Interviewing that Works

John Couper

Business Resource

March, 2012

Why do we interview?

To Gather important facts and ideas Learn another perspective Learn as your readers would like to Collect supporting and alternative details Get additional contacts Add a personal view to the story Add credibility and authority Deepen the story with experiences

1. Principles a)

Be as specific as your goals and knowledge allow Know when to give up control

Give them some freedom… but don’t lose your way Learn all you can

but don’t pretend to know more than you do During the interview, write down one-word reminders

of questions to ask later If the interviewee tends to talk in generalities, ask for

specifics, and vice-versa; get examples to

Clarify Add depth to the story

Principles b)

Keep questions simple but provocative Put readers’ priorities first, yours second

Connect interviewee goals to the first two Know your goals, but be ready to change them Avoid obvious questions (“was that painful?”) Be skeptical

not adversarial or completely accepting Ask only for what they really know about For specific information, ask “when” questions:

"When did you realize you would need open-heart surgery?"

Principles c)

Repeat questions Put yourself in your readers’ shoes Get clarification and definition Use the Silent Treatment Be tactful with their emotions Be courteous Be brief Treat the source as a person

Principles d)

Focus on what is being said, not on your next question

Try to make it a conversation Use critical listening skills; be curious Talk as little as possible Listen for what isn’t said Never act embarrassed or judgmental

An interview as “Social space”

A social opening we offer Ex: questions, silence, inquiring expression,

respect Present the article as social space for them

Will allow them to reach out to readers Listen very hard, respond well

Respectful but with self-respect Show how helping you will also help them

2. The angle: your initial focus

Why is an angle important for an interview? To narrow the range of questions To make the interviewee more comfortable To help “pre-write” the story To increase your confidence

Sources of good angles Start with what readers and subgroups want A variation of what you saw in another paper What another source suggested Find a new perspective on the topic Something you’ve wondered

3. Preparing a)

Most interviews are as good as their preparation

Choose the person to talk to A preliminary interview of someone else can

help Doing research will

inform questions, suggest followup questions, save time, and impress interviewees.

Preparing b)

Start from what readers want to know and should know: topics, length, detail, background; talk to readers to learn what they want on the topic

Include the specialty of the interviewee Remember this is their passion

Work from the latest and most authoritative sources mark facts that seem uncertain, to ask tentatively Start from a fact, turn it into a question

Ask colleagues for info you don’t have

Preparing c)

Get “insurance” or backup questions with more sources and contextual information Useful when one line doesn’t work

Try to learn what the source likes to be called; err on the side of respect/formality

Have at least 30-40 questions for each hour of interview Have one sheet with background to refer to,

but use numbers to connect each to related questions List three angles that could work, in order of priority Have a list of how the interviewee could benefit;

use this if they are reluctant or edgy

Preparing d)

Gather background on topic Be ready for quotes, color, anecdotes, background,

information Pre-outline the story, to help develop and focus

questions Plan questions but be ready to change focus

Try to learn their interview style e.g., formal/informal, antagonistic/collaborative

Imagine yourself with them, feeling calm and confident Review and practice your questions before the

interview so you don’t need to read them during interview

meet first with a key source This will help with later sources

Preparing e)

Try to create a “shape” to the questions/session Start with a set of related questions, logical

progression Consider the story’s implications: future

impact, side concerns look for what is missing/absent/unknown

this usually impresses interviewees

Always be ready to change/adapt your angle

4. Creating Rapport a)

First impressions Smile when you meet, breathe deeply Plan and practice your first lines Keep up eye contact Wait to be asked to sit,

but know where you will sit if you can choose; don’t sit directly opposite or too close, beside them

An angle of about 90 degrees works well can say “If it's OK with you, I'd prefer to sit…”

(and indicate where)

Creating Rapport b)

Copy their body language (crossing legs, leaning, etc.) even their speaking pace and tone of voice

Try to meet at a place where they can relax But away from their distractions and duties

Explain your angle and what you want to know Listen well and respond to what they say Use the word “we” as often as possible Don’t be afraid of showing ignorance

But always show curiosity

Creating Rapport c)

Be sympathetic but never suggest you are on their side they will feel betrayed

Find personal connections: from same area, similar interests, etc. (but not too personal/presumptuous)

Let them feel occasional control e.g. “what would you like to tell me?”

