Examining the Vulnerability of an Inuit Food System to ...
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ExaminingtheVulnerabilityofanInuitFoodSystemtoClimateChangeintheContextof
ClimaticandNon-ClimaticStressors:ACaseStudyofUlukhaktok,NT
by
ColleenParker
AThesispresentedto
TheUniversityofGuelph
InpartialfulfillmentofrequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofScience
inGeography
Guelph,Ontario,Canada
©ColleenParker,June,2016
ABSTRACTEXAMININGTHEVULNERABILITYOFANINUITFOODSYSTEMTOCLIMATECHANGE
INTHECONTEXTOFMULTIPLECLIMATICANDNON-CLIMATICSTRESSORS:ACASESTUDYOFULUKHAKTOK,NT
ColleenParker Advisor:UniversityofGuelph,2016 Dr.TristanPearce Dr.BenBradshaw
The research presented herein examines the vulnerability of an Inuit food system to
climate change in the context of multiple climatic and non-climatic stressors through a case
study of Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories (NT), Canada. More exactly, the community-
identified collaborative research project was completed with residents of Ulukhaktok to
understand how climate and socio-economic change is impacting key attributes of the
community’sdualfoodsystemincludingfoodavailability,access,qualityandstorage.Consistent
withthevulnerabilityapproachtostudyingimpactsofclimaticchange,attentionwasdirectedto
current climatic andnon-climatic exposure-sensitivities and adaptations. Datawere collected
from secondary sources, semi-structured interviews with a cross-section of community
members(n=39)andkeyinformants(n=3),andparticipantobservation.Thecollectedevidence
revealsthatmultiplestressors,bothclimaticandnon-climatic,impactfoodsecurity.Further,the
resultspointtotheneedforInuitfoodsovereigntyaswellastheneedtoreinforcebothformal
and informal adaptation mechanisms. In terms of its contributions to more universal
knowledge, the research establishes theneed for amore comprehensive framework to assess
food security, which includes attention to food storage.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ThisresearchwasmadepossiblethroughthefinancialsupportofArcticNetProject1.1
Community Adaptation, IK-ADAPT (Inuit Traditional Knowledge for Adaptation to the Health
Effects of Climate Change) supported by CIHR, the Canadian Federal Government’s Northern
Scientific Training Program, and the Arthur D. Latornell Travel Scholarship and the Dean’s
ScholarshipattheUniversityofGuelph.
IwouldliketothankDr.TristanPearceforhisintellectualguidance,moralsupportand
encouragementfromstarttofinishinthisprocess.IalsoappreciatetheroleplayedbyDr.Ben
Bradshaw, Dr. Barry Smit and Dr. James Ford in shaping this thesis. Marie Puddister was
instrumentalinthecreationofFigure4.2.
Quana to the community ofUlukhaktok for theirwarmwelcome and for sharing their
knowledge.Specifically,IwouldliketothankPhyliciaKagyutforactingasmyresearchpartner
(incrime)andforactingasmy lifecoachwithendlesswordsofwisdomandhumour. Iwould
alsoliketothankSusieMalgokakforherinterpretationbetweenInuinnaqtunandEnglish.Iam
grateful to Harold Wright, Adam and Melanie Kudlak, Mary Kudlak, Emily Kudlak, Joyce
BankslandandWinnieAkhiatakfortheirguidanceandfriendship.
Finally, I am grateful to my cohort and the Department of Geography for the
camaraderie,intellectualstimulation,andlaughs.Iwouldalsoliketoexpressmygratitudetomy
friends and family for their support throughout this process
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TABLEOFCONTENTSABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................................................iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................................................................iiiTABLEOFCONTENTS....................................................................................................................................................ivLISTOFTABLES..................................................................................................................................................................vLISTOFFIGURES..............................................................................................................................................................viLISTOFACRONYMS.......................................................................................................................................................viiCHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................11.1Researchrationale.................................................................................................................................................11.2Researchaimandobjectives.............................................................................................................................31.3Thesisorganization...............................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTERTWO:LITERATUREREVIEW................................................................................................................52.1ClimatechangeintheArctic..............................................................................................................................52.1Inuitfoodsystem...................................................................................................................................................92.2Inuitfoodsecurity.................................................................................................................................................92.3Thevulnerabilityapproach.............................................................................................................................122.3.1AssessingthevulnerabilityofanInuitfoodsystem....................................................................15
CHAPTERTHREE:APPROACHTOTHERESEARCH.....................................................................................173.1Casestudy...............................................................................................................................................................173.2Researchapproach..............................................................................................................................................203.3Datacollection.......................................................................................................................................................223.4Dataanalysis..........................................................................................................................................................26
CHAPTERFOUR:RESULTS.........................................................................................................................................284.1Communityfoodsystem...................................................................................................................................284.1.1Countryfood.................................................................................................................................................284.1.2Storefood.......................................................................................................................................................32
4.2Currentexposure-sensitivitiesaffectingfoodsecurity.......................................................................384.2.1Access...............................................................................................................................................................384.2.2Availability.....................................................................................................................................................414.2.3Quality..............................................................................................................................................................434.2.4Storage.............................................................................................................................................................44
4.3Currentadaptivestrategies.............................................................................................................................494.3.1Sharingnetworks........................................................................................................................................494.3.2Speciessubstitutionandopportunisticharvesting.....................................................................51
4.4Opportunitiesforandbarrierstoadaptation..........................................................................................524.4.1Opportunitiesforadaptation.................................................................................................................524.4.2Barriers...........................................................................................................................................................56
CHAPTERFIVE:DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................61CHAPTERSIX:CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................................625.1Summaryofkeyfindings..................................................................................................................................635.2Scholarlycontributions.....................................................................................................................................655.3Practicalcontributions......................................................................................................................................65
