4-6 April 2013

KIMEP International Research ConferenceOfficial Proceedings

Central Asiain the

Global CommunityChallenges

& Opportunities

General Sponsor

SponsorConsul General

Du Dewen (China)Lars Johanson (Sweden)

Reza Ali (Singapore) A. Prasad (UAE) Marco Greggi (Italy) J. Ahrens (Germany) Arie Lewin (USA)

KIMEP University КИМЭП Университеті Университет КИМЭП

Xth KIMEP International Research Conference (KIRC-2013, April 4-6, 2013) “Central Asia in the Global Community:

Challenges and Opportunities” Conference Proceedings

X-шы Халықаралық ғылыми-зерттеу конференциясы (KIRC-2013, 4-6 сəуiр 2013)

«Орталық Азия дүниежүзiлiк қоғамдастықта: проблемалар мен мүмкiндiктер»

Конференцияның материалдары

X-ая Международная научно-исследовательская конференция (KIRC-2013, 4-6 апреля 2013)

«Центральная Азия в мировом сообществе: проблемы и возможности»

Материалы конференции

Almaty 2013 Алматы 2013

UDC (УДК) 327 BBC (ББК) 66.4 C40 C40 Central Asia in the Global Community: Challenges and Opportunities: Conference

Proceedings, Almaty, April 4-6, 2013 / KIMEP University / Eds. K. Harvey, G. Pech, J. Couper, A. Nurtaeva, G. Dadabaeva, K.J. Lee, J. Smagulova, M. Yessimzhanova, M. Rozmukhamedova, A. Akhmetova. – Almaty-Astana: Academpress, 2012. – 558 p.

Орталық Азия дүниежүзiлiк қоғамдастықта: проблемалар мен мүмкiндiктер: Конференцияның материалдары,Алматы, 4-6 сəуiр 2013 ж., / КИМЭП Университеті; Ред. К. Харви, Г. Печ, Дж. Купер, А. Нуртаева, Г. Дадабаева, К. Ли, Ж. Смагулова, М. Есимжанова, М. Розмухамедова, А. Ахметова. – Алматы-Астана: Академпресс, 2013. – 558 б. Центральная Азия в мировом сообществе: проблемы и возможности: Материалы конференции, Алматы, 4-6 апреля 2013 г./ Университет КИМЭП / Ред. К. Харви, Г. Печ, Дж. Купер, А. Нуртаева, Г. Дадабаева, К. Ли, Ж. Смагулова, М. Есимжанова, М. Розмухамедова, А. Ахметова. – Алматы-Астана: Академпресс, 2013. – 558 с.

ISBN 9965-9047-5-8

This book contains reports delivered as part of the KIMEP International Research Conference (KIRC) held 4-6 April 2013 at KIMEP University in Almaty, Kazakhstan. This KIRC featured scientific papers, professional presentations and expert panel discussions on topics related to the theme of “Central Asia in the Global Community: Challenges & Opportunities." As such, this book contains the Official Proceedings of KIRC 2013. The conference featured nearly 350 presenters. Not all presenters submitted full papers or extended abstracts for this book, but since it contains nearly 600 pages, it is certainly representative of the quality of presentations overall.

UDC (УДК) 327 BBC (ББК) 66.4

© KIMEP University, 2012 ISBN 9965-9047-5-8 © Academpress, 2012

KIMEP International ResearchConference 2013

Official Proceedings

Central Asiain the

Global CommunityChallenges

& Opportunities

Edited by Dr. Ken Harvey, Dr. Gerald Pech, Dr. John Couper, Dr. AliyaNurtaeva, Dr. Gulnara Dadabaeva, Dr. K.J. Lee, Dr. Juldyz Smagulova,

Malika Rozmukhamedova, Aizhan Akhmetova

ISBN 9965-9047-5-8

2

Preface The Organizing Committee for the 10th KIMEP International Research Conference vowed to make the 2013 event the biggest and best ever. The number of presenters was a new record, somewhere around 330, and the number of total participants was also the most ever. “Best” is a value judgment, of course, but it is certain that we attracted some of the best and brightest presenters ever, including: • Abraham Prasad, CEO of Al Hilal Bank in Kazakhstan, which has the goal of making Kazakhstan the center

of Islamic banking in Central Asia. • The Consul General of the People's Republic of China in Almaty, Madam Du Dewen. • Dr. Arie Y. Lewin, director of International Business Education & Research at Duke University and

founder/editor of two international journals. • Reza Ali, head of emerging markets in Asia for the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA),

based in Singapore. He previously worked at PriceWaterhouseCoopers in London and then as head of finance and operations for a brokerage firm specializing in servicing government agencies in South Asia.

• Dr. Marco Greggi, a professor of tax law at the University of Ferrara in Italy. Besides over 15 years teaching tax law, he has professional experience in law practice and as a tax inspector.

• Dr. Joachim Ahrens, a professor of international economics at Private University of Applied Sciences Göttingen and the author of several books on related subjects. He has also worked at Harvard, Stanford and California/Berkeley universities, and with the Asian Development Bank in Manila.

• Dr. Stephen Fennell of Cambridge University’s Central Asian Forum. He has worked at one of the world’s great universities for over 20 years and is a philologist and historian who speaks, reads and writes several Asian and European languages.

• Dr. Lars Johanson of Sweden, currently teaching at the University of Mainz in Germany. Johanson is an expert in Turkic languages and author of scores of books, reports and articles on related subjects, and a member of editorial and advisory boards for numerous academic journals.

And there were many other presenters and participants from Central Asia and beyond who also deserve to be mentioned but cannot be for lack of space herein. The conference in 2013 had the general theme of “Central Asia in the Global Community: Challenges and Opportunities,” and it attracted not only top scholars but also business leaders, non-government charitable organization leaders, journalists and policy-makers to address that theme in workshops, seminars, and panel discussions. Just as important as the quality of presenters to the success of KIRC 2013 was the dedication of the KIMEP faculty and staff in raising the high standards of KIRC to an even higher level. And I particularly appreciate the commitment and efforts to institutionalize changes that promise to continue raising these standards for years to come. And, finally, no conference involving 330 presenters and many hundreds of participants can be achieved without adequate financial support. First and foremost we appreciate the increased support this year of the KIMEP Administration in providing not only basic funding but also in declaring KIRC Day, when classes were canceled and all students and faculty were encouraged to reap the benefits from the investment of so many thousands of dollars and thousands of volunteer hours. Making the event even better were the financial donations of general sponsor ACCA (the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants), an association of over a half million professional and student members, and sponsor POSCO E&C, one of the top steel manufacturing, engineering and construction companies in the world. We express extreme gratitude to these private donors. KIRC 2014 has already been scheduled for April 3-5, 2014, with a tentative theme of “Knowledge-Based Society: Central Asian Perspectives & Interactions." We hope to see you all at that exciting event and commit ourselves, again, to making it even bigger and better than ever. Sincerely, Ken Harvey, Ph.D. Chair of KIRC 2013 Organizing Committee

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KIRC 2013 Conference Organizing Committee

Ken Harvey, Associate Professor, Department of Media & Communications Sang Lee, Associate Professor, Bang College of Business Keun Jung Lee, Research Director, Bang College of Business Gerald Pech, Associate Professor, Department of Economics Yertore Orazay, Project Manager, School of Law Legal Clinic John Couper, Associate Professor, Department of Media & Communications Juldyz Smagulova, Assistant Professor, Language Center Maira Yessimzhanova, Senior Lecturer, Language Center Maganat Shegebaev, Assistant Professor, Language Center Vlad Shkaliberda, IT Instructor, Executive Education Center Gulnara Dadabaeva, Assistant Professor, Department of International Relations Tomas Balco, Associate Professor, School of Law George Rueckert, Assistant Professor, Language Center Zhamilya Gafur-Shaw, Director of Marketing, Communications and Public Relations Dinara Nurmanova, College Manager, College of Social Sciences Raushan Kanayeva, Deputy Director, Corporate Development Department Akhmetova Aizhan, Administrative Assistant, Bang College of Business Malika Rozmukhamedova, Student, Department of Media & Communications Katrina Dix, KIMEP Graduate Student/Staff

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Table of Contents

Session on Social Sciences 11Alima Zimanova Aliya K. Nurtaeva Wind Energy: Potential Future of Kazakhstan 12 Sabina Baldykova Smoking Among University Students in Kazakhstan 15 SkAktar Ali Advancing Knowledge Economy in Eastern Europe and Central Asia 18 Saule Emrich-Bakenova Implementation Barriers: Child Labour Policy in Kazakhstan 23 Nikolai Mouraviev AigerimTemir

