w a s n o t e n t i r e ly s u c c e ss fu l. S c h m i t t h a d l a p s e d f ro m N a z i id e o l -

o g y o n o n e c r u c i a l t h e m e : b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m o v e m e n t a s t h e

"d y n a m i c " a s p e c t o f t h e t r i p a r t it e d i v i si o n a n d t h e V o l k a s m e re l y t h e

"p as si ve ," "u n p o l it ic a l " e l e m e n t , h e h a d f a il e d t o a c c o rd t h e l a t t e r t h e

e q u a l s t a tu s r e q u i r e d fo r i t b y o f f i c ia l p ro p a g a n d a . N e e d l e s s t o sa y, t h e

N a z i i n v o c a t io n o f t h e V o l k w a s a n i m m e n s e l y f r a u d u l e n t p s e u d o -

p o p u l is m , i n w h i c h p o p u l a r e n e r g ie s w e r e m e r e l y i n s tr u m e n t a l iz e d t o

t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p c l iq u e a n d i ts e x p a n s i o n i s t g o a ls . Y e t ,

S c h m i t t' s "h o n e s t y " in o w n i n g u p t o t h e a c t u a l r e a l i ty o f t h e s i t u a ti o n

c a u s e d h i s b o o k t o b e v i e w e d w i t h s u s p ic i o n . 36

W e h a v e a l r e a d y a ll u d e d t o t h e v a r i o u s d e p t h s t o w h i c h S c h m i tt s u n k i n

h i s c o n s i s t e n t s u p p o r t o f t h e N a z i d i c t a t o r s h i p . C e r t a i n l y t h e m o s tr e p re h e n s i b l e a s p e c t o f h i s c o l l u s i o n w i t h t h e r e g i m e w a s t h e a v i d i t y

w i t h w h i c h h e s u p p o r t e d N a z i r a c i a l p o l ic ie s . H i s a r t i c l e "T h e C o n s t i tu -

t io n o f F r e e d o m " in 1 9 3 5 w a s qu ic k to s u p p o r t t h e N u r e m b e r g r a ci al

l eg i sl at io n o f t h e s a m e y e a r, w h i c h f o r b a d e i n t e r m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n J e w s

a n d n o n - J e w s , a n d s o u g h t t o i n v a l i d a t e e x i s t i n g m a r r i a g e s b e t w e e n

J e w i sh a n d n o n - J e w i s h G e r m a n s . S c h m i tt 's g r e a te s t o f fe n s e s c a n p r o b -

a b l y b e fo u n d i n a n a r t ic l e p u b l i s h e d t h e fo l lo w i n g y e a r , e n t i t le d

"G e rm a n Le g a l S c i e n c e i n t h e S t ru g g le a g a in s t t h e J e w i s h S p ir it ," i nw h i c h t h e s t a n d a rd r e f r a i n s o f N a z i a n t i - s e m i t i c r h e t o r i c a r e t o b e

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 22/28

4 1 0

f o u n d . H e r e , S c h m i t t p o l e m i c i z e s a g a i n s t t h e " r o o t l e s s n e s s " o f t h e

J e w i s h r a c e a n d t h e i n f e ri o r it y o f th e " u n p r o d u c t i v e a n d s te r il e " J e w i s h

in te l lec t . 37 H e u rge d h i s f e l l ow ju r is t s , w he n c it ing f rom t ex t s w r i t t en b yJew s , t o be su r e t o i den t i fy t he w r i t e r a s a " Jewi sh au thor ."

I n a n o t h e r w i s e a c a d e m i c , 1 9 3 8 w o r k o n t h e p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t o f

H o b b e s , S c h m i tt g r a t u i to u s l y r e c i te s a l it an y o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

J e w i s h f i g u r e s w h o , s i n c e t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n , h a v e i n f i l t r a t e d a n d p o l -

l u t e d th e G e r m a n n a ti on : " T h e y o u n g R o t h c h i ld s , K a r l M a r x , B 6 r n e ,

H e i n e , a n d M e y e r b e e r " a ll p o s s e s s th e ir " s p h e r e s o f o p e r a t i o n " i n t h e

va r io us f i e lds o f G er m an cu l t u r a l life . 38 S ing l ed o u t f o r spec i a l m en t i on

i s t he l ega l t h inke r F r i ed r i ch Ju l i us S t ah l (wh om Schm i t t i n s is t s on ca l l-

i ng "S t ah l - Jo l son" t o i nd i ca t e h i s J ewi sh he r i t age ) : "The Chr i s t i an

s a c r a m e n t o f B a p t i s m s e r v e s h i m n o t o n l y a s a n ' e n t ry - t ic k e t ' t o 's o c i e -

t y ; bu t a l so a s t he i den t i t y - ca rd fo r en t r ance i n to t he ho l i nes s o f a s t i l l

v e r y s o l id G e r m a n s t a t e " r e m a r k s S c h m i tt . I n h is a d v o c a c y o f " c o n s ti -

t u t i ona l i sm ," S t ah l - Jo l son , t he t r eache rous J ew, i s cha rged wi th

s e d u c i n g t h e P r u s s i a n c o n s e r v a t i v e s " o n t o t h e t e r ra i n o f t h e e n e m y " -l i be r a l t h ink ing - "on wh ich the P ru s s i an m i l it a ry s t a te , un de r t he bu r -

d e n s o m e t e s t o f t h e w a r , c o l l a p s e s i n 1 9 1 8 . "39 In this way, Schrni t t

a t t empt s t o p rov ide a vu lga r i n t e l l ec tua l -h i s t o r i ca l g round ing fo r t he

i n f a m o u s " s t a b - in - t h e - b a c k " m y t h .