WORKSCITED..................................................................................................................................................................67APPENDICES......................................................................................................................................................................74AppendixA:EthicsApproval(UniversityofGuelphResearchEthicsBoard)..................................74AppendixB:ResearchLicence(AuroraResearchInstitute)...................................................................75AppendixC:InterviewGuide..................................................................................................................................76AppendixD:ConsentForm.....................................................................................................................................77
AppendixE:AnticipatedManuscripts................................................................................................................78
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LISTOFTABLES 3.1 Researchobjectivesandassociateddatacollectionmethods
3.2 Samplingofhouseholdsbytype(n=39/114)
4.1 ComparisonofstorefoodandequipmentpricesinUlukhaktok,NT(baseduponCondon
andOgina1996)
4.2. 2015cargoratesfromHayRivertoUlukhaktok,NT(NTCL2015)
4.3 FirstAirdomesticcargoratestoandfromUlukhaktok,NTin2015(FirstAir2015)
4.4 Averageamountoffreezerspaceincubicfeetperhouseholdtype
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LISTOFFIGURES2.1 FoodsecuritydeterminantsintheInuitfoodsystem(Ford2009)
2.2 Analyticalframeworkforvulnerabilityassessment(FordandSmit2004)
2.3 Avulnerability-basedmodelforassessingpotentialimplicationsofclimatechangefor
foodsecurityforInuitcommunities(Ford2009)
3.1 TheInuvialuitSettlementRegionintheNorthwestTerritories(Fastetal.2001)
3.2 ThelocationofUlukhaktok,InuvialuitSettlementRegion,NorthwestTerritories(Pearce
etal.2010)
3.3 TheframeworkforassessingthecurrentvulnerabilityofthefoodsysteminUlukhaktok,
NT(baseduponFordandSmit2004,SmitandWandel2006,Ford2009,2012)
4.1 SeasonaleconomiccycleofCopperInuit(Damas1972)
4.2 SeasonalcycleofharvestingactivitiesinandnearUlukhaktok,NT
4.3 AbandonedcommunityfreezerinUlukhaktok,NT
4.4 DerelicticehouseinUlukhaktok,NT
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LISTOFACRONYMSAANDC AboriginalAffairsandNorthernDevelopmentCanada
ARI AuroraResearchInstitute
CHAP CommunityHarvesterAssistanceProgram
HBC HudsonBayCompany
HTC HuntersandTrappersCommittee
IGC InuvialuitGameCouncil
IFA InuvialuitFinalAgreement
IHAP InuvialuitHarvestersAssistanceProgram
IHS InuvialuitHarvestSurvey
IRC InuvialuitRegionalCorporation
ISR InuvialuitSettlementRegion
ITK InuitTapiriitKanatami
NTCL NorthernTransportationCompanyLimited
NT NorthwestTerritories
OHTC OlokhaktomiutHuntersandTrappersCommittee
UCC UlukhaktokCommunityCorporation
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CHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION
1.1Researchrationale
Theoverwhelmingconsensusintheinternationalscientificcommunityisthattheglobal
climateischanging,withimplicationsforecosystemsandthehumancommunitieswhodepend
on them for their lives and livelihoods (Stocker et al. 2013, Hartmann et al. 2013). Rising
temperatureshavebeendocumentedaroundtheglobe,withthelasttwodecadesthehotteston
record (Screen and Simmonds 2010, Hartmann et al. 2013). Temperatures are projected to
continuerisingandthelagbetweenemissionsandwarmingmeansthatsomedegreeofglobal
warmingwillcontinuedespiteeffortstoreducegreenhousegasemissionsinthefuture(Stocker
etal.2013).WarmingisparticularlypronouncedintheArctic,wheretemperatureshaverisenat
over twice theglobalaverageandarepredicted tocontinue to increasemorerapidly thanthe
global mean (Pachauri et al. 2014, Comiso and Hall 2014). Diminishing snow and ice cover,
thawingpermafrost,hydrologicalchange,changestoabundanceanddistributionofarcticflora
andfauna,andincreasedUVradiationhavebeenrecordedintheArcticandarealreadyaffecting
Inuit livelihoods (Fordet al. 2012, Stockeret al. 2013,Vaughanet al. 2013,Najafi et al. 2015,
Ford,McDowellandPearce2016).The impactsofclimatechangeareparticularlyhard-hitting
forInuitduetotheircloserelationshipwiththeenvironmentandtheircontinueddependence
onfishandwildlifefortheirlivelihoods.Inparticular,theimplicationsoflocaleffectsofclimate
change on Inuit subsistence activities indicate negative impacts on food security (Ford 2009,
FurgalandProwse2009,WescheandChan2010,CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).These
impacts are compounded by socio-economic factors such as limited and unreliable access to
cash income, high prices for nutritional store foods, and shifting food preferences away from
traditional foods in such a way that daily nutritional needs are not being met (Ford 2009,
BeaumierandFord2010,Pearceetal.2010,CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).Inuithavea
longhistoryof copingwith andadapting to changing conditions (Balikci 1968,Krupnik1993,
Freeman1996,Collings2011,Pearceetal.2015).However,climaticandnon-climaticstressors
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areoccurringinasettingwhereitmaynolongerbefeasibletousecertaintraditionaladaptation
options to respond. Such adaption options fall along a spectrum between short-term coping
mechanisms(e.g.movingtofollowpatternsofmigration)andlong-termculturalandecological
adaptivestrategies(e.g.flexibilityintermsofgroupsize)(BerkesandJolly2002).
Climate change is global in scale but its impacts are highly localized. Impacts and
adaptations are conditioned by a range of endogenous factors such as demographic trends,
livelihood characteristics, economic complexity and experience dealing with change; and
exogenousfactorssuchaseconomicandgeopoliticalcharacteristics(Duerden2004,Fusseland
Klein2006).Recognizingthesefactors,anumberofcasestudiesofInuitvulnerabilitytoclimate
change have been conducted in communities across the Canadian Arctic, including Sachs
Harbour (Berkes and Jolly 2002), Igloolik (Ford et al. 2006), Arctic Bay (Ford et al. 2006),
Ulukhaktok (Pearce et al. 2010), Kugluktuk (Prno et al. 2011), and Tuktoytaktuk (Andrachuk
andSmit2012).Thesestudiesservetoreveal localizedimpactsandadaptations,andallowfor
in-depth analysis of the interplay between humans and the environment. Subsequent studies
have specifically examined this interplay by studying climate change impacts on Inuit food
security (Ford 2009, Beaumier and Ford 2010, Ford and Beaumier 2011, Lardeau, Healy and
Ford2011, Stathamet al. 2014). These studies have advanced our knowledge of how climate
change is affecting food security by documenting key determinants of food insecurity (Figure
2.1, Ford 2009) and identifying marginalized populations including women and single men
(BeaumierandFord2010,Collingsetal.2015).
While this existing research has shown how climatic change is impacting Inuit food
security, less isknownabouthow Inuitare copingwithandadapting tomultiple climaticand
non-climatic stresses to the food system when these stressors are exerted in unison. The
researchpresentedhereinrespondstothisknowledgegapbyexaminingthevulnerabilityofan
Inuitfoodsystemtoclimatechangeinthecontextofmultipleclimaticandnon-climaticstressors
throughacasestudyofUlukhaktok,NorthwestTerritories,Canada.Inresponsetoacommunity-
identified need, the research seeks to understand how climate change interacts with socio-
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economicconditionstoaffectthecountryfoodandstorefoodcomponentsofInuitfoodsystems,
andhowInuitarecopingwithandadaptingtothesemultiplestresses.
As used throughout this dissertation, food security refers to “people at all times
acquiring safe, nutritionally adequate, and culturally acceptable foods in a manner that
maintainshumandignity”(BeaumierandFord2010p.196).Foodinsecurityexistswhen“people
donothaveadequatephysical,socialoreconomicaccesstofood”(FAO2012).
1.2Researchaimandobjectives
The research aimed to examine the vulnerability of an Inuit food system to climate
change in the context ofmultiple climatic and non-climatic stressors through a case study of
Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada. The term ‘examine’ refers to the consideration of
the availability, access, quality and storage of the components of the Inuit food system in
Ulukhaktokandthestressesthatimpactthesepillarsoffoodsecurity.Examinationtookplacein
lightofclimatechange,takingintoaccountbothenvironmentalandsocio-economicchange.The
researchalsosoughttoidentifyentrypointsforadaptionthatarebothrelevantandfeasiblefor
thecommunity.
Theaimwasachievedthroughfourobjectives:
1. characterizeelementsofthecommunityfoodsystem;
2. documentthewaysinwhichmultiplestresses(climaticandnon-climatic)affectfood
security;
3. documentcurrentadaptivestrategiesemployedtomanageorcopewithstressesto
foodsecurity;and
4. identifybarrierstoandopportunitiesforenhancingfoodsecurity.