Stakeholders in the Kindergartens' Public-Private Partnership in Kazakhstan: The Application of Stakeholder Theory 27

Aibek Bekaulov Zaure Zhanadilova State Regulation of Employment in the Republic of Kazakhstan 32

Didar Kassymova What is the Taste of Native Land in Everyday Practices of Repatriates(by Field Materials)? 38

Gulnara Dadabayeva Nation-State Issues in Context of 2008 Financial Crisis 43 Калшабаева Бибизия Кенжебековна

ҚАЗАҚСТАНДАҒЫ РЕПАТРИАНТТАР: ТАРИХИ ОТАНҒА ОРАЛУЫ МЕН ОРНЫҒУЫНДАҒЫ КЕЙБІР МƏСЕЛЕЛЕР 46

Khabizanova G.B. Central Asian Turkic tribes: Karakitay periodin their cultural and ethnic history 51

Jiri Melich

Political Transformations in Central Europe vs. Central Asia: Why There is Such a Gap? 57

Sadyrova Manciya Labour Migration in Asia 64 Азад Шарапов К вопросу о обеспечении прав и интересов трудовых мигрантов 69 K. N. Myssayeva Problems and Prospects for Journalism Education in Kazakhstan 76 Martin van der Kroon John L. Couper

Projecting Identities through Social Media 80

John L. Couper, Ph.D. Beyond Interaction to Transaction: Rethinking Website Use 83 S. Barlybayeva Communication Development in Kazakhstan in the Era of Globalization 86 Anar Kuanyshbekova

Sholpan Kozhamkulova Examination of Business News Reporting in Kazakhstan:

Frames and Sources in Coverage of the “People’s IPO” in Kazakhstan 91 Aisha Akhmetbayeva Vladimir Garkavenko

Managing New Product Development Process: Case of Samsung Electronics 97

Н.Д. Ахметов Оптимальное управление водными ресурсами Аральского региона 99Session on Business & Management 102 Finance and Economics 103 Gulnara Moldasheva Empirical Evidences of Exchange rate pass-through in Central Asia 103

A.A. Aidaraliev

Strategy and plan of activities on the creation of a UN recognized category of developing mountainous countries, especially for those found in the most vulnerable positions, in order to the cancellation and exchange of external debt ( Mountain initiative) 113

Gulnara Moldasheva Global Food Price Inflation: responses in Kazakhstan and Russia 114 Nuriya Iskakova Impact of the Customs Union on Automobile Market of Kazakhstan 121

Razzaque H Bhatti Does Quantity Theory of Money Hold in Kazakhstan? Evidence Based on Cointegration Tests 129

Gulnara Moldasheva The Impact of Corporate Governance on capital structure choice: evidence from Financial Institutions in Kazakhstan 133

Keun Jung Lee Ownership Structure in Kazakhstan Company 142 Ha Jin Hwang/ Aizhan Umiraliyeva/Albina Baltabayeva/ Young Jun Park Factors Affecting ERP System Implementation in Kazakhstan 146

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Oleg Vlasov Securing Private in Social Networks: Risks and Challengemation Age 143 Oleg Vlassov/ R.Suyndukova/ Nadezhda Fidirko/ Marina Zaitseva/ Ludmila Bragina

Efficiency of Introducing Learning and Course Management Systems in Kazakhstan: Comparative Study 152

Oleg Vlasov Anti-Plagiarism Software: Perspectives for Implementation in Institutions of Higher Education in Kazakhstan 158

Ludmila Bragina / Nadezhda Fidirko/Rimma Suyndykova/ Marina Zaitseva Open office vs. License software 161 Rimma Suyndukova/ Marina Zaitseva / Nadezhda Fidirko/ Ludmila Bragina “Conception of Business processes in KIMEP student area” 163 Clemens Fuchs/ Joachim Kasten

Land Reforms und Land Privatization in General and with Respect to the Transition in East Germany 165

Sholpan Gaisina/Baurzhan Sharapidenov Borrowing in agricultural sector of Kazakhstan 170

А.Б. Молдашев Организационно-Экономические Меры Повышения Конкурентоспособности Аграрного Сектора Республики Казахстан 180

А.И. Алтухов Повышение качества зерна в Российской Федерации: Состояние и проблемы 182

Акимбекова Г.У. Развитие Переработки Сельскохозяйственной Продукции – Приоритетное Направление Апк Республики Казахстан 185

Акимбекова Ш.У. О Мерах По Расширению Занятости Трудовых Ресурсов Села В Условиях Инновационного Развития АПК 187

Кайдарова Ляззат Научные основы развития сельскохозяйственной кооперации 189

Кузнецова Елена Проблемы Кадрового обеспечения инновационного развития АПК Пензенской области 193

Сабирова Алла Развитие Земельных Отношений в Республике Казахстан 196 Винничек Любовь/Фудина Елена Продовольственная безопасность и причины ее возникновения 197

I.V. Коvalenko

The estimation of financial assets by fair value in conditions of convergence of generally accepted principles of accounting GAAP USA and IFRS 200

Rositsa Nedkova Ivanova Modern aspects of the organization’s financial equilibrium 203 Madi Mashakov/ Zhanat Syzdykov Accumulated Pension funds of Kazakhstan 211 Tatyana Golubeva Holistic evaluation model of investment projects’ efficiency 219

А. Султаншарав Система национальных счетов и развитие учета и аудита в рыночных условиях 223

Ирина Колос Формирование системы отчетности на современном предприятии 227

Ю.А. Маначинская Проблемы и возможности внедрения актуального учета в современных условиях развития экономики 229

Сергей Коротаев Бухгалтерский анализ влияния системы учета и налогообложения на экономику предприятий в условиях валютного кризиса 230

Николай Maтюха Характеристика и система управленческой отчетности в условиях применения информационных технологий 238

Айгуль Джолдинова Статья на тему: «Повышение эффективности управления процессом кредитования в коммерческих банках Казахстана» 239

Арзиева Айгуль Значение международной финансово-кредитной системы в экономике Кыргыской Республики 244

Oleg Vlasov Securing Private Information in Social Networks: Risks and Challenges in a New Information Age 148

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Mansur Khamitov/Elmira Bogoviyeva,

Optimal drug launch timing and brand’s market share in a pharmaceutical market: simultaneous vs. sequential drug introductions 249

Татьяна Бочуля

Методика расчета суммарного экономического эффекта производительности информационно-анналитической системы управления 252

Ким Чой Чунг/Бекжан Калиев

Факторы, влияющие на принятие рынком онлайн высшего образоваия в Республике Казахстан 259

Байбосунова Гулзат Усонбековна

Проблемы исследования креативного консюмеризма в Центральной Азии (Кыргызстан 263

Liza Rybina Collaborative Learning Techniques for Teaching Marketing and Sales in a Western-style University in Kazakhstan 264

Zarina Nugumanova/ Vladimir Garkavenko

Market of Small Hotels in Almaty: Marketing Strategic Planning of Hotel ALMA 268

Azhar Baisakalova/Vladimir Garkavenko

The Trends in International Competitiveness of Tourism Industry in Kazakhstan 271

Madina Massimova Impact of advertising sex appeal on consumer purchasing intention in Kazakhstani market 276

Aisha Akhmetbayeva / Vladimir Garkavenko

Managing New Product Development Process: Case of Samsung Electronics 278

Alma Alpeissova/ Dilbar Gimranova

“Employee Motivation System Effectiveness: the case of Kazakhstan Distribution Company” 281

Haydarova Gulandom Omon kizi

Water resources management strategy in the international projects. Studying and applying international experience 282

Yuliya Frolova/John Dixon Kazakhstani Business Student Work-Related Ethical Perceptions and Choices: An Exploratory Analysis 284

Michael Conrad The Relationship between Ethical Leadership and Moral Attentiveness: An Exploratory Study 288

Bakhyt Baideldinov The small enterprise strategy on the market of giants or Forth in the Rule of Three 295

Daria Stanis Instruments for Stimulating Sustainable and Responsible Corporations in Russia 297

Michael Quinn Analyzing Long-term University Enrollment Dynamics Using a Monte Carlo Method 304

Bulent Dumlupinar BRICK: A Dream or a Possibility? 313 Maya Katenova/ Bulent Dumlupinar Competitive analysis: Kazakhstani local banks versus foreign banks 319

Management 324

Султаншарав А. Білім саласындағы менеджмент жүйесін ұйымдастыру жəне құрылымдық элементтерінің тиімділігін арттыру механизмі 324

Орозонова А.А Роль Шанхайской организации сотрудничества в развитии Кыргызской Республики 327

Иванюк Т.Н./ Арышев В.А. Особенности анализа реорганизации бизнеса в Казахстане 333 Берлібаев Е/ Құттыжолова А.