D e s p i t e t h e s e r e p u g n a n t e f f o r ts t o i n g ra t ia t e h i m s e l f w i t h t h e n e w

reg ime , 4~ Schm i t t s e nse d t ha t t he a l li ance w as p o t en t i a l l y i ll - fa t ed a nd

vo lun t a r i l y r e s i gned f rom h i s pos t i n t he Na t i ona l Soc i a l i s t Ju r i s t s

A s s o c i a t io n i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 6 . H o w e v e r , h e r e t a in e d h is p o s i ti o n in

the N az i pa r t y , h i s cha i r on t he l aw f acu l t y i n Be r li n , and h i s pos i t i on o n

t h e p r e s t i g i o u s P r u s s i a n S t a t e C o u n c i l u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . H i s

p o s t - 1 9 3 6 w r it in g s r e v o lv e d a r o u n d t h e c o n c e p t o f "G r o s s r a u m , " a p e r -

v e r t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e M o n r o e d o c t r i n e , w h i c h s e r v e d a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n

of Ge rm an t e r r it o r i a l ex pan s ion i n t he Eas t . I n tr u th , t h i s i dea w as l it tl e

m o r e t h a n a p s e u d o - l e g a l is t ic v a r ia n t o f t h e N a z i t h e o r y o f " L e b e n s -

raum."

In Schm i tt 's po l i ti ca l wr i t ings o f t he 193 0s , he p r e d i c t a b ly a t t em pt s t o

b a c k a w a y f r o m t h e r a d i c a l i m p l ic a t io n s o f h is e a r l ie r d e c i s i o n i s m a n d

i n s te a d a c c o r d s Ordnungsdenken c o n c e p t u a l p r i d e o f p la c e . F o r e x a m -

p l e , i n h i s f o r w a r d t o t h e 1 9 3 3 e d i t i o n o f Political Theology, S c h m i t t

w a r n s t h a t d e c i s i o n i s m r is k s s u c c u m b i n g t o t h e e x i g e n c ie s o f t h e

" m o m e n t , " a n d h e n c e o v e r l o o k s t h a t " r e s t f u l B e i n g c o n t a i n e d i n e v e r yg r e a t p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t . " N o w , i n s t e a d o f " d e c i s i o n e x n i h i l o " o n e

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 23/28

411

f inds an e m pha s i s o n "vo lk i sh subs t an t i a li t y" - i t i s no l ong e r t he s t a t e

o f e x c e p t io n t h a t c o n c e r n s S c h m it t, b u t t h e s ta t e o f n o r m a l c y e m b o d i e d

i n th e e x is ti n g fa s c is t o r d e r. T h e l a tt e r c a n n o w b e s e e n a s p r o v i d i n g t h e

" c o n c r e t e b a s i s f o r d e c i s i o n " i n h i s w o r k , t h e r e b y o f f e r in g a s o l u t i o n t o

the con t en t l e s snes s o f t he dec i s i on i n i t s ea r l i e r ve r s i ons . Ye t , r a t he r

t h a n c o n s t it u ti n g a n a b s o l u t e b r e a k w i th h is e a r l ie r w o r k , t h is m o v e s ig -

n if ie s t h e u l ti m a t e u n i o n o f t h e t w o p a r a ll e l s t r a n d s o f h is t h o u g h t , d e c i -

s i o n i s m a n d Ordnungsdenken. Th a t is , t he con c re t e , r ac i a l li fe o f t he

V o l k (Artgleichheit) n o w p r o v i d e s t h e e x i s t e n t i a l b a s i s f o r d e c i s i o n -

jus t as in State, M ovem ent, and Volk, i t w as a Grundentscheidung o f t h e

V o l k i n t h e e l e c ti o n s o f M a r c h 1 9 3 3 t h a t a b r o g a t e d t h e W e i m a r c o n s ti -

t u t i on a nd sanc t i f ied Hi t l e r ' s sove re ign d i c t a to r sh ip .

S i n c e t h e 1 9 2 0 s , S c h m i tt h a d b e e n a s ta u n c h o p p o n e n t o f f o r m a l l eg a li -

t y a n d a lw a y s a d v o c a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s u b s ta n t iv e , p o l it ic a l c r it e r ia

i n th e p r o m u l g a t i o n o f le g al d e c is io n s . T h e N a z i r e v o l u t i o n t h u s i n

m a n y w a y s m e r e l y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e t a n g i b l e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c

inc l ina t i ons o f Schm i tt 's e a r l ie r l ega l and po l i t ica l th ink ing . F or Schm i t ti t was an e s sen t i a l f ac t t ha t t he " ex i s t en t i a l - roo t ednes s o f a l l human

t h o u g h t " l e a d s w i t h n e c e s s i t y t o a s p h e r e i n w h i c h h u m a n e x i s t e n c e i s

f i l l ed wi th "o rgan i c , b io log i ca l and vo lk i sh d i f f e r en t i a t i ons , ' Th i s

r e m a i n s t r u e i n s o f a r a s " M a n , i n t h e d e e p e s t , m o s t u n c o n s c i o u s i m -

