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Transcript of Freeden Ideologies
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Chapter
The clashofthe Tltams:
the nracno-ideologies
we lcave for a while the ldious ways ofdnabsing ideologics and
do\c to suwey the forms thar Political ideologies have adoptcd,
Throughout much ofthc 2oth century the prevailing idcologies
havc been o!€rarching, inclusive netllorks ofided that havc
ofitrcd solutions, delibdaiely or by default, to a.ll he imlortdt
political issues confronting a socieb. Those m&ro ideoiogics have
soughi social and political acclain md dominance on both Dationaldnd inrdnational l€r'els. in recogniing their centality wc are
defefing to the po$€r of iradition and convention d cldsiliers
of idcologies, not forglting that other classifications could be
retrospectivebpossible.Libenlism, consendtish,socialism,
facism, communisn, dd other major families, have been virrualli
eified 6 loliti@l actos in their osn risht. Indeed, nuch ofthe
pst century @! be viewcd s a generally vitriolic, dnd frequcntly
bl@dn battleground among drem. Far liom being narginal
e f ip l - .nomar : . deo,g i^ l 'a .F t rcoed e nol i , t "scn"n. "
Most noderD ideolosies havc adopted an insiitutional sd.b, in rhc
fom of a political movement or pa$y. This js hardb surprising if $t
recall thal ideologi€ ar€ .ompctitions 01€. Providins plars for
public policy, Yet it s!!ld still be a mistake to 6sume that
@nservatism or libe, alisd &c absohtely identi@l to what
Conservative or Liberal partics stand fol Ideolosres are rarely
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formllated by political parties.The tunction of pdrties n .elation to
ideologies s io present hen nr imm€diateiy consumable on aDd
to disseminate }enr {ith optimal effrciency.Partiesoperateat the
mds production ndof the ons deologicalroductionine.
ldeologies ./Ae among .oups ithin a pa.tyor outside f t.Thosegoups rnay @nsistof nrtellectualsor slilled rhetoricians,
who thenselves&e frequeDtbarticulatins nx,.e ropular or
inchoate bcliels or coneseiy, wate.nrg do\w comple{
phiiosophicaLosirions.
It is comnon to describe deologis N ransins 6 om the left to the
righl in a contjnuun of beliefs tom communism, h.olgh$cia]isn, iiberalism, rd consenatism,o fascism. ecently,
dttenpts nare bccn madc o challenge his ordering. Greenpolitical
thjnkeN hdvc amouslydescribed henNehes6 Dejthef ell nof
right. but in front; some ersions of fdcisnr hale also. blt niore
dubioudr:,claitued o bc ncither leit Dornshti and the 1990s
obsessionith thi.d wa)s' lE proffereda srrrthesisof a dialecric
vie* ofideological olirics- The advantaseofthese cldsifications is
that an attraclive cld.itr dcscends n the lnrketplace ofpolirical
ideas a veir useful llusion $den mlste ngsuppo|t. The left
risht @ntinuum, howcvc! is itself largely deological. t seNes he
pu,TJosefbestowinSa tuod.rate or, r€spectively, dical or e\rn
dangerousaura on m idcology; t suggestshat to mo!€ among
ideol{rsiesdnbe agradullrocessl
dd it indicaieshat deologics
are nutually dclusive ard hcnceoller cleaFclt alternative
N{rneofthese itulli.ations ls correct, but sr needboth micro- drd
macro'anal$is in oder lo rcncdy them. The rnido aralysis is
providedby th€ tuorphologicalapproach o ideologies hat oltcN a
$ ay of dsemblir1g hed and cxlloriDg their inter- and inl.arelatioDships. he mactu da\sis is lro\ided by looking at
ideolosiesas radirins over timc dd slace. whosc maglincd
dpects thenselvesbecomepart of political rcali[l Lhc t$ o
approaches recomplementary: hcy oller altcrnarirc acccsso
t
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studling ihe same hing. BeginniDg yith lhe .onceptualstructurc,$e mayapply the notions of dccontcstation, amjb resembleces,core, adjacent,andpedpheralconcepts,dd pemeable boundtuiesto someofthe main ideologicalgroupings.Most modern idcoloSiesa.e complex.They cannot bc sunmarized in
orereimpliliedseneralizations$rc,hd: Iibcralism is aboul libelq'i conserlatisn is
abolt presening the staxNqtrojed so on. Theyall exhibit a cluster
ol core coDcepts, one of $hi.h can be tudimized without some
damage o the othes, and conscqucntly o the ideological rofile $
awhole.As noted abovc, he prcpodiona.lirypnrciple reaches s
that, ifone conceptcxpands o fill up all availablespace,r sill end
by cNshing rhe othcrs or subsuning them rvithin iis donain.