Патша өкіметінің қоныстандыру саясатының отаршылдық мəні, жер мəселесінің қазақ ұлты тағдырындағы маңызды орны туралы 337

International Taxation 339

Marco Greggi An Euro Model for a Tobin Tax: the (Possible) Impact of the New Tax on the European Financial Market (and on the Non-EU Investors). 339

Alexey Naumov Effective tax management for enterprises in Kazakhstan 340

Aizhan Saparova Running business under international treaties on technical cooperation: the tax implications 341

Tomas Balco/Xeniya Yeroshenko

Tax Harmonization within the Common Market – Ideas from the EU for the CES 343

Lukas Klee Risk allocation and claim management under FIDIC contracts 345 Wim Wijnen The convergence of the international of tax treaties 351

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Лещенко Снежана

Совершенствование налогообложения в Едином экономическом пространстве в условиях разработки Основ налогового законодательства ЕврАзЭС 355

Тютюрюков Владимир Налоговая политика в ЕЭП и его странах-участницах 364

Киреева Елена Преференциальные режимы налогообложения в таможенном союзе 369

Ravshan Ismailov Major problems of development of the Free Economic Zones of Kyrgyzstan 372

Ибрагимов Нариман/Ибраева Эльмира/АбдраимовАсан

Рентный подход в управлении и налогобложении природовользования 376

Session on Language 382Abdramanova, Saule Conceptualization of English and Turkish Colors 383

Dr. Elise S. Ahn University Language Policies and the Rise of English-Medium Instruction in Higher Education Harmonization Processes 385

Dr. Ahn Elise / Dr. John Couper

‘Flipping Out’: Online approaches to teaching in an English as a foreign language context 389

Akhmetbekova, Assel Macrostructure Features of the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms 393

AZZOUG Omar The Globalization Process and the Revival of the ESP Enterprise 396

Babeshko Yelena Foundation Students versus Non-Foundation Students: Comparing Students’ Academic Performance 399

Баймулдина Н.С. Калмуханбетова С.О.

Oсобенности интеграции специализированных компьютерных средств в обучении английского языка студентов педагогического вуза 403

Бакимбаева , Сания Аудирование как ведущий метод в обучении русскому языку как иностранному 406

Nuraisha Bekeyeva Студенттің белсенділік пен уəждеме қалыптастыруындағы өздік жұмыстың маңыздылығы 410

Бекешова Г.У. К Проблеме Формирования Учебной Мотивации Студентов 413

Carey Catherine White Fang and His Litter: the Lingering Legacy of Socialist Literature on Kazakhstani Teaching Choices 415

Kerry Lucyann and Utebayeva Zaira A Cross-cultural Comparison of Teaching Styles in Kazakhstan 418

Knissarina М.М. Психологические Тренинги, Развивающие Учебную Мотивацию Студентов 425

Құрманəлиева Ақмарал Тіл үйретуде əңгімелеу мəтінін пайдаланудың маңызы 427 Мадиева Г.Б. Ибраева Ж.К.

Межкультурная коммуникация и языковая политика в Казахстане (на материале онимической лексики) 429

Mirzoyeva Leila Theoretical Linguistic Disciplines and Critical Thinking Development 431 Karina Narimbetova and Kamiya Abdulkhakimova Teaching Academic Reading and Writing: Reflections on Practice 436 Нургожина, Шолпан Умуртаева, Асия

Communicative-Pragmatic Unit Items of Verbal Interactive and their Ranks 439

Nurtazina Maral Arenova Marzhan

Innovative approach to educational technologies of language teaching in the social-cultural context of Kazakhstan 441

Оразалиева Батима Сейтхановна

К вопросу о профессиональной подготовки педагогических кадров в разных странах 449

Perrin Stuart Measuring entry English language ability in Transnational education. 453 Rgizbaeva Indira Rgizbaeva Manat

Проблемы развития и пути обновления системы среднего общего образования и их методическая обеспеченность в условиях 12-летней школы. 457

Rgizbaeva Indira Aytkulova Kuralay

Проблемы перехода на 12-летнее среднее общее образование с учетом мировых тенденций и отечественного опыта. 464

Садвакасова Жадыра Кадилтаевна Инновационные методы обучения преподавателя высшей школы 470 Сарбасова Арайлым Кейс жағдаят арқылы іскерлік хат жазуды оқыту 475

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Tazhina, Gainiya Judith E. Parker

Preparing Global Leaders in Kazakhstan through Distance Learning Technologies 477

Токтарова Т.Ж. Копбаева Ж.С. Макулбекова А.К.

Гендерный аспект сопоставительного исследования пословиц казахского, русского и английского языков 481

Turumbetova L.A. The problems of translating terminological units 485 Yessemuratov Khalmurat Концепт «человек» в религиозной картине мира 488 Yeshengazina Saule Asetbekovna Enhancing interdisciplinary cooperation through EFL 490

Younas Ammar Case of Shared Vocabulary of Turkish and Urdu Languages 493 Утенова Дидарай Студенттің жазылым іскерлігін дамытуға арналған əдіс-тəсілдер 496 Zhanadilova Zaure/ Zhanadilov Turgan

Some particularities of learning English in Kazakh and Russian languages environment 499

Dinara Karimova Post-Class Reflections of the English Language University Lecturers in Kazakhstan 503

Session on Law 510Zhanat Alimanov Corporate Governance in Kazakhstan 511Mrs. Khalida Azhigulova, Magister Juris Regulation of Illegal Migration in Kazakhstan: Legislative Aspects 519

Saule Emrich-Bakenova Implementation Barriers: Child Labour Policy In Kazakhstan 523Аюпова З.К./ Кусаинов Д.У.

ОБЩИЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННО-ВЛАСТНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ В РЕСПУБЛИКЕ КАЗАХСТАН 527

Julie Chang Good Things to Come? The Legal Implications of Kazakhstan’s Accession to the World Trade Organization 533

JUDr. Lukas Klee Risk Allocation and Claim Management under FIDIC Contracts 535Cадуакасова Жазира Қаділтайқызы ҰЖЫМДЫҚ ЕҢБЕК ДАУЛАРЫНЫҢ ӨЗЕКТІ МƏСЕЛЕЛЕРІ 541

Кенебаев Самат. ҚАРУЛЫ ҚАҚТЫҒЫСТАР КЕЗІНДЕГІ БАЛАЛАРДЫҢ ҚҰҚЫҚТАРЫ МЕН ҚАУІПСІЗДІГІН ҚАМТАМАСЫЗ ЕТУДІҢ ҚҰҚЫҚТЫҚ АСПЕКТІЛЕРІ 544

Шеримов Н.

СОТТАРДЫҢ ҚЫЗМЕТІН ҰЙЫМДАСТЫРУШЫЛЫҚ-ҚҰҚЫҚТЫҚ ЖАҒЫНАН ҚАМТАМАСЫЗ ЕТУДІҢ КЕЙБІР МƏСЕЛЕЛЕРІ: ТАРИХЫ МЕН ҚАЗІРГІ ЗАМАН 548

Берліғұлов Арман Маратұлы АДАМ МЕН ТҰЛҒАНЫҢ ҚҰҚЫҚТЫҚ ТҮСІНІГІ 552

KIMEP Universitythanks general sponsor

The Association of Chartered Certified Accountantsfor its support

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KIMEP InternationalResearch Conference

