NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTINGOF

BRIDGES

June 2005

INDIAN RAILWAY INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERINGPUNE 411001

PREFACE

Non-destructive testing of bridges has assumed agreater significance in the present scenario because ourexisting inspection system is not adequate to identify theinternal defects in the structures. With the recent collapsesof bridges in India and other countries the objective inspectionof bridges has become the need of the hour.

Indian Railway Bridge Manual (IRBM) prescribesperiodical Health Monitoring of Very Important Bridges by anindependent agency which includes corrosion monitoring,deterioration of material, system damage, retrofitting etc. Allthese can be done by using suitable NDT methods. Sincethe work will be executed by the independent agency, it isimportant to understand the details of the testing proceduresas the engineer may have to supervise the work at the site.Since non-destructive testing methods do not form part ofIRBM, the various methods used for testing different types ofbridges have been included in this publication.

I hope this book will be found very much useful byfield engineers, who are entrusted with the work of non-destructive testing of bridges, and will help as guide forimplementation of testing methods for inspection and testingof bridges.

Shiv KumarDirector

IRICEN/PUNE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The subject “non-destructive testing of bridges” isbeing taught during various courses at IRICEN. In the presentscenario, it needs special attention. Even though a lot ofinformation is available on this subject , yet when it pertainingto various types of bridges i.e. concrete, steel and masonrybridges, it is not available at one place.

The IRICEN publication is an attempt to compile allthe relevant information regarding various NDT methodscommonly in use for testing of all types of bridges on IndianRailways. Even though the publication is primarily aimed atRailway Engineers, the basic concepts are equally applicableto road bridges also.

It would not be out of place to acknowledge thesupport and assistance rendered by IRICEN faculty and staffin the above efforts. I am particularly thankful to Shri. PraveenKumar, Prof. (Computers), who has provided logisticassistance for printing of this book. The word processing ofthe manuscript and repeated editings thereof has been doneby Mrs. Gayatri. I also acknowledge the help of drawingstaff of IRICEN who have assisted in preparation of drawings.

Above all, the author is grateful to Sri Shiv Kumar,Director, IRICEN for his encouragement and advice forimproving the document.

A.K. GuptaProfessor/Track-1

IRICEN/Pune

CONTENTS

CHAPTER-1 NON - DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF BRIDGES -GENERAL

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Concrete Bridges 1

1.3 Steel Bridges 4

1.4 Masonry Bridges 5

CHAPTER-2 NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR STRENGTHESTIMATION OF CONCRETE

2.1 Rebound hammer test (Schmidt Hammer) 6

2.1.1. Object 62.1.2 Principle 72.1.3 Methodology 82.1.4 Procedure for obtaining correlation 9

between compressive strength of concreteand rebound number

2.1.5 Interpretation of results 102.1.6 Standards 11

2.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester 11

2.2.1 Object 112.2.2 Principle 122.2.3 Methodology 132.2.4 Determination of pulse velocity 172.2.5 Interpretation of Results 182.2.6 Factors influencing pulse velocity 19

measurements

2.3 Combined use of Rebound hammer and Ultrasonic 23 Pulse Velocity Method

2.4 Pull Off Test 23

2.4.1 Object 242.4.2 Principle 242.4.3 Methodology 252.4.4 Advantages and Limitations 262.4.5 Standards 27

2.5 Pull out Test 27


2.6 The Break-off Test 30


2.7 Penetration Resistance Methods 36


CHAPTER-3 NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR CORROSIONASSESSMENT, LOCATION AND DIAMETER OFREINFORCEMENT AND COVER THICKNESS OFCONCRETE BRIDGES

3.1 Introduction 39

3.2 Half-cell Potential Measurement Method 39

3.2.1 Object 413.2.2 Principle 413.2.3 Methodology 423.2.4 Interpretation of test results 433.2.5 Limitations 443.2.6 Standards 44

3.3 Resistivity Test 44

3.3.1 Object 453.3.2 Principle 453.3.3 Methodology 473.3.4 Limitations 47

3.4 Tests for carbonation of Concrete 47

3.5 Test for chloride content of concrete 48

3.6 Profometer 48

3.6.1 Object 493.6.2 Principle 493.6.3 Methodology 503.6.4 Advantages and Limitations 51

3.7 Micro Covermeter 51


CHAPTER-4 NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR DETECTIONOF CRACKS / VOIDS / DELAMINATIONS ETC. INCONCRETE BRIDGES

4.1 Introduction 54

4.2 Infrared thermographic techniques 54

4.2.1 Object 56

4.2.2 Principle 564.2.3 Methodology 564.2.4 Advantages & Limitations 57

4.3 Acoustic Emission Technique 58

4.3.1 Object 604.3.2 Principle 604.3.3 Methodology 614.3.4 Limitations 61

4.4 Short Pulse Radar Method 62


4.5 Stress Wave Propagation Methods 65

4.5.1 Pulse Echo method 664.5.2 Impact Echo Method 674.5.3 Impulse Response method 68

CHAPTER-5 NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF STEELBRIDGES

5.1 Introduction 70

5.2 Liquid Penetrant Inspection 70

5.2.1 Methodology 715.2.2 Material Properties 725.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 73

5.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection 73

5.3.1 Principle 745.3.2 Equipments and Methodology 76

5.4 Eddy Current Testing 78

5.4.1 Methodology 795.4.2 Advantages and Limitations 81

5.5 Radiographic Testing 81

5.5.1 Methodology 815.5.2 Advantages and Limitations 82

5.6 Ultrasonic Inspection 83

5.6.1 Principle 835.6.2 Calibration and reference standards 865.6.3 Application of Ultrasonic Testing Method 87

CHAPTER-6 NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF MASONRYBRIDGES

6.1 Introduction 89

6.2 Flat Jack Testing 89

6.3 Impact Echo Testing 90

6.4 Impulse Radar Testing 91

6.5 Infrared Thermography 92

LIST OF FIRMS DEALING WITH NDT EQUIPMENTS 93

REFERENCES 94

CHAPTER 1

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF BRIDGES - GENERAL

1.1 Introduction

There are about 1,20,000 bridges of different types withvarying spans on Indian Railways. About 40% of these bridgesare over 100 years old and have completed their codal life. Thepresent method of bridge inspection is mostly visual and give onlysubjective assessment of the condition of bridge. Moreover presentinspection system is not capable of assessing hidden defects, ifany.

We may group the various bridges mainly in three types,based upon material of construction.

(i) Concrete bridges(ii) Steel bridges(iii) Masonry bridges

Various types of bridges are having their own strengths,weaknesses and maintenance related problems. Each type ofbridge is having different properties i.e. concrete is a heteroge-neous material but the steel is a denser and homogeneous mate-rial. Similarly in masonry structures, the condition of joints andmaterial of construction is of utmost importance. Considering theuniqueness of each type of bridge , there are different methodsadopted for inspection and maintenance based on material of con-struction. In this book, various Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)methods for testing concrete , steel and masonry bridges havebeen discussed separately.

1.2 Concrete Bridges

The quality of new concrete structures is dependent onmany factors such as type of cement, type of aggregates, watercement ratio, curing, environmental conditions etc. Besides this,

the control exercised during construction also contributes a lot toachieve the desired quality. The present system of checking slumpand testing cubes, to assess the strength of concrete, in struc-ture under construction, are not sufficient as the actual strength ofthe structure depend on many other factors such as proper com-paction, effective curing also.

Considering the above requirements, need of testing ofhardened concrete in new structures as well as old structures, isthere to asses the actual condition of structures. Non-DestructiveTesting (NDT) techniques can be used effectively for investigationand evaluating the actual condition of the structures. These tech-niques are relatively quick, easy to use, cheap and give a generalindication of the required property of the concrete.This approachwill enable us to find suspected zones ,thereby reducing the timeand cost of examining a large mass of concrete. The choice of aparticular NDT method depends upon the property of concrete tobe observed such as strength, corrosion, crack monitoring etc.The subsequent testing of structure will largely depend upon theresult of preliminary testing done with the appropriate NDT tech-nique.

The NDT being fast, easy to use at site and relativelyless expensive can be used for

(i) Testing any number of points and locations(ii) Assessing the structure for various distressed

conditions(iii) Assessing damage due to fire, chemical attack,

impact, age etc.(iv) Detecting cracks, voids, fractures, honeycombs

and weak locations(v) Assessing the actual condition of reinforcement

Many of NDT methods used for concrete testing have theirorigin to the testing of more homogeneous, metallic system. Thesemethods have a sound scientific basis, but heterogeneity of con-crete makes interpretation of results somewhat difficult. Therecould be many parameters such as materials, mix, workmanshipand environment, which influence the result of measurements.

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Moreover the test measure some other property of concrete (e.g.hardness) yet the results are interpreted to assess the differentproperty of the concrete e.g. (strength). Thus, interpretation of theresult is very important and a difficult job where generalization isnot possible. Even though operators can carry out the test butinterpretation of results must be left to experts having experienceand knowledge of application of such non-destructive tests.

Variety of NDT methods have been developed and areavailable for investigation and evaluation of different parametersrelated to strength, durability and overall quality of concrete. Eachmethod has some strength and some weakness. Therefore pru-dent approach would be to use more than one method in combina-tion so that the strength of one compensates the weakness of theother. The various NDT methods for testing concrete bridges arelisted below –

A. For strength estimation of concrete

(i) Rebound hammer test(ii) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester(iii) Combined use of Ultrasonic Pulse Ve-

locity tester and rebound hammer test(iv) Pull off test(v) Pull out test(vi) Break off test(vii) Windsor Probe test

B. For assessment of corrosion condition ofreinforcement and to determine reinforcementdiameter and cover

(i) Half cell potentiometer(ii) Resistively meter test(iii) Test for carbonation of concrete(iv) Test for chloride content of concrete(v) Profometer(vi) Micro covermeter

C. For detection of cracks/voids/ delamination etc.

(i) Infrared thermographic technique(ii) Acoustic Emission techniques(iii) Short Pulse Radar methods(iv) Stress wave propagation methods

- pulse echo method- impact echo method- response method

All the above said methods have been discussed in detailin this book.

1.3 Steel Bridges

On Indian Railways, the superstructure of the large num-ber of major bridges is of steel, and substructure is generally ofconcrete/masonry. These steel bridges are fabricated using struc-tural steel section i.e. channels, angles ,plates and I-sections etc.The bridges are subjected to severe dynamic stresses under pas-sage of traffic and because of these stresses, the deterioration ofthe materials takes place.

In our system of inspection, we are mainly carrying outthe visual inspection of the various parts of bridges, rivet testingand inspection of bearings etc. But all these methods do notgiven any indication about the microcracking, presence of flaws/internal blow holes/lamination etc. in the bridge members. More-over some of the members of the bridge girders are difficult toinspect because of inaccessibility and in those cases, the NDTtechnique can be used effectively for inspection and evaluation ofstructures.

The various NDT methods for testing steel bridges arelisted below:

(i) Liquid penetrant testing

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(ii) Magnetic particle testing(iii) Electromagnetic testing or Eddy current testing(iv) Radiography(v) Ultrasonic testing

All the above said methods have been discussed in de-tail in this book.

1.4 Masonry Bridges

A large no. of bridges on Indian Railways are masonrybridges in which foundation or substructure is of either stone orbrick masonry. In addition, a large no. of bridges are masonry archbridges which have become quite old and already outlived theirdesign life. The weakest location in a masonry bridge is the joint,as the deterioration gets initiated from the joints. With the pas-sage of loads and over a period of time the deterioration of thematerial itself take place due to which the strength of the masonrystructures gets affected. At the time of inspection, normally thecondition of joints or the material on the outer surface is noted butit does not give any indication about the inherent defects withinthe structures. Moreover the present system of inspection is notabout detecting the deterioration in strength of the stone/brick ma-sonry because of the weathering action and other factors. In In-dia, the NDT of masonry structures is still in necessant stage.There are lot of methods available for NDT of masonry structure,as indicated below:

(a) Flat Jack Testing

(b) Impact Echo Testing

(c) Impulse radar testing

(d) Infrared thermography

As the application of the above said NDT methods formasonry inspection is not very common in India, details given inthis book are just for general guidance.

CHAPTER-2

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR STRENGTHESTIMATION OF CONCRETE

2.1. Rebound hammer test (Schmidt Hammer)

This is a simple, handy tool, which can be used to providea convenient and rapid indication of the compressive strength ofconcrete. It consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on aplunger within a tubular housing. The schematic diagram showingvarious parts of a rebound hammer is given as Fig 2.1.1

1. Concrete surface; 2. Impact spring; 3. Rider on guide rod; 4.Window and scale; 5. Hammer guide; 6. Release catch; 7. Com-pressive spring; 8. Locking button; 9. Housing; 10. Hammer mass;11. Plunger

Fig. 2.1.1 Components of a Rebound Hammer

2.1.1 Object

The rebound hammer method could be used for –(a) Assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with

the help of suitable co-relations between rebound index andcompressive strength.

(b) Assessing the uniformity of concrete

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(c) Assessing the quality of concrete in relation to standardrequirements.

(d) Assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relationto another

This method can be used with greater confidence for dif-ferentiating between the questionable and acceptable parts of astructure or for relative comparison between two different struc-tures.

2.1.2 Principle

The method is based on the principle that the rebound ofan elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface againstwhich mass strikes. When the plunger of rebound hammer ispressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring controlledmass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon thesurface hardness of concrete. The surface hardness and thereforethe rebound is taken to be related to the compressive strength ofthe concrete. The rebound value is read off along a graduatedscale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index.The compressive strength can be read directly from the graphprovided on the body of the hammer.