1.3Thesisorganization
Thisthesisencompasses fivechapters.Chapter2,LiteratureReview,providesageneral
overviewofresearchonclimatechangeintheArctic,Inuit-specificresearchonfoodsystemsand
food security aswell as an overview of the approaches to assessing vulnerability. Chapter 3,
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Methodology,describes thecasestudy location, thevulnerability-based framework thatguides
the research, and the quantitative and qualitative methods used in this research. Chapter 4,
Results, presents the findings organized around exposure-sensitivities, adaptive capacity,
opportunitiesandbarriersforadaptationandChapter5,Discussion,considerstheimplications
of the environmental and socioeconomic determinants for the dual food system for the food
securityresearchandpolicy.Chapter5alsoexplainshowmultiplestressors,bothclimaticand
non-climatic,playaroleinfoodsecurityandrecommendsthatadaptationoptionssupportInuit
food sovereignty and reinforce both formal and informal adaptation mechanisms. Chapter 6,
Conclusions, establishes the need for a more suitable framework to assess food security and
especially the need to include storage in considerations of food security. Finally, Chapter 6
identifiesscholarlyandpracticalcontributionsofthekeyfindingsfromtheresearch.
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CHAPTERTWO:LITERATUREREVIEW
This chapter reviews four bodies of scholarship pertinent to the research. The first
sectiondescribesclimatechangeanditsimpactsonboththebiophysicalenvironmentandInuit
communities.ThenextsectiondescribestheInuitdualfoodsystem,composedofbothcountry
food and store food. The third section introduces the concept of food security and the three
pillarsoffoodsecurityintheInuitcontext.Thefourthandfinalsectionexaminestheconceptof
vulnerabilityandtheapproachesusedinitsassessment.
2.1ClimatechangeintheArctic
Climate change has a number of implications for the Arctic environment as well as the
people that inhabit it. Impacts on the biophysical environment include warmer surface air
temperatures, diminishing snow and ice cover, thawing permafrost, hydrological change,
changestoabundanceanddistributionofarcticspeciesandincreasedUVradiation(IPCC2013).
The implicationsofchangingclimaticconditions forcommunitiesextend to infrastructureand
transportation,economy,aswellasidentity,culture,healthandwell-being.
TemperaturesintheArctichavebeenwarmingattwicetheglobalaverageoverthelast30
years(1966-2003)byasmuchas2°Cto3°CperdecadeinsomepartsoftheArctic,aprojected
rate of warming that is set to continue in the Arctic and is attributable to human activities
(Stockeretal.2013,Vaughanetal.2013).Theserisingtemperatureshavebeenassociatedwith
reduced extent and volume of snow and ice features. Sea ice cover has been shrinkingmore
rapidly than initially forecast, with a swift transition toward a seasonally open Arctic Ocean
(Stroeveetal.2012).Thistrendisprojectedtocontinuethroughthe21stcentury,butchanges
willdependonthefeedbackprocessesatplay.Somemodelprojectionsshowalossof100%of
summerseaice,a10-20%degradationofpermafrostandapermafrostboundarymovementof
severalhundredkilometerstothenorthofitscurrentlocation(Schuuretal.2008).
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Another likely result associatedwith impacts on ecosystems is changes in abundance and
distributionofarcticspecies.Somespeciesmaybelostaltogetherwhileothersmaybedisplaced
fromtheircurrenthabitat(CAFF2013).Thesegapsinecosystemstructureandmovementmay
lead to an increase in overall biodiversity due to new speciesmoving north to fill the voids.
Ultimately,climatestresswillhaveprofoundeffectsforecosystems.
The cooling of the stratosphere associated with climate change is likely to lead to more
frequent polar stratospheric cloud formation (Stocker et al. 2013). These events cause ozone
depletionovertheArctic,whichresultsinincreasedlevelsofUV-Bradiationreachingtheearth’s
surface(Stockeretal.2013).Between1979and2000therehasbeenadeclineof11%inmean
springatmosphericozonelevelsanda7%declineinannualatmosphericozonelevelsoverthe
Arctic(ACIA2005).
Increased warming inevitably has far-reaching implications for global climate change
because of feedback processes amplifying change. Increasing greenhouse gas concentrations
leadtolatersnowandiceformationinthefallandearliermeltinthespring.Calledthealbedo
effect, this process accelerates climate change when darker exposed surfaces absorb more
radiation, which increases the warming of the surface, causing further melt and increased
warming(Stockeretal.2013).Feedbackfromthepermafrostthawprocesswillamplifychange
duetothelikelihoodofassociatedgreenhousegasreleases.
Other global changes are projected to result from factors such as freshening of theArctic
Ocean. With increased arctic precipitation, runoff levels to the Arctic Ocean are augmented,
causingmarked changes in patterns of global thermohaline circulation (Vaughan et al. 2013).
Themeltofglaciersand icesheetswillnotonlyaddto the fresheningprocess,butalsocreate
additionalproblemsassociatedwithsealevelrise.
These impacts of climate change are particularly hard-hitting for Inuit due to their close
relationshipwiththeenvironmentandtheircontinueddependenceonfishandwildlifefortheir
livelihood. Scholarship on the human dimensions of climate change focuses on “how human
systems(suchascommunities,businesses, regions,andstates)areaffectedbyandrespondto
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climate change” (Ford et al. 2012). Significant research has been undertaken on the human
dimensionsofclimatechange in theCanadianArctic(e.g.Pearceetal.2011,Fordetal.2012).
Researchseekstoexaminevulnerabilitythroughthelensofmultiplestresses.Casestudiesare
used to examine the differing vulnerabilities between andwithin communities “as a result of
differing geographies, population attitudes, past experiences with change, cultural history,
economicrelationships,adaptivecapacities,andlivelihoodactivities”(FordandPearce2012).
Changing snowand ice regimes, less-predictableweather, and changingwindpatterns
are an increasing threat to the integrity of built infrastructure and travel routes (Ford et al.
2009, Laidler et al. 2009, Prno et al. 2011). The integrity of municipal and transportation
infrastructure is threatened by coastal erosion, flooding, and warming (Pearce et al. 2011).
Infrastructure is also sensitive to the thaw of permafrost as it results in unstable ground
conditions,posingathreattoroads,airportrunwaysandbuildingfoundation.Thisisespecially
true in areaswhere constructionhas takenplaceon ice-rich floodplains (Pearce et al. 2011).
The integrityof semi-permanent travel routes isalsoaffectedbyclimatechange,bothon land
andbywater,asearliermeltof lakes, riversand icemake forunsafeconditions inspringand
thawingpermafrost impacts summer travel. Increases in extremeweather events andnatural
hazards will impact human health through increases in accidents and emergency situations
while using these travel routes, which can result in injuries and death (Ford 2012).
Unpredictableweatherwillalsoaffecttheabilitytocarryoutsearchandrescuemissionssafely
(Fordetal.2008).
Challenges associatedwith the impacts of climate change on the economy aremainly
associatedwiththesubsistenceeconomywhileotherimpactsgenerateopportunitieswithinthe
wage economy. The impacts of climate change on species distribution and abundance will
increase thenumberof threatenedandendangeredspecies,whichcan impactprocurementof
traditionalfoodsandtheassociatedincomeaswellasearningsfromsporthunting(McLoughlin
etal.2008,Dowsley2009,SchmidtandDowsley2010).Thebenefitswithinthewageeconomy
include theexpansionofshippingroutesaswellasgrowth in theminingand tourismsectors.