pu l se s o f h i s sou l , b u t a l so i n h i s ti n i e s t b r a in - ce l l, s t ands i n t he r ea l it y

o f v o l k i s h a n d r a c ia l b e l o n g i n g "4 1 I t w a s t h e r e f o r e o n e o f S c h m i t t's

d e e p l y h e l d c o n v i c t i o n s t h a t " a l l q u e s t i o n s a n d a n s w e r s i n t e r s e c t w i t h

t h e d e m a n d f o r [ ra cia l I h o m o g e n e i t y , w i t h o u t w h i c h a t o t a l F iJ h r e r- s ta t e

c o u l d n o t s u b s is t f o r a d a y . ' ' 4 2

T h e n o t i o n t h a t S c h m i t t ' s " n o - n o n s e n s e a p p r o a c h t o c o n c r e t e p o w e r

r e l a t i o n s c a n p r o v i d e a h e a l t h y c o r r e c t i v e t o t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l e f t i s t

m o r a l is m , " a s i t h a s b e e n r e c e n t l y s u g g e s t e d ( a lo n g w i t h t h e e v e n m o r e

s t a r t l i ng c l a im tha t " t he l e f t c an on ly bene f i t by l ea rn ing f rom Car l

Schmi t t" ) , 43 w ou ld s eem , i n l i gh t o f t he fo r ego ing ana lys is , an ex t r em e lyt e n u o u s p r o p o s i ti o n . F o r w o u l d n 't o n e o f t h e p r i m a r y c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e

dra w n f ro m Schm i tt 's ow n in t e l lec tua l -po l it i ca l it i ne r a ry b e t ha t a ll such

" t ra n s c e n d e n t " a s o p p o s e d t o " i m m a n e n t " c r it iq u e s o f l ib e r al d e m o -

c ra t i c po l i t i ca l pa r ad igms - i . e . , a l l a t t empt s t o " t r anscend" wi thou t

"p re se rv ing" t h is e t h i co -po l i t i ca l l egacy - i nv i te h i s to r i ca l r eg re s s ions

o f t h e h i g h e s t m a g n i t u d e ? S c h m i t t h i m s e l f w a s f o n d o f d r a w i n g a n

a n a l o g y b e t w e e n h i s o w n f a t e u n d e r t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t r e g i m e a n d

t h a t o f t h e e p o n y m o u s h e r o o f M e lv i ll e 's " B e n i t o C e r e n o " - t h e s h ipc a p t a i n w h o is f o r c e d a g a i n s t h is w i ll to c a r r y o u t t h e o r d e r s o f h is t h u g -

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 24/28

4 1 2

g i sh cap to r s . 44 B u t a s w e have t r i ed t o sugges t , t he e l ec t i ve a f fi n it ie s

b e t w e e n S c h m i t t ' s o w n c o n s e r v a t i v e - a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o l i t i c a l v i e w s a n d

t h e f a s c is t p r o g r a m o f a to t a li ta r ia n t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f l ib e r a l is m w e r el eg io n . In t r u th , i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e s u r p r is i n g h a d S c h m i tt a c t u a l-

ly r e f u s e d i n 1 9 3 3 t o c a s t h is l o t w i t h t h e v i c t o r i o u s N a t i o n a l S o c i a li st

P a r t y . H i s p o s t f e s t u m e f f o r t s a t s e l f - e x o n e r a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , c a n o n l y

s t r i k e o n e a s t e n d e n t i o u s a n d s e l f - s e r v i n g . T h a t t h e A m e r i c a n S c h m i t -

t ia n s h a v e e l e c t e d t o f o l l o w u n c r it ic a l ly t h e v e r s io n o f t h e s e e v e n t s s u p -

p l i e d b y t h e m a s t e r is e q u a l l y d is tu r b in g .

W h e n s u r v e y in g t h e i n t e ll e c tu a l l e g a c y o f C a r l S c h m i tt , w e a r e i n e v i t-

a b l y d r iv e n t o s e e k c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h th e c a s e o f M a r t in H e i d e g g e r -

w h o w e n o w k n o w t r ie d i n 1 9 3 3 t o s o li c it S c h m i t f s in v o l v e m e n t in " t h e

g a t h e r i n g s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s " t h a t h a d r e c e n t l y g a i n e d s u p r e m a c y i n G e r -

m a n y . 45 I n t h is c o n n e c t i o n , p e r h a p s t h e m a j o r r is k t h e i m p e n d i n g

A n g l o - A m e r i c a n r e c e p t i o n o f S c h m i tt m a y r u n p a ra ll el s t h o s e o f th e

H e i d e g g e r r e c e p t i o n i n p o s t - w a r F r a n c e : t h a t o f a t o ta l l y d e - h i s t o r i c i z e d

r e c e p t i o n . B e c a u s e th e i n t ro d u c t i o n o f H e i d e g g e r ' s w o r k i n F r a n c e w a sc o m p l e t e ly u n h is to r ic a l, b e c a u s e t h e F r e n c h H e i d e g g e r i a n s w e r e u n d e r

t h e d e l u s i o n t h a t t h e e t e r n a l v e r i t i e s o f ( H e i d e g g e r i a n ) p h i l o s o p h y

co u ld b ea r no a f fi n it ie s wi th t he so rd id ac tua l i t ie s o f w or ld h i s t o ry , t he

w o r l d o f F r e n c h l et te r s w a s w h o l l y u n p r e p a r e d f o r th e s h o c k u n l e a s h e d

b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f V i c t o r F a ri as 's b o o k , H e i d e g g e r e t l e n a z i s m e . 46