The impact energy required for rebound hammer fordifferent applications is given below –

Sr. Approximate impactNo. Application energy required for

the reboundhammers (N-m)

1. For testing normal weight concrete 2.252. For light weight concrete or small

and impact sensitive part ofconcrete 0.75

3. For testing mass concrete i.e. inroads, airfield pavements andhydraulic structures 30.00

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Depending upon the impact energy, the hammers are clas-sified into four types i.e. N, L, M & P. Type N hammer having animpact energy of 2.2 N-m and is suitable for grades of concretefrom M-15 to M-45. Type L hammer is suitable for lightweightconcrete or small and impact sensitive part of the structure. TypeM hammer is generally recommended for heavy structures andmass concrete. Type P is suitable for concrete below M15 grade.

2.1.3 Methodology

Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammershould be tested against the test anvil, to get reliable results. Thetesting anvil should be of steel having Brinell hardness number ofabout 5000 N/mm2. The supplier/manufacturer of the reboundhammer should indicate the range of readings on the anvil suitablefor different types of rebound hammer.

For taking a measurement, the hammer should be held atright angles to the surface of the structure. The test thus can beconducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically upwardsor downwards on horizontal surfaces (Fig.2.1.2).

Fig. 2.1.2 Various positions of Rebound Hammer

HORIZONTAL POSITION

VERTICAL UPWARD POSITION

VERTICAL DOWNWARDPOSITION

VERTICAL SURFACE

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If the situation so demands, the hammer can be held atintermediate angles also, but in each case, the rebound numberwill be different for the same concrete.

The following should be observed during testing.(a) The surface should be smooth, clean and dry(b) The loosely adhering scale should be rubbed off

with a grinding wheel or stone, before testing(c) Do not conduct test on rough surfaces resulting

from incomplete compaction, loss of grout,spalled or tooled surfaces.

(d) The point of impact should be at least 20mm awayfrom edge or shape discontinuity.

Around each point of observation, six readings of reboundindices are taken and average of these readings after deleting out-liers as per IS 8900:1978 is taken as the rebound index for thepoint of observation.

2.1.4 Procedure for obtaining correlation between compressivestrength of concrete and rebound number

The most satisfactory way of establishing a correlationbetween compressive strength of concrete and its rebound num-ber is to measure both the properties simultaneously on concretecubes. The concrete cubes specimens are held in a compressiontesting machine under a fixed load, measurements of reboundnumber taken and then the compressive strength determined asper IS 516: 1959. The fixed load required is of the order of 7 N/mm2 when the impact energy of the hammer is about 2.2 Nm. Theload should be increased for calibrating rebound hammers of greaterimpact energy and decreased for calibrating rebound hammers oflesser impact energy. The test specimens should be as large amass as possible in order to minimize the size effect on the testresult of a fullscale structure. 150mm cube specimens are pre-ferred for calibrating rebound hammers of lower impact energy(2.2Nm), whereas for rebound hammers of higher impact energy,for example 30 Nm, the test cubes should not be smaller than300mm.

If the specimens are wet cured, they should be removedfrom wet storage and kept in the laboratory atmosphere for about24 hours before testing. To obtain a correlation between reboundnumbers and strength of wet cured and wet tested cubes, it isnecessary to establish a correlation between the strength of wettested cubes and the strength of dry tested cubes on which re-bound readings are taken. A direct correlation between reboundnumbers on wet cubes and the strength of wet cubes is not rec-ommended. Only the vertical faces of the cubes as cast should betested. At least nine readings should be taken on each of the twovertical faces accessible in the compression testing machine whenusing the rebound hammers. The points of impact on the speci-men must not be nearer an edge than 20mm and should be notless than 20mm from each other. The same points must not beimpacted more than once.

2.1.5 Interpretation of results

After obtaining the correlation between compressivestrength and rebound number, the strength of structure can beassessed. In general, the rebound number increases as thestrength increases and is also affected by a number of param-eters i.e. type of cement, type of aggregate, surface conditionand moisture content of the concrete, curing and age of concrete,carbonation of concrete surface etc. Moreover the rebound indexis indicative of compressive strength of concrete upto a limiteddepth from the surface. The internal cracks, flaws etc. or hetero-geneity across the cross section will not be indicated by reboundnumbers.

As such the estimation of strength of concrete by reboundhammer method cannot be held to be very accurate and probableaccuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure is ± 25percent. If the relationship between rebound index and compres-sive strength can be found by tests on core samples obtainedfrom the structure or standard specimens made with the sameconcrete materials and mix proportion, then the accuracy of re-sults and confidence thereon gets greatly increased.

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2.1.6 Standards

The rebound hammer testing can be carried out as per IS-13311 (Pt.2).

2.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester

Ultrasonic instrument is a handy, battery operated andportable instrument used for assessing elastic properties or con-crete quality. The apparatus for ultrasonic pulse velocity mea-surement consists of the following (Fig. 2.2.1) –

(a) Electrical pulse generator(b) Transducer – one pair(c) Amplifier(d) Electronic timing device

Fig.2.2.1 Apparatus for UPV measurement

2.2.1 Object

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method could be used toestablish:(a) the homogeneity of the concrete(b) the presence of cracks, voids and other imper

fections

(c) change in the structure of the concrete which mayoccur with time

(d) the quality of concrete in relation to standard re-quirement

(e) the quality of one element of concrete in relationto another

(f) the values of dynamic elastic modulus of the con-crete

2.2.2 Principle

The method is based on the principle that the velocity ofan ultrasonic pulse through any material depends upon the density,modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material.Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality isgood in terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity etc. Theultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro acoustical transducer.When the pulse is induced into the concrete from a transducer, itundergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the differentmaterial phases within the concrete. A complex system of stresswaves is developed which includes longitudinal (compression), shear(transverse) and surface (Reyleigh) waves. The receiving transducerdetects the onset of longitudinal waves which is the fastest.

The velocity of the pulses is almost independent of thegeometry of the material through which they pass and dependsonly on its elastic properties. Pulse velocity method is a convenienttechnique for investigating structural concrete.

For good quality concrete pulse velocity will be higherand for poor quality it will be less. If there is a crack, void or flawinside the concrete which comes in the way of transmission of thepulses, the pulse strength is attenuated and it passed around thediscontinuity, thereby making the path length longer. Consequently,lower velocities are obtained. The actual pulse velocity obtaineddepends primarily upon the materials and mix proportions ofconcrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of aggregate alsosignificantly affects the pulse velocity.

Any suitable type of transducer operating within the fre-

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The electronic timing device should be capable of mea-suring the time interval elapsing between the onset of a pulsegenerated at the transmitting transducer and onset of its arrival atreceiving transducer. Two forms of the electronic timing apparatusare possible, one of which use a cathode ray tube on which theleading edge of the pulse is displayed in relation to the suitabletime scale, the other uses an interval timer with a direct readingdigital display. If both the forms of timing apparatus are available,the interpretation of results becomes more reliable.

2.2.3 Methodology

The equipment should be calibrated before starting theobservation and at the end of test to ensure accuracy of themeasurement and performance of the equipment. It is done bymeasuring transit time on a standard calibration rod supplied alongwith the equipment.

A platform/staging of suitable height should be erected tohave an access to the measuring locations. The location of

quency range of 20 KHz to 150KHz may be used. Piezoelectricand magneto-strictive types of transducers may be used and thelatter being more suitable for the lower part of the frequency range.Following table indicates the natural frequency of transducers fordifferent path lengths –

Path length Natural Frequency Minimum(mm) of Transducer transverse

(KHz) dimensions ofmembers (mm)

Upto 500 150 25

500 – 700 >60 70

700 – 1500 >40 150

above 1500 >20 300

measurement should be marked and numbered with chalk or similarthing prior to actual measurement (pre decided locations).

Mounting of Transducers

The direction in which the maximum energy is propagatedis normally at right angles to the face of the transmitting trans-ducer, it is also possible to detect pulses which have travelledthrough the concrete in some other direction. The receiving trans-ducer detects the arrival of component of the pulse which arrivesearliest. This is generally the leading edge of the longitudinalvibration. It is possible, therefore, to make measurements of pulsevelocity by placing the two transducers in the following manners(Fig.2.2.2)

Fig.2.2.2 Various Methods of UPV Testing

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Semi-direct TransmissionDirect Transmission(Cross probing)

Indirect Transmission(Surface probing)

(a) Direct Transmission (on opposite faces) – This arrangementis the most preferred arrangement in which transducers arekept directly opposite to each other on opposite faces of theconcrete. The transfer of energy between transducers ismaximum in this arrangement. The accuracy of velocitydetermination is governed by the accuracy of the path lengthmeasurement. Utmost care should be taken for accuratemeasurement of the same. The couplant used should bespread as thinly as possible to avoid any end effects resultingfrom the different velocities of pulse in couplant and concrete.

(b) Semi-direct Transmission: This arrangement is used when itis not possible to have direct transmission (may be due tolimited access). It is less sensitive as compared to directtransmission arrangement. There may be some reduction inthe accuracy of path length measurement, still it is found tobe sufficiently accurate. This arrangement is otherwise similarto direct transmission.

(c) Indirect or Surface Transmission: Indirect transmission shouldbe used when only one face of the concrete is accessible(when other two arrangements are not possible). It is theleast sensitive out of the three arrangements. For a givenpath length, the receiving transducer get signal of only about2% or 3% of amplitude that produced by direct transmission.Furthermore, this arrangement gives pulse velocitymeasurements which are usually influenced by the surfaceconcrete which is often having different composition from thatbelow surface concrete. Therefore, the test results may notbe correct representative of whole mass of concrete. Theindirect velocity is invariably lower than the direct velocity onthe same concrete element. This difference may vary from5% to 20% depending on the quality of the concrete. Whereverpracticable, site measurements should be made to determinethis difference.

There should be adequate acoustical coupling betweenconcrete and the face of each transducer to ensure that theultrasonic pulses generated at the transmitting transducer shouldbe able to pass into the concrete and detected by the receiving

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transducer with minimum losses. It is important to ensure thatthe layer of smoothing medium should be as thin as possible.Couplant like petroleum jelly, grease, soft soap and kaolin/glycerolpaste are used as a coupling medium between transducer andconcrete.

Special transducers have been developed which impart orpick up the pulse through integral probes having 6mm diametertips. A receiving transducer with a hemispherical tip has beenfound to be very successful. Other transducer configurations havealso been developed to deal with special circumstances. It shouldbe noted that a zero adjustment will almost certainly be requiredwhen special transducers are used.

Most of the concrete surfaces are sufficiently smooth.Uneven or rough surfaces, should be smoothened usingcarborundum stone before placing of transducers. Alternatively, asmoothing medium such as quick setting epoxy resin or plastercan also be used, but good adhesion between concrete surfaceand smoothing medium has to be ensured so that the pulse ispropagated with minimum losses into the concrete.

Transducers are then pressed against the concrete surfaceand held manually. It is important that only a very thin layer ofcoupling medium separates the surface of the concrete from itscontacting transducer. The distance between the measuring pointsshould be accurately measured.

Repeated readings of the transit time should be observeduntil a minimum value is obtained.

Once the ultrasonic pulse impinges on the surface of thematerial, the maximum energy is propagated at right angle to theface of the transmitting transducers and best results are, therefore,obtained when the receiving transducer is placed on the oppositeface of the concrete member known as Direct Transmission.

The pulse velocity can be measured by DirectTransmission, Semi-direct Transmission and Indirect or Surface

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Transmission. Normally, Direct Transmission is preferred beingmore reliable and standardized. (various codes gives correlationbetween concrete quality and pulse velocity for Direct Transmissiononly). The size of aggregates influences the pulse velocitymeasurement. The minimum path length should be 100mm forconcrete in which the nominal maximum size of aggregate is 20mmor less and 150mm for aggregate size between 20mm and 40mm.

Reinforcement, if present, should be avoided during pulsevelocity measurements, because the pulse velocity in the rein-forcing bars is usually higher than in plain concrete. This is be-cause the pulse velocity in steel is 1.9 times of that in concrete.In certain conditions, the first pulse to arrive at the receiving trans-ducer travels partly in concrete and partly in steel. The apparentincrease in pulse velocity depends upon the proximity of the mea-surements to the reinforcing bars, the diameter and number ofbars and their orientation with respect to the path of propagation.It is reported that the influence of reinforcement is generally smallif the bar runs in the direction right angle to the pulse path for bardiameter less than12 mm. But if percentage of steel is quite highor the axis of the bars are parallel to direction of propagation, thenthe correction factor has to be applied to the measured values.

2.2.4. Determination of pulse velocity

A pulse of longitudinal vibration is produced by an electro-acoustical transducer, which is held in contact with one surface ofthe concrete member under test. After traversing a known pathlength(L) in the concrete, the pulse of vibration is converted into anelectrical signal by a second electro-acoustical transducer, andelectronic timing circuit enable the transit time (T) of the pulse tobe measured. The pulse velocity (V) is given by

V = L / T

where,

V = Pulse velocity

L = Path length

T = Time taken by the pulse to traverse the path length

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2.2.5 Interpretation of Results

The ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete can be related toits density and modulus of elasticity. It depends upon the materi-als and mix proportions used in making concrete as well as themethod of placing ,compacting and curing of concrete. If the con-crete is not compacted thoroughly and having segregation, cracksor flaws, the pulse velocity will be lower as compare to good con-crete, although the same materials and mix proportions are used.The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, can be assessedusing the guidelines given in table below:

Table: Criterion for Concrete Quality Grading(As per IS 13311(Part 1) : 1992)

Sr. Pulse velocity by cross ConcreteNo. probing (km/sec.) quality grading

1 Above 4.5 Excellent

2 3.5 to 4.5 Good

3 3.0 to 3.5 Medium

4 Below 3.0 Doubtful

Note: in case of doubtful quality, it will be desirable tocarry out further tests.