Almaty, Kazakhstan3-5 April 2014

11

Session on

Social Sciences

12

Wind Energy: Potential Future of Kazakhstan Alima Zimanova

KIMEP University alima.zimanova@kimep.kz

and Aliya K. Nurtaeva KIMEP University

anurtaeva@kimep.kz

Abstract: Kazakhstan's energy profile is historically characterized by the predominant role of fossil fuels, which reserves are abundant in the country. The study focuses on assessing the feasibility of wind energy implementation in Kazakhstan. It identifies fossil fuels’ abundance as one of the reasons why wind energy has not yet been developed in Kazakhstan despite unique meteorological and geographical conditions for wind power development. The objective of this study is to weigh the overall advantages and disadvantages of wind energy and to define the most effective strategies used worldwide for adoption in Kazakhstan. The possible development models were discussed– the success of China and India with the historical leadership of European countries in wind power sector. It was shown that the benefits of using wind energy may mitigate and outweigh its shortcomings. The barriers to wind energy developmentcan be eliminated by house-scale renewable energy systems and governmental programs of subsidizing the wind power market. The first achievements in Kazakhstan:installation of small wind generators in rural areas and the first wind turbine(750 kW) in Akmola oblast, construction of manufacturing plants to produce wind turbines – clearly demonstrate opportunity for Kazakhstan to diversify country’s energy sector. Keywords: Wind energy, Kazakhstan, renewable energy, wind power, wind turbine. 1. Introduction Forthcoming depletion of fossil fuels and harm to the environment caused by their extraction and burning demonstrate the unavoidability of switching to alternative sources of energy,one of which is ecologically-friendly wind power. A surge of interest in ecologically-friendly energy resources observed now is associated with the upcoming energy crisis, namely approaching the end of fossil fuelsof which the first one to be depleted be oil. Current rate of oil extraction and consumption cannot be maintained long: permanent and irreversible decline in global oil production is inevitable. Coal, the major producer of electricity and the greatest contributor to global warming, responsible for over 80% of greenhouse gas emissions, mercury and radioactive pollution, will be depleted in about 200 years [1]. Rather than wait until ‘non-renewables’ run out, humans must accelerate the development of renewable energy production to fill the enormous gap of 86% in world energy profile that is now occupied by non-renewable energy sources. 2. Wind power: pros and cons Attractiveness of wind energy is based on the following grounds. Being a renewable energy source, it never runs out and possesses huge potential. Total electrical potential of the world’s wind farms is 1Terawatt = 1012 W. For comparison, world wind power reached ~200 gigawatt level in 2012 [2]. Electricity produced by wind turbines is ‘green’, with no emissions of toxic pollutants and greenhouse gases. For instance, a wind farm with 500 MW capacity and annual production of 1.5 mln MWhper year prevents emissions into the atmosphere of 1.5 mln tons of greenhouse gases, 12,000 tons of sulfur dioxide, 7,800 tons of nitrogen oxides and 12,600 tons of fly ash. Moreover, wind farms unlike traditional thermal power plants do not use any water, hence, the stress on water resources can be significantly reduced [3]. Finally, since the major driving force of the wind is pressure gradient, which in its turn is the result of unequal heating of the earth surface by the sun, the wind will blow as long as the sun shines. Hence, wind can be called an eternal energy source: it is renewable and practically infinite. Wind power as an alternative energy type is characterized by a number of shortcomings. 1) Intermittent or variable energy source, which depends on wind speed and direction so that the amount of generated electricity cannot be predicted. Capacity factor for wind energy varies from 20 to 40% [1]. 2) Installation of wind turbines requires significant capital expenditures. Expensive manufacturing and implementing of wind farms.

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3) Wind is a diffuse form of energy, like other renewable resources and therefore requires a lot of space. Reported area required by wind turbine depends on capacity and comprises 0.06 – 2.4 ha of land per 1 MW of electricity generated [4].A typical wind farm of 20 wind turbines in developed countries might extend over an area of 1 sq km. 4) Adverse impact on the wild life: birds and bats may collide with moving blades and die. Statistics although does not regard wind turbines as a serious threat to birds. 5) Health concerns of wind turbines include sound pollution(heavy noise) and visual effect of rotating blades when sun is in certain position on the sky, so called ‘flicker’. 3. Potential wind power development models for Kazakhstan As the share of wind energy in the world energy profile increases, more research is being conducted in the field. One of the fruitful research areas is the strategies to be used to accelerate the world’s wind energy production: which countries are the most successful in the world wind power generation and what measures should be taken to augment their achievements. Two fast-growing economies – India and China – are among the largest contributors to the growth: China is 1st top producer of wind energy in terms of total wind power capacity (due to high population level), but they are behind many countries in per capita wind energy production [5, 6]. The examples of China and India may be useful for Kazakhstan, since these countries extensively use low capacity small wind turbines, installed in rural areas. For Kazakhstan ,just making the first steps in the development of renewable energy, such experience may be useful. But to define the optimal ways for the development of wind power in Kazakhstan attention should be paid to European countries characterized by the fastest wind power growth: Denmark (the leader in world per capita wind power), Spain, Germany, Sweden [7]. 3.1. Wind power development in China and India China facing the problem of air pollution and high dependency on coal took successful measures in development of wind power: Chinese government provided house-scale renewable energy systems and governmental programs of subsidizing wind power market. The unique feature of the Chinese wind energy industry is heavy promotion and marketing of the use of small wind turbines in remote rural areas [6]. Another power-starved giant, India, hopes to eliminate or at least reduce the shortage of power by switching to wind power. Indian model explains that as the current wind energy’s status and the wind power potential are far from exhausted, the Indian government sets goals for developing wind energy by implementing a national program for harnessing electricity production. Another initiative proposed is the attraction of the private sector into play under control by the government to ensure stability of energy supply [8]. The key factors in the successful development of wind energy are financial support of the government by reducing taxes for wind turbines manufacturers while eliminating subsidies to fossil fuels producers, and the choice of right locations for building wind turbines [5]. As the result, India although relatively new to renewable energy, demonstrated the highest growth of wind power which resulted in the 5thpositionin the world on installed wind power capacity after China, USA, Germany, Spain. 3.2. Wind power development in Europe The model demonstrates the importance of private ownership of wind turbines, careful planning of sites and long-range national energy policies in creating and stabilizing the conditions required for the development of more sustainable energy systems. Despite commonalities, Denmark, Sweden and Spain show differences in approaches: Denmark concentrates on careful developing and testing of technologies and concepts; Sweden focuses on producing two-blade 1 MW turbines with increased efficiency; Spain creates powerful interest around the sector to overcome social barriers associated with wind energy through political lobbying and media campaigns [7]. 4. Wind power in Kazakhstan: potential and prospective Kazakhstan possesses large wind energy potential which exceeds 1 trillion kWh per annum, while consuming only 100 billion kWh. Hence, if developed, wind power might not only satisfy the country’s internal energy demand but also provide an opportunity to import energy to neighboring countries, which is of high importance due to forthcoming energy crisis. Although Kazakhstan is considered as one of the world’s most appropriate countries for wind power development due to unique meteorological and geographical conditions, wind energy sector development is in early stage of development [9]. Wind

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measurement program started in late 90s and continued in the 21 century, resulting in wind atlas of Kazakhstan, prepared by Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (now Ministry of Industry and New Technology) of the Republic of Kazakhstan and UNDP [4]. The more suitable sites for wind power development include Djungar gate and Shelek corridor in Almaty oblast, Erementau in Akmola oblast), Arkalyk in Kostanai oblast and some areas of Mangystau, Karaganda and Zhambyl oblast. The challenges of wind power development in Kazakhstan include high wind speeds exceeding 8 m/sec. To compare, European wind turbines are functioning at 4-5 m/sec [6], while in Kazakhstan strong winds may destroy wind turbines, including the generator itself and foundation. To avoid this, wind turbines foundations require higher level of stability, and therefore, more expenses are expected. The required land even at low capacity may be significant (~ 0.4 ha per 1MW) [1], but only 1% of the land area is actually used for housing wind turbines, electric control points and access roads, the remaining area may be used for other purposes, such as agriculture and forestry. 5. Wind power in Kazakhstan: first steps The first step in wind power development in Kazakhstan became the installation of small capacity wind turbines in rural areas (~1-5 kW).The retail priceof600 Watt 12 Volt Wind Generator for residential use is 379$. This capacity theoretically generates 432 kWh per month which may be enough for one family needs for lighting (not for cooking). But considering lower capacity factor of wind energy, which may be as low as 20%, the energy generated may be much less on less windy days. It also should be noted that actual cost of wind power production using this low capacity generator will include in addition to generator price cost of foundation, to which the generator should be fastened, cost of installation, electric cable, other electronic parts to provide control and monitoring over power generation. The wind generators from China are much cheaper as it is expected. The construction of plants producing wind turbines will start this year in several cities of Kazakhstan, including one in Astana [9]. Another successful example of wind power development in Kazakhstan is the first wind turbine of 750 kW capacity installed in Akmola oblast. ‘Kazatomprom’ is contributing to ‘green’ economy of Kazakhstan by implementation of combined autonomic solar-wind power sets which are already functioning in Akmola oblast since 2010 [9]. Another wind power project in Zhambyl oblast implies turning the region from energy deficient to energy abundant status by increasing wind power capacity from 1.8 MW to 188 MW by 2014. This ambitious plan will create additional 4150 job places during construction and 120 permanent job places during exploitation. All above mentioned steps in wind power development make the goal set by the President Nazarbayev to increase renewables by 2050 up to 50% of total energy power realistic and clearly demonstrate opportunity for Kazakhstan to diversify country’s energy sector within several coming years. 5. References 1. Hinrichs, R.A., Kleinback, M.H. Energy: its Use and the Environment (2006).4th Ed., Brooks /Cole. 2. De Castroa, C., Mediavillab, M., Miguelb, L. J., & Frechosoc, F. (2011). Global wind power potential:

Physical and technological limits. Energy Policy, 39, 6677–6682. 3. Prospective of Wind Power Development in Kazakhstan (2006). Kazakhstan – wind power market

development initiative. UNDP/GEF and Government of Kazakhstan project, Almaty, Kazakhstan. 4. IRENA Case Study 2013. Kazakhstan: National Wind Atlas and Measurement Programme. UNDP –

GEF. Abu Dhabi, 2012. 5. Lakshminarasimha, A., & Rath, S. (2007). Wind energy in India: The future and the challenge. ICFAI

Journal of Infrastructure, 5, 7-17. 6. Payne, J. E., & Carroll, B. (2009). Modeling wind speed and time-varying turbulence in geographically

dispersed wind energy markets in China. Energy Sources, 31, 1759-1769. 7. Meyer, N. I. (2007). Learning from wind energy policies in the EU: Lessons from Denmark, Sweden

and Spain. European Environment, 17, 347-362. 8. Shikha, S., Bhatti, T. S., & Kothari, D. P. (2004). Indian scenario of wind energy: Problems and

solutions. EnergySources, 25, 811-819. 9. Марьям ТУРЕЖАНОВА. Энергия ветра, солнца и тепла. Казахстанская правда, 8 марта 2013.

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Smoking Among University Students in Kazakhstan

Sabina Baldykova KIMEP University

s.baldykova@yahoo.com

Abstract: This research is focused on the problems of smoking among university students in Kazakhstan as the tobacco consumption in this particular age group increased. This study is concentrated on the prevalence of smoking among different gender, social, racial and economic groups; the causes of smoking; potential risk factors; society’s influence and tobacco manufacturing companies’ de-marketing strategies. The methods I used in this research include questionnaires which were passed around KIMEP Campus, interviews with tobacco producing companies’ Marketing Department staff and group discussions with smoking and non-smoking KIMEP students. The major findings include statistical information, numerical data and facts about tobacco consumption and promotion, which include the frequency and impacts of cigarette consumption, attitude towards smoking and tobacco producers’ de-marketing programs. This research paper is recommended to use for investigating the psychological causes of smoking and its impacts on students’ academic and athletic performance, for exploring the tobacco market and for using as a part of an overall view on students’ health problems and bad habits in Kazakhstan. However, this project has certain limitations due to the small number of participants of the surveys and therefore, a possibility of imprecise and ambiguous statistical information. Key Words: Smoking, Students, Kazakhstan, Smoker Behavior, Society’s Influence, Gender Difference, Smoking Habits. 1. Introduction Smoking related problems became particularly relevant in modern society’s life and individuals’ growth and development, and especially intensely affected the youth. The increase in the level of tobacco consumption among teenagers during the 1990s led two influential organizations - American Medical Association and the Food and Drug Administration to call smoking "a disease of young” in 1997 (Shevalier, 2000). According to the article by Y. Khader, the wide expansion of smoking in some countries of the world is related to political and economic instability, financial difficulties, global crisis and unemployment. I investigated smoking habits in Kazakhstan, which are deeply rooted in the history of our republic and are tightly connected with the overall culture, traditions, views, beliefs and superstitions. This issue is very controversial, extensive and profound, so to make it more specific and narrow, I chose the topic “Smoking among university students in Kazakhstan” as the theme for my research and factors of smoking as the main focus of it. This allowed concentrating on the main causes of smoking, possible gender, social, racial, and economic tendencies to smoke, potential risk factors, environmental issues, marketing strategies, society’s pressure and negative peer influence.

The core instrument I used in my research is surveying the students of KIMEP University. Based on my bibliography, I came up with a list of questions, which were really helpful in my investigation. These questions are concerning prevalence and scope of smoking among university students; the time and reason for beginning smoking; the influence of social and economic volatility; the pressure from human environment; the impact from socio-cultural level of the respondent; the influence of marketing techniques and strategies of the tobacco companies; the attitude of non-smokers; the willingness to give up smoking at any age. This study is focused on the main reasons to smoke, so other very important questions are examining if cigarettes help the youngsters to feel more mature, show off, be a part of a crowd, lose weight, calm down or concentrate on some tasks.

The theoretical sources I used in my work were conducted in different countries around the world, and their outcomes cannot always fit Kazakhstani conditions. For instance, Lavack states that Canadian smokers are facing very strong pressure and negative attitude from the non-smoking population, especially from their fellow youngsters, who are really concerned with their health (Lavack, 2003). The article “Smoking Among University Students: A Gender Analysis” by A. Mandil and A. Bin Saeed from Saudi Arabia proposes that friends’ smoking is a pivotal risk factor for students, and father’s smoking habits are also of great importance for a youngster (Mandil & Bin Saeed, 2010). Jordan researcher Haddag implies that two-thirds of smokers want to quit smoking in the future (Haddag, 2002). I tried to find out if the same tendencies are running over here in Kazakhstan, prove that with statistical data from the surveys and questionnaires, add some personal touch from interviewing individuals, come up with national, social and gender transitions and comparisons, build graphs and diagrams to visually illustrate my findings, and

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realize some implications in the real life for people who want to give up smoking and live a bright life without the burden of cigarettes.

2. Methods Between 80,000 and 100,000 children worldwide start smoking every day - roughly half of whom live in Asia (Martin, 2002). In Kazakhstan, 27% of inhabitants older than 12 years smoke (Youth Club, 2012). The scientific preventions that smoking is harmful to health without explaining the mechanisms of diseases do not impress children; moreover, they cause opposite reaction from rebellious teenagers. Antismoking educational work at schools and universities has no effective results because outside children meet smokers, have an unintentional pressure of advertising, see tobacco trade in unauthorized places of sale at affordable prices. At the same time many of them have no opportunity to go to sports facilities, children's art centers, art studios because of their small existence, high fees for training and expensive equipment. All these factors result in teenage smoking problems; the situation gets even worse after a child gets enrolled at a university.

Students explain their smoking habits very differently; nevertheless, from a scientific point of view, all their reasons are unsubstantiated. My study is focused on the main causes to smoke, so I examined if cigarettes help the youngsters to feel grown-up, show everyone how “cool” they are, be a part of a crowd, lose weight, calm down, concentrate on some tasks or “satisfy” their hunger. I also investigated the students’ awareness of consequences of smoking, prevalence of smoking in this age group, the impact of smoking on various aspects of life of youngsters, their view of the problem as a whole and its relation to health. My sociological study involved 80 students (most of them from KIMEP University); 38 males and 42 females; it included paper-based questionnaires, surveys in social webs (Facebook.com, Vk.com, CouchSurfing.org) and group discussions. Being a student of KIMEP University, I was be able to pass the surveys all around the campus, especially in mass-smoking places (Valikhanov Building entrance, Dostyk Building entrance, the Arch) and auditoriums; had an opportunity to talk to people and decide if KIMEP’s Anti-Smoking policy works properly or are there frequent violations of it; had a chance to interview students right in the process of smoking.

I also consulted Marketing Department staff of prominent tobacco corporations in Kazakhstan – Philip Morris and British-American Tobacco to get some information of advertising strategies of these companies, and which methods and policies they apply on young smokers. One of the interviewees, Alexander Ostrovskiy, former employee of “Philip Morris Sales and Marketing, Ltd.”, now works as a Senior Lecturer at the Marketing and Management Department at KIMEP University and has provided me with important information about “Philip Morris’” child smoking prevention programs. Finally, I organized a small debate in KIMEP Dormitory among my smoking friends and took notes of some interesting insights into the life of a smoker.

3. Results The data I got considering the prevalence of smoking among different gender, social, racial and economic groups seemed to be very interesting. 75% of the male and 47% of female students smoke. 57% of smoking students are Asian, and 43% are European. 14% of students have income of less than 100,000 tenge; 27% have income of 100, 000 to 500,000 tenge; 59% of students’ income is more than 500, 000 tenge. The number of 14% with income of less than 100,000 tenge may be surprising, but possible these 14% are the students who have grants at KIMEP University and come from other Central Asian countries where the average income is much lower than in Kazakhstan.