Liberalism
Liberalism consistsofsd€ral core@ncer)ts, ll ofwhich are
indislcnsable to irs curent manifestatioDs. The $plosition that
humd beings de 'zftozali an insistence on ltlary ofthought and,
within some limits, of actionj a beliefin blmd and social p/rArc$;thc dsuhption that the izlrotdzal is the ldme social unit and a
udquc .ioice mal,er; the postulation ofsood.tltl!/ and human
benc\olen.e a normali an appeal to the gadral izr.fcaf rdther than
to particular loyaities; and rcsnatiotu abol1t?otuer t[Iess it is
constrained and made ecountable all thse arc rhe mrnimum
libcral kit. supeimposed on that kit is a cncial dispositbn: a
criticdl .llestionin! of moti\es and actiors thai introdu.es a
readines to redrink onet owr coneptual arrangements and
pr&ti.es, dd to tolerate tbose ol otheN.
As a iradition, liberalismenteftains he idea ofthe open-erded
dcvelopment ofhuman beinss tos€rds incredingly cn ized stlts
ofexistence, epitomized in Jobn Stuan Mill's lvritin8s. Thatdevelormert revolvs aroud the liberq' rhat people can practise
unfettered, through rot being dominated agairst thei. will, abetted
bJ n In" re tu , , ,Fp@r, , i r ion rd rormal i /J r io1wfhu i " , ' ight ! .
But throushout the 20th century the idea of a fai deal to people
3 l
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IIII
I:
hd grom $ithin the hmily of libdalisns, consistingnot onlr of
equal legal protecrion and treatmcnt, blt the equalizing of
e@Donic and gender oplortunitics drd .especr for htrltiple and
dileNe cultues and faiths $ithin and acfo$ Dations.Human
well-being, or wcliirr., have .ome to be p.incipal insredieDtsofthe package ol bcnciiis that a hmranist polirica.l system pledges to
Ljberalism'sachicvcmcntshavebeenquierlymomcnrous. |s vision
oftlee leoplcs bo.e fruit in the ehanciration ol colonies rom
imperjal rule. It contribtrt€ddjrccdy to tle liberation ofpoliiically
marginalized grorps frotu ryranny and discrimiDation: dre verr factthat dcitatcd politicians n libenl democracies rand doxn tiom
!o$cr rathcr than caliing in rhe tanks attests to the rssimilation of
its lorns oi political tucountabilib' and resloDsibilit! tr has
lfonoted social cforh on a gred scale, limding with the
$- l la -sar - \ I r . * r rp l " r . - " ru , lo r o ld ag. ! "n . . .n . .