Since actual value of the pulse velocity in concrete de-pends on a number of parameters, so the criterion for assessingthe quality of concrete on the basis of pulse velocity is valid to thegeneral extent. However, when tests are conducted on differentparts of the structure, which have been built at the same time withsimilar materials, construction practices and supervision and sub-sequently compared, the assessment of quality becomes moremeaningful and reliable.

The quality of concrete is usually specified in terms ofstrength and it is therefore, sometimes helpful to use ultrasonicpulse velocity measurements to give an estimate of strength. Therelationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and strength isaffected by a number of factor including age, curing conditions,

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moisture condition, mix proportions, type of aggregate and type ofcement.

The assessment of compressive strength of concrete fromultrasonic pulse velocity values is not accurate because the corre-lation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strengthof concrete is not very clear. Because there are large number ofparameters involved, which influence the pulse velocity and com-pressive strength of concrete to different extents. However, if de-tails of material and mix proportions adopted in the particular struc-ture are available, then estimate of concrete strength can be madeby establishing suitable correlation between the pulse velocity andthe compressive strength of concrete specimens made with suchmaterial and mix proportions, under environmental conditions simi-lar to that in the structure. The estimated strength may vary fromthe actual strength by ± 20 percent. The correlation so obtainedmay not be applicable for concrete of another grade or made withdifferent types of material.

2.2.6. Factors influencing pulse velocity measurement

The pulse velocity depends on the properties of the con-crete under test. Various factors which can influence pulse veloc-ity and its correlation with various physical properties of concreteare as under:

Moisture Content: The moisture content has chemical and physi-cal effects on the pulse velocity. These effects are important toestablish the correlation for the estimation of concrete strength.There may be significant difference in pulse velocity between aproperly cured standard cube and a structural element made fromthe same concrete. This difference is due to the effect of differentcuring conditions and presence of free water in the voids. It isimportant that these effects are carefully considered when esti-mating strength.

Temperature of Concrete: No significant changes in pulse ve-locity, in strength or elastic properties occur due to variations ofthe concrete temperature between 5° C and 30° C. Corrections topulse velocity measurements should be made for temperatures

outside this range, as given in table below:

Table – Effect of temperature on pulse transmissionBS 1881 (Pt 203 Year 1986)

Temperature °C Correction to the measured pulsevelocity in %

Air dried concrete Watersaturatedconcrete

60 +5 +4

40 +2 +1.7

20 0 0

0 -0.5 -1

- 4 -1.5 -7.5

Path Length: The path length (the distance between two trans-ducers) should be long enough not to be significantly influencedby the heterogeneous nature of the concrete. It is recommendedthat the minimum path length should be 100mm for concrete with20mm or less nominal maximum size of aggregate and 150mmfor concrete with 20mm and 40mm nominal maximum size of ag-gregate. The pulse velocity is not generally influenced by changesin path length, although the electronic timing apparatus may indi-cate a tendency for slight reduction in velocity with increased pathlength. This is because the higher frequency components of thepulse are attenuated more than the lower frequency componentsand the shapes of the onset of the pulses becomes more roundedwith increased distance travelled. This apparent reduction in ve-locity is usually small and well within the tolerance of time mea-surement accuracy.

With indirect transmission, there is some uncertainty re-garding the exact length of the transmission path. It is, therefore,preferable to make a series of measurements with placing trans-ducers at varying distances to eliminate this uncertainty. To do

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this, the transmitting transducer should be placed in contact withthe concrete surface at a fixed point “x” and the receiving trans-ducer should be moved at fixed increments ‘x’n along a chosen lineon the surface. The transmission times recorded should be plot-ted as points on a graph showing their relation to the distanceseparating the transducers.( Fig.2.2.3).

Fig.2.2.3 Method for determination of pulse velocity

The slope of the best fitted straight line drawn through thepoints should be measured and recorded as the mean pulse ve-locity along the chosen line on the concrete surface. Where thepoints measured and recorded in this way indicate a discontinu-ity, it is likely that a surface crack or surface layer of inferior qual-ity is present and the pulse velocity measured in such case isunreliable.

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Shape and Size of Specimen: The velocity of pulses of vibra-tions is independent of the size and shape of specimen, unless itsleast lateral dimension is less than a certain minimum value. Belowthis value, the pulse velocity may be reduced appreciably. Theextent of this reduction depends mainly on the ratio of the wave-length of the pulse vibrations to the least lateral dimension of thespecimen but it is insignificant if the ratio is less than unity. Tablegiven below shows the relationship between the pulse velocity inthe concrete, the transducer frequency and the minimum permis-sible lateral dimension of the specimen.

Table: Effect of specimen dimension on pulsetransmission

BS 1881 (Part 203 Year 1986)

Transducer Minimum lateral dimensionFrequency in mm for Pulse specimen

in KHz velocity in concrete in Km/s

Vc = 3.5 Vc = 4.0 Vc = 4.5

24 146 167 188

54 65 74 83

82 43 49 55

150 23 27 30

This is particularly important in cases where concrete elementsof significantly different sizes are being compared.

Effect of Reinforcing Bars: The pulse velocity in reinforced con-crete in vicinity of rebars is usually higher than in plain concrete ofthe same composition because the pulse velocity in steel is al-most twice to that in plain concrete. The apparent increase de-pends upon the proximity of measurement to rebars, their num-bers, diameter and their orientation. Whenever possible, mea-surement should be made in such a way that steel does not lie inor closed to the direct path between the transducers. If the sameis not possible, necessary corrections needs to be applied. Thecorrection factors for this purpose are enumerated in different codes.

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2.3. Combined use of Rebound hammer and UltrasonicPulse Velocity Method

In view of the relative limitations of either of the two methodsfor predicting the strength of concrete, both ultrasonic pulse velocity(UPV) and rebound hammer methods are sometimes used incombination to alleviate the errors arising out of influence ofmaterials, mix and environmental parameters on the respectivemeasurements. Relationship between UPV, rebound hammer andcompressive strength of concrete are available based on laboratorytest specimen. Better accuracy on the estimation of concretestrength is achieved by use of such combined methods. However,this approach also has the limitation that the establishedcorrelations are valid only for materials and mix having sameproportion as used in the trials. The intrinsic difference betweenthe laboratory test specimen and in-situ concrete (e.g. surfacetexture, moisture content, presence of reinforcement, etc.) alsoaffect the accuracy of test results.

Combination of UPV and rebound hammer methods canbe used for the assessment of the quality and likely compressivestrength of in-situ concrete. Assessment of likely compressivestrength of concrete is made from the rebound indices and this istaken to be indicative of the entire mass only when the overallquality of concrete judged by the UPV is ‘good’. When the qualityassessed is ‘medium’, the estimation of compressive strength byrebound indices is extended to the entire mass only on the basisof other collateral measurement e.g. strength of controlled cubespecimen, cement content of hardened concrete by chemicalanalysis or concrete core testing. When the quality of concrete is‘poor’, no assessment of the strength of concrete is made fromrebound indices.

2.4 Pull Off Test

Pull off tester is microprocessor based, portable hand op-erated and mechanical unit used for measuring the tensile strengthof in situ concrete. The tensile strength obtained can be corre-lated with the compressive strength using previously establishedempirical correlation charts. The apparatus for pull off test shall

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consist of the following -

(a) 50mm dia steel disc with threaded rod screw(b) Pull off tester

One commercially available pull off tester is shown in Fig 2.4.1.

Fig. 2.4.1 Pull Off Tester

2.4.1 Object

The pull of test could be used to establish:(a) The compressive strength of concrete(b) Tensile strength of in situ concrete(c) The adhesive strength of all kinds of applied

coatings(d) The bond strength of repairs and renovation works

on concrete surfaces

2.4.2 Principle

The pull off test is based on the concept that the tensileforce required to pull a metal disk, together with a layer of con-crete, from the surface to which it is attached, is related to com-pressive strength of concrete There are two basic approachesthat can be used. One is where the metal disk is glued directly to

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the concrete surface and the stressed volume of the con-crete lies close to the face of the disk, and the other is wheresurface carbonation or skin effect are present and these can beavoided by use of partial coring to an appropriate depth. Both theapproaches are illustrated in Fig. 2.4.2.

Fig. 2.4.2 Various Methods of Pull Off Testing

2.4.3 Methodology

The first step is to remove any laitance from the concretesurface to expose the top of the coarse aggregate particles. Thisis usually done using some sort of abrasion, using typically a wirebrush. The exposed concrete surface and metal disk are thendegreased to ensure good bonding of the adhesive. The adhesiveis generally a two part epoxy system. A thin layer of adhesive isspread over the disk area and the meta disk is pressed firmly ontothe concrete surface. Excessive adhesive that is squeezed outduring this process should be removed before it sets. The curingtime needed for the adhesive depends upon the type of epoxyused and surrounding environmental condition, although in mostof the situations a curing time of not more than 24 hours is required.After the adhesive has cured sufficiently, the metal disk is “pulled”from the concrete surface. The apparatus used for applying andrecording this tensile force is known as “Limpet” and this applies atensile force through a threaded rod screwed into the metal disk.

Equipments are available from 5 KN to 100 KN tensile forcecapacities. The instrument mechanism makes it possible to pre-select the rate of loading and actual tensile force applied isdisplayed on LCD monitor. The memory allows transferring ofrecorded data to PC.

From the recorded tensile force a nominal pull off tensilestrength is calculated on the basis of the disk diameter (usually50mm). To convert this pull off tensile strength into a cubecompressive strength, a previously established empirical correlationchart is used.

2.4.4 Advantages and Limitations

The main advantage of pull off test is that it is simple andquick to perform. The entire process of preparing the surface andbonding the steel disk normally doesn’t take more than 15 min-utes. The damage caused to concrete surface after conductingthe test is very minor and can be repaired easily.

The main limitation of this method is, the curing time,required for the adhesive. In most situations, it is normal practiceto apply the disk one day and complete the test next day. Theanother problem is the failure of adhesive. The adhesive may failbecause of inferior quality of adhesive or improper surface prepa-ration or unfavourable environmental conditions. If during testing,the adhesive fails, the test result becomes meaningless.To com-pensate for this type of problem, it is recommended that at leastsix disks be used to estimate the compressive strength and, ifnecessary, one of the individual test results can be eliminated ifan adhesive failure has occurred.

Another aspect of the pull off test is the correlation usedto determine the compressive strength. The single factor that hasthe greatest effect on this relationship is the type of coarse aggre-gate used in the concrete, the greatest difference being betweennatural gravels and crushed rocks. Therefore, care should alwaysbe taken to ensure that the correlation being used is applicable inthat situation.

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2.4.5 Standards

The test is conducted as per BS-1881 part 207.

2.5 Pull out Test

The pull out test measures the force needed to extract anembedded insert from a concrete mass. By using a previouslyestablished relationship, the measured ultimate pullout load is usedto estimate the in place compressive strength of the concrete.The equipments required for pull out test shall consist of thefollowing:

(a) Specially shaped steel rod or discs(b) Dynamometer to apply the force(c) Loading ram seated on a bearing ring for applying

pull out force

2.5.1 Object

The pull out test can be used to determine the followingproperties.

(a) Compressive strength of concrete(b) Normally planned for new structures to help decide,

whether critical activities such as form removal,application of post tensioning etc. can be started

(c) Can be used for existing structures and surveys ofmatured concrete

2.5.2 Principle

The pullout test measures the force required to pull anembedded metal insert with an enlarged head from a concretespecimen or a structure. The Fig 2.5.1 illustrates the configurationof a pull out test. The test is considered superior to the reboundhammer and the penetration resistance test, because large vol-ume and greater depth of concrete are involved in the test. Thepull out strength is proportional to the compressive strength ofconcrete. The pull out strength is of the same order of magnitude

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as the direct shear strength of concrete, and is 10 to 30% of thecompressive strength. The pull out test subjects the concrete toslowly applied load and measures actual strength property of theconcrete. The concrete is subjected, however, to a complex threedimensional state of stress, and the pull out strength is not likelyto be related simply to uniaxial strength properties. Nevertheless,by use of a previously established correlation, the pull out test canbe used to make reliable estimates of in situ strength.

2.5.3 Methodology

The pull out tests falls into two basic categories

(i) those in which an insert is cast along with concretei.e. the test is preplanned for new structures and

(ii) those in which insert is fixed by under cutting andsubsequent expanding procedure in the hardened con-crete of existing structures.

These methods are generally known as “cast-in-method”and “drilled hole method” respectively. There are various variantsin cast-in-methods like “LOK” test as well as in drilled hole method

Fig. 2.5.1 Configuration of Pull Out Test

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like “CAPO” (cut and pull out). In the “CAPO” test method, anexpanding ring is fixed into an under reamed groove, producing asimilar pull out device to that used for “LOK”.

This insert is pulled by a loading ram seated on a bearingring that is concentric with the inner shaft. The bearing ring trans-mits the reaction force to the concrete. As the insert is pulled out,a conical-shaped fragment of concrete is extracted from the con-crete mass. The idealized shape of extracted conic frustum isshown in Fig 2.5.1. Frustum geometry is controlled by the innerdiameter of the bearing ring (D), the diameter of the insert head(d), and the embedded depth (h). The apex angle (α) of the ideal-ized frustum is given by

2 α = 2tan-1 D-d 2h

The ultimate pullout load measured during the in placetest is converted to an equivalent compressive strength by meansof a previously established relationship.

As per ASTM C-900-82, following are the requirements formetal insert –

(a) Embedment depth 1.0d(b) Bearing ring 2.0d to 2.4d(c) Apex angle 53° to 70°where d = insert head diameter

2.5.4 Advantages & Limitations

The relationship between pullout strength and compres-sive strength is needed to estimate in place strength. Studiessuggested that for a given test system there is a unique relation-ship. Therefore the recommended practise is to develop thestrength relationship for the particular concrete to be used in con-struction. A large number of correlation studies have reported thatcompressive strength is linear function of pull out strength.