S im i la rly , a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y r e h a b i li ta t io n o f S c h m i tt 's w o r k - b e i t o n

the l e f t o r t h e r igh t - m us t gua rd aga ins t t he ah i s t o r i ca l i ll u s ion t ha t

S c h m i t t's t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t io n s c a n b e i n n o c e n t l y l i ft e d o u t o f t h e s o c i o -

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e y o r i g i n a t e d a n d a p p l i e d u n p r o b l e m a t i -

c a l l y t o c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d a f f a i r s . S c h m i t t ' s t h e o r i e s o r i g i n a t e d a t a

d e t e r m i n a t e h o u r o f G e r m a n h i s to r y - its m o s t s h a m e f u l h o u r - a n d a ll

f u t u r e a t t e m p t s t o d o j u s t i c e t o t h e p r o v o c a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l l e g a c y h e

h a s b e q u e a t h e d m u s t i n c o r p o r a t e a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e s e fa c ts in t o t h e ir

a n a ly t ic a l p e r s p e c ti v e . T o d o o t h e r w i s e w o u l d b e b o t h n a i v e a s w e l l a s

i n t e l lec tua l l y d i sho nes t .

N o ~ s

1 . S c h m i tt , " D e r F i i h r e r s c h i it z t d a s R e c h t - z u r R e i c h s t a g s r e d e A d o l f H i t l e r s v o m

13. Ju l i , 1934," Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung 3 9 ( 1 9 3 4 ) ; " D i e V e r f a s s u n g d e r F r e i -

he i t , " Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung 4 0 ( 1 9 3 5 ) .

2. Political Theology, t r ans . C . Schwab (Cambr idge , Mass . , 1985 ; to be c i t ed hence -

fo r th a s PT) ; The Crisis o f Parliamentary Dem ocracy, t r a n s . E . K e n n e d y ( C a m -b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1 9 8 5 ; h e n c e f o r t h c i t e d a s C P D ) ; a n d Polit ical Rom anticism , t rans .

G u y O a k e s ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s ., 1 9 8 6 ) .

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 25/28

413

3. Schmit t , The Concept o f the Polit ical, t r a n s . G . S c h w a b ( N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 6 ) .

4 . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t u d i e s o f S c h m i tt 's w o r k i n t h e p o s t - w a r y e a r s i n c l u d e : J . F i j a l -

kowsk i , D ie Wend ung zu m Fiihrerstaat: Ideologische Ko m po ne nte n in de r PolitischePhilosophie Carl Schmitts ( K o l n , 1 9 5 8 ) ; H . H o f ma n , Legitimitiit gegen Legalitiit:

D er Weg de r polit ischen Philosophie Carl Schmitts ( N e u w i e d a n d B e r l in , 1 9 6 4 ) ; C .

v a n K r o c k o w , Die Entscheidung: Eine Untersuchung iiber Ernst Jiinger, Carl

Schmitt , und Martin Heidegger (S tu t tga r t , 1958) . Fo r a b ib l iog raph y o f Schm i t t' s

w o r k a n d s e c o n d a r y l i te r a t u r e , se e P . To m mi s s e n , " C a d S c h mi t t B ib l io g r a p h i e ," i n

Festschrift fu r Carl Schm itt zu m 70. Geburtstag, H. Ba r ion e t a l . , ed i to r s (Be r l in :

D u n k e r u n d H u m b l o t , 1 9 5 9) ; a s w e ll a s a n " E r g a nz u n g li st e " a ls o b y T o m m i s s e n in

Epirrhosis: Festgabe fu r Carl Schm itt , H. Ba r ion e t a l . , ed i to r s , 2 vo l s . (Be r l i n :

D u n c k e r u n d H u m b l o t , 1 9 6 8 ). T h e t w o l a s t -n a m e d v o l u m e s g e n e r a ll y c o n t a i ne s s ay s th a t a r e s u p p o r t i v e o f S c h mi t t 's i d e a s . F o r t w o m o r e r e c e n t v o l u m e s o f

e ssays on Sc hm i t t, see D er Fiirst dieser W elt: Carl Schm itt un d die Folgen, vol. 1, J.

T a u b e s , e d . ( M u n i c h a n d Z u r i c h , 1 9 8 3 ).

5 . F o r En g l i s h l i te r a t u r e o n S c h mi t t, s e e G e o r g e S c h w a b , The Challenge o f the Excep-

tion ( B e r li n : D u n k e r u n d H u m b l o t , 1 9 7 0 ) ; s e e a ls o S c h w a b ' s I n t r o d u c t i o n t o

Schmi t t , Political Theology; E l l e n K e n n e d y , I n tr o d u c t i o n t o S c h m i tt , The Crisis o f

Parliamentary Democracy;, a n d J o s e p h B e n d e r s k y , Carl Schmitt: Theorist fo r the

Reich ( P r in c e t o n , 1 9 8 3 ). U n l i k e t h e d i s c u s si o n s o f S c h w a b a n d K e n n e d y , B e n d e r s -

k y ' s s tu d y h a s t h e me r i t o f c o n f r o n t i n g S c h mi t t 's d e e p N a z i i n v o l v e m e n t s , a s w e l l a s

h i s a t t i me s v i c i o u s a n t i -s e mi t i s m , h e a d o n . H o w e v e r , h e r e a c h e s t h e u n s a t is f a c t o ry