uncnplotmcnt and hedlth insurdnce ofthe Lib.ral govemments in
thc UKbcrwccn 1906 and r91a, nsd.ed by thc lrogramme ofrheDc$ lileralisn ln international relationsdre 1.1pointsofAmei@
Prcsident $'oodrow l4rilson for the post-first World War
serilcmcntcn sageda new $ orld order rhar initially failed to
materializc but that $as echoed in tbe establishing ofthe Unjted
Nations and the Universal Declaration of Humd Rights a
gcncration later. and js now slo$ ly sp.eading to states fomerl)'
nndd toialitarian domination. Every constitution with a bill of
rights and a stict demarcation ofgovernmental po*eN thar is
honourcd by the authoities and the peopLea.llkc, e\try s'stem
thal dcfcrs o the rule ofla\ js a triumph ofthc liberal tradition,
Prcsidcnt Roosevelt's 930sNew Dealw6 onc exampleof liberals
aclnorvlcdging the need for governments to intcnene in order to
secure lildty and fairness for theircitjzeDs. Another strand ofrheIiberal tradition, to the contraa:, hG fonnd mccour ir the
adlanccmcnt offree mdkers dd e@lomic entrepreneuNhip
shiclded 1iotu the suslelt€d bureauaatic ilclliciency oftle
the enginesof hlmaD s€lfare.
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These resome lthe moreDotableilestonesofthe ibemlrradition that hale changed he $orld more than the most dmatrcoflolitical revolutions,ndhave dred 1tu onsel The iberalt.adition hd also altered notablv n a mmb€r ofiNtances: the$€atDe$
oftheWennarRelublic n 192osGermanyfailedopr€lrnr the rise of Hitlef to powd: dr. mscdnrist bises 01 iberalsharr beenslow o extend heir objccrjvc ofemanciparioDo wonrnjandelen iberalisDtmuch\altrcd olerance as ound r difiicuittograpplewith nethods ol contemlorary tcrror without desccndingtotbe monl levelofitsencrnics, d gcneratesreTlexiryamongliberah she, conffoDledwith non libcral cultures n, u,er own
societies.r anygivenpoint i is mportant o realize. ontraGnnrsci, ni thereeristmorcnon hcgemonichan hegenonic
Socialism
Socialism s anothd of the najor jdeologicalfanrilies.and it $.uld
be premaiuf. to aDouncc its demisequit€ ]rt. Its imlaci on the
2oihcenturyddon inte.secring deologiol famjliesh6 been
considerablc. Its corc conceptual .orfiguDtion combrncs the
following. First, it sccs the A.dzp as the bdsic social uDit, $hether
sociery a a $holc or a snu]le. gbtrp such N a communc or d
syndiate. lbr socjalists, hnnan beings are constituted by their
relationships with thcir hunan an4 at one rcnrove, their non
luman eDvironments. cl6s, howeyc! js an alienatedgroup,
isolated liom rhc marcrial and $cial soods requir€d for tuU human
develolmcnt drd cxprc$ion. lt therefore h6 Degatlve
coDnotailons, althotrgh in scvcral non Manist socialisms class'has
become a .r1r?d4l sttucture that enfem a welcome idcnriqr on its
menbeis. S.cond, jl hs a pdsjon for cqu rirl, for the rcmoval of
hierarchical distinctions, md for the redinribution of goods on thebasisof human nccd. :l hid, it sinslesout oo?* (also crmed labou.,
c.eatirity, pioducrivit),, or actnif) ds the tundarnental constitftire
. . r . , . 1 ; l J , h " b r i . . . r . n r a . r , . d
ii hich social organization must be strtrctu.ed. Fou|th, ir chcrishes
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aD dealofhtrnan,"efire or loudshing asedn theshort un o!the elinination ofpol€rry and n the loDger ur on ihe freeparticllation ofall in the nate.ial drd inrellccrudl nheitance ofhumaniq Fifth, it lbsteB a belief in tle prornischeldout by thehistai.ul prous rn lthe ability of hlrnan bcings o dired thatproccsso beneficiale!ds- socialism s imporrandy tururc-o entedand hcavif citical ofthe p6t andthe presert. Sometwesusocialist discours€he marchofhisto4' is ustolpable and thefuturc dults, erasinsall that camebefore(that is th€ cse sidr oDe01socialish's mighrr- €riaDls, Manisnt; ai other times r! rs
Sradftl, erratiq aDd equifes he helpjng hand ofpeople of
goodwill.