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Increasedshippingaccessthroughreducedsea-icecovercanleadtothefurtherexpansionofthe
economy,despitechallengestothecontinueduseoficeroads(Nuttall2008;Pearceetal.2011,
Stephensonetal.2011,Fordetal.2011).Reducedseaiceextentleadingtoincreasedshipping
wouldinturnbenefitminingoperations,especiallythosesituatedincoastalareas.Itwouldalso
allow for increased cruise tourism opportunities, and therefore increase employment
opportunities (Stewart et al. 2007). These economic opportunities offer a way of combating
existingdeterminantsof vulnerability suchashigh ratesofunemployment, overcrowdingand
low-qualityhousingbyincreasingaccesstofinancialresourcesandreducingpoverty(Fordetal.
2010).Bythesametoken,theseeconomicopportunitiesthatemphasizeandpromotethewage
economy could also create a cultural shift that acts to undermine determinants of adaptive
capacity such as sharingnetworks, resourceuse flexibility and traditional knowledge systems
(Wenzel2009,Fordetal.2006).
Inuit culture, identity and spirituality, health andwell-being are also impacted by the
resultsof climatechange. Ithasbeendocumented that thereexist linksbetweenenvironment
and psychological health and well-being, with a positive correlation between environmental
degradationandhumandistressandanxiety(CunsoloWilloxetal.2011,Fordetal.2012).The
impactsofanalteredenvironmentdue to climatechangecanaffectaspectsof culture suchas
interpersonalandenvironmentalrelationships,stewardship,oralhistoryandlandskills(Furgal
andSeguin2006,Gearheardetal.2006,Fordetal.2010,CunsoloWilloxetal.2011).Decreasing
participation in land-based activities due to the hazards brought on by climate change can
furtherleadtotheweakeningofthetransmissionoflandskillsandtraditionalknowledgewhich
inturncould limit theprocurementof traditional foodsources(Chanetal.2006,Laidleretal.
2009). The close tie between Inuit and the landmeans that such a change in wildlife access
impacts Inuitwell-beingandcultural identitywhenthere isreducedaccess to traditional food
sources(BeaumierandFord2010).
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2.1Inuitfoodsystem
A food system, as defined by Gregory et al. (2005), is “a set of dynamic interactions
between and within the bio-geophysical and human environments, which result in the
production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food” (p. 2141). Food
systemsencompass: foodavailability, includingproduction,distributionandexchange; access,
includingaffordability,allocationandpreference;andquality,includingnutritionalvalue,social
valueandfoodsafety(withsomedefinitionsalsoencompassingutilizationoruse)(Gregoryet
al.2005,Ford2009). ThecontemporaryInuitfoodsystemiscomprisedofcountryfoods(also
knownasnativeortraditionalfoods)andstorefoods(alsoknownasstore-boughtorindustrial
foods),witheachcomponentdrawnupondependingonthetimeofyear,andspecificattributes
ofacommunity,household,andindividual(Ford2009).
Countryfoodcomprisesfoodthat isharvestedfromthelandandsea, includingmarine
andterrestrialmammals,birds,fishandplants.CountryfoodplaysastrongroleinInuitidentity.
Anumberoffactorsaretiedtoratesofcountryfoodconsumptionsuchasage,gender,levelof
education, community size, and region in northern Canada (Canadian Council of Academies
2014).
Inlightofsocietalchanges,storefoodsarenowanimportantcomponentinthedietsof
many Inuit (CanadianCouncil ofAcademies2014).Thishas importanthealth implications for
Inuit, due to the comparatively low quality of some food choices when compared to country
foods,aswellasthehighpricesofproduceingrocerystores,whichleadstoconstrainedhealthy
choices. When they can afford it, Inuit have low incentive to choose the expensive healthy
optionsasproducethatarrivesbyairisoftennearorpassedexpiry(Ford2009).
2.2Inuitfoodsecurity
Foodsecurityexistswhen“peopleatall timescanacquiresafe,nutritionallyadequate,
andculturallyacceptablefoodsinamannerthatmaintainshumandignity”(BeaumierandFord
2010,p.196).TheFoodandAgriculturalOrganizationof theUnitedNations(FAO)Committee
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onWorld Food Security broadened the definition of food security in 2012 to refer to a state
where“allpeopleatalltimeshavephysical,socialandeconomicaccesstofood,whichissafeand
consumed in sufficient quantity and quality to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences…allowing for a healthy and active life.” This definition highlights three pillars of
food security: availability, access andquality,whichprovide thebasis for anexaminationof a
foodsystem.InanInuitcontext,foodavailabilitydenotestheavailabilityofsufficientfoodfrom
thestorefoodandcountryfoodcomponentsofthefoodsystemtomeetdemand(Ford2009,p.
86).Foodaccessreferstothe“abilityofhouseholdsandindividualstoaccessadequateresources
to acquire store and traditional foods for a nutritious diet” (Ford 2009, p. 86). Food quality
involvesthe“abilitytoobtainsafefoodofsufficientnutritionalandculturalvalue”(Ford2009,p.
86).Conversely, food insecurityexistswhenthefoodsystemisstressedsothatoneormoreof
thepillarsoffoodsecuritydonotexist.
IntheCanadianArctic,changingclimaticconditionsarecreatinganumberofstressorsthat
affectfoodsecurityandwhicharecompoundedbysocioeconomicstresses(Fordetal.2012,see
Figure 2.1). The climate-generated impacts outlined in section 2.1 are compounded by socio-
economicstressessuchasalackofincome,thecostsofhuntingandpurchasingstorefood,the
diminishednumberofactivehuntersinmanyhouseholds,conflictsbetweenwageemployment
and hunting opportunities, decreased transmission of land skills and traditional knowledge
important for safe and successful hunting among younger generations, reduced strength of
sharingnetworks,shiftingfoodpreferences,andlimitedgovernmentsupport(Myersetal.2004,
Pratley2005,Chan2006,Chanetal.2006,Lambdenetal.2006,KuhnleinandReceveur2007,
Power 2008). Climatic and non-climatic stresses on the food system are exerted at different
spatialandtemporalscales(Gregoryetal.2005,BeaumierandFord2010).Theimpactsonfood
securityareamplifiedwhenthesestressorsareexertedinunison.Inlightofthesestressors,the
incidenceoffoodinsecurityvariesbycommunitybutisgenerallyhighandsignificantlyexceeds
theCanadianaverage(Myersetal.2004,LedrouandGervais2005,Chanetal.2006).
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Figure2.1:FoodsecuritydeterminantsintheInuitfoodsystem(Ford2009).
ThereareanumberofstressorsonbothcomponentsoftheInuitfoodsystem.Inthecase
of the store food system, these include high cargo rates via barges and planes, the limited
amount of storage available inwarehouses and thedistances of travel by food from southern
markets which contribute to high food prices and decreased quality of products (Canadian
Council of Academies 2014). Limited income, knowledge of budgeting and lack of nutritional
knowledge constrains the ability to afford healthy store food choices (Canadian Council of
Academies2014).
Stressors are also placed on access, quality and availability of the country food
componentof thesystem.These includesuchstressorsasa lackof transmissionof traditional
knowledge,presenceofahunterinthehousehold,changingdietarypreferencestoincludemore
store foods, lack of access to the wage economy or financial resources in order to purchase
equipment, decreased incentive to participate in harvesting activities with lower financial
returns (e.g. seal harvesting and trapping), limited time due towage employment,more time
spent on organized sports and decreased youth participation rates for harvesting activities
(Condon et al. 1995 and Pearce et al. 2010, Collings et al. 2015). The waning interest in
subsistence harvesting among youth is not a recent development, and was described in
UlukhaktokbyCondonetal.(1995).