The locations and number of pullout tests in a given place-ment should be decided very carefully. The inserts should be

located in the most critical portions of the structure and sufficientnumber of tests should be conducted to provide statistically sig-nificant results.

The test is considered superior to the rebound hammerand the penetration resistance test, because large volume andgreater depth of concrete are involved in the test.

2.5.6 Standards

The pull out test is conducted as per ASTM C 900-01 &BS-1881 Part 207.

2.6 The Break-off Test

This test is a variant of the pull out test in which the flexturalstrength of concrete is determined in a plane parallel to and at acertain distance from the concrete surface. The break off stressat failure can then be related to the compressive or flextural strengthof the concrete using a predetermined relationship that relates theconcrete strength to the break off strength.

The BO tester, consists of a load cell, a manometer and amanual hydraulic pump capable of breaking a cylindrical concretespecimen having the specified dimensions.

2.6.1 Object

This test can be used both for quality control and qualityassurance. The most practical use of the BO test method is fordetermining the time for safe form removal and the release time fortransferring the force in prestressed post-tensioned members. Thistest can be planned for new structures as well as for existingstructures.

2.6.2 Principle

The method is based upon breaking off a cylindrical speci-men of in place concrete. The test specimen has a 55mm diam-eter and a 70mm height. The test specimen is created in theconcrete by means of a disposable tubular plastic sleeve, which

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is cast into the fresh concrete and then removed at the plannedtime of testing, or by drilling the hardened concrete at the time ofthe break off (BO) test. Fig 2.6.1 and 2.6.2 show tubular plasticsleeves and a drill bit, respectively.

Fig. 2.6.1 Tubular Plastic Sleeves

Fig. 2.6.2 Drill Bit

Both the sleeve and the drill bit are capable of producinga 9.5mm wide groove (counter bore) at the top of the test speci-men (see Fig 2.6.3).A force is applied through the load cell bymeans of a manual hydraulic pump. Fig 2.6.3 is a schematic of aBO concrete cylindrical specimen obtained by inserting a sleeveor drilling a core. The figure also shows location of the appliedload at the top of the BO test specimen. In principal, the loadconfiguration is the same as a cantilever beam with circular crosssection, subjected to a concentrated load at its free end. The forcerequired to break off a test specimen is measured by mechanicalmanometer. The BO stress can then be calculated as:

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Fig. 2.6.3 Schematic dig. of BO concrete specimen

fBO = M Swhere M = PBOh,

PBO = BO force at the top

h = 65.3 mmS = d d

32d = 55mm

In this case the cracks are initiated at the point 55mmaway from the concrete surface.

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2.6.3 Methodology

The load cell has two measuring ranges: low range set-ting for low strength concrete up to approx. 20 MPa and high rangesetting for higher strength concrete up to abut 60Mpa. The equip-ment used for this test is shown in Fig 2.6.4.

Fig. 2.6.4 Equipment for Break Off Test

A tubular plastic sleeve of diameter 55mm and geometryshown in Fig. 2.6.1, is used for forming cylindrical specimen infresh concrete. A sleeve remover as shown in Fig. 2.6.5 is usedfor removing the plastic sleeve from hardened concrete.

Fig. 2.6.5 Sleeve Remover

A diamond tipped drilling bit is used for drilling cores forthe BO test in hardened concrete (Fig. 2.6.2). The bit is capableof producing a cylindrical core, along with a reamed ring (counterbore) in the hardened concrete at the top with dimensions similar

to that produced by using a plastic sleeve.

The sleeves should be at center to center and edge dis-tance of minimum 150mm. Concrete inside the sleeve and thetop of plastic sleeve itself should then be tapped by fingers toensure good compaction for the BO specimen. Sleeves shouldthen be moved gently up and down in place and brought to thesame level as the concrete surface at its final position. For stiffmixes (i.e. low slump concrete) a depression may occur withinthe confines of the sleeve during the insertion process. In suchcases the sleeve should be filled with additional concrete, tappedwith fingers. For high slump concrete, the sleeve may move upward due to bleeding. For such cases, sleeves should be gentlypushed back in place, as necessary, to the level of finished con-crete surface. Grease or other similar material, should be used tolubricate the plastic sleeves for its easier removal after the con-crete hardens.

For core drilling from hardened concrete the concrete sur-face should be smooth in order to fix the vaccum plate of the coredrilling machine. The core barrel should be perpendicular to theconcrete surface. The length of the drilled core should be 70mmand in no case shorter than 70mm.

At the time of conducting BO test, remove the insertedplastic sleeve by means of key supplied with the tester (Fig 2.6.5).Leave the plastic ring in place. Remove loose debris from aroundthe cylindrical slit and the top groove. Select the desired rangesetting and place the load cell in the groove on the top of theconcrete surface so that load is applied properly. The load shouldbe applied to the test specimen at a rate of approx. one stroke ofhand pump per second. After breaking off the test specimen,record the BO manometer reading. The BO meter reading canthen be translated to the concrete strength using curves relatingthe BO reading to the desired concrete strength.

Before conducting the test, the BO tester should be cali-brated as per the procedure given by the manufacture. The BOmanufacturer provides correlation curves relating the BO readingand the compressive strength of the standard 150mm cubes.

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However, it is desireable that the user should develop his owncorrelation curves for a particular concrete batch. Developing cor-relation curves for different types of concrete would increase theaccuracy and dependability of method in predicting the in-placestrength. The following precaution should be taken when develop-ing data for correlations:(a) keep the center-to-center and edge distance of at least 150mm

in the process of inserting sleeves or drilling(b) obtain a minimum of 5 readings and three corresponding

strength test specimens values i.e. cubes for compressivestrength, and beams for flextural strength, for each test age.

(c) An average of the five BO readings and the average of thethree standard cube test results represent one point on thegraph relating the BO reading to the desired standard strengthof the concrete.

(d) Cover the range of concrete strengths expected during ex-ecution of the project, at early as well as later stages, suchas 1,3,5,7,14 and 28 days.


The main advantage of BO test is that it measures in-place concrete (flextural) strength. The equipment is simple andeasy to use, the test is fast to perform, requiring only one ex-posed surface. The BO test does not need to be planned in ad-vance of placing the concrete because drilled BO test specimencan be obtained.

The two limitations of this test are : (i) the max. aggregate size and(ii) the minimum member thickness for which it can be used.

The max. aggregate size is 19mm and min. member thickness is 100mm. However, the principle for the methodcan be applied to accommodate large aggregate sizes orsmaller members. The test cause the damage to the concrete which needs repair after conducting the test.

2.6.5. Standards

The break off test is conducted as per ASTM C 1150.

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2.7 Penetration Resistance Methods

Amongst the penetration methods presently available, themost well known and widely used is Windsor Probe test. Pen-etration resistance methods are based on the determination of thedepth of penetration of probes (steel rods or pins) into concrete.This provides a measure of the hardness or penetration resistanceof the material that can be related to its strength.

The Windsor probe consists of powder – actuated gun ordriver, hardened alloy steel probes, loaded cartridges, a depth gaugefor measuring the penetration of probes and other related equip-ment (Fig. 2.7.1).

Fig. 2.7.1 Windsor Probe

The probes have a tip dia of 6.3 mm, a length of 79.5mm, and aconical point. Probes of 7.9mm dia are also available for the test-ing of concrete made with light weight aggregates.

2.7.1 Object

The Windsor probe test is used to determine(a) Compressive strength of in situ concrete(b) For ensuring quality control(c) For determining safe form removal time(d) The uniformity of concrete and to delineate zones of poor

quality or deteriorated concrete in structures.

2.7.2 Principle

The Windsor probe, like the rebound hammer, is a hardnesstester, and the penetration of probe can be related to thecompressive strength of concrete below the surface, usingpreviously developed correlations between strength properties andpenetration of the probe. The underlying principal of this penetrationresistance technique is that for standard test conditions, thepenetration of probe in to the concrete is inversely proportional tothe compressive strength of the concrete. In other words largerthe exposed length of the probe, greater the compressive strengthof concrete.

2.7.3 Methodology

The method of testing is simple and is given in the manualsupplied by the manufacturer. The area to be tested must have asmooth surface. To test structure with coarser finish, the surfacemust be first ground smooth in the area of the test. The powderactuated driver is used to drive a probe into concrete. If flat surfacesare to be tested, a suitable locating template to provide 158mmequilateral triangular pattern is used and three probes are driveninto the concrete at each corner. The exposed length of individualprobes are measured by a depth gauge. For testing structureswith curved surfaces, three probes are driven individually using thesingle probe locating template. In either case, the measuredaverage value of exposed probe length may then be used toestimate the compressive strength of concrete by means ofappropriate correlation data.

The manufacturer of the Windsor probe test system supplytables relating exposed length of the probe with compressivestrength of concrete. For each exposed length value, differentvalues of compressive strength are given, depending upon thehardness of aggregate. However the manufacturer’s table do notalways give satisfactory results. Sometimes they considerablyover estimate the actual strength and in some cases theyunderestimate the strength. It is, therefore, imperative to correlateprobe test result with the type of concrete being used. In additionto hardness of the coarse aggregate, the type and size of coarse

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aggregate also have a significant effect on probe penetration. Thedegree of carbonation and the age of concrete may also affect theprobe penetration strength relationship.


Windsor probe testing method is basically hardnessmethod, and like other hardness methods, should not be expectedto yield absolute values of strength of concrete in a structure.However, like surface hardness tests, penetration tests provide anexcellent means of determining the relative strength of concrete inthe same structure, or relative strength in different structures.

One of the limitation of this test is minimum sizerequirements for the concrete member to be tested. The minimumdistance from a test location to any edges of the concrete memberor between two given test locations is of the order of 150mm to200mm, while the minimum thickness of the member is aboutthree times the expected depth of penetration. The test also causessome minor damage to the surface, which generally needs to berepaired.

The main advantages of this test are the speed andsimplicity and only one surface is required for testing.

2.7.5. Standards

The penetration resistance test is coducted as per ASTMC 803 / C 803-03 and BS 1881 Part 207.

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CHAPTER-3

NON–DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR CORROSIONASSESSMENT, LOCATION AND DIAMETER OF

REINFORCEMENT AND COVER THICKNESS OFCONCRETE BRIDGES

3.1 Introduction

For effective inspection and monitoring of concrete bridges,the condition assessment of reinforcement is an important step.Even for deciding appropriate repair strategy for a distressedconcrete bridge, the determination of corrosion status of reinforcingbars is a must. Most of NDT methods used for corrosionassessment are based on electrochemical process. But apartfrom the process, it is advisable that the persons involved forconducting the tests should have enough experience in thisparticular field. The following methods are normally used for thecondition assessment of reinforcement in concrete structures :

(a) Half cell Potential Measurement (Corrosion AnalyzingInstrument)

(b) Resistivity test(c) Test for carbonation of concrete(d) Test for chloride content of concrete

The following methods are generally used for determiningthe location / diameter of reinforcement bars and cover thicknessin concrete bridges

(a) Profometer(b) Micro covermeter

Each of the above said methods has been discussed indetail in this chapter.

3.2 Half-cell Potential Measurement Method

When there is active corrosion, current flow through theconcrete between anodic and cathodic sites is accompanied by

an electric potential field surrounding the corroding bar. Theequipotential lines intersect the surface of the concrete and thepotential at any point can be measured using the half potentialmethod. Apparatus for half cell potential measurement is shown inFig.3.2.1.

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Fig. 3.2.1 Apparatus for Half-Cell Potential Measurement

The apparatus includes copper-copper sulphate half-cell,connecting wires and a high impedance voltmeter. This half-cell iscomposed of a copper bar immersed in a saturated copper sulphatesolution. It is one of the many half cells that can be used as areference to measure the electrical potential of embedded bars. Ahigh impedance voltmeter (normally greater than 10MW) is used

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so that there is very little current through the circuit. The copper-copper sulphate half-cell makes electrical contact with the concreteby means of porous plug and a sponge that is moistened with awetting solution (such as liquid detergent).

One of the instrument available in the market is CANINcorrosion analyzer, which is a computer based device for makinghalf cell potential measurement. This particular instrument storesdata acquired at different test points and display equipotentialcontours.

3.2.1 Object

This test is used to assess the corrosion conditions in areinforced concrete structure. The method detects the likelihoodof corrosion of steel but can not indicate the rate of corrosion. Bymaking measurements over the whole surface, a distinction canbe made between corroded and non-corroded locations.

3.2.2 Principle

CANIN corrosion analyzer is based on electro-chemicalprocess to detect corrosion in the reinforcement bars of structure.It represents a galvanic element similar to a battery ,producing anelectrical current, measurable as an electric field on the surface ofconcrete. The potential field can be measured with an electrodeknown as half cell. The electrical activity of the steel reinforcementand concrete leads them to be considered as one half of batterycell with the steel acting as one electrode and concrete aselectrolyte. The name half cell surveying derives from the fact thatthe one half of the battery cell is considered to be the steelreinforcing bars and surrounding concrete. The electrical potentialof a point on the surface of steel reinforcing bar can be measuredcomparing its potential that of copper – copper sulphate referenceelectrode/silver- silver nitrate reference electrode on the surface.

The positive terminal of the voltmeter is attached to thereinforcement and the negative terminal is attached to the copper-copper sulphate half cell. If there is any corrosion in the bars, theexcess electrons in the bar would tend to flow from the bar to the

half cell. Because of the way the terminals of the voltmeter areconnected in the electrical circuit (Fig. 3.2.1), the voltmeterindicates a negative voltage. The measured half cell potential isthe open circuit potential, because it is measured under thecondition of no current in the measuring circuit. A more negativevoltage reading at the surface is to interpreted to mean that theembedded bar has more excess electrons, and there is, therefore,a higher likelihood that the bar is corroding.