The socialist railitioD took oll i! the latc 19th ceni!.}, pronpting
Eurcpean ationsn particllar o takehcedofthedemddsoftherisins worknrs cl6s. lndmuch 6 ii is.justified ro rcfer io anideolosical anrily in the plural, jt is cerrainb,ustified ro ralk abotrr$cialisms rather than socialism.Severalofits veEiors rver€
me$ianic aDdutopian. Socialistanarchistsdreant oftheabolition ofpolitical poweraDda spontaneous ocial order b6cd
oDaltNisn and niutual interdependerce.SomeManisr-irspircdbelievers$ent o1l o found comnunes like the early kibbltzim orcra@ntury ago. D whidr the family,prilate propeq'. ard the di\isjonoflabourwereabolishedn order o create sociallymhmatc
societrno longerfractured through bafiers ofaDykind. Frcnch and
Bilish lroto{ocialists Nch s CharlcsFour-ierand Robeft O$cndsigned communitics scd o! radical rincipls ofequality.
SFdicalisrs sished to replacc he state wjth what they saw d rhenahrrallolirical an.l economicuit: rhe rvorkrlace. olLo$in8 onFon id"n l i i j j gsork | r \sen. o bF,, .B'unr . . . .
Otler socialist eNions acceprcd hc institurions of liberal
democracy, ut dcclarcd rhcir intcntion to use he state orestructuresocietl gradually,yct inexorably.Anong those vere
membem fthclhbie Socieb,n Britain.ledby Sidney d
Beabice Wcbb dd George sernardshaw, $ho, lunching abo'e
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l , ' r ' , , e - . d" " E l , rd - t o - p d , , e r h o o . o t d i . . r r h , 1 8
socialist deolosr- hrough cheapand polulistlublications. Ther
.equisitioled the niaDtle of scierce hrough the use of statisiicsand
the bfe.king doe! ofhnmaD beings nto mcsuable utesones ot
neediness: ovefil. illness,or erfbrced idleness.TheGemansocialistEduard Bernsteinwas the intcllectudl €aderoftien
contiDental equivalenls, social demooats healily @nnnitted to
in elolutionary path of pdticipatott' dcnbcraq and nrcreased
ildilidual freedon 6 well d eqraliq,.
The innediaie political consequence of the socialist t.aditjon $'d
theupsurge of socialist and irr Britain, Labour) panies {ith avigorous cl6s agcnda. As a conscqtrcnce, ther prefer.ed to
conc.Dtaie on augmcnling thc curcnt porverof exploitedgfoups
i . h - r 1 , r ,i . f . r i n g r h , ' : i r l ) . i , J i r - p t r , - J ! p F - . j o n
ofprelailiDg sociai addgdncnts. Ihe more e]ledile Frxiciparionof $ofkcis jn social and political ljlc, and resFct fo. their rights,
b.canc prjncipal socialistends, romot€dbyt.adelnions aswcll s
thco.ists. Socialisn sen€d a a rallying crv ofinrmense potencl: s
it lbstered grand trdsformative erpectations aDd conrlelled n,ling
grotrps to b. on the defensite loliti.alh: Nationalization ofthe
1 . , , . o - r c J ' . i o - . d . r ,b L o , . 1 d , r l J r r - b F . 1 n - r r . r . L i r .
political objective that rvds panir.llrr realized nr the prograDmes of
node.ate socialist parties rvhen th.I came to power iD the mid-
2oth celruy. NIotu common\', though, socialists nieryed wirh
progressilc liberal ideologi€s in dcvelopnrs aDd consolidaiing thc
Practices ofthe $elfare state. Herc is an apposite e\amplc of lhc
inrricate .elationship benveenparry and ideologt Though socjalisr
parties .laimed to have bught th. welfare state iDto the $orld,
it was cleady a liberal constroct,balancnrspublic and priyatc
reslonsibiliF for individual well beins and blendnrg con$&d
.hoice $ith state regulatjon. Socialist r)al'iies prolided the nusclcfor * hat rvas oisinally a libe.al ideolosical scheDre, and nost ofthe
ideolosisrs ofthe s€lfare state $€re htbrid social-lilroals. As wc
.h" l l . .e" , ln$." l l
r \e . " . ,
h , . T " r ' , , - i F . d r " ' ' L r t ' " . . o . i . l i s n ' o r . o a t r . , ' i 5 n .