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2.3Thevulnerabilityapproach
Thevulnerabilityapproachexamines the“abilityofasystemorpopulation toadapt to
climatechange”(FusselandKlein2006).Thevulnerabilityapproachexaminesseveralaspectsof
thehumandimensionsofclimatechangebyexploringtheinterplayofexposure,sensitivity,and
adaptive capacity, the importance of restructuring following the a stressor, the importance of
adaptive capacity determinants over multiple scales, non-linearity, the spatial dimension of
vulnerability, and the forces leading tonew risks (Turner et al. 2003, Smit andWandel 2006,
Adgeret al. 2009).Assessment involves identifyingwhatpeopleareexposedand sensitive to,
thevariationinexposureandsensitivitywithincommunities,theexistingandpotentialadaptive
capacities within communities, and the overall community vulnerability (Figure 2.2). By
examiningthesevariables,itispossibletohighlightadaptivestrategiesthatlessenvulnerability
and to inform policy developments to reduce climate change-related risks (Smit and Skinner
2002;FusselandKlein2006).
Figure2.2.Analyticalframeworkforvulnerabilityassessment(FordandSmit2004)
Theconceptofvulnerabilityinformsthevulnerabilityapproach.Intheclimatechangefield,
13
the term vulnerability refers to “the state of susceptibility to harm from exposure to stresses
associatedwith environmental and social change and from the absence of capacity to adapt”
(Adger2006).Vulnerability isa functionofexposureandsensitivitytorisksrelatedtoclimate
and adaptive capacity to address, strategize for, or manage these risks (Ford 2012).
Vulnerabilityanditselementsaredynamicastheyvaryovertime,bytype,bystimulusandare
place-andsystem-specific(SmitandWandel2006).
The related concepts of exposure-sensitivity, adaptive capacity and adaptation are
interconnectedandusefulintheexaminationofglobalchange.Exposure-sensitivityreferstothe
‘susceptibilityofacommunityorothersystemofinteresttoclimaticrisks(Pearceetal.2011).
Exposure-sensitivity is a property of both the characteristics of climatic conditions and the
nature of the system being examined (Pearce et al. 2011). Adaptive capacity refers to the
potential of a community to adapt to climate change (including climate variability and
extremes), tomoderatepotentialdamages, totakeadvantageofopportunities,ortocopewith
the consequences (IPCC 2007). The determinants of adaptive capacity include hazard-specific
and generic factors, as well as endogenous and exogenous factors (Brooks 2003). Generic
determinantsaremadeupofnon-climaticfactorssuchasaccesstofinancial,technologicaland
information resources, skills, infrastructure, institutions, and equity (Smit andWandel 2006,
Ford et al. 2012, Smit and Pilifosova 2001, Yohe and Tol 2002). Endogenous factors include
characteristics and behaviours of a particular population or system while exogenous factors
includeeconomicandgeopoliticalcharacteristics(FusselandKlein2006).Theadaptivecapacity
to current climate change is an important indicator of future adaptive capacity and thus
vulnerability assessment can be used to provide lessons for adaptation planning. The
assessment of the current level of exposure-sensitivity, adaptive capacity and adaptation
strategies provides a basis throughwhich future policies can be compared and built upon to
decrease the vulnerability of Inuit households and communities to future climate change.The
term adaptation, on the other hand, is used to denote “adjustments in response to actual or
expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts” and “refers to changes in processes,
14
practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities
associatedwith climate change” (Smit andPilifosova 2003). Smit andWandel (2006) refer to
adaptationinthecontextofhumandimensionsofclimatechangeasbeing“aprocess,actionor
outcome in a system (household, community, group, sector, region, country) in order for the
systemtobettercopewith,manageoradjusttosomechangingcondition,stress,hazard,riskor
opportunity”. Adaptation has been an increasing focus of policy prioritization in the face of
climatechange(Huqetal.2004).TheArctichasaparticularneedforadaptationstrategiesdue
totherateatwhichclimateandsocialchangeareaffectingthelocalenvironmentandnorthern
livelihoods(Pearceetal.2010).Typesofadaptationincludeanticipatory/proactiveorreactive,
autonomousorplannedandprivateorpublic(Adgeretal.2007).
Oneadvantageof thevulnerabilityapproach is that it responds to thehighly localized
nature of human activity (Duerden 2004). The physical changes expressed at the community
level must be translated into human impacts, which can be difficult given the challenges of
predicting how communities may respond to changes in the physical environment (Duerden
2004). The scale of analysis used in the vulnerability approach canbe changeddepending on
research needs, ranging from the adaptation to one climate stress at the individual and
householdleveluptotheadaptationofcommunitiesorglobalsystemstomultiplestresses(Smit
andWandel2006).
A second advantage of the vulnerability approach is the consideration of non-climatic
factors in addition to climatic ones. Non-climatic drivers including demographic, economic,
sociopolitical,technological,andbiophysicaldriversaffectrelevantnon-climaticfactorssuchas
the degree of economic diversification, education levels and the strength of social networks
(FusselandKlein2006).Thesethencanbeusedindeterminingasystem’sexposure-sensitivity
toclimatechange(FusselandKlein2006).
Conversely, a weakness of the vulnerability approach as it has been applied in the
Canadian North lies in the fact that most scholars have not recognized the importance of
colonialism in shaping research objects, subjects, findings, and research relations (Cameron
15
2012). Colonialism is only brieflymentioned insofar as it has led to the current conditions in
Inuit communities, which have been shaped by colonization as well as movements toward
decolonizationandself-determination(Cameron2012).
2.3.1AssessingthevulnerabilityofanInuitfoodsystem
Theresearchapproachwasmodeleduponthevulnerabilityapproachasadaptedforthe
examination of Inuit food system vulnerability (Figure 2.3, Ford 2009). The vulnerability
approachcanbeappliedtofoodsecurityresearchthroughtheassessmentofthevulnerabilityof
foodsystems.Whenexaminingfoodsecurityinlightofclimatechange,vulnerabilityreferstothe
“susceptibilityof the food system to food insecurityas a consequenceof variability, extremes,
andchange,andimpliesthepotentialfornegativehealthoutcomes(wherehealthisviewedas
encompassingphysical,mental and socialwell-being)” (Ford2009).Exposure-sensitivity refers
to the “conditions that represent risks—including those associated with climate change—
manifestingitselfintheformofconstrainedfoodaccess,availability,andqualityofstoreand/or
countryfoods”(Ford2009).AdaptivecapacityrepresentstheabilityoftheInuitfoodsystemto
adjusttoclimatechangetomoderatepotentialdamages,totakeadvantageofopportunities,or
tocopewiththeconsequences(wherehouseholdsandindividualsaretheonesadjusting)(Ford
2009).
The model in Figure 2.3 shows the interplay of climate and socio-economic change,
exposure-sensitivity andadaptive capacity thatdetermines the vulnerability of a food system.
This model was applied in a case study in Igloolik, NU and was used to guide and inform
researchinUlukhaktok,NT.
16
Figure2.3:Avulnerability-basedmodelforassessingpotentialimplicationsofclimatechangeforfoodsecurityforInuitcommunities(Ford2009).
17
CHAPTERTHREE:APPROACHTOTHERESEARCH
This chapter serves to provide an overview of the approach to the research. It is
organized in four parts: theCasestudy sectionprovides the geographical context for research
and describes the mixed economy as well as the Inuit dual food system in Ulukhaktok; the
Research approach section describes how the vulnerability approach was adapted to the
research presented herein; the Data collection section outlines the use of secondary source
analysis, participant observation, as well as semi-structured and key informant interviews to
achieve the research objectives; and the Data analysis section summaries the for thematic
contentanalysisofthedatacollected.