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t S c h m i tt , f a r f r o m b e i n g a " c o n v i n c e d N a z i, " me r e l y u n d e r w e n t a

s e ri e s o f e x t e n s i v e p o l it ic a l c o mp r o m i s e s i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s f o r t h e s a k e o f s e l f- p r e s e rv a -

t io n . H e n c e , h i s N a z i s m a n d a n t i - s e mi t is m w e r e " i n si n c e re . " U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , b o t h

S c h w a b (Canadian Journal o f Political an d Social T heory [ 4 / 2 S p r i n g - S u m m e r ,

1 9 80 ]) a n d K e n n e d y (History o f Polit ical Thought [ 4 / 3 W i n t e r , 1 9 8 3 ] ) h a v e w r i t t e n

v e r y p o s it iv e r e v ie w s o f B e n d e r s k y ' s w o r k e n d o r s i n g h i s c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g

the ins inc e r i t y o f S chm i t t' s Na z i sm. A sa lu t a ry con t ra s t t o t h i s "ha l l o f mi r ro r s"

s e m b l a n c e o f u n a n i m i t y i s M a r t i n J a y ' s r e v ie w o f B e n d e r s k y i n The Journal of

Modern History 5 3 / 3 ( S e p t e mb e r , 1 9 8 4 ) . S e e a ls o G o r d o n C r a i g 's r ev i e w o f B e n -

d e r s k y , " D e c i s i o n , N o t D i s c u s s i o n , " i n Times Literary Supplement, A u g u s t 1 3 ,

1 9 8 3 .

6. Telos 72 (1987) , 5 .

7 . L t w i t h , " D e r o k k a s i o n e l l e D e z i o n i s mu s v o n C a r l S c h mi t t, " f ir s t p u b l i s h e d i n t h e

Internationale Zeitschrifl fiir Theorie des Rechts 9 ( 1 9 3 5 ) u n d e r t h e p s e u d o n y m

H u g o F i a la . I t h a s b e e n r e p u b l i s h e d i n L6 w i t h , Heidegger: D en ke r in diirftiger Ze it

( S tu t tg a r t: M e t z l e r, 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 2 - 7 1 . P h i l o s o p h i c a l u s e o f t h is p e c u l i a r te r m , " o c c a -

s i o n a li s m , " m a y b e t r a c e d b a c k t o M a l e b r a n c h e ' s p o le m i c w i t h D e s c a r t e s i n De la

recherche de la verit~ ( 1 6 7 4 - 1 6 7 5 ) . T h e r e , i n o p p o s i ti o n to t h e C a r t e si a n v ie w t h att h e b o d y , a s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e s o u l , i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i ts o w n m o v e m e n t , M a l e -

b r a n c h e a r g ue s t h a t t h e t r u e p r i n c i p le o f th e m o v e m e n t o f b o d i e s i s t o b e f o u n d i n

G o d a l o n e . B o d i l y mo v e m e n t s a r e t h u s " o c c a s i o n e d " b y a h i g h er , d i v in e , c a u s a li ty .

8 . To b e s u r e , f r o m e x i s te n t i a li s m o n e c a n a l s o d e r i v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t p o l it ic a l p h i -

losoph y - e .g ., t ha t o f Jean-P au l Sa r t r e (w ho was a t l e a s t equa l ly i n f luenc ed in h is

e a r l y w o r k b y t h e " r a ti o n a li s t" p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f H u s s e r l i n a n y e v e n t ). A t i s s u e i s

a d e t e r m i n a t e v e r s i o n o f G e r m a n e x i s te n t ia l is m i n v o g u e d u r i n g t h e i n t e r - w a r y e a r s

tha t f ac i li t a ted the r e j ec t ion o f li be ra l -dem ocra t i c po li t ic a l pa ra d igm s and a p re fe r -

ene e ins t ea d fo r on es t ha t w e re d i s t i nc t ly f asc is ti c.9 . See F . R inge r , The D ecline of the G erman Mandarins ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s. : H a r v a r d ,

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 26/28

414

1969) ; F . S te rn , The Failure ofllliberalism ( N e w Y o r k : A l f r e d K n o p f , 1 9 7 6 ) ; a n d

m o r e r e c e n t l y , H . B r u n k h o r s t , Der Intellektuelle im Land der Mandarine ( F r a n k -

fu r t : Suh rkam p 1988) ; and J . He r f , Reactionary Modernism ( N e w Y o r k : C a m b r i d g eUn ive rs i ty P re s s , 1984) . H e r f s s tudy , wh ich con ta ins a s ec t ion on Schm i t t, i s e spe -

c i al ly r e l e v a n t i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , b e c a u s e h e c o n v i n c i n g ly d e ta i ls t h e w o r l d -

v i e w h e l d in c o m m o n b y t h i n k e r s s u c h a s S c h m i t t, J i in g e r , S p e n g l e r , an d H e i d e g g e r .