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Consefvatism
'l hethid major wsrern ideologicatamity is coNcratism. Despireits fte$ent djsclaimes that ir isnt an iileoto$/, it too is aparricular
vieF of the political $ortd and insitabty containsasercs orconcepBst.uctured i! aspecific etarionship.The re6on whyconsenativesmi$ead the narrueof thcif beliefsystem,dd whyadveNtui€sofconseraatismhaveseen t 6 oppofiunistic, tiesin apeculiarcorceptuaipronterhar h6 disglised its intemalcoDsislcncy.How wd it, 6ked ttre critics,that conseNatives ouldbe aternalist and iDtcrvenrionkt jn rhe 19rhcentu.f, ssumins the
vocationofprotectors andSovemorsofsociatorder,whered iDthelaie 2oth century hey atigned hernsetvs lvirh advootesof thefi eemarkct and minimum stare ntewention? Onehisroricaly orienredaDswcrmight bethat the conserari\€ tradition netamorphoseilinto someihingquirc djffercntj thar it hadno fl\cd substantiveposition,and merell .eflected he policiesof the insritutionsrhatated in its name,Ac.o.dingb! jn Bdtain the Consemrive partt,
movcdfi om a complaenr ro a pro&tive role in the tuceofnrdustrial trifedd thespiralingcosts fweifare.On thecontineri, the Christian Dcmocratsemergcdroh religioustyldtisa! roots,predomiDantiyCathotic.Theythctr founil ir heawgorrg d denominationallotitic recededn importance,so rhatconsenativrshad to realignon rhe basisofnationalisr aseDda!.That wd eslecially problcmdtic
since he cortinenta.inariondtkrtradition had to a considerabieenent been akenover bJ theenrde right leaviDs nortual,
cohs€rarivessith little space or
Bui there is dnorhersolurionro rhe osteDsibtelusivene$ofconserative ideolos/_ ts citic mal havebeen ookingnt the
Mona place dr irs ore conceptsed therefore ailed to conr u!lrith adnrabieholdinE panem. t.heyhavebeensear.nhg lbr ihe@nsemtil€ counterparts o iiberat andsociatistded @ncerniDghnhaD nature,disrributi!€jusrice, aDd he relationshipbeh\eeDstaieand ndividual, and theyha\€ d.aM a blank. In conserarive
d
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discou$ethose ded do nor disPlayastaue coDtinuitv.nd onDot
thereforebe candidateso. core @ncepts.Yet there @,"su.i
@ndidates.Onecommon hread running through all conses'.tive
arsunent is an diery abdutchangeaDd he urge to distinguish
betweer unnaturaland @rzrdJ .ioaAc. The latter is modelcd oncontinuousorgdic grosth, raiher than on disjointed,planncd
mechdicai leapsand bounds.Only changes groilh is legitinate.
safe,dd steadl Another common hr€ad is the conviction hat the
socialorder b founded on laws hat are nsulated fiom hund
co;trolj it is therefore mpervious o humd $'i11, will that .d onlv
tamler with it harmlirllt ovd time, andd dplmatory Paradigms
oforderhave ltered, itrerenr h a-human rigna oJa?ffianentrooralorda havebeen Noked: God. nature,histor]', biologv,and
e@nomicsare someof the more commonancho$ to which
Many consemtisms employreligion s amainstayofthe moral and
politi.al beliefs hel espouse, d use he sanction of relisronto
imposepoliti@l ordci Ind€ed, he rclationship bet\tten the major
religionsdd @nsen'atisms problematic nsmuch as hose rvho
hold to their beliefsmost strongly,particuldly amongsome
Christids, Mlslidq and Jews,wish to alrplya freeze i-ame n
which thc statewould beconerhelolitr@l instnment of fdith
Nature,d alreadyobseNed,s a favounte deologicalatifice for
coDdoningwhat alreadyexists,or for cloaliingrhe clumsv
transpdcncy ofsocial dangeinents. llist ry advs in the form of
tadition - aptealedto 6 the cumulativewisdom ofthe pastwhich
the lresent is fortunate to inherit. Biolog-v d cconomis are rwo
minirpsrario". l q.ian.P, l-or |!hior' Jons.rviliv"' e1r"8' in
their seNice D order to acquire he statusof a secuLarruth. A1l
thesedevicesdeflectditicisd a$'ay tom human beings,esPeciallv
rulirs groups.Theycan simPlt disoM responsibiliry or thedeficiencicsof society,d the lattcr are alparently ofdained bt a
meta-Political i amcso*.