The attitude towards smokers varies depending on age and gender. 63.7% of the respondents expressed indifferent attitude to smoking adults; considering the attitude to their smoking peers, 46.2% were tolerant to smoking boys and 23.7% - to smoking girls. Moreover, one category of students even supported smoking adults - 3.75%, boys - 6.25% and girls - 2.5%. However, the biggest portion of respondents had strictly negative attitude to smoking peers, especially to girls – 73.8%.

Taking into consideration the smoking habits of the families of respondents it was found that 26.2% of their mothers and 57.5% of the fathers smoked. In 21.2% of cases, both parents smoked. The students were also asked if their parents know about these students’ smoking addiction and how they felt about smoking in general. The attitude of parents towards smoking children was mostly negative: 84.4% of parents did not approve it. This is the cause for 89% of respondents to hide their smoking addiction from parents. 9.4% of parents did not express their attitude to smoking children. In some families (6.2%) smoking children were considered normal. These parents’ unspoken approval provokes children to smoke openly and even in their company.

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The statistical information I collected, processes and analyzed, gave me a good overall view on smoking issues among students; the interviews I conducted provided me with the descriptions of the solutions to these problems.

4. Conclusions Smoking killed 100 million people in the 20th century; 5.4 million people die each year — one every six seconds — from lung cancer, heart disease or other illness directly linked to tobacco use (Sharples, 2008). Smoking students in Kazakhstan do not take this information into consideration and consume cigarettes in big capacities. For instance, the primary research showed that smoking rates among adolescents reached 39%, 4% of them smoke more than 20 cigarettes per day. Students still are afraid of their parents’ reaction to smoking, so 89% of them hide it from parents, and 20% - always smoke alone. And even though major tobacco producing companies design special programs, workshops and civic activities to prevent the youth from smoking and get them acknowledged about the consequences of cigarette consumption, the young generation’s knowledge about impacts of smoking on academic performance, sport activities and health is vague, obscure and incorrect. For instance, 30% of students do not them associate smoking with the deterioration of growth and physical development; 5% do not know that smoking negatively impacts athletic performance and 7,5% even think that smoking improves academic performance. The attitude towards smokers is still mostly negative; considering the group discussion, none of the students would marry a smoking woman. The level of awareness about dangerous consequences of smoking implies that our students do not know much about that, get suppressed by older smoking friends, take their smoking parents as examples and began smoking at school or at university. I suppose that lack of proper knowledge about smoking effects, e.g. educational brochures, posters, school lectures and parents’ control causes such tendency. 5. References 1] Haddag, L. (2002). “Smoking habits and attitudes towards smoking among university students”. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 39(8), 793-802.

2] Khader, Y., & Alsadi, A. (2008). “Smoking habits among university students in Jordan: prevalence and associated factors”. East Mediterranean Health Journal, 14(4), 897-904.

3] Lavack, A., & Kropp, F. (2003). “Smoking among university students in Canada and South Korea: Linking diffusion theory with consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence”. Health Marketing Quarterly, 20(4), 23-25.

4] Mandil, A., & Bin Saeed, A. (2010). “Smoking among university students: A gender analysis”. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 3(4), 179-187.

5] Martin, T. (2002). “Global Smoking Statistics for 2002: Overall Stats and Youth Smoking Facts”.

6] Sharples, T. (2008). “Smoking Will Kill 1 Billion People”.

7] Shevalier, R (2000). “Context dissonance in tobacco education literature”. Journal of Drug Issues, 30(2), 407-434.

8] Tansey, R., Carroll, R., & McClaren, N. (2003). “Moral antecedents of smoking behavior and risk beliefs among overseas Asian students”. Health Marketing Quarterly, 16(2), 91-110.

9] World Health Organization (1990). “International Classification of Diseases (ICD)”.

10] Youth Club: project for the prevention of alcoholism and smoking (2012). Project “For healthy style of life – without tobacco and alcohol”.

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Advancing Knowledge Economy in Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Sk Aktar Ali Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, Ministry of Culture, Government of India

Email: ali.aktar@gmail.com

Abstract Emerging skill shortages imply that knowledge economy is fast becoming an important element of the education and training systems in Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA). This study has identified knowledge economy as a critical part of their education policy agenda to meet the new skills demands but also to respond to a rapidly worsening demographic outlook across most of the region. Yet in many ECA countries this issue has remained peripheral to the efforts to reform education and training systems. Using case study this paper presents available evidence on the extent and patterns of knowledge economy in ECA. While it is not equally important for all ECA countries, adult education and training should be high on the agenda of those ECA economies that are closest to the technological frontier and facing a demographic decline, such as the new EU Member States and Russia. The paper lays out a framework for government action to advance adult learning in ECA through a mix constituting of policy coordination between government and the enterprise sector, a sound regulatory regime and appropriate financial incentives. The findings will suggest that European-centered studies of globalization and human capital theory are sometimes not enough to understand the complex social world. Keywords Knowledge economy, Adult education and training, Globalization, Human capital, Firms, ECA 1. Introduction The demand for a more skilled work force is increasing globally, and continual upgrading of skills of the workforce to ensure knowledge economy has become an important part of the recent policy agenda in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. For countries in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region the issue of skills and re‐skilling its workforce are critical not only to compete internationally but also to address the lag effect of transition where large segments of the labor force remain inactive. Likewise, the rapid demographic decline expected for many ECA countries suggests that each worker will have to become more productive and stay so for longer. The paper discusses the concept of knowledge economyin terms ofadult education and training, argues why it is important for ECA and assesses where ECA countries stand. It identifies barriers to expanding adult education and training both from a theoretical and empirical view point and finally, lays out a policy framework for advancing adult education and training across ECA.

2. Methods Analysis of adult education and training in ECA countries has remained limited to date, mostly owing to a lack of cross‐country data.While several OECD countries have been conductingnational surveys of adult training in firms for many years, such surveys have not beencomparative across countries, and data for ECA countries was sparse. For ECA as a whole, the2005 and 2008 Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Survey (BEEPS) includedlimited questions on adult training by firm size and limited worker characteristics; howeverissues with cross‐country comparability preclude solid conclusions. In the European Union, thefirm‐based Continuing Vocational Training Survey 1999 and 2005 (CVTS) with information onworker training and the Adult Education Survey 2007 (AES) with data on individual participationin formal or non‐formal education and training are the first surveys that allow cross‐countryanalysis of patterns of adult education and training. Both include a number of ECA countriesand serve as the basis of much of the analysis in this paper. The data used in this paper are,therefore, centered excessively on the EU10. Moreover,existing surveys place an emphasis on CVET (Continuing Vocational Education and Training) does not provide much information on secondchance education and re‐training for the unemployed. Owing to this limitation, the analysis inthis paper is heavily focused on CVET, while paying attention to second chance education andretraining for the unemployed where possible.