1 0. A s a r e s u l t o f t h is s h a r e d e m p h a s i s o n t h e c o n c e p t o f d e ci s i o n , L 6 w i t h p e r c e i v e s

d i s ti n c t p a r a ll e ls b e t w e e n t h e e x i st e n ti a l p h i l o s o p h y o f H e i d e g g e r a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l

ex i s t en t ia l i sm o f Schmi t t . He obse rves : " I t i s in no w ay acc iden ta l i f i n C . Schm i t t a

p o l i ti c a l d e c i s io n i s m , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e x i st e n ti a l p h i lo s o p h y o f H e i d e g -

g e r, t r a n s p o s e s t h e H e i d e g g e r i a n ' p o t e n t ia l i ty - f o r - B e i n g - a - w h o l e ' o f a n a lw a y s p a r -

t i cu la r ex i s t ence to the ' t o t a l i ty ' o f the au then t i c s t a te , i t s e lf a lways pa r t i cu la r ." C f .

L o w i t h , " T h e P o l i ti c a l I m p l i c a ti o n s o f H e i d e g g e r ' s E x i s te n t ia l is m , " New German

Critique 45 (Fa l l , 1988) .

11 . "W ar i s an in tox ica t ion beyo nd a l l i n tox ica t ion , an un lea sh ing tha t b rea ks a l l bond s .

I t is a f r e n z y w i t h o u t c a u t i o n a n d l im i t s, c o m p a r a b l e o n l y t o t h e f o r c e s o f n a tu r e . I n

com ba t th e ind iv idua l i s l i ke a r ag ing s to rm, the to s s ing s ea , the rag ing thund e r . H e

h a s m e l t e d i n t o e v e r y th i n g . H e r e s ts a t t h e d a r k d o o r o f d e a t h l ik e a b u l l e t t h a t h a s

r e a c h e d i t s g o a l . A n d t h e p u r p l e w a v e s d a s h o v e r h i m . F o r a l o n g t i m e h e h a s n o

awaren es s o f t r ans i tion . I t i s a s i f a wa ve s l ipped b ack in to the f low ing s ea ." J i inge r ,

Kampf als inneres Erlebnis (Ber l in , 1922) , 57 .

12. Spengler , Der UntergangdesAbendlandes, vo l . 2 (Mun ich , 1923) , 1007 .

13 . Schmi t t , Der Begriff des Politischen ( B e r li n : D u n c k e r u n d H u m b o l t , 1 9 6 3 ), 4 9 ;

e m p h a s i s a d d e d ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as BP).

14. Schmit t , Gesetz und Urteil(Ber l in , 1912) , 69 .

15. Schmit t , Der Wert des Staates und die Bedeutung des Einzelnen (Tub ingen : J . C . B .

Mohr , 1914) , 108 , 74 .

16. Cf . Schw ab, The Challenge of the Exception, 3 7 - 4 3 .

1 7 . K e n n e d y , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy.

1 8 . T h e N e u m a n n q u o t e s a r e f r o m Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National

Socialism, 1933-44 ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d , 1 9 6 7 ) , 4 7 a n d 4 3 . R e c e n t l y , E l l e n K e n -

n e d y h a s a r g u e d t h a t m a n y o f t h e p o s it i o n s o f N e u m a n n h i m s e l f - a s w e l l a s th e

F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l ' s c ri t i q u e o f l ib e r a l is m in g e n e r a l - w e r e b o r r o w e d w i t h o u t a c k -

n o w l e d g m e n t f r o m S c h m i t t ' s o w n c r i t i q u e o f " p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n i s m . " S e e K e n n e d y ,

" C a r l S c h m i t t an d t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l , " Telos 71 (1987) . A l though i t i s t rue tha t

N e u m a n n a n d O t t o K i r c h h e i m e r a t t e n d e d S c h m i t t ' s l e c t u r e s i n B e r l i n i n t h e l a t e

1920s , she mak es a t r aves ty o f an o r ig ina lly wo r thwh i le in s igh t by a t t emp t ing to

v i e w t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l i n g e n e r a l a s a t y p e o f c o v e r t " C a r l S c h m i t t S o c ie t y ." I n

t r y i n g t o w o r k t h e p o s i t i o n s o f H o r k h e i m e r , M a r c u s e , a n d e v e n W a i t e r B e n j a m i n

i n t o t h e b a r g a i n , t h i s S e h m i t t - o b s e s s i o n t a k e s o n a b s u r d p r o p o r t i o n s . A f t e r t h ee x t r e m e l y t h o r o u g h r e j o i n d e r s b y M a r t i n J ay , A l f o n s S o l l n e r, a n d U l r i c h P r e u s s i n

t h e s a m e i s s u e o f Telos, t h e r e s e e m s t o b e l i tt l e l e f t o f K e n n e d y ' s o r i g i n a l c l a i m c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l ' s f u r ti v e r e li a n c e o n S c h m i t t i a n p a r a d ig m s .

19 . H . Sane r , "Grenzs i tua t ion , " Historisches W6rterbuch der Philosophie, vol . 3 (Base l ,

1974) , 877 .

2 0 . C f . M i c h a e l L 6 w y , Georg Luk6cs: From Romanticism to Bolshevism ( L o n d o n : N e w

L e f t B o o k s , 1 9 7 7 ).