CoDseNarisms apowerful lolitical tradition becauset apPealso
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hlmd ineria. lt alsocondons rhc good ortunesof thoscatreadyin positions f political, coDomic,d socia.torvcrs.hoarenndeBtandablyreluctantto lart with ttreir gaiDs,whetherearned,inheited, or acquiredby force.Fcar s thus aspur m conscNaiNm.
ConseNativeheo.izinghr-salsonot unduly t oublco16 $pponersIt ha not req red rhegreat nrellc.tuat aDd maginativecfo.t rhatall prosressivcand reformins ideolosiesdcmaDd: o conjureup aworld hetter thd the existnrgonc. ILs echniqueha been aBelXrea'cti!€,and thdt in t]ro ways.FiBt, dtthough rs ideologl isnornaliy dorman| ir awdkens$,hcn conftontedby the principlesard policies f opposingdeologics.onfrontationsbnitr nto
conseratisn, $ienercr it is cha.Uensedll dprcjcct t rcgardsboth d humanlyconhivedaDdbreakingwjth acceptablc,organicchanse.EqMlilr is then makhed by larudt hieE.u,); adcvelopmend nrdividualib,by the sob.ierr of existnrgctrlturalnorms;a rcgnrabry stateby a retrcat iDro civil ssociarions_Revotutionis riminalized,ropianismidicuted.
'lhe second eatue of.onseNative rechrique is ro 4sembteacounter-setol conccptualconfiguratioDs, irtcicd againstwhatevers seen ry consemrives 4 most threateDins o rhesocial orderWleD dtusical libera.ts .omoredroliricat emd.iparion jn the19tl ceDtury@nscryativesccdlledrhe dtrtiesofrhe arisrocracydnd.alled in rhe coDcelt ofinequatiqawhen ercialisrslruNred sooarrelOnnand natjonalizatior
tioh tire trrrn ofthc tgttr centtrryandthroughoutmlch ofthe 2oth, conseNarives auled proleq,riglts to the ceDtrcoftheir ideological oonr.WhenfscisrscmployedvioleDceon the strccts n the 1930s,conseNarivesellbackon |heruleoflawandrlc constirution. hensocHrdemoc.atsad\ocatcd plaDDcd coDomics, harctre.ireddRea8anitc@Dser1'arivespplaudedhe liee choi.e ofcitizens,
delibentch redefined6 consuneE.Note rhar in eachcalerhcseconserlat'vereactionsemplo)€dconccprsand ides sharedBjrhother idcologies this beaB out tne point ofideotosicalpermeabilib), but noi with the ideologi/ heyregardeddf ,re ft,u.as he mostrneDacinso the corecoDs.natne prirciptes. Flelibitib,
f
+j
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in arranging thcir adjacentconceptshelpedconsenatives o
protect their corc rolions ol sate change and the need to shield the
socialorder ffon thc lagaries ofthe hun.D Fill. $'lnt seemed o
its Gtisators an opporiunistic ideolo$r was n liict a highly
@nsisteDt o ne. Even thc o s c nsj bl! radical social t.ansrornatroDensased nby lhatch.rircs s'd irtendedto fe-establish he kiDd of
natural orsanic.hangc thal, iD their !ie$i, had been undcmined bv
over-senerous rveliirrc rrcasures and by tnde uDion politics.