The half cell potential readings are indicative of theprobability of corrosion activity of the reinforcing bars locatedbeneath the copper-copper sulphate reference cell. However, thisis true only if the reinforcing steel is electrically connected to thebar attached to the voltmeter.

3.2.3 Methodology

The corrosion analyzing instrument CANIN operates asdigital voltmeter. Voltage of + 999 mV DC can be measured usingthis instrument. The potential in millivolts is measured with rodelectrodes at different locations on the structure. The measuredvoltage depends upon the type of the half-cell, and conversionfactors are available to convert readings obtained with other halfcells to copper-sulphate half cell.

Testing is usually performed at points arranged in a grid.The required spacing between test points depends on the particularstructure. Excessive spacing can miss points of activity or provideinsufficient data for proper evaluation, while closer spacing increasethe cost of survey. In surveying bridge decks, ASTM C 876recommends a spacing of 1.2 meter. If the difference in voltagebetween adjacent points exceed 150 mV, a closer spacing issuggested. A key aspect of this test is to ensure that the concreteis sufficiently moist to complete the circuit necessary for a validmeasurement. If the measured value of the half cell potential varieswith time, pre wetting of the concrete is required. Although prewetting is necessary, there should be no free surface water betweentest points at the time of potential measurement. The concrete issufficiently moist if the measured potential at a test point does notchange by more than + 20 mV within a 5 min. period. If stability

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cannot be achieved by pre-wetting, it may be because of strayelectrical currents or excessive electrical resistance in the circuit.In either case, the half cell potential method should not be used.Testing should be performed between temperature range of 17 to280C.

3.2.4 Interpretation of test results

As per ASTM C 876, two techniques can be used toevaluate the results (i) the numeric technique (ii) the potentialdifference technique.

In the numeric technique, the value of the potential is usedas an indicator of the likelihood of the corrosion activity. Thepotential measured at the surface of concrete can be interpretedas per table given below:-

Phase of Corrosion Activity Potential as measured byCopper Half Cell

1. Initial Phase – Corrosion < - 200 mVactivity not taking place

2.Transient Phase – Corrosion - 200 mV to - 350 mVactivity uncertain

3. Final phase – corrosion > - 350 mVoccurring positively

Source: Appendix of ASTM C 876

The numeric method should not be used in the followingconditions –

(a) Carbonation extends to the level of reinforcement

(b) Comparison of corrosion activity in outdoorconcrete with highly variable moisture or oxygencontent.

(c) Evaluation of indoor concrete that has not beensubjected to frequent wetting.

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(d) To formulate conclusions about changes incorrosion activity due to repairs which changedthe moisture or oxygen content at the level of thesteel.

In the potential difference technique, the areas of activecorrosion are identified on the basis of the potential gradients. Inthe equipotential contour plot, the closer spacing of the voltagecontour indicates regions of high gradients. The higher gradientindicates, higher risk of corrosion.

The potential difference technique is considered morereliable for identifying regions of active corrosion than is the use ofnumerical limits.

3.2.5 Limitations

For conducting this test access to the reinforcement ismust. The method cannot be applied to epoxy coatedreinforcement or concrete with coated surfaces. The concreteshould be sufficiently moist for conducting this test.

This test only indicates the liklyhood of corrosion activityat the time of measurement. It does not furnish direct informationon the rate of corrosion of the reinforcement.

3.2.6 Standards

This method is covered under ASTMC 876-91 (Reapproved1999).

3.3 Resistivity Test

This test is used to measure the electrical resistance ofthe cover concrete. Once the reinforcement bar loses its passivity,the corrosion rate depends on the availability of oxygen for thecathodic reaction. It also depends on the concrete, which controlsthe ease with which ion migrate through the concrete between

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anodic and cathodic site. Electrical resistance, in turn, dependson the microstructure of the paste and the moisture content of theconcrete.

The combination of resistance measurement byresistivity meter and potential measurement by corrosionanalyzing instrument give very reliable information about thecorrosion condition of the rebar.

The equipment used for this test is a portable, batteryoperated, four probe device which measures concrete resistivity.( Fig. 3.3.1)

Fig. 3.3.1 Resistivity Meter

3.3.1 Object

This test is used to assess the probability or likelihood ofcorrosion of the reinforcement bar. The resistivity increases asthe capillary pore space in the paste is reduced. So high resistivityalso indicates the good quality of concrete.

3.3.2 Principle

The corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemicalprocess, which generates a flow of current and can dissolve metals.

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The lower the electrical resistance, the more readily the corrosioncurrent flows through the concrete and greater is the probability ofcorrosion. The resistivity is numerically equal to the electricalresistance of a unit cube of a material and has units of resistance(in ohms) times length. The resistance (R) of a conductor of areaA and length L is related to the resistivity ρ as follows:

R = ρ L A

The schematic diagram showing the set up formeasurement of concrete resistivity is shown in Fig. 3.3.2.

Fig. 3.3.2 Setup for Measurement of concrete resistivity

This is based on the classical four electrode system inwhich four equally spaced electrodes are electrically connectedto the concrete surface. The outer electrodes are connected to asource of alternating current, and the two inner electrodes areconnected to voltmeter.

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3.3.3 Methodology

One of commercial equipment available for measurementof resistivity is Resistivity Meter which is a four probe device usedfor measuring resistivity. The set of four probes are fitted withsuper conductive foam tips to ensure full contact on irregularsurfaces. Once the probes are kept in contact with the concretesurface, the LCD display will indicate the resistivity directly on thescreen. The limits of possible corrosion are related with resistivityas under:

1. With ρ =12 K W cm Corrosion is improbable

2. With ρ = 8 to 12 K W cm Corrosion is improbable

3. With ρ = 8 K W cm Corrosion is fairly certain

where ρ (rho) is the resistivity

3.3.4 Limitations

The method is slow because it covers small area at atime. The system should not be used in isolation because it givesbetter indication of corrosion in reinforced concrete if used incombination with half - cell potentiometer.

3.4 Tests for carbonation of Concrete

Carbonation of concrete in cover results in loss of protectionto the steel against corrosion. The depth of carbonation can bemeasured by spraying the freshly fractured concrete surface witha 0.2% solution of phenolphthalein in ethanol. Sincephenolphthalein is a pH indicator, the magenta (pink colour) areapresents uncarbonated concrete and the remaining (colourless)portion, the carbonated area. The change in colour occurs ataround pH 10 of concrete.

The test must be applied only to freshly exposed surfaces,

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because reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide startsimmediately. Relating carbonation depth to concrete cover is oneof the main indicators of corrosion.

3.5 Test for chloride content of concrete

The presence of chloride in the concrete is the contributoryfactor towards corrosion of reinforcement.

Portable equipments are available in the market, whichcan be used for rapid on site measurement of chloride content ofconcrete. The chloride content of concrete can also be determinedby chemical analysis of concrete in the laboratory.

A rotary percussion drill is used to collect a pulverizedsample of concrete and a special acid extracts the chlorides. Theamount of acid soluble chloride is determined directly by a chloridesensitive electrode connected to a electrometer.

If different samples are obtained from different concretedepths, it can be established whether the chloride contaminationwas there in the original concrete or the same has come from theenvironment.

3.6 Profometer

In any RCC/PSC structure, adequate cover thickness isessential to prevent corrosion of the reinforcement. In oldstructures, sometimes the detailed drawings are not traceable dueto which it becomes very difficult to calculate the strength of thestructure which is essentially required for finalizing the strengtheningscheme. Sometimes, the bridges are to be checked from strengthpoint of view to permit higher axle load and in absence ofreinforcement details it becomes very difficult to take a decision.

To overcome all these problems, the methods have beendeveloped for investigation and evaluation of concrete structures.Profometer is a small versatile instrument for detecting location,size of reinforcement and concrete cover. This instrument is also

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known as rebar locator. This is a portable and handy instrumentwhich is normally used to locate the reinforcement on LCD display.This instrument is available with sufficient memory to storemeasured data. Integrated software is loaded in the equipment forcarrying out and printing statistical values. One of the equipmentwhich is commercially available in the market is shown inFig. 3.6.1.

Fig. 3.6.1. Profometer

The equipment is quite handy and weighing less than twokgs. It works on normal batteries and thus does not require anyelectrical connection.

3.6.1. Object

This test is used to assess the location and diameter ofreinforcement bars and concrete cover. This equipment can beused effectively for evaluation of new as well as old structures. Themethod can be used both for quality control as well as qualityassurance.

3.6.2. Principle

The instrument is based upon measurement of change ofan electromagnetic field caused by steel embedded in the concrete.

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3.6.3. Methodology

To ensure satisfactory working of profometer and to getaccurate results, it should be calibrated before starting theoperations and at the end of the test. For this purpose, test blockprovided with the instrument should be used. To check thecalibration accuracy, the size and cover of the reinforcement ofthe test block is measured at different locations on test block andthe recorded data should match with the standard values prescribedon the test block.

Path measuring device and spot probes are together usedfor path measurements and scanning of rebars. These areconnected with profometer with cables and are moved on theconcrete surface for scanning the rebars and measuring the spacing.As soon as the bar is located, it is displayed on the screen. Oncethe bar is located, it is marked on the concrete surface.

Diameter probe is used for measuring the dia of bars. It isalso connected with profometer by one cable. After finding out thelocation of rebar, the dia probe is placed on the bar parallel to baraxis. Four readings are displayed and mean value of these readingsis taken as diameter of bar.

Depth probe of the profometer is used to measure thecover. It is also connected with profometer by cable and is placedexactly on the bar As soon as, the depth probe is above a rebar ornearest to it, it gives an audio signal through a short beep andvisual display. Simultaneously, the measured concrete cover isstored in memory.

For carrying out this test, the proper assess is essential.For this purpose, proper staging, ladder or a suspended platformsmay be provided. Before actual scanning, marking is done withchalk on the concrete surface by dividing it into panels of equalareas.

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3.6.4. Advantages and Limitations

This is a purely non-destructive test for evaluation ofconcrete structure particularly old structures. The methods isvery fast and gives quite accurate results if the reinforcement isnot heavily congested. The equipment is very light and even oneperson can perform the test without any assistance.

The equipment is not being manufactured in India andneeds to be imparted. Some of the Indian Firms are marketingthe instrument and this is a costly equipment.

3.7. Micro covermeter

This is a portable and handy instrument weighing about0.5kg. This is normally provided with two types of search heads onefor parallel bars having range approx. 360mm and other for meshand close spaced bars having range of approx. 120mm. It canfunction over the temp. range of 0°C to 45°C. One of the microcover meter commercially available in the market is shown in Fig.3.7.1.

Fig. 3.7.1. Micro Covermeter

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The equipment is of 180mm x 100mm x 45mm sizeapproximately. The equipment is available with volatile memorythat helps in storing data while taking measurements.

3.7.1. Object

The test is aimed mainly to detect the location and coverof reinforcement. The test may be used for analyzing the integrityof the structures as the cover thickness is an important aspect ofconstruction. In the coastal areas, the test can be used for decidingthe effectiveness of cover as well as rehabilitation measuresrequired.

3.7.2 Principle

The equipment consists of a highly permeable U-shapemagnetic core on which two coils are mounted. When analternating current is passed through one of these coils, the currentinduced in the other coil can be measured. The presence of steelaffects the electromagnetic field. The induced current dependsupon the mutual inductance of the coils and the nearness of thesteel bars. A moving coil meter measures the current. Formeasurement of the cover, the probe is placed directly over theconcrete member and moved slowly until reading is obtained onthe dial. The probe should be kept parallel to the length of rebar.Depending upon the diameter of the bar, the dial readings givesdirectly the cover to the reinforcement.

3.7.3. Methodology

The equipment should be calibrated before starting and atthe end of the test to get accurate results. For this purpose, onespacer is provided with each equipment. For calibration, the covershould be measured at one location and then it is remeasuredafter placing the spacer between the concrete surface and probe.The difference between two readings should not vary more than+/- 5% of the thickness of the spacer.

For locating the reinforcement bar, the search head shouldbe placed on the surface of concrete in such a way so that the

length of the search head should be parallel to the reinforcementprovided in the structure. The location of the main reinforcementshould be decided based upon the geometry of the structure. Thesearch head should be moved from one end to other end in adirection perpendicular to the main reinforcement. The sound ofthe buzzer /beep will be strongest when the bar will come justabove or below the probe.

For measurement of cover, the search head is moved onthe surface. While moving, the cover displayed on the screenreduces and sound of the buzzer/beep increases when probecomes near reinforcement bars. The minimum reading displayedwill be the cover and the sound of the buzzer is strongest whenthe reinforcement bar is just below the search head.

3.7.4. Advantages and Limitations

The method is very fast and large area can be coveredwithin short time. The instrument work on batteries and does notrequire any electric supply. Since the equipment is very smalland portable, the test can be conducted by single person withoutany assistance.

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CHAPTER 4

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR DETECTION OFCRACKS/VOIDS/ DELAMINATIONS ETC.

IN CONCRETE BRIDGES

4.1 Introduction

For the assessment of the actual condition of a concretebridge, the detection of internal crack, void, lamination etc. is verymuch necessary. The NDT methods for testing surface hardness,strength and for checking the condition of reinforcement do notindicate the internal condition of concrete. Sometimes theseinternal cracks, voids etc. may lead to the corrosion ofreinforcement, cracking of section which may ultimately result intoreduced life of bridge. The following methods are normally usedfor detection of cracks/voids/laminations etc. in concrete bridges–

(i) Infrared thermographic techniques(ii) Acoustic Emission technique(iii) Short pulse radar methods(iv) Stress wave propagation methods

Some of these methods are used extensively all over theworld for condition assessment of various components of concretebridges while some methods are still in the laboratory trial stage.All the above methods are discussed in detail in this chapter.