3. The concept of knowledge economy in terms of education and training

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In the recent years, a flurry of literatures are increasingly describing today’s global economy as ‘knowledge economy’ or knowledge-based economy’ and that the economic growth is driven by the accumulation of knowledge. That we have to produce enough knowledge or the right kind of knowledge to survive in this global economy goes the argument.In the recent years Peter Drucker in his book The Age of Discontinuity (1969, pp. 247-249) wrote: ‘we’re moving from an economy of goods to knowledge economy’. The term ‘knowledge economy’ has become a common usage in post-second World War scenario. More precisely, it becomes prominent since the fall of Berlin Wall in 1998. Bell (1973) who first coined the term ‘post-industrial society’, argues that the knowledge economy has emerged over the last decade in the US, and more recently, European and the other late capitalist countries, a widespread policy consensus that stresses the importance and pursuit of a high skill, knowledge-based economy and learning society. The concept knowledge economy is contrasted with the agriculture or industrial era. New term ‘pre-knowledge economy’ can be coined to mean agriculture and manufacturing era. The common formula explaining the production function in the agriculture and manufacturing economy was: L+L+C (Land + Labor + Capital). In the knowledge economy, production functions are explained by an equation: L+L+C+K (+T) [Land + Labor + Capital + Knowledge (some would like to add Technology)]. The main rationale for this complex kind of argument is that the investment in knowledge can increase the production capacity of other factors of production as well as transform them into new products and processes. And since these knowledge investments are characterized by increasing (rather than decreasing) returns, they are the key to long-term economic growth (OECD, 1996). In the book Industrialism and Industrial Man (Kerr et al, 1973) the authors argued that the industrializing processes at the heart of society would have a world-wide impact, producing a convergence in the social structures in the different countries of the world, a more open and global society. The authors implied that each society has an infrastructure and a superstructure. The infrastructural driving force of change was the industrialization process itself and, not surprisingly, education was part of the superstructure, responding to the needs of the infrastructure and being forced to change according to its demands. The process of globalization, as we know it today, can be seen to have begun in the early 1970s. In the face of competition from Japan and the oil crisis, corporations began to relocate manufacturing and to transfer capital around the world, seeking the cheapest places and the most efficient means of manufacturing and the best markets in which to sell, their products. This resulted in the continued decline in manufacturing industries in much of the First World and the need for new occupational structures emerged. The world market expanded rapidly aided and encouraged by the rapid development of Information Communication Technology (ICT). Theorists begun to suggest that there is actually a world economy (Wallerstein, 1974, inter alia) based on the capitalist system of exchange. These processes changed the structure of the work-force, with a decline in manufacturing jobs and an increased demand for knowledge-based workers. Indeed, Reich (1991) postulated that there would be three major groups of workers – knowledge-based, service-based and routine production. It is significant to note that at both the global level, and within the economic regions, there is this division of labour. The wealthiest countries have a large proportion of knowledge workers. As other countries industrialize, they generate more knowledge-based workers but their work-force remains predominantly agricultural and manufacturing. Additionally, other countries are socially excluded with most of their work-force being redundant labour and they have subsistence economies; these are among the world’s poorest, for this is the inevitable result of globalization (Bauman, 1998). 4. Why is adult education and training important for ECA? Adult education and training is an important element of the life‐time accumulation of human capital.As much as one half of lifetime human capital is accumulated in the period after formalschooling, i.e. through adult education and training (Heckman, 1999). Moreover, adulteducation and training is set to become more important for ECA countries as they approach thetechnological frontier: Technological change may become faster than labor force renewalthrough inflow of younger, more productive workers with more relevant skills and outflow ofolder workers with obsolete skills. Keeping up with technological change, and exploiting itspotential, will therefore require further educating and training current workers and prime ageindividuals to update their skills.

1. There is a large international literature documenting empirical evidence that adult education and training improves labor market outcomes in terms of higher wages and employment (OECD, 2004; Dearden et al., 2000).

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2. Recent analysis reveals that training also has a strong positive effect on productivity and a high internal rate of return.A range of studies have shown that worker training raisesproductivity (Dearden et al., 2000; Tan, 2000).

3. Adult learning is increasingly important for the ECA region because of both the changing demand for skills triggered by technological advancement and the rapid decline in the working age population. As ECA countries aspire to converge with advanced OECD economies,continuous re‐skilling of the workforce will be required—at an ever faster pace. Much of theeconomic growth during the transition has been driven by restructuring, that is, the destructionof unproductive firms and creation of productive ones, triggering large job reallocation (WorldBank, 2005).

4. But adult education and training is not equally important for all ECA countries. While the importance of adult learning will grow for all ECA countries as they move closer to the technological frontier, it is more important now for the technologically advanced ECA countries that are already very close, and less for the less advanced. ECA countries can be broadly divided into three groups:

o Advanced economies facing a demographic decline: Consisting of the new EU Member States and Russia, this group has already begun focusing on adult learning, e.g. in the framework of the European Union’s Jobs and Growth Strategy. Competing in highly competitive markets, countries in this group should follow their EU neighbors in advancing adult education and training both for the skilled, currently employed and for the unskilled or less‐skilled who may currently not be employed.

o Less advanced economies facing a demographic decline: Comprising many countries in South‐East Europe and several rapidly aging CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) countries, this group should consider piloting and developing policies to promote adult learning, but will need to balance this with other priorities in reforming their education systems.

o Less advanced economies facing a demographic expansion: Consisting of the bulk of Central Asian countries plus Albania, countries in this group should not consider comprehensive policies to promote adult learning as a priority.

Turkey and Kazakhstan do not fit well into any of the three groups. They have expanding populations yet aspire to move to the technological frontier, and should consider promoting adult learning a priority. Demographic decline suggest that every person of working age is needed in the labor force,and training can make an important contribution to labor market inclusion. In addition to an equity imperative there is a growth imperative for social inclusion through greater skills. Many of the unemployed and economically inactive in ECA face educational disadvantage as a result of early school leaving or the failure to acquire basic skills, barring their productive (re‐) employment and triggering substantial economic and financial costs in terms of lower labor force participation and productivity. In several ECA countries a significant share of 15 year‐olds performs at the bottom level in reading literacy in (Programme for International Students Assessments (PISA), suggesting that many will leave school without the necessary basic skills to become productively employed. Educational failure is often concentrated among certain socially excluded groups, such as the Roma minority in many Central and South‐East European countries.

5. The state of adult education and training in ECA

The paper presents available statistics on adult education and training in ECA, differentiating two separate types: (i) Continuing Vocational Education and Training (CVET) for the employment sought by employers, and (ii) retaining and second chance education for the non-employed. Despite considerable data constraints (ECA data is mainly limited to the EU10 countries) the paper arrives at the following findings:

1. The extent of worker training varies across ECA, largely according to per capita incomeand with a broad East‐West divide, and several ECA countries have training participationrates similar to advanced EU Member States: a much smaller share of firms in lessdeveloped ECA countries, such as low‐income CIS (Commonwealth Independent States)countries, are engaged in workertraining than in most middle‐income EU10 countries. EU10 countries occupy a middle-to‐bottom range among EU Member States. The Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic,Estonia and Slovenia, the frontrunners across ECA, have higher participation in trainingand a higher share of firms who provide training than many old EU

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Member States.Firm training rates on aggregate do not appear to be low compared to leadingeconomies in the EU if adjusted to per capita GDP as a measure of how advanced theeconomies are.

2. Adult education and training spending represents a sizable share of GDP, with largelyprivate financing for CVET and public financing for programs for the non‐employed,while provision is both public and private.Spending on CVET alone was estimated toamount to 0.2‐1.0 percent of GDP in 2005, both including direct costs and labor cost.CVET dwarfs retraining for the unemployed in terms of participants and spending, andwhile detailed data remain limited, it appears that the lion’s share of CVET is financedprivately or through private‐public co‐financing. It also appears that private provisionhas become dominant in most ECA countries during the transition, although the publicsector retains a share in the adult education and training market in some countries, notleast through the involvement of public vocational schools and universities.

3. However, the participation in adult learning in ECA is uneven.Training rates are higherfor men than for women, for skilled individual than for less skilled, for younger than forolder people, for the employed than for the unemployed and inactive and for large firmsthan for small firms. While this finding is in line with evidence from around the world, itappears that in some cases the differentials are higher for ECA countries than forexample for advanced EU countries. Retraining and second chance education andtraining is relatively limited in ECA countries. Moreover, there appears to be a lowershare of disadvantaged workers in the EU10 who participate in adult education andtraining than in the old EU Member States.

4. Barriers to more education and training in the EU10 countriesare related to (i) costliness of training, both in terms of direct financial cost and opportunity cost in terms of working time and leisure time lost – constraint that appear bigger relative to the EU15; (ii) lack of information on training opportunities which appears more binding for less skilled individuals including the unemployed; and (iii) in some cases, a relative undersupply of training providers and lack of preconditions for education and training.

6. An agenda for advancing adult education and training in ECA

In the concluding remarks building systems for adult education and training cannot be achieved overnight. Based on the experience from across OECD countries, advancing adult learning in ECA will require a comprehensive strategy to unlock private demand for education and training, including through smart use of regulation and, where appropriate, strategic financial incentives.

Advancing adult learning in ECA will require, as a critical precondition, close coordination across ministries, regional governments, firms and workers’ representatives – beyond the extenttypically found in ECA countries so far. This coordination is best supported by a managingagency for adult learning, and sector‐level councils. In order for adult learning to be effective,private sector stakeholders – firms and workers – must have a powerful voice in setting policy,particularly at the sector level. Coordination efforts also need to address information barriersand how to better reach those groups in the population currently not well aware of benefits ofand opportunities for adult education and training.

Second, it will require developing a regulation and certification regime. Effective regulation sets qualifications (descriptors) and fosters the dissemination of information about the skills of workers through national qualification frameworks which facilitate the recognition of prior non-formal and informal learning. National qualification systems are a critical ingredient of an adult education and training system which is both flexible and responsive to labor market needs. They are best developed in a measured way with adequate consultation. The other key component of regulation is evaluating and accrediting education and training providers – which again contributes to better information about available quality training programs. Neither regulation nor certification systems can be installed overnight, but can be built gradually.