3.1Casestudy
The Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) is an area of 906,430 km2, counting
approximately10,000residents,whichencompassesthecommunitiesofUlukhaktok(formerly
Holman, Victoria Island), Sachs Harbour (Banks Island), Paulatuk and Tuktoyaktuk (Beaufort
Sea),aswellasAklavikandInuvik(MackenzieRiverDelta)(Figure3.1).Thesecommunitiesare
signatories, alongwith the Government of Canada, of the Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA) of
1984.
18
Figure3.1:TheInuvialuitSettlementRegionintheNorthwestTerritories(Fastetal.2001).
ThesettlementofUlukhaktokislocatedonthewestcoastofVictoriaIsland(70.7364°N,
117.7681°W)(Figure3.2).Beforesettlement,CopperInuitlivedanomadiclifestyle,inhabiting
theareaofPrinceAlbertSound,Minto Inlet and the southcoastofBanks Island (Condonand
Ogina 1996). Settlement began in the community in 1939 for the purposes of trapping and
employmentfollowingtheestablishmentofaHudson’sBayCompany(HBC)tradingpostanda
Catholicmission.Inuitcontinuedtoliveanomadiclifestyleintothe1940sand1950s,withthe
last family moving off the land to the settlement in 1967 (Condon et al. 1995). Today,
approximately480communitymembersliveinthesettlementnearlyyearround(NWTBureau
of Statistics 2012). Facilities include a school from kindergarten to grade twelve, a satellite
campus of Aurora College, a health care centre, an arena, a community hall, a hotel and
restaurant,anartistprintshopandcarvingstudio
Ulukhaktok has a mixed economy, consisting of both subsistence activities and wage
earnings. Overall, Ulukhaktokmiut are quite active in harvesting activities in relation to other
19
communities in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, with 80% of residents 15 years and older
participatinginhuntingand/orfishing(NWTBureauofStatistics2014).Forthosewhochoose
to takepart in thewage economyandhave completed a high school degree, the employment
ratewas68.0%comparedto28.1%forthosewithout(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).Overall,
theemploymentratesatat42.9%1andtheunemploymentrateat19.9%2in2009(NWTBureau
of Statistics2012).Average family income in the communitywas$58,455and theFoodPrice
Indexwas204.1in2010(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).
Figure3.2:ThelocationofUlukhaktok,InuvialuitSettlementRegion,NorthwestTerritories
(Pearceetal.2010).
Thedualfoodsystemiscomprisedofstorefoodsinadditiontocountryfoodsharvested
fromtheland.Eachcomponentofthedualfoodsystemisemphasizeddependingonthetimeof
year,community,household,andindividual(Ford2009).Storefoodsareavailableforpurchase
1Unemploymentrate:thepercentageofthelabourforcethatwasunemployedduringtheweekpriortothesurvey,wherelabourforcereferstopersonswhowereeitheremployedorunemployedduringtheweekpriortothesurvey(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).2Employmentrate:thepercentageofpersons15yearsofageandoverwhowereemployedduringtheweekpriortothesurvey(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).
20
in thecommunityat theHolmanEskimoCo-operativeLimited, theNorthernStore,QuickStop
conveniencestoreandtheArcticCharInnRestaurant.TheNorthernStoreoffersretailitemsand
southern grocery items with the exception of some products (such as filets and jerky) from
Kitimeot Foods in Cambridge Bay (despite the small commercial fishery that takes place in
Ulukhaktok,which cannot be sold in stores due to a lack of processing facilities). The Co-op,
meanwhile,isamemberoftheKitikmeotRegionCo-opsofArcticCooperativesLimited.TheCo-
op,inadditiontobeingagroceryandretailstore,managestheArcticCharInnaspartoftheInns
North family ofArctic hotels, andpurchases country food fromharvesterswhen available for
preparation in the restaurant. The Quick Stop, owned by Territorial Investments Ltd, is a
convenience store that caters to sugar- and salt-cravings with additional basic grocery items
suchasbreadandcoffee.Thestorealsosells frozenreindeermeat fromtheBinders in Inuvik
and a limited amount of muskoxwhen the owner harvests and processes it. As of 2015, the
QuickStopactsasa fast foodtake-outrestaurantaswell.Foodorderscanalsobeplacedwith
grocerystores inYellowknifeand Inuvikandare flownto thecommunityonaweeklyskidor
shippedontheannualbarge.Thesestorefoodsareconsumedasasupplementtocountryfood.
Country food is harvested near the settlement on a seasonal basis and is shared as a
central part of Inuit culture. Sharing happens either through communal meals (called
nirriyaktuqtuq,or“eatingtogether”)orthroughdirectexchange(Collings,WenzelandCondon
1998).Sharingtakestheformofreciprocalexchangewithinafamilialsharingnetworkormay
be exchanged in return for goods and services within or outside the sharing network.
Unilaterallysharingcountryfoodwitheldersiselevatedaboveallotherformsofsharing.Intra-
community sharing also takes place with family members who reside in the Inuvialuit
SettlementRegion,theKitikmeotorinYellowknifeandEdmonton.
3.2Researchapproach
The research approach is founded upon the vulnerability-based model for assessing
potential implications of climate change for food security for Inuit communities in Figure 2.3
21
(Ford2009).However,inlinewiththeobjectivesoftheresearch,thefocusoftheresearchwas
on thecurrentvulnerabilityof the foodsystem,as illustrated inFigure3.3. InUlukhaktok, the
dual country/store foodsystemrestsonavailability, access,qualityandstorageof food.Thus,
themethodsofdatacollectionfocusonthesepillarsinordertoachievetheresearchobjectives.
Figure 3.3. The framework for assessing the current vulnerability of the food system in
Ulukhaktok,NT(baseduponFordandSmit2004,SmitandWandel2006,Ford2009,2012).
The vulnerability research was carried out in collaboration with the community of
Ulukhaktok,andfollowsmethodsforcommunity-researchercollaborationdescribedbyITKand
NRI (2007), Pearce and others (2009) andNickels andKnotsh (2011). The research question
was a response to a community-identified research need and the research project received
support from key community partners including the Ulukhaktok Community Corporation,
Hunters and Trappers Committee and Hamlet. With guidance from these partners, the
researcher collaborated with a community research partner. The research partner was
instrumental in the design of methods, providing guidance on the appropriate way of going
about interviews, identifying suitable participants and illuminating a number of important
aspectsregardingthelocalcultureandworkingsofthecommunity.Theresearcheralsoworked
withaninterpreterwhofacilitatedinterviewswitheldersinInuinnaqtun.
CurrentVulnerability
CountryFood StoreFood
Avail.
Acc. Qual.
Avail.
Acc. Qual.
22
The development of the methodology involved an iterative process that incorporated
community feedback before being applied. Collaboration in this way, beyond ensuring
responsiveness to community needs and interests, accomplishes the goal of holding the
researcheraccountable to thecommunityand letsparticipantsdeterminewhetherresearch is
being conducted ethically. Research was also carried out in accordance with the ethical
guidelinesprovidedbytheUniversityofGuelphResearchEthicsBoard(seeEthicsApprovalin
AppendixA), theAuroraResearch Institute (seeResearchLicense inAppendixB) andACUNS
(2003).
3.3Datacollection
Amixedmethodsapproachwasundertakentocollectinformationthatcorrespondswith
the objectives of the researchproject (seeTable 3.1).Datawere collectedusing ethnographic
researchtechniquesincludingkeyinformantinterviews,semi-structuredinterviews,participant
observationandanalysisofsecondarysources.