$'lile @ns€natism wd cngaged r a psycholosical wcll da
loliti@l struggle $ith thc ideologies ol noderate and llanncd
reform liberulism dnd socialism the latter two $'.re also atlosserheadswith eachothcr'lhet rehfi'e !rcximily lriggcrcd ofi
rhe hostili\, ofnvo gtuupscompetiDgover a sinjlar clicnrclc, brced
d a consequenceto aricaturc he difieferces bet\iren ihcm. T|ue,
N1alnstve$hrs ofsocialism and libertdiaD reNions oi iibdalism
.shared ittle comnrn ground.btrithe nain bodlofrh. rs. r'smilies
! orc awed oD ssuesofdemodacti constiturionalism 3nd 1n.
! fecosnition ofthe plight of thc disadvantagcd.Ncldthcle$,
liberals depictedsocialisms burcancratic and utcalistici
socialists retaliated by danning liberalism tr'ith crdosing an
instNmental es.ism that most liberals had alrcady discardcd.
NoDe of this, hosever, could naich thc morral combat bctrvccn
two newcomersj frscisn dnd commlnism, and the resi ot thc
ideological field in lhe iddlc lhird ofthe 2oth centurir lfa!),ihirg.
the energence of tlese toralilarian ideologies reinlbrced thc
widespreadview ofideoloBl d docbinairc, dognatic, closcd,
and inllicted on an unsilling lopulacc.
The otalitariandeologies
The Italian fascistdictdror, Bcnito M$solini, cmploycd hc norion'totalitadan' favourablr: as ndicaftrg a brcadth &d s$eepofsocial
concernandtolitical miry. trlore comnonly, fotalifazdl/lrln Ns
L n d - A t o o d & r l - , - n r o f . ' r i J . o o C \ | . l l n o r o , l
untnmed Dpenet.ating umanactilirl ande\cd hought.lt
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collapsed he spacebet\rce! the public andp.ivate sphercs,iNisting that the statews entitled to regulateall ared ofsociat andiDdividual ife- HannahArendt saw t 6 brcakins doM rhedistinction belveen legalitt and illesaiiql so that ordinary citizens
never knew on w}ich sidc ofthe larr theywere, a aw .tranged ai thewhin of the ruleN. That itselflerpetuated a stdteofteror anddisorientation, hrough which compliance$'s ertractedf.om thebodypolitic. Facism combinedz fier@nnd agscssite tutionatismat thc disposalof the state and rs henchmen,a cult ofthc lzdder(Il Duce),drlr andphysicalolence,^Ddah.sth ofrugetututianthat resnnected he psr gloriesof Romedd promisednational
rebirth. The Germanvaidt, nationalsocialisn, \ru moremethodicalboth in its ideolosl dnd ts pnciical realization.riaddednJ he abovea /tutal u.qrn, to be achievedby the unjncationof the pureAryar race under a thousand-ycarcenno Reich,paalleled bJ the dmoapattrz o/./c@s strbhunan and thestrbsequent6s annihilation f millions. his absrractioniomrcal Jews. o which thc mrth bore no rsemblance. wd midcolosi@lcont vdcc ne.essary o bold together he dispdate andincohercntfeatues of apreposte.ousdoctrine with catatrophicconsequences.rader woship for De. Fiihrcr $,8, if dlthins,morePronouncedhan in ltabr
Conmunisn, on the other hand, 16 a more elusne deoto$aFor along lvhile it playedon its ideational
derivation :on rhc sociaiisrlani\, ard {ioo the lingdistic interchangeabilib berweensocialismand communjsms the idea.lsocieq,heldout by Marxisrs_nstead,it becameapeNefted olibhoot ofthe socialisr tudtjon. (:that usaEeof locialism'16 happily acceptedby anti-sociaiistsn rhc w€st,rhougb not by social-democrarsJrs cltsf dd t'ordlra?taD eatlresemerged n the SovietUnion under I€Din an4 no.e dmmarica|y,
under Stalin,whenvst ntrhbeN ofoppoDenrsweremurdered nthe nameofthe re\olution- After the SecoDd orld Wtu, wirb itssprcad o Edtem Eurolc, communismbecme nore blreaucraticdd .oa@ar"e. Irs discoursestill urilized the ideaof agzza?ldr , thousn no loDgera democraticone. rcpreserted lrcusn the
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,rars a.t?loter ofthe people support ofegalirdidsm and
conmual lrojects. connu st rhetodc wd ho$cver shorn ofirs
original grand social vjsioD, \ile rcrainiDg L'ittdl nethotl' of
??7?sslon and a s)€ternatic alruse ofhumd rjghls, libeq,. ard
individulit}l Commmismtmostpowerlitl currcntmanif€station,ln Chjna, rcscscd a ccrbal guidirg role 1br political elites nr
lbsicrin8 a lcsant rcvolrtion and cultural chang!, thoush it is
no$ *lcrimcnling rvith Limitcd flee markcts.