4.2 Infrared thermographic techniques

For conducting this test, high resolution infraredthermographic radiometers (Fig. 4.2.1) are used to inspect largeareas of concrete efficiently and quickly. This type of equipmentallows larger areas to be scanned, and the resulting data can bedisplayed as pictures with areas of differing temperaturesdesignated by differing grey tones in black and white image or byvarious colours on a colour image. A complete thermographic

Fig. 4.2.1 Infrared Thermographic Radiometer

data collection and analysis system can be divided into four mainsubsystems. The first is the infrared sensor head that normallycan be used with interchangeable lenses. It is similar in appearanceto a portable video camera.

The second major component of the infrared scanningsystem is a real-time microprocessor coupled to a black-and-whiteor colour display monitor. With this, component, cooler itemsbeing scanned are normally represented by darker grey ones, andwarmer areas are represented by lighter gray tones. Now-a-days,colour monitors are also used, which displays the differenttemperature levels as contrasting colours and patterns, which areeasier to decipher.

The third major component of the infrared scanning systemis the data acquisition and analysis equipment. It is composed ofan analog-to-digital converter for use with analog sensors, acomputer with a high resolution colour monitor, and data storageand analysis software.

The fourth major component consists of various types ofimage recording and retrieving devices. These are used to recordboth visual and thermal images.

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4.2.1 Object

This technique can be used to detect concrete subsurfacedelamination on bridge decks. This can also detect the internalvoids, cracks and honeycombing in concrete structures. Thismethod gives the fairly accurate picture about the condition ofconcrete inside and can be effectively applied for larger surfaces.

4.2.2 Principle

Infrared thermographic investigation techniques are basedon the principle that the materials with subsurface anomalies, suchas voids caused by corrosion of reinforcing steel, or voids causedby poor compaction called honeycombing, in a material affect heatflow through that material. These changes in heat flow causelocalized differences in surface temperatures. Thus, by measuringsurface temperatures under conditions of heat flow into or out ofthe material, one can determine the presence and location of anysubsurface anomalies.

An infrared thermographic scanning system measuressurface temperature only, but the surface temperatures of aconcrete mass depend on three factors.

(a) The subsurface configuration(b) The surface conditions(c) The environment

Normally the testing should be conducted during times ofthe day or night when the solar radiation or lack of solar radiationwould produce the most rapid heating or cooling of the concretesurface. The test should not be conducted when sky is cloudy.The measurements should be taken when then wind speed is lowerthan 25kmph. The test should not be conducted when thetemperature is below 0°C. If the concrete surface is covered withstanding water, the test should not be conducted.

4.2.3 Methodology

For performing this test efficiently, a movement of heat

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must be established in the structure. Normally the inspectionshould be conducted during the sunny day, i.e. the testing shouldbe avoided during monsoon. The inspection may begin either 2 to3 hours after sunrise or 2 to 3 hours after sunset, both are times ofrapid heat transfer. The surface to be tested should be cleanedthoroughly.

The next step is to locate a section of sound concrete.This work can be done by chain dragging (sounding), coring, orground penetrating radar or by using some other suitable method.Image the reference area and set the equipment controls so thatan adequate temperature image is viewed and recorded.

The next step is to image the area, which is known tohave defects i.e. voids/delamination/cracks etc. and images ofthis defective area are viewed and recorded. Now the setting ofthe equipment should be done in such a way to allow viewing ofboth the sound and defective reference areas in the same imagewith the widest contrast possible.

If a black and white monitor is used, better contrast imageswill normally be produced when the following convention is used,black is defective concrete and white is sound material. If a colourmonitor or computer enhanced screen is used, three colours arenormally used to designate definite sound areas, definite defectiveareas and indeterminate areas. When tests are performed duringday light hours, the defective concrete areas will appear warmer,whereas during test performed after dark, defective areas will appearcooler.Once the control are set, the recording of images can bedone and stored.


The main advantage of this method is that it is an areatesting technique, whereas other destructive and non-destructivemethods are points testing or line testing methods. This methodis completely non-destructive, repeatable, accurate, efficient andeconomical. The method can cover large areas within short time.One of the biggest advantage of this method is that this is absolutelysafe and equipment does not emit any radiation.

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The main limitation is that the depth or thickness of a voidcannot be determined using this method. It cannot be determinedwhether a subsurface void is near the surface or away from thesurface. When used in combination with ground penetrating radarmethod this method gives useful information about the internaldefects.

4.3 Acoustic Emission Technique

Acoustic emission is the sound (both audible andsub-audible), that are generated when a material undergoesirreversible changes, such as those due to cracking. In general,acoustic emissions are defined as the class of phenomena wherebytransient elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of energyfrom localized sources within a material. These wave propagatethrough the material, and their arrival at the surface can be detectedby the piezoelectric transducers.

The main elements of a modern acoustic emissiondetection system are shown in Fig. 4.3.1.

The brief description of the most important parts of thissystem is as follows:

a) Transducers – Piezoelectric transducers (generally madeof lead zirconate titanate, PZT) are used to convert the surfacedisplacements into electric signals. There are mainly two typesof transducers – wide band transducers and narrow bandtransducers. The transducers must be properly coupled to thespecimen, often using some form of silicon grease as the couplingmedium.

(b) Preamplifier – Because of the low voltage output, the leadsfrom the transducer to the preamplifier must be as short as possible.Sometimes the preamplifier is integrated within the transducer itself.This amplifies the output signals.

(c) Passband filters – These are used to suppress the acousticemission signals that lie outside the frequency range of interest.

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(d) Main amplifier - This further amplifies the signals, typicallywithin a gain of 20 to 60 dB.

(e) The discriminator – It is used to set the threshold voltageabove which signals are counted.

4.3.1 Object

This method is used mainly to detect the cracking inconcrete, whether due to externally applied loads, drying shrinkageor thermal stresses. This method can be helpful in determiningthe internal structure of the material and to know the structuralchanges during the process of loading.

The method can also be used to establish whether thematerial or the structure meet certain design or fabrication criteria.In this case, the load is increased only to some predeterminedlevel. The amount and nature of acoustic emissions may be usedto establish the integrity of the specimen or structure and mayalso be used to predict the service life.

4.3.2 Principle

When an acoustic emission event occurs at a source withthe material, due to inelastic deformation or cracking, the stresswaves travel directly from the source to the receiver as body waves.Surface waves may then arise from mode conversion. When thestress waves arrive at the receiver, the transducer responds to thesurface motion that occurs. A typical acoustic emission signalfrom concrete is shown in Fig. 4.3.2.

By using a number of transducers to monitor acousticemission events, and determining the time differences betweenthe detection of each event at different transducer positions, thelocation of acoustic emission event may be determined by usingtriangulation techniques.

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Fig. 4.3.2 Acoustic Emission Signal from concrete

4.3.3 Methodology

Acoustic emission test may be carried out in thelaboratory or in the field. Basically one or more acoustic emissiontransducers are attached to the specimen. The specimen is thenloaded slowly, and the resulting acoustic emissions are recorded.The test is generally conducted in two ways.

(a) When the specimens are loaded till failure. (to knowabout internal structure/to study about structuralchanges during loading)

(b) When the specimens are loaded to somepredetermined level (to ascertain whether the materialor structure meet certain design or fabrication criteria).

4.3.4 Limitations

The acoustic emission techniques may be very useful inthe laboratory to supplement other measurement of concreteproperties. However, their use in the field is still very limited. Anotherdraw back is that acoustic emissions are only generated whenthe loads on a structure are increased and this create considerablepractical problems.

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4.4 Short Pulse Radar Method

Short Pulse radar systems are used in applications relatedto inspection of concrete. This is the electromagnetic analog ofsonic & ultrasonic pulse echo methods. In this method, the electromagnetic waves propagates through materials of different dielectricconstants.

A basic radar system consists of a control unit, amonostatic antenna (i.e. an antenna that is used for bothtransmitting & receiving) , an oscillograph recorder, and a powerconvertor for DC operation. ( see Fig. 4.4.1)

Fig.4.4.1 Short Pulse Radar System

For inspection of concrete structures, it is desirable touse a radar antenna with relatively high resolution or short pulsewidth.

4.4.1 Object

The method can be effectively used for detection ofdelamination in concrete. The method can also be used fordetermination of degree of hydration of concrete, water content infresh concrete, and for measurement of concrete layer thicknessetc. Method can also be used for locating the position of rebars.

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4.4.2 Principle

When an electromagnetic wave (such as microwave) strikean interface, or boundary between two materials of differentdielectric constants, a portion of the energy is reflected and theremaining penetrates through the interface into the second material( Fig. 4.4.2 )

Fig. 4.4.2 Movment of Electromagnetic Wave

The intensity of reflected energy (AR), is related to the intensityof the incident energy (AI) by the following relationship -

)1........(12

122,1 ηη

ηηρ

+−

==AIAR

Where 2,1ρ is the reflection coefficient at the interface,& are the wave impedances of the material 1,2 respectively,in ohms. For non-metallic material, such as concrete or soil thewave impedance is given by

……(2)

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where is the magnetic permeability of air, which is 4x10-7 henry /meter and is the dielectric constant of material infarad / meter

Since the wave impedance of air, is equal to

where is dielectric constant of air which is8.85 x 10-12 farad/meter.

If we define the relative dielectric constant of a material as

Then the equation (2) can be written as

and equ. (1) can be written as

………….(3)

where and are the relative dielectric constants of material1 an 2 respectively.

So depending upon the relative dielectric constants ofmaterial 1 and 2, the amount of reflected energy from interface ofmaterial 1 &2 is determined, and the remaining energy will bepenetrated into material 2. When this remaining microwave en-ergy reaches another interface after traveling to material 2, aportion will be reflected back as shown in equation (3).

This reflection of energy from various interfaces is being

measured in Short Pulse Radar method for determination of vari-ous defects.

4.4.3 Methodology

For inspection of concrete bridges, an antenna is placedwith its transmitting face parallel to and at a distance from thesurface of the concrete. However, if the concrete member is rela-tively thick and the expected deterioration is deep or if the an-tenna does not have sufficient power or penetration, the antennamay be placed directly over the concrete surface. With the ad-justments in the control unit the radar signals are recorded with aproperly calibrated oscillograph recorder. This is called the staticmode of measurement, since the antenna is stationary with re-spect to the concrete being tested.

If relatively large concrete area has to be inspected theantenna is mounted on the front or rear of an inspection vehicle.The vehicle will make several passes over the area to be tested tocover the entire area. During each pass the antenna scans adifferent area. The stream of the radar signals are recorded con-tinuously with an instrumentation tape recorder. With two antennaor multi antenna system, the requirement of number of passes willbe less. These recordings are later on studied and interpreted fordetection of defects.


This methods is very much effective for inspection of deckslab of road bridges, provided with asphalt overlays. The distruptionto road traffic is minimal while inspection is done. There are norestrictions, regarding the timing of inspection or the availability ofcertain ambient conditions during inspections and inspection canbe done any time and in any type of ambient conditions.

The major limitation is that the interpretation of signalsreceived at radar is very cumbersome because of the presence ofinterfering signals.

4.5 Stress Wave Propagation Methods

There are several test methods, based on stress wave

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propagation, used for non-destructive testing of concrete. Theecho methods (impact echo and pulse echo) are used for thick-ness measurements, flaw detection and integrity testing of piles.The impulse response method is also used to test piles and slablike structures. The following stress wave propagation method aregenerally used for testing of concrete.

(a) Pulse Echo method(b) Impact Echo method(c) Impulse response method

All the three methods are discussed in detail in this chapter.

4.5.1 Pulse Echo method

In this method, a transmitter introduces a stress pulseinto an object at an accessible surface. The pulse propagatesinto the test object and is reflected by flaws or interfaces. Thesurface response caused by the arrival of reflected waves, or ech-oes, is monitored by either the transmitter acting as a receiver(true pulse echo) or by a second transducer located near the pulsesource (pitch-catch). (Fig. 4.5.1.)

Fig. 4.5.1 Pulse Echo Methods

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The output is displayed on a display device and the dis-play is called a time domain waveform. By using the time base ofdisplay, the travel time of the pulse is determined. If the wavespeed in the material is known, this travel time can be used todetermine the depth of the reflecting interface using thefollowing equation:.

T = ½ ∆t CpWhere, ∆t = the round trip travel time T = the depth Cp = the wave speed

The main components of a pulse echo or pitch catch testsystem are the transmitting and receiving transducer and the sys-tem that is used to record and display wave forms. For testingconcrete, low frequency transducers are required. Because of thepractical problem of manufacturing large size transducers, the pulseecho technique is not used for testing of concrete in the field.

4.5.2 Impact Echo Method

This method is normally used for testing of piles. Theprinciple of impact echo technique is illustrated in Fig. 4.5.2.

Fig. 4.5.2 Impact Echo Technique

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A stress pulse is introduced into a test object by me-chanical impact on the surface. The stress pulse propagates intothe object along spherical wave fronts as P and S waves. In addi-tion a surface wave (R-Wave) travels along the surface away fromthe impact point. P-Wave is a compression wave and S-wave isa shear wave. In P-wave particle motion is parallel to thepropagation direction while in S-wave particle motion is perpen-dicular to the propagation direction. R-wave or surface wave,propagates along the surface of a solid, and particle motion isretrograde elliptical.

The P and S stress waves are reflected by internal inter-faces or external boundaries. The arrival of those reflected waves,or echoes, at the surface where the impact was generated pro-duce displacements that are measured by a receiving transducerand recorded by a data acquisition system.