Third, it will require testing new financing arrangements which strengthen the demand for education and training, building on labor market needs.Government financing can incentivizeprivate investment in CVET for the employed – yet private investment should take the lion’sshare in financing CVET due to the private nature of its return. Indeed, financial investments forCVET can be seen as a second‐order intervention, following better coordination and regulation.Incentives for firm‐specific skills are best targeted to employers through tax deductions, grant levysystems or matching grants, and should aim to target firms and workers that are unlikely toseek training in the absence of the incentive so as to minimize deadweight loss. Also attractiveis co‐financing to workers to develop skills not needed by their firms through demand‐sideincentives. Retraining for the unemployed must be systematically targeted to those

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who willmost benefit from it, in order for it to be cost-effective. At the same time, the mostdisadvantaged tend to be underserved in ECA countries. Successful approaches, including onsecond chance education, require a combination of better outreach mechanisms, and intensivetraining designed to address multiple skills gaps.

Lastly, publicly financed retraining programsgive the government a substantial role as purchaser of training services which it can strategicallyuse to foster a climate of competition also benefiting CVET.

7. References Bauman, Z. (1998). Globalization: the Human Consequences, Cambridge: Policy Press. Heckman, J. J. (1999), Policies to Foster Human Capital, NBER Working Paper, No. 7288.

Bell, D. (1973). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, New York: Basic Books.

Dearden,L., Reed,H.&Reenen,J.V. (2000). Who Gains when Workers Train? Training and Corporate Productivity in a Panel of British Industries, CEPR Discussion Papers 2486, London: Centre for Economic Policy Research.

Drucker, P. (1969). The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to our changing society, New York: Harper & Row.

Kerr, C., Dunlop, J.T., Harbinson, F. & Myers, C.A. (1973). Industrialism and Industrial Man 2nd edition, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Kuhn, M., Tomassini, M. & Simons, P. R. (Eds.) (2007). Towards a Knowledge-based Economy: Knowledge and Learning in European Educational Research, New York: Peter Lang.

OECD (1996). The Knowledge –based Economy, Paris: OECD.

OECD (2004). Employment Outlook (Chapter 4), Improving skills of More and Better Jobs: Does Training Make a Difference? Paris: OECD.

Reich, R. (1991). The Work of Nations, London: Simon & Schuster.

Tan, H.W. (2001). Do Training Levies Work? Malaysia’s HRDF and Its Effect on Training, and Firm-level Productivity, World Bank Institute Working Paper by Hong W. Tan (2000), Washington DC: World Bank.

Wallerstein, I. (1974). The Modern World System, New York: Academic Press.

World Bank (2005), Enhancing Job Opportunities, Washington DC: World Bank. Biography Sk Aktar Ali is Researcher, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, Kolkata. He was the Erasmus Mundus Scholar at Aarhus University, Denmark; Duesto University, Spain and Institute of Education, University of London, UK. He is currently working on Maulana Azad’s vision of education in India.

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Implementation Barriers: Child Labour Policy in Kazakhstan

Saule Emrich-Bakenova (Ph.D.), Public Administration

College of Social Sciences, KIMEP University E-mail: sbakenov@kimep.kz; emrich_bakenova@gmail.com

Abstract- Aims: This paper examines implementation of the child labour regulations in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Methods: The consultation with key stakeholders, review of laws, policies, reports, historical documents. Results: The Government of Kazakhstan committed itself to take the necessary measures to address child labour by ratifying international conventions and including child issues as a priority in a national policy. However, instances of child labour nevertheless persist in the informal sector of the economy and agriculture. Implementation of child labour policy has been a challenge in Kazakhstan because of administrative oversight, problems with the effective enforcement of the relevant legislation. Conclusion: The analysis highlights actions for further improving Kazakhstan’s compliance with international Conventions specifically in the following areas: scope and enforcement of legislation, data collection, national policies and institutions. Keywords: international standards , policy, implementation, chid labour 1. Introduction The aim of this paper is to present results of the research related to the regulation of child labour in Kazakhstan. The research objective was to see to what extent the existing policies are consistent with the provisions of International Labour Organization (ILO) Conventions 138 and 182 and whether these policies comprehensively and effectively target provisions on minimum age requirements for admission to employment, the worst forms of child labour (hereafter WFCL) in Kazakhstan.

The findings of the research were the result of in-depth analysis of legislation, policies and programs on child labour in Kazakhstan including international reports relevant to child labour and youth employment as well as interviews with key stakeholders-representatives of institutions responsible for the implementation of the legislation and policies at central and local levels, members of the National Coordination Council on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (hereafter NCCCL), social partners and representatives of civil society.

2. International standards After the collapse of the Soviet Union and during the 1990s period of transition, Kazakhstan had widespread incidences of child labour in various sectors of urban and rural economy that stemmed from the emerging market and collapse of the state welfare system in early 1990s (Bereshev and Windhell 2007; Akhmetova et al 2008). In 1996, 30.2 percent of children (1.2 million) aged 7-14 were economically active or economically active and studying. Children were found to be engaged in prostitution, begging, vending food and consumer goods in the market, cotton and tobacco picking, domestic service, and on the streets scavenging (Bereshev and Windhell 2007).

In the last decade, some claim that use of child labour in Kazakhstan has subsided while its worst forms have not even been registered lately (Shulembayeva 2011). This credited to the development of a regulatory framework based on international standards. Kazakhstan ratified the Convention on Minimum Age for Admission to Employment (hereafter C138) on December 14, 2000 and as a result has thus far undertaken a series of measures to harmonize its legislation in accordance with international rules. According to C138, the minimum age for admission to any type of employment or work which is likely to jeopardize the health, safety or morals of young persons should be not less than 18. Employment or work from the age of 16 years could be authorized on conditions that the health, safety and morals of the young persons concerned are fully protected and that they have received adequate instruction or vocational training. In any case the minimum age should not be less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling and not less than 15 years.

Kazakhstan ratified the Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (C182) on December 26, 2002. According to C182 (Article 3) the worst forms of child labour apply to all persons under the age of 18 and which comprise:

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• All forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom, and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;

• The use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or for pornographic performances;

• The use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs;

• Work which by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.

Kazakhstan permits employment of minors from age 16 and employment of younger children is regulated by special conditions that largely meet the requirements of the conventions. In the last three years Kazakhstan undertook a series of legislative amendments including strengthening provisions of laws relevant to child labour specifically with respect to penalties and court decisions. According to ILO experts (CEACR 2010) the liabilities and sanctions of administrative and criminal nature are sufficiently effective and dissuasive. Kazakhstan also adopted important policy documents that address issues relevant to education, youth employment, homelessness and vagrancy. And there is a developed institutional framework that is meant to ensure cooperation between governmental bodies, social partners and civil society organizations in addressing issues relevant to child rights and their protection, elimination of the worst forms of child labour, and other issues relevant to minors’ affairs.

3. Child labour persistence Despite positive achievements and development of a regulatory framework that adheres to the international standards, evidence of child exploitation in Kazakhstan is frequently detected. Not least, the scale of exploitation is difficult to ascertain given the latent nature of child labour exploitation (that is not always evident or active and could be easily hidden from the public) and its prevalence in informal rural and urban economies (Haarr 2011; Sher 2012).

One of the most frequently cited reasons for child labour in Kazakhstan is poverty which, in turn, is perpetuated by unemployment and low income. Child labour is especially prevalent among children from disadvantaged and poor families and children at risk, children in state-residential institutions, and children of labour migrants.

The research findings point out on a number of institutional problems that exist and perpetuate barriers to the implementation of developed legislation and international provisions. These are discussed below.

4. Barriers to implementation

4.1 Scope and enforcement of legislative application While the Conventions’ provisions apply to all branches of economic activity and cover all types of employment or work, whether under a labour relationship or contract of employment or not and whether remunerated or not, in Kazakhstan the Labour Code applies only to workers working within the context of formal employment relationship through labour agreements (contracts). As a result children who work outside of formal labour relations are adversely impacted by instances of exploitation, the worst forms of child labour and disregard for minimum age requirements. Some see child labor as therapeutic and an important educational instrument. However, frequently this position ignores hazardous effects of labour on children and underestimates dangers of exploitation. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that the national legislation determines the permissible range of work activities for children as