ln the tertuinolosr ofidcological morphology, the meaninss ofthe
concepts Ncd by tLcsc totalitdian ideologics, &d the lroximities
among thc conccprsj wdc .igidly and itrllcxibly nailed dom.Aurhoriry ws only dsociared $irh thc state; the leader rvith sole
knowledge and le8itimdcyi libcr.y a.lwals heant emancipation from
the falsehooG ofthe othcr idcoiogiesi and sode .oncepts. such 6
a..ountdbjlity, righrs, dd roldturce, wdc forcibry remoled lionr
the politi.a.l lexicon. this ws brillidtb pdodied b)' GeoEe O$di
in llis no\el Nineteen EigllttJ lazr: wd is leace; li€edom js
slavery j lgnorance is sirength'.
A-sone ofits characters put it:
Itt r beartinrl hnrs, hedestmclio.ofxlrds . . . Don'i lu see][t
ile wlole aim ofNe\sleak is to narro$ rheranse oflhousll? Ir dE
erd rc shail nate drolsht cinre inrlosible, becNse ther€ sil Ie
no rvords n \'lich to eiTre$ ir.
ldeolos/ bad become. now more than cver, the war of the sords.
Thr.ush it, .itizens had a std.k choicc: ther could eitber find fien
1ru€'political voice orbe silen.ed.
The expansionar_vends of N&ism dd facism, as rvell 6 theifEpukive beliefs and actbns, occaioned a sorld war that, more
than most $trs, was co$ciously seen * an ideological struggle to
r l - -o- " . l 'b F .e-nBr .nJ .J . nr . ' F r rJ Lr |a r l -p , r ' : t le ..d l
laDglage ofgood and evil. This epic confrontation N6 erteDded to
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tire@ld $'d ofthe 19tosandr96os,$jth commuDismcplacinsliscisrn 6 the imrla@ble errmy oflvestern lalues.The moderateideologles$ere encolragedto rcject the epirh.r ldeologt forthemscNcs,not becalse hcy sarv deologiess iitusoryon the
Marxist interyretatioD,but beca$e to thc contr!ry rhetpefceilcd them as rey real dd denacnrg. n retrospecr_hedomindt mid 2oti-ceDrury je$ of deology s li,eledbrt}e intimate asociation of idcology $itl totaiitaianjsm. Throngtr5 i .n . r . o \J . l i r r o r . p d a n a r o f ' l e . o r - t i r r ,, - e 8 i h . .
entailedhee.adicatioDl idcologytsel(dd prolided
a'nrnunition for the end of idcolos: school.Br coDtr6t.
clnent anabErsof ideologyhalf a cennrry ater arebeginnnrs oregard totalitanan ideologicsas exce ioDat ather rlun nonnalmaniftstatiors of id€ologli obscurinsthe bona-fide dcologiesharare far more fl)otedin social housht and practice.