An impact echo test system is composed of three com-ponents i.e. an impact source, a receiving transducer and a dataacquisition system with appropriate software for signal analysisand data management. The selection of the impact source is aimportant aspect of a successful impact echo test system. Thelesser the contact time, the higher the range of frequencies. Asthe contact time decreases, smaller size defects can be detected.For testing of slabs etc. shorter contact time is preferable. How-ever, for piles and other slender members, longer contact time ispreferable.

The test method is covered under ASTM C 1383.

4.5.3 Impulse Response method

This is another variant of impact method. This method isalso known as transient dynamic response or impedance testing.This works on the same principle as impact echo method. A stresspulse is generated by mechanical impact on the surface of theobject. The force time function of the impact is monitored byusing an instrumented hammer or by using a hammer to strike aload cell. A transducer located near the impact location monitors

the movement of the surface as it vibrates in response to the im-pact. The waveforms of the force and motion transducers arerecorded and processed on a dynamic signal analyzer or com-puter with appropriate software. The result of the analysis indi-cates the condition of the structure.

The impulse response function is a characteristic of astructure, and it changes depending on material properties, ge-ometry, support conditions and the existence of flaws or cracks.The main components of impulse response test system are theimpact source that can be an instrumented hammer or a hammerstriking a load cell that is located on the surface of the test object,a geophone (low frequency velocity transducer) and a two channeldynamic signal analyzer or portable computer with data acquisi-tion and signal analyzing capabilities.

The method is used mainly for testing of piles. Testing ofpiles by this method is covered in ASTM test method D 5882 andis known as transient response method.

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CHAPTER-5

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF STEEL BRIDGES

5.1 Introduction

Flaws and cracks can play havoc with the performance ofstructures and for improving the performance, the timely detectionof these defects is very much necessary. Our present system ofinspection of bridges mainly emphasize on the visual inspectionwhich does not give correct picture of internal structural defects.By using non-destructive testing methods, the structures can beevaluated to a greater degree of accuracy, without damaging them.These methods can be used as quality control measures at thetime of construction of structures as well as tool for detection ofdefect during the service. The biggest advantage of NDT methodsis that these are quick and large no. of structure can be covered toevaluate their in service performance without causing any damageto the structure. In this chapter, only the following methods whichare commonly used for evaluating the steel structures, arediscussed –

(a) Liquid Penetrant Inspection(b) Magnetic Particle Inspection(c) Eddy current testing(d) Radiography testing(e) Ultrasonic testing

5.2 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

This method is used to detect surface flaws by bleed outof a coloured or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique isbased on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a clean surfacebreaking flaw by capillary action. After a period of time called the“dwell”, excess surface penentrant is removed and a developerapplied. This acts as a blotter and draws the penetrant from theflaw, which indicates the presence and location of the flaw.

The method can detect the cracks/flaws which are opento the surface but internal cracks/blow holes etc. cannot bedetected using this method. Sometimes the very narrow flaws/cracks cannot be detected by visual inspection because of theless size. But using liquid penetrant inspection, even these narrowcracks can be detected. LPI produces a flaw indication that ismuch larger and easier for the eye to detect. Secondly, the LPIproduces a flaw indication with a high level of contrast betweenthe indication and background which makes the detection easier.

5.2.1 Methodology

Following methodology is adopted for carrying out this test.

(a) Surface preparation – This is one of the most importantand critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection. Thesurface must be free of oil, grease, water or othercontaminants that may prevent penetrant from enteringthe flaw.

(b) Penetrant application: Once the surface has beenthoroughly cleaned and dried ,the penetrant material isapplied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the parts in apenetrant bath.

(c) Penetrant dwell – The penetrant is left on the surface for asufficient time to allow as much penetrant as possible tobe drawn from or to seep into a crack/flaw. Pentetrantdwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contactwith the surface. The dwell time is normally recommendedby the manufacturer of the dye and is the part of materialspecifications.

(d) Excess penetrant removal – The excess penetrant mustbe removed from the surface of the sample, while removeas little penetrant as possible from the crack flaw.Depending upon the penetrant system used, this mayinvolve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water,or first treated with an emulsifier and then rinsing with

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water.(e) Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is sprayed

to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface,where it is visible. Developers normally comes in powderor liquid (Spray) form. The developer is allowed to standon part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit theextraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws.

5.2.2 Material Properties

The penetrant must have following properties:

(a) Spread easily over the surface of the material beinginspected to provide complete coverage.

(b) Be drawn into surface defects by capillary action

(c) Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface

(d) Remain fluid so that it can be drawn back to the surfacethrough the developer application

(e) Should not be harmful to the material/personnel carryingout the tests.

Penetrant materials are of two basic types. These types areindicated below –

(a) Type-1 – Fluorescent penetrants

(b) Type-2 – Visible penetrants

Depending upon the application the penetrant type to beused will vary in the field. For bridge inspection/testing normallytype 2 penetrant is used, because these can be used easily in thefield and does not require any darkened area.

The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrantmaterial out of defects and to spread the developer out on thesurface of the part, so that it can be seen by an inspecting official.

Normally water-soluble or water suspendible developers are usedfor testing purpose. These developers are applied over the surfaceby spraying.

5.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Like any other NDT method, LPI also has its ownadvantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantages of LPImethod are listed below:

(a) The method has the high sensitivity to small surfacediscontinuities.

(b) Large areas and large volumes can be inspected rapidly andat low cost.

(c) Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.

(a) Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part.

(e) Relatively inexpensive and easy to perform.

Some of the disadvantages of this method are listed below:

(a) Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

(b) Only materials with a relative non-porous surface can beinspected.

(c) Proper cleaning is a prerequisite as contaminants can maskdefects.

(d) The surface finish and roughness can affect inspectionsensitivity.

5.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

Magnetic particle inspection is a NDT method used fordefect detection in steel structures. This is a fast and relativelyeasy method to apply in field. MPI uses magnetic fields and small

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magnetic particles, such as iron fillings to detect flaws incomponents. The component being inspected must be made of aferromagnetic particle such as iron, nickle, cobalt or some of theiralloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magneticto a level that will allow the inspection to be effective.

The method may be used effectively for inspection of steelgirders and other bridge parts made of steel.

5.3.1 Principle

When ferromagnetic material or component (weld) ismagnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lie in direction approx.perpendicular to the field direction, will result in formation of astrong leakage field. This leakage field is present at and abovethe surface of magnetized component and its presence can bevisibly detected by the cluster of finely divided magnetic particlei.e. when crack is met to magnetic field direction it will form localmagnet and will attract fine particles along the crack when sprayed.Magnetization may be induced in the component by usingpermanent magnet or electromagnet. For simple illustration,consider a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around themagnet. Any place, that a magnetic line of force exits or entersthe magnet, it called a pole. A pole where magnetic line of forceexits is called a north pole and where a line of force enters themagnet is called a south pole (Fig 5.3.1)

Fig 5.3.1 Magnetic Line of Force

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When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length,two complete bar magnets with magnetic poles at each end ofeach piece will form. If the magnet is just cracked but not brokencompletely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge ofthe crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters atthe south pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encountersthe small air gap created by the crack, because the air cannotsupport as much magnetic field per unit volume as a magnet can.When the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the materialand, thus it is called a flux leakage field (Fig 5.3.2.)

Fig. 5.3.2 Magnetic flux leakage field

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, theparticles will be attracted to and cluster will be formed not only atthe ends of the magnet (poles) but also at poles formed at theedges of the cracks. This formation cluster of particles along theedges of the cracks can be easily detected.

The direction of magnetic field in an electro magnetic circuitis controlled by the direction of current flow. The effectiveness ofthe defect indication will depend on the orientation of the flaw tothe induced magnetic field and greatest when defect isperpendicular. Hence to detect a defect in a member/weld, it hasto be tested in both axis i.e. xx-axis as well as yy-axis.

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5.3.2 Equipments and Methodology

For proper inspection of a component, it is important toestablish a magnetic field in at least two directions, so that defectslies in the different directions can be detected. For establishingmagnetic field in component various types of equipments areavailable which are discussed below –

(a) Permanent magnets – The primary types of permanentmagnets are bar magnets and horseshoes (yoke)magnets. These are very strong magnets and difficult tohandle in the field because large force is required to removethem from the component being inspected. Normally theseare used for underwater inspection and for the explosiveenvironment, where electromagnets cannot be used.

(b) Electromagnets – These type of magnets are most widelyused in the MPI equipments. In this equipment, electricalcurrent is used to produce the magnetic field. Anelectromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipmentwhich is made by wrapping an electrical coil around apiece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included inthe electrical circuit so that current as well as magneticfield can be turn on and off. This type of magnet generatesa very strong magnetic field in a local area where the polesof magnet touch the part to be inspected.

(c) Prods – These are hand held electrodes that are pressedagainst the surface of the component being inspected tomake contact for passing electrical current through steel.The current passing between the prods creates a circularmagnetic field around the prods that can be used formagnetic particle inspection. Prods are made from copperand have an insulated handle. One of the prods have atrigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easilyturned on and off. Sometimes the two prods are connectedby any insulator to facilitate one hand operation. This isknown as dual prod also and generally used for weldinspection.

(d) Portable coils and conductive cables – These are used toestablish a longitudinal magnetic field within a component,when a preformed coil is used, the component is placedagainst the inside surface on the coil.

All the above said equipments are portableequipments and can be used in the field without anyhandling problems.

Following methodology to be followed whileperforming the test in the field –

(1) The surface should be cleaned before inspection.The surface must be free of grease, oil or othermoisture.

(2) Apply the magnetizing force using permanentmagnets, a electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coilor other means to establish the necessarymagnetic flux.

(3) Dust on the light layer of magnetic particles withthe magnetizing force still applied, remove theexcess powder from the surface with few gentlepuf of dry air.

If wet suspension is used, then thesuspension is gently sprayed or flowed over thesurface to be tested. Immediately after theapplication of wet suspension the magnetizingforce should be applied.

(4) After this the area should be inspected carefullyfor finding out the cluster of particles. Surfacediscontinuities will produce a sharp indication.

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5.4 Eddy Current Testing

This is one of the several NDT methods that use theprincipal of electromagnetism as the basis for conducting the test.Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagneticinduction. When alternating current is applied to the conductor,such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around theconductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating currentrises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero.If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximityto this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in thissecond conductor. Eddy current are induced electrical currentsthat flow in a circular path. They get their names from “eddies”that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path aroundobstacles.

The most basic eddy current testing instrument consistsof an alternating current source, a coil of wire connected to thissource, and a voltmoter to measure the voltage change across thecoil. An ammeter could also be used to measure the currentchange in the circuit instead of using the voltmeter.

For generating eddy current, a “probe” is used whichconsists of electrical conductor formed into a coil and housedinside the probe. These probes are available in a large varietyshapes and sizes. In fact, one of the major advantages of eddycurrent inspection is that probes can be custom designed for awide variety of applications. Eddy current probes are classified bythe configurations and mode of operation of the test coils. Theconfiguration of probes generally refers to the way the coil or coilsare placed with reference to test area. An example of differentconfiguration of probes would be bobbin probes, which are insertedinto a piece of pipe to inspect from inside out. While in encirclingprobes, the coil or coils encircle the pipe to inspect from outsidein. The mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils arewired and interface with the test equipment. The mode of operationof a probe generally falls into one of four categories, absolute,differential, reflection and hybrid. Normally differential probes areused for flaw detection in steel members.

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5.4.1 Methodology

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety ofapplications such as detection of cracks (discontinuity),measurement of metal thickness, detection of metal thining dueto corrosion and erosion, determination of coating thickness andthe measurement of electrical conductivity and magneticpermeability.

For inspection of bridge girder, this technique can be usedfor detection of surface breaking cracks. This is an excellent methodfor detecting surface and near surface defects when the probabledefect location and orientation is well known. Defects such ascracks are detected when they disrupt the path of eddy currentand weaken their strength. The Fig. 5.4.1 shows an eddy currentsurface probe on the surface of a conductive component.

Fig. 5.4.1 Eddy current surface probe indicating no defect

The strength of the eddy current under the coil of the probeis indicated by colour. In Fig .5.4.2, there is a flaw under the rightside of the coil and it can be seen that the eddy current are weakerin that area.

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Fig. 5.4.2 Eddy current surface probe indicatingdefect on right hand side

While performing the inspection with surface probe, fol-lowing methodology should be adopted,

(a) Select and setup the instrument and probe.

(b) Select a frequency to produce the desired depth ofpenetration.

(c) Adjust the instrument to obtain an easily recognizabledefect response using a calibration standard or set upspecimen.

(d) Place the inspection probe (coil) on the component sur-face.

(e) Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern thatwill provide complete coverage of the area being inspected.Care must be taken to maintain the same probe to sur-face orientation as probe wobble can affect interpretationof the signal.

(f) Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance thatwill occur as the probe moves over a discontinuity.


This method is very sensitive to small cracks and otherdefects. This method detects surface and near surface defectsvery efficiently. The results can be obtained immediately afterinspection. The equipment required for test is very small and por-table and minimum part preparation is required for carrying outthis test. During the test, the test probe does not need to contactthe part.

One of the major limitation is that the depth for penetra-tion is limited so it cannot detect the internal defects which arelocated away from the surface. The surface to be tested must beaccessible to the probe. Flaws such as delamination that lie par-allel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction cannot bedetected easily.

5.5 Radiographic Testing

This is the technique of obtaining a shadow image of asolid using penetrating radiation such as X-rays or gamma rays.These rays are used to produce a shadow image of an object onfilm. Thus if X-ray or gamma ray source is placed on one side of aspecimen and a photographic film on the other side, an image isobtained on the film which is in projection, with no details of depthwithin the solid. Images recorded on the films are also known asradiographs.