Relax but be professional Put yourself in their place, seeing you

Creating Rapport d)

Be ready with an opener to make a connection, related to what you learned about their success

Allow your own personality to come through Wear clothes similar to theirs to show respect

if in doubt, dress slightly up Learn the names of their family if appropriate Develop and show genuine interest in the topic

if you aren’t, why should they or readers be? Make sure you have a place to put your things

Creating Rapport e)

Understand and address their priorities Don’t respond defensively to complaints or

worries be neutral but open to their points

Putting the onus on yourself "I'm sorry, but I don't understand"; "That's not quite clear to me. Do you have an

example?“ Mildly humorous self-deprecation is powerful

5. Organizing questions

Why organize? Helps confidence, makes sure to remember, keep you on track, reassures the interviewee, shows authority, respect and preparation, gives you a reason to look away

Group questions by topic Write a 1-word index on the left to find quickly Start with easy questions

but quickly shift to substantive

6. Kinds of question a)

Funnels and tunnel questions Narrowing funnel: generalities to specifics

use when you know less, to relax interviewee Gives more control to interviewee

Broadening funnel: specifics to generalities use when know more, to engage interviewee Gives more control to you

Tunnel: one informative level (use when know exactly what you need to know on topic)

Kinds of question b)

Logical: inner process of the story What affects what, and why

Chronological Historical, sequential

Action/impact The consequences of one thing on another

Experiential: recount what it was like A personal account is vivid and relaxes them

7. Asking questions a)

Four ways to make questions work: listen and encourage; use silence; make statements requiring confirmation/denial; summarize and move on.

Start with easy questions: general or specific “I'd like to start by checking how you spell your

name...” Opening questions:

Typical day/meeting, etc.; unusual combination, question that is specific but links the main issues,

Get key facts early, in case the interview ends early

Asking questions b)

Remind them of the topic before the first questions, gently and diplomatically and never abruptly; make them feel confident

Have both social and journalistic questions Choose your time to move to the main topic usually in the first 3 minutes

But less if they are very busy or important Rehearse how to bring back to main topic Practice smooth delivery of the first and last

questions

Asking questions c)

Ask an unusual question, topic or combination Ask for the contrary view, then ask them to respond Re-ask the same question in a slightly different way Questions that help get the whole story

“When did this start? And then? What of the future?” “How would you explain that to a layman?” “Why did it happen that way?”

If in doubt, ask the best “W” question Be as specific as possible

Work out one question for each subject Practice making your questions brief and clear

Asking questions d)

Have both general and specific questions Use the one that relaxes the interviewee

Always ask questions that lead to elaboration, not “if” or yes/no

Save tough questions for near the end open-door questions at the end

Ask for documentation and further leads to show you are curious and engaged

Avoid leading questions as much as possible Note the setting and their style if appropriate Pick an angle, then be neutral and unpredictive

Asking questions e)

Plan the wording of key questions carefully consider the implications of words

Leading questions are useful when rapport is good 2-part questions:

If they are relaxed, they answer the part they want “Echoing”: repeat their statement to get more detail Make your questions suit your interviewee

People resist hypothetical questions when they like facts and figures are defensive/pompous/tentative/afraid,

Creative people welcome a “what would you do if…?” approach and will freewheel away into fantasy, which can make for good copy

Asking questions f)

Open vs. closed questions Open: encourage elaboration and explanation Closed: get clear, declarative information

Show that it matters to you, and make sure it is sincere find a way to care

Be ready to ask important questions when a related topic comes up so it isn’t artificial

Try specific questions then move on to summary or category issues

End with “anything else?” questions

8. Followup questions a)

Get details with process related questions (“how”) Pose an explanation and have them correct it Sympathetic Noise…

"You feel very strongly about that, don't you?" Questions that ask for their approval or interest can

be better than direct Ask not only about that topic, but if know of other

story that might be good Followups that work:

“…don’t you think?” “what evidence do you have for that?' “I take it that means ‘yes’”

Followup questions b)

Amplification: 'What exactly did the job involve?' 'Could you tell me more, for instance…”

Clarification: “That was the same year?”, or checking on their sense of a key word

Leading: useful as long as they don’t force a particular answer or reflect a strong assumption

Followup questions c)

Use a four-second pause to make a good answer a much better one

Look for and note a word or phrase that would lead to a good followup

Summarise what they have said, restate it and then you can move on.