2 1 . S c h m i t t c o n c l u d e s t h e fi r st c h a p t e r o f Political Theologyw i t h a la u d a t o r y r e f e r e n c e

t o a n u n n a m e d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t h e o l o g i a n ( K i e r k e g a a r d ) w h o d e m o n s t r a t e d" the v i t a l i n t ens i ty pos s ib le in theo log ica l r e f l ec t ion . " He c i t e s the fo l lowing

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 27/28

415

r e m a r k s f r o m Repetition: " E n d l e s s t a lk a b o u t t h e g e n e r a l b e c o m e s b o r i n g ; t h e r e a r e

e x c e p t io n s . I f t h e y c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n ed , t h e n t h e g e n e r a l a l so c a n n o t b e e x p l a in e d .

T h e d i ff i cu l ty i s u s u a ll y n o t n o t i c e d b e c a u s e t h e g e n e r a l i s n o t t h o u g h t a b o u t w i t hp a s s i o n b u t w i t h a c o m f o r t a b l e s u p e r f i c i a l i t y . T h e e x c e p t i o n o n t h e o t h e r h a n d

th inks the g ene ra l w i th pas s ion . "

2 2 . C f . S c h m i t t , " D a s Z e i t a l t e r d e s N e u t r a l i si e r u n g e n u n d E n t p o l i t i s ie r u n g e n , " r e p r i n t -

e d i n t h e 1 9 3 2 e d i t i o n o f D er Begriffdes Po litischen.

23 . These remarks a re e spec ia l ly impor tan t , i n so fa r a s in the rev i s ion i s t l i t e ra tu re ,

Schrn i t t i s typ ica l ly po r t rayed a s a suppor te r o f the " l eg i t ima te cons t i tu t iona l

a u t h o r it y " ; a cl a i m th a t i s u s e d t o a c c o u n t b o t h f o r h is r e p u t e d s u p p o r t f o r W e i m a r

d e m o c r a c y , a s w e l l a s h i s l a t e r s u p p o r t f o r t h e N a z i s . H o w e v e r , a s t h e p r e c e d i n g

c i t a t ion show s c lea r ly , the qu es t ion o f " l eg i timacy" i s a m a t t e r o f to t a l ind i f fe ren ceto S chmi t t . Ye t , fo r Schm i t t , t h i s is no t a m a t t e r o f " sub jec t ive conv ic t ion , " bu t fo l -

l o w s o f n e c e s s it y f r o m t h e i n n e r l o g ic o f h is p o l i t ic a l th o u g h t , w h o s e e m p h a s i s o n a

" d e c i s io n c r e a t e d o u t o f n o t h i n g n e s s " p o i n t e d l y e x c l u d e s a l l r e s p e c t f o r l e g i t i m a t e

o r d e r .

2 4 . T h e t r e n c h a n c y o f S c h m i t t 's i n d i c t m e n t o f b o u r g e o i s l i b e r a l is m h a s, u n s u r p r is i n g ly ,

won Schmi t t h i s admi re r s on the po l i t i c a l l e f t a s we l l a s the r igh t . To be su re , the

a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e t r u e e n d s o f d e m o c r a c y h a v e b e e n v i t i a t ed b y t h e p a r t i cu l a r i sm

o f e c o n o m i c i n t e r e st s w i l l h a v e a d i s ti n c tl y fa m i l i a r r i n g t o a d h e r e n t s o f t h e M a r x i s t

t r ad i tion . S chm i t t 's c r i t ique i s ind i spu tab ly va l id in many re spec t s . I t i s the m ot ives

b e h i n d h i s c ri t ic i s m a n d t h e a l t e rn a t i v e m o d e l o f p o l i ti c s h e h a s i n m i n d t h a t r e m a i n

h i g h ly d u b i o u s . F o r e x a m p l e s o f s u p p o r t i v e c o n s i d e r a t io n s o f S c h m i t t b y l e ft - w i n g

i n t el l ec t u a ls , s e e U l r i c h P r e u s s , " Z u m B e g r i f f d e s P o l i t is c h e n b e i C a r l S c h m i t t , " i n

Politische Verantwortung und Burgerloyalitiit (Frankfu r t , 1984) ; and Pau l H i r s t ,

" C a r l S c h m i t t ' s D e c i s i o n i s m , " Telos 72 (1987) , 15 -26 . S chm i t t 's j u s t i f i c a t ion o f

" p l e b i s c i t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p " s u g g e s t s p a r a l l e l s w i t h M a x W e b e r ' s a d v o c a c y o f a

" p l e b i sc i t a ri a n le a d e r - d e m o c r a c y , " w h i c h a l o n e w o u l d s u r m o u n t t h e i r r e si t a b le t e n -

d e n c y t o w a r d b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a g n a ti o n t h a t a f fl ic ts t h e m o d e r n i n d u s t r ia l w o r l d . T h e

b e s t d i sc u s si o n o f th is c o n c e p t i n W e b e r m a y b e f o u n d i n W o l f ga n g M o m m s e n , The

Ag e o f Bureaucracy: Perspectives on the Sociology o f M ax Weber ( N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 4 ) ,

7 2 - 9 4 .