The contrast in a radiograph is due to different degrees ofabsorption of X-rays in the specimen and depends on variations inspecimen thickness, different chemical constituents, non-uniformdensities, flaws, discontinuities, or to scattering processes withinthe specimen.

Some of the other closely related methods are Tomogra-phy, Radioscopy, Xerography etc.

5.5.1 Methodology

First step of the method is to examine carefully the

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specimen and to decide on the direction to examine the objectconsidering the probable orientation of defects and the thicknessof the specimen in relation to the diverging beam of X-rays.

Considering the thickness of object, density of the materialetc., the wavelength of X-ray to be used should be decided.

The images can be observed on an image intensifyingtube with remote viewing or recorded on film with or withoutintensifying screens. Grid or blocking materials should be usedto reduce scattering effects. The optimum time of exposure needto be determined by experimental trials.

The last but the most important step is the interpretationof radiograph. Radiographs are projections, providing no informationabout depth within the specimen. While interpreting following factorsnormally should be considered –

(a) Orientation of the object to permit any discontinuity ordefect to show maximum contrast.

(b) Use of radiation so that to have largest possible differ-ences in the relative absorption coefficients of the differ-ent compositions present.

(c) The selection of wavelength of X-ray to control sharpnessand contrast of the image.

(d) Use of well illuminated viewing screen under optimum light-ing conditions.

(e) Probable defects in the specimen.(f) The X-ray target to film distance should not be less than

10 x the thickness of specimen.(g) The greatest dimension of the suspected flaw should be

parallel to X-ray beam.


For conducting this test access to opposite side of theobject is required. X-rays and gamma-rays are dangerous and lotof safety precautions to be taken while conducting the test. Adiscontinuity of thickness less than 2% of the overall thickness ofthe specimen is difficult to observe. This method is relatively

expansive method. Normally this method is used for detectinginternal flaws in the welds especially butt welds.

5.6 Ultrasonic Inspection

In this method ultrasonic waves of high frequency abovethe audible range, that is, above 20 KHz are used for detection offlaws in the test object. The following are normally required tocarry out this test –(a) Transducers(b) Pulse echo display systems(c) Amplifier(d) Electrical pulse generator

The wavelengths, frequencies and wave velocities used innon-destructive testing are generally –

(a) Wavelength: 1 to 10mm(b) Frequencies: 0.1 to over 15 MHz(c) Sound velocities: 1 to 10 Km/s

5.6.1 Principle

Ultrasonic waves are transmitted through solids over dis-tance of several meters in fine-grain steels, but only about 10cmin some cast irons. Discontinuities or defects cause scatteringand reflection of the waves, and the detection of reflected or trans-mitted waves permits the defect to be located. Various methodused for defect detection are described in Fig. 5.6.1

The most popular method for flaw/defect detection is pulseecho method (Fig 5.6.1.(a)) in which the same transducer trans-mits and receives the ultrasonic pulse. (only one transducer isrequired). In other methods two transducers are required out ofwhich one act as transmitter and other as receiver transducer.

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Fig. 5.6.1 Various Ultrasonic Inspection Methods

In transmission method, access to both sides of the specimenis required (Fig 5.6.1(b)) while in back reflection method, thedetection of flaws can be done even when the access is restrictedto only one side of specimen (Fig. 5.6.1(c) & (d)). The transmissionmethod is used for detection of small size defects because smallsize defects cannot be detected by pulse echo method. For thinobjects also, the pulse echo method cannot be used effectivelybecause of the dead zone effect.

For pulse echo method, an oscilloscope is required todetect the time as well as well as amplitude of reflected pulse.The schematic diagram describing the pulse echo method is shownin Fig. 5.6.2.

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Fig 5.6.2. Pulse Echo Method

The transducer touches the surface of specimen througha couplant, sending a pulse of ultrasonic waves traveling throughthe medium. The ultrasonic pulse is reflected from the rear sur-face, if no flaw is present, and detected by the same transducer ifnormal 0° probes are used. This pulse reflected from the rearsurface will be displayed on oscilloscope as back echo. If a flaw ispresent inside the test object, a flaw signal will be produced (be-cause of reflection of waves from flaw) earlier than that from therear surface. This flaw signal will be displayed on the oscillo-scope as flaw echo between surface echo and back echo. Thedistance of flaw echo on x-axis of oscilloscope will indicate thelocation of the flaw inside the test object. While the amplitude offlaw echo on y-axis of oscilloscope will indicate the magnitude orsize of the flaw. Depending upon the inclination of flaw inside thetest object different types of probes are used for detection of flaws.

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The probe can be 0° normal probe or angle probe. In normal probesthe detection of flaw is done using longitudinal waves. While inangles probes, the transverse or shear waves are used for detec-tion of flaws. In case of angle probes, no surface or back echo willappear on the screen. However flaw echo will appear on the screenif the orientation of the flaw is perpendicular to direction of travel ofultrasonic waves inside the test object. As the angle probe willmove towards the flaw, the flaw echo appearing on the oscillo-scope will more from right to left. Similarly, when the probe willmove away from the flaw, the flaw echo will move from left to righton the oscilloscope.

5.6.2 Calibration and reference standards

The reflection from a flaw is displayed on the oscilloscopein the form of flaw echo cannot be interpreted directly in terms ofsize or amplitude of flaw. The normal practise is to compare thesignal position and amplitude with the signals from a calibratedreference test pieces. Some of the reference test pieces / refer-ence blocks are

(i) Test block IIW-A2 (International Institute of Weld-ing (Fig. 5.6.3)

Fig 5.6.3 IIW-A2 Block

(ii) American Welding Society (AWS) blocks(Fig. 5.6.4).

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Fig. 5.6.4 AWS Block

For thickness calibration, using normal probes, six steps steelcalibration block is used (Fig. 5.6.5).

Fig 5.6.5 Six steps steel calibration block

5.6.3. Application of Ultrasonic Testing Method

This method is not suitable for testing of coarse grainedstructures. Most of the castings cannot be scanned using thismethod because of the coarse grained structure which leads to

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scattering and attenuation of waves. This method is suitable forscanning of fine grained structure. Rolled sheets and plates aresuitable for ultrasonic testing. Normal probes are used for detect-ing laminations and angle probes for fast inspection of plates formost of the discontinuities except smooth laminations parallel tothe surface.

Before starting the test, the equipment should be testedwith a calibration block. The surface to be tested should be smoothand plain. The couplant must be used for testing purpose. Thethickness of couplant layer must be as less as possible. A thicklayer will affect the direction of the ultrasonic beam in the testpiece. For detection of smaller flaws, small diameter high fre-quency transducers are used.

CHAPTER-6

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF MASONRY BRIDGES

6.1 Introduction

As already explained in chapter 1, the use of NDT methodsfor testing of masonry structures is not very common in India.However there is a necessity of adopting suitable NDT methodsfor evaluation of masonry structures as existing system ofinspection is not sufficient to cover all the aspects of inspection.Sometimes very critical defects like, deterioration of masonrymaterials, internal cavities formed due to rat holes etc and crackingof structures due to overstressing go unnoticed which may provedto be very fatal for the safety of structure. The NDT methods havea large potential to be part of system for inspection and monitoringof structures. This includes quality assurance during and afterconstruction, identification of damages in an early stage and todecide the repair strategy for rehabilitation of the structures. Someof the NDT methods which are used for evaluation and inspectionof masonry structures are listed below –

(a) Flat Jack Testing(b) Impact Echo Testing(c) Impulse radar testing(d) Infrared thermography

6.2 Flat Jack Testing

This test can determine the engineering properties of olderstructures for structural evaluation. This method is used todetermine the in situ stress and compressive strength of masonrystructures.

A flat jack is a flexible steel envelope, thin enough to fitwithin a masonry mortar joint. During testing, the flat jack ishydraulically pressurized and applies stress to the surrounding

masonry.

This method directly measures the actual state ofcompressive stress present within the masonry and is useful fordetermining stress gradients present within a masonry wall orcolumn. The in situ stress test works on basic principle of stressrelief, when mortar is removed from a joint, compressive stresswithin the masonry forces the slot thus formed to close by a smallamount. A flat jack is inserted into the slot and pressurized torestore the slot to its original opening dimension. The pressure atwhich the original opening is restored is adjusted by the flat jackcalibration constant, providing a measure of the in situ masonrycompressive stress.

The other test is, in situ deformability test which is usedfor direct measurement of masonry deformability properties and toestimate the masonry compressive strength. For conducting thistest, two parallel flat jacks are used which subject the masonrybetween them to compressive stress. The stress strain curvewhich is obtained during the test, is used for obtaining bothcompressive modulus and an estimate of compressive strength.

6.3 Impact Echo Testing

This is a sophisticated version of “sounding” a materialwhich enables the user to make judgment about internal conditions.

The technique involves a hammer or steel balls striking amasonry surface, with a receiving transducer located near theimpact point. The hammer and receiver are connected to acomputer that records the input energy from the hammer and thereflected compression wave energy from the receiver. The out putis processed by computer using software to produce a frequencydomain display where reflections (or echoes) are seen as peaksin the wave signals. In particular, thickness made of vibrations areprimarily used to identify the back wall or planar flaws. For that,the time domain signal of displacement or velocity is usuallydetected a few centimeters beside the impact point. Performingan Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) operations then leads to significantpeaks in the amplitude spectrum which can be associated with

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the depth of back wall or flaws if the effective velocity of propagationof longitudinal waves in the structure is known.

With regard to overall soundness of the masonry, generallyspeaking, the denser the material, the higher the wave velocityresponse. This is a qualitative measurement that is useful insurveys for comparative purposes. The thickness of a materialcan be determined if the characteristic wave velocity is known.

An important limitation of the interpretation of Impact Echodata is concerned with the effect of lateral boundaries of thestructure under investigation. These geometrical effects causedby reflections of wave fronts at the outer boundaries of the specimenproduce systematic error in thickness and flaw depthdetermination. These uncertainities must be taken into account ifthe measurements are performed at specimens with lateralboundaries lying in the vicinity of the measuring point.

6.4 Impulse Radar Testing

For the radar investigations, the electromagnetic wavesbetween 500 MHz and 1.5 GHz are pulsed into a material bymeans of a transducer and read by an antenna receiver. The shortelectromagnetic waves are transmitted into the material using adipole antenna and the impulses are reflected at the interfacebetween materials with different dielectric properties, i.e. at thesurface and backside of walls, at detachments, voids, metallicinclusions etc. When the transmitting and receiving antennas,which are normally contained in the same housing are movedlaterally over the surface of the object under investigation,radargrams (colour or gray scale intensity charts over the positionof the antenna and impulse travel time) are generated. Using theseradargrams, the change in materials, voids or buried objects canbe detected.

The method is a very useful tool to get information aboutthe internal section of a masonry structure. The location of themetallic inclusion can be detected with great accuracy. The innerstructure of masonry walls can be investigated with adequate

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resolution related to the thickness and the presence of voids etc.This method gives better results if the masonry structure is in drycondition. The higher moisture content in the structure, resultsinto high absorption of electromagnetic waves due to which theinformation content of the reflected waves reduces drastically.

6.5 Infrared Thermography

This method is also known as heat imagery. The techniqueinvolved is that an object having a temperature above absolutezero will radiate electromagnetic waves. Wavelength fall withincertain bands, depending on temperature. Wavelengths at roomtemperature are outside the visible spectrum, while those at veryhigh temperature are shorter and fall within the visible spectrum.Cameras or video equipments are used to photograph the surfacetemperature of the object. The resulting video image indicatesurface temperature variations. In masonry construction, differentwavelengths often indicate the presence of moisture. The resultsindicate whether the masonry is dense/sound or porous/deteriorated.

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LIST OF FIRMS DEALING WITH NDT EQUIPMENTS :

1. M/s AIMIL LTD., A-8, MOHAN COOPERATIVIE INDUSTRIALESTATE, MATHURA ROAD, NEW DELHI.

2. M/s HILTI INDIA PVT. LTD.,8 LSC PUSHPA VIHAR COMMUNITYCENTRE, NEW DELHI

3. M/s ULTRA TECHNOLOGIES PVT. LTD, B-85, KALKAJI,

NEW DELHI.

4. M/s. ENCARDIO RITES, LUCKNOW

5. M/s. JAMES INSTRUMENTS LUC. 3727, NORTH AEDZIE AVENUE,CHICAGO ILLINOIS 60618, U.S.A.

6. PROSEQ U.S.A., RIESHASH STRASSE 57 CH - 8034 ZURICH,SWITZERLAND.

7. ELE INTERNATIONAL LTD., EAST MAN WAY, HEMELHAMPSTEAD HERTFORDSHIRE, HP2 7HB, ENGLAND.

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REFERENCES:

1. IS-1311 (Part-1) : 1992 Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete -methods of test, Part-I, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

2. IS 13322 (Part-2) : 1992, Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete –methods of test, Part 2, Rebound hammer.

3. RDSO Report No.BS-51 : Guidelines on use of Acoustic emissiontechnique

4. RDSO Report No.BS-52: Guidelines on use of corrosion monitoringequipments

5. RDSO Report No.BS-53: Guidelines on use of ultrasonicinstruments for monitoring of concrete structures.

6. RDSO Report No.BS-50: Guidelines on use of Profometer.

7. RDSO Report No.BS-42: Guidelines on use of Microcovermeter

8. “Handbook on Non Destructive Testing of Concrete” (second edition)by V.M. Malhotra and N.J. Carino

9. “Non destructive testing” by Louis Cartz.

10. RDSO Guidelines for inspection, maintenance and rehabilitationof concrete bridges.

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