"Did I make myself clear?" is less confrontational by putting the focus on the reporter

“So what you're saying is…” Now I'd like to turn to…” “Let's see if I've got this right…

9. Probing

Flattery: “Someone who's gone as far as you in such a short time is a real inspiration.”

pose a similar but hypothetical situation suggest dissatisfaction with nonverbals tell a story float a rumor: “some people say that…” Suggest/guess:

“Is a cost of $1 to $2 million a safe estimate?'

10. Noticing

Watch carefully their responses (and lack of) When people talk, they are less aware of their

behavior Look for indications of more information

Their pauses, looking away, make a face, etc. Notice when they cross their legs or arms, or

start moving their feet This might show discomfort or tension

11. Listening a)

Listening is active hearing, imagining and understanding during an interview, listen intently

Pick up nonverbals in voice, pauses, change of tone Listening

increases rapport and prepares you to get the answers you want

Use “listening’ body language use nods, head tilts, leaning forward, smiling, raise

eyebrows for a question Practice nodding to make sure it is “natural”

avoid nodding more than twice; notice and use the body language they respond best to

Listening b)

Use silence to look thoughtful, attentive, encourage elaboration

Listen carefully to exact words the interviewee, e.g. their eagerness or reluctance to answer particular

questions, tone or strength of voice, pauses, omissions, what makes them animated, signs of reluctance

When their voice drop or slows, the topic may be significant or the interviewee has reservations

Don’t just ask questions, but seek confirmation: “I understand you have a house in Boise”

12. Be responsive

Show you are listening and change expression to encourage more information

Use a variety of nonverbal prompts, like “uh-huh,” “I see”, small looks of surprise and interest

Be ready to be honest if it helps them loosen/open up

When they talk too much, “punish” them cut back on the nods, lean back, look away,

sigh softly, adopt a posture opposite to theirs

13. Difficult interviewees a)

Go in with idea of goals and that you belong there and readers deserve to know

If they put up a barrier Go a different way Say something like “you mean to say that…?” Spark their curiosity with what you have heard Say “you’ve heard” that something happened; this often

inspires them to correct the facts Invoke authority of someone they want to please Know and mention how the story would help them Strategic flexibility; offer to do the interview several ways

gives them sense of choice when really you are getting what you want, and have choice of changing to your preferred style (make a show of turning off the recorder)

Difficult interviewees b)

Make questions simple for defensive, skilled and tricky interviewees. “People make these allegations so maybe you should put the

record straight” “How do you answer what…is saying?” “It looks bad if you don't comment; we'd like to print your side.” “Fascinating, but what I really want to know is…” “Wow, really… but first can we get back to…” “That's a great story. I'd like to know much more-but first I'd

like to clear up…” “Will you explain why you are not implementing your planned

factory expansion?” Ascribe contradiction to someone else Preface an attack with praise Treat it lightly by implying the question is not that serious Practice mentally by vivdly imagining strong resistance

with a strong, cool response from you

Difficult interviewees c)

Ask a less-loaded question, then return to the hard one Say “tell me about…” to treat the situation as a story You have to do a story, and want their role clear Ask them to respond to what a previous person had

said, or what you already know Make a statement when questions don’t work Be accurate and have/keep documentation,

in case they complain later Appeal to their mercy:

“How will the readers know if we don’t tell them?” Return another time or two, to catch them in a better

mood

Difficult interviewees d)

“I'd like to play devil's advocate and look at what you did from a different angle. Then the question becomes, ‘why did you put your name forward, considering your track record?’”

Bring a list or other documentation (e.g. of topics, people, processes) they can see and comment on

Keep up light pressure; don’t allow time-wasters Use nonverbals to reward and punish them Ask if there is some aspect they want to talk about

then relate that back to what you want

14. After the interview

Be prepared to re-interview if needed “Leave the door open” at the end, in case you

need to go back Go over your notes immediately afterwards to

fill in gaps and details Ideally, use a recorder and indexing notes

Listen back to tape of your interview just to learn how to improve your techniques

After the story runs, maybe contact them for their response

If you offer to send a copy, make sure you do

15. Practicalities a)

Make sure it is the right person! Confirm all details

day, date, time, location, phone for changes Create a relationship with office manager, assistant Before the interview, give yourself an extra minute or

two to collect yourself check what you have and where

But never in the interview area Make sure to have all materials needed ahead of

time, and check just before the interview

Practicalities b)

Have a business card, extra batteries for recorder

Practice talking to and watching people to learn to read interviewees, understand body language, subtleties of

voice tone etc. Offer strong, sincere thanks