Table3.1:Researchprojectobjectivesandassociateddatacollectionmethods.
Objective DataGatheringMethods1.Characterizeelementsofthecommunityfoodsystem.
• Analysisofsecondarysourcesofinformation
• Participantobservation• Keyinformantinterviews
2.Documentthewaysinwhichmultiplestresses(climaticandnon-climatic)affectfoodsecurity.3.Documentcurrentadaptivestrategiesemployedtomanageorcopewithstressestofoodsecurity.
• Analysisofsecondarysourcesofinformation
• Participantobservation• Semi-structuredinterviews
4.Identifyanddescribeopportunitiesandbarrierstoenhancingfoodsecurity.
• Synthesisofresearchfindings
When conducting semi-structured interviews, stratified sampling was used to create a
representative picture of the community and eventually generalize to the population.Within
eachofthestrataidentifiedbelow,participantswereselectedthroughconveniencesamplingas
23
participantswere chosen based on their relationship and rapportwith the researcher or the
researchpartner.Householdswerecategorizedbytheresearchpartner(inTable3.2)aselder-
headed(n=10/35)(apersonorcoupleovertheageof50withorwithoutotherfamilymembers
over 18 residing with them, often very knowledgeable about hunting techniques), families
(n=11/33) (two parents including those above 50with school-age children under 18), single
mother (n=9/22) (with school age children under 18), single father or bachelor (n=5/16),
bachelorette (n=2/4) and couple (n=2/4) for a total of 114 households with Inuvialuit
beneficiaries (where Inuvialuit beneficiaries aremeant as “those people known as Inuvialuit,
InuitorEskimowhoarebeneficiariesunder [the InuvialuitFinal]Agreementbyreasonof the
settlementoftheirclaimtotraditionaluseandoccupancyofthelandintheInuvialuitSettlement
Region(IJS2006)).Inuvialuitbeneficiarieswerechosensoastofocusoncommunitymembers
ratherthantransientresidentsliketeachers,nurses,socialworkersandstoremanagers.
Table3.2:Samplingofhouseholdsbytype(n=39/114).
Householdtype Numberofinterviews Completesample %interviewed
Elders 10 35 29%
Familywithchildren 11 33 33%
Singlemother 9 22 41%
Singlefather/bachelor 5 16 31%
Bachelorette 2 4 50%
Couple 2 4 50%
Total 39 114 34%
Semi-structured interviews followed a guide (see Appendix C) in order to document
exposure-sensitivities and determinants of adaptive capacity. Interviews consisted of open-
ended questions in order to conduct interviews in a conversational manner allowing
participants to elaborate on themes and topics important to them. This interviewing strategy
24
allowedforflexibilitywhilegivingtheinterviewersomeguidanceonthethemesthatneededto
beaddressed.Inthecaseofobjective1,questionsfocusedontheseasonalnatureoffood,when
foodsareavailable,whatfoodsareorderedandwhy,whatanimalsarebeinghunted,ifandhow
food is shared. When touching on objectives 2, 3 and 4 the questions focused on exposure-
sensitivitiesofthedualfoodsystem,adaptivestrategiesandadaptationoptions.
Interviewswereconductedmainlyinteamsoftwoduringthe2014fieldseason.These
teamsincludedtheresearcherandeithertheinterpreter(whoprovidedonthespottranslations
ofquestionsintoInuinnaqtunandanswersintoEnglish)ortheresearchpartner,exceptwhere
the latterwasnotcomfortableconducting interviewsdue topersonal relationshipswithin the
community.Withineachhousehold,thepersonorpeoplewhopreparedfoodwereapproached
to take part in semi-structured interviews. All those approached for interviewswerewomen
exceptwhennowomenwerepresentinthehousehold.Thiswasbasedontheassumptionthat
thepersonpreparingthefoodhadknowledgeofthehouseholdbudget,theavailabilityofboth
storefoodandcountryfoodaswellasthehuntingactivitiesoftheirpartner.Thisdecisionwas
alsobasedon thegenderednatureof thecommunitywhichmade itdifficult for theall-female
research team to interviewmenwithout awoman being present. This limited the amount of
environmentalandclimaticknowledgethatwasdiscussedbecausewomentend, ingeneral, to
spendlesstimeonthelandthanmen.Evenwhenmenwerepresentduringtheinterview,itis
possiblethattheresearchteambeingcomposedentirelyoffemalememberspreventedmorein-
depth discussion of environmental and climatic changes based on a lack of comfort with the
femaleinterviewers.
Semi-structured interviews were audio recorded (subject to participants’ consent) or
noted by the researcher or research partner. Interviews took place in locations that were
relativelyneutral, informal (butnot noisy) and easily accessible including theKayutakCentre
boardroom, participants’homesortheresearcher’shomedependingonparticipantsfeltmost
comfortable orwasmost convenient. Drinks and snackswere offered during the interview if
being conducted at the researcher’s home and participants received a $40 gift certificate for
25
NorthernortheHolmanEskimoCoopdependingontheirpreference(consistentwiththerate
participantswerebeinggivenduringanotherresearchprojectbeingundertakeninthesummer
of2014).Eldersweregiven$40incashratherthangiftcertificatesuponrecommendationfrom
theinterpreterwhohadextensiveexperiencewithelderinterviews.
Keyinformantinterviewswere conductedwith the InuvialuitRegionCorporationDietician,
the Department of Natural Resources officer and the resource person for the Olokhaktomiut
Hunters and Trappers Committee to fill in information gaps and provide complementary or
supplementaryevidencetothesemi-structuredinterviews.
Analysis of secondary sources of information involved assembling government and
communityreports(e.g.UlukhaktokCommunityWellnessPlan,ClimateChangeAdaptationPlan
for Ulukhaktok) economic and harvesting reports, health surveys (e.g. Inuit Health Survey),
climate records, books, and peer-reviewed journal articles. Information regarding both the
countryfoodandstorefoodsystemswerecompiledtogainacomprehensiveunderstandingof
the community food system. Once compiled, these documents were analyzed using iterative
coding in QSR International NVivo qualitative data software. Just as with the analysis of
interviewdata,documentswerecodedusingthemesthatemergedrelevantto,forexample,food
security, food sovereignty, Ulukhaktok, vulnerability and its associated terms, socio-economic
indicators,climatechange,sharing,well-being,nutrition,wildlifespecies,etc.
Groundtruthingof informationfromsecondarysourcestookplacethroughparticipant
observation,which involved residing in the community from July 17 to October 4 2014. This
included keeping detailed field notes about activities, observations and harvesting activities
takingplaceatthetime.Italsoinvolvedmappinghouseholdsinordertodeterminethesample,
documenting store food prices, recording the number and size of freezers inside and outside
people’s homes and photographing elements of interest such as the community freezer and
icehouses. Participant observation also involved building relationships with community
membersthroughparticipatingineverydaycommunitylife.Thisincludedvisitstotheirhouses;
participation in sewing classes and drum dance practice; time spent chatting in the stores,
26
during coffee hour at the hotel, on the street orwhile standing on the beachwith onlookers
whenhuntershadbroughtbelugawhalesbacktotheshore;andtakingpartinboatrides,fishing
trips, the Billy Joss Open Golf Tournament, elders’ picnics and school trips. Participant
observation was essential for building rapport that would allow participants to feel more
comfortablewhentakingpartinasemi-structuredinterviewandforallowingtheresearcherto
detectwhen participantswere either uncomfortable orwhen theywere not being altogether
truthfulandneededtobepromptedforadditionalordifferentinformation.