2 5 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , S c h m i t t' s d i sc u s s io n o f J a c o b i n i s m i n The Crisis of Parliamentary

Democracy, 2 7 . T h u s S c h m i t t h a s n o d i f fi c u lt i es i n a c c e p t i n g t h e m o s t e x t r e m e

i m p l i c a ti o n s o f J a c o b i n " s u b s ti tu t i o n is m . " O r a s h e r e m a r k s i n ib i d. , o n e " c a n n e v e r

reach an abso lu te , d i rec t iden t i ty tha t i s a c tua l ly p re sen t a t eve ry moment . A d i s -

t ance a lways rema ins be tween rea l equa l i ty and the re su l t s o f iden t i f i ca t ion . The

w i l l o f t h e p e o p l e i s o f c o u r s e a l w a y s i d e n t ic a l w i t h t h e w i ll o f t h e p e o p l e , w h e t h e r a

d e c i s i o n c o m e s f r o m t h e y e s o r n o o f m i l li o n s o f v o t i n g p a p e r s , o r f r o m a s i ng l e

i n d i v id u a l w h o h a s t h e w i l l o f t h e p e o p l e e v e n w i t h o u t a b a l l o t, o r f r o m t h e p e o p l e

a c c l a im i n g i n s o m e w a y . " H e n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o S c h m i t t' s l o g ic , o n c e o n e a c c e p t s t h e

p r e c e p t t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n e v i t a b l e h ia t u s b e t w e e n t h e p o p u l a r w i ll a n d i ts p o l it i c a l

e m b o d i m e n t o r e x p r e s s io n , o n c e i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t o n e c a n n e v e r h a v e a n " a b s o l u t e

i d e n t i t y " b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o c o m p o n e n t s , " d i c t a t o r s h i p " b e c o m e s a s a u t h e n t i c a

r e a l i z a ti o n o f d e m o c r a c y a s a n y o t h e r . B u t t h e n , g i v e n t h e t h e m e s o f s o v e r e i g n

d e c i s i o n a n d e m e r g e n c y p o w e r s t h a t o c c u p y p r i d e o f p l a c e i n S c h m i t t 's p o li t ic a l

t h o u g h t , t h e r e c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n o f t h e a c t u a l s u p e r i o r i ty o f d i ct a t o rs h i p .

26 . C f . Schm i t t 's r em arks in D er Begriffdes Politischen, 3 5 : " A w o r l d i n w h i c h t h e p o s -

s ib i l i ty of s t ruggle [Kampl h a s d i s a p p e a r e d w i t h o u t a t r a c e w o u l d b e a w o r l dw i t h o u t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n f r i e n d a n d e n e m y a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a w o r l d

wi tho u t po l i t i c s ."

7/30/2019 Theory and Society Volume 19 Issue 4 1990 [Doi 10.1007%2Fbf00137619] Richard Wolin -- Carl Schmitt, Political Existentialism, And the Total State

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/theory-and-society-volume-19-issue-4-1990-doi-1010072fbf00137619-richard 28/28

416

27. Schmitt, "Reich, Staat, Bund" (1933); reprinted in Positionen und Begriffe (Ham-

burg, 1940), 198.

28. Schmitt, "Das Zeitalter der Neutralisierungen und Entpolitisierung," 93.29. Ibid.

30. Schmitt, "Die Wendung zum totalen Staat," Europaische Revue 7 (April, 1941),

241-243.

31. Schmitt, "Weiterentwicklung des totalen Staat in Deutschlands," in Verfassungs-

rechtliche A ufsiitze (Berlin, 1973).

32. Stephen Holmes had addressed this issue as follows: "the notion that [Schmitt] was

equally hostile to the right and the left isn't altogether credible. Prior to the seizure

of power, he considered the Nazis 'immature' - able to make Germany ungovern-

able, but unable to govern it themselves. He disliked them mainly because he feared

they would create disorder that communists, in turn, might exploit. He also op-

posed attempts to revise the Weimar constitution for this reason, not because he

was loyal to it or thought it good (all his constitutional writings are devoted to dis-

playing its fundamental incoherence), but because he feared that upending basic

institutions in a crisis could create opportunities for a communist coup." The Ne w

Republic, August 22, 1988, 33.

33. Cf., Bendersky, "The Expendable Kronjurisr. Carl Schmitt and National Socialism,

1933-36," Journal o f Contemporary History 14 (1979), 312.

34. Schmitt, Staat, Bewegung, Volk (Hamburg, 1933), 7.

35. Ibid, 11.

36. C~. Neumann, Behemoth , 65-66.

37. Schmitt, "Die Deutsche Rechtwissenschaft im Kampf gegen den judischen Geist,

Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung 20 (1936), 1197.

38. Schmitt, Der Leviathan in der Staatslehre des Thomas Hobbes (Hamburg, 1938),

108.

39. Ibid., 109.

40. Both Schwab and Bendersky attempt to justify Sehmitt's loyalty to the Nazis using

the following argument: "By opting for National Socialism Schmitt merely trans-

ferred his allegiance to the newly constituted legal authority, and this was not

incompatiblewith his belief in the relation between protection and obedience." The

citation is from Schwab, The Challenge of the Exception, 106. Bendersky cites

Schwab's reasoning with approval in "The Expendable Kronjurist," 312.

41. Schmitt, Staat, Bewegung, Folk, 45.

42. Ibid, 46.

43. Paul Piecone and G. L. Ulmen, "Introduction o Cad Schmitt," Telos 72 (1987), 14.

44. Schmitt, Ex Captivitate Salus: Erfahrungen der Zeit , 1945-47 (Cologne: Greven,

1950).

45. The letter of Heidegger to Schmitt of August 22, 1933 is reprinted in T elos 72(1987), 132.

46. See Richard Wolin, "The French Heidegger Debate," New German Cri t ique 45

(1988).