WithinInuitculture,askingdirectquestionsisconsideredunseemlyandsomewhatrude
andchildish.Thisissuchthat“theinterviewremainsanarenainwhichInuitmaynotbetruthful
evenwhentheinterviewerhasahighdegreeofrapportwithinformants”(Collings2009).One
technique thathasprovenuseful toCollings (2009) inUlukhaktokandelsewhere isknownas
phased assertion. This technique requires the researcher to show they possess an
understandingof the topicasameansof creatingrapportand leading togreateropennesson
thepartoftheparticipant(Collings2009).Byspending3monthsinthecommunity,visitingand
participating indaily life, itwascleartoparticipantsthat theresearcherwasalreadyawareof
some information andparticipantswere able to elaborateon topics rather than starting from
the verybeginning. Thiswas especially true in the case of interviewsbeing conductedby the
researchpartner.
However,duetothesensitivenatureofsomeofthequestions(aboutaccesstofood,the
participants’abilitytoprovidefortheirfamily,theirpartner’sabilityasaharvester), it isclear
some participantswere not completely honest and therefore participantswere prompted for
additional or different information. Interview data was further supplemented with other
methods,suchaskeyinformantinterviewsandparticipantobservation.
3.4Dataanalysis
Uponcompletionofeachinterview,theresearcherdocumentedthegeneraltoneofthe
conversation, the key themes that emerged and anything particularly notable about the
interview. Interviews were transcribed as soon as possible after being conducted. These
27
transcriptswerethencodediterativelyusingqualitativedatasoftwareQSRInternationalNVivo
inordertoidentifycategoriesandpatternsintheinterviews.Data-drivencodingrequiresdata
to be constantly revisited. Initial coding sought to identify nodes related to exposure-
sensitivities andadaption (suchas adaptationoptions; access, availability andqualityof store
and country food; education; employment; health and wellness; Inuinnaqtun; money;
preparation;harvestquotas;safety;commercializationofcountryfood;sharing;storage;trade).
Ascodesbecamemorecomplexandconnectedtotheproject’stheoreticalframework,theywere
builtintothemesthatthenservedasthemainfindingsdescribedinChapter4.
The findings of the research projectwere sharedwith the community during a visit from
March9toApril42015.ThisinvolvedreportingresultsonthelocalradiothroughtheTumivut
radioshowonMarch27.Resultsweredisseminatedtoacademicaudiencesthroughposterand
oral presentations at Arctic Change in December 2014 and the ArcticNet Annual Scientific
MeetinginDecember2015.Resultswillalsobesharedwithinacademiathroughpeer-reviewed
journalarticles.
28
CHAPTERFOUR:RESULTS
This chapter serves to present the results of the research objectives. The chapter is
divided into four sections according to these objectives: the Community food system section
describes both the store food and country food component of the dual food system in
Ulukhaktok (objective 1); the section outlining Current exposure-sensitivities affecting food
security documents the ways in which multiple stresses affect food security (objective 2)
through access, quality, availability and storage; the section Current adaptive strategies
documents current adaptive strategies employed to manage or cope with stresses to food
security(objective3);andthefinalsectionidentifiesbarrierstoandopportunitiesforenhancing
foodsecurity(objective4).
4.1Communityfoodsystem
Consistentwithresearchobjective1,thedualfoodsysteminUlukhaktokwasexamined
andisdescribedhere.Theelementsofthecountryfoodandstorefoodcomponentsofthefood
systemarecharacterized.First,theseasonalityofharvestingactivitiesisexplained,followedby
adescriptionof the cost, subsidizationand logistical considerationsof acquiring store food in
Ulukhaktok.
4.1.1Countryfood
Asonepartofthemixedeconomy,subsistenceisanimportantpartoflifeinUlukhaktok.
Involvementinharvestingactivitiesinrelativelyhighinthecommunitycomparedtotheregion
andiscentraltoculture,healthandwell-being.Harvestingactivitiesarecarriedoutbasedona
seasonalcyclethathasinsomewayschangedandotherwaysremainedsimilarovertheyears.
Ulukhaktomiut follow a seasonal pattern of subsistence harvesting based on the
migrationofanimalsandaccesstohuntinggroundsonthelandandseaice.Speciesoffishand
wildlife commonly harvested include Arctic char, iqalukpik (Salvelinus alpinus); ringed seal,
natiq (Phoca hispida); bearded seal, ugyuk (Eringnathus barbatus); lake trout, ihuuhuk
(Salvelinusnamaycush);Pearycaribou,tuktu(Rangifiertarandus);Dolphin-Unioncaribou,tuktu
(Rangifertarandusgroenlandicusxpearyi); Muskox, umingmak (Ovibosmoschatus); king eider
29
ducks, kingalik (Somateria spectabilis); snow geese, uluagulik (Chencaerulescens); arctic cod,
iqalukpik (Arctogadus glacialis); beluga, kilalugak (Delphinapterus leucas); and berries, kabla
(Figures4.1and4.2).Somespeciesareavailableyearroundbutareonlyharvestedorharvested
preferentiallywhentheyareinprimecondition(e.g.favouringsmallerarcticcharwithlessfat
when they aremigrating backwest toward the ocean, avoidingmuskox during themating or
ruttingseasoninJuneandJuly).
Figure4.1showstheseasonaleconomiccycleoftheCopperInuitin1972(Damas1972).
Primary pursuits are featured in the outer circle,with secondary pursuits in the inner circle.
Seasonal pursuits can be broken down into two main phases: “1) the winter period, lasting
roughly from December through much of May, when breathing-hole sealing was the chief
activity(thoughsupplementedinsomeregionsbypolarbearhunting),and2)theperiodfrom
May to November, when caribou hunting, fishing and some small-game hunting and fowling
werecarriedout.Asnotedabove,economicactivitywasvirtuallyatastandstillatthebeginning
ofwinter”(Damas1972).
30
Figure4.1:SeasonaleconomiccycleofCopperInuit(Damas1972).
Data were collected in Ulukhaktok in 2014 in order to update Damas’ 1972 seasonal
economiccycle(Figure4.2).Anewfeatureofthecycleshowstherelativeamountofequipment
neededtoharvestdifferentspeciesthroughouttheyear.Thefartherthelinefromthecentreof
thecircle, themoreequipmentmayberequired toharvesteachspecies.Forexample,berries,
whicharerepresentedclose to thecentre, canbecollectedbywalkingor takinganall-terrain
vehicle to nearby berry patches. Conversely, harvesting caribou (indicated further from the
centre)requiresaboat,gasandoilfortheapproximately200kmjourney,gasfortheall-terrain
vehicle,foodforthedurationofthetrip,atent,stove,gun,scopeandshells.Otheractivitiesvary
in the amount of equipment required, such aswith char,which can be harvested bywalking
along the coast and casting with a fishing rod, or can be harvested by setting nets, which
requiresaboat,nets,gasandoiltosetandchecknetsalongthecoast.
31
Figure4.2:SeasonalcycleofharvestingactivitiesinandnearUlukhaktok,NT.
Today, these figures present similarities and differences in species harvesting and
timing. Thewinter period still presents a decrease in harvesting activities duringwhich time
peoplenolonger liveoncachedfoodbutrathermuststoretheir foodinfreezers.Belugawere
also unusually important for subsistence in Ulukhaktok during the summer period of 2014,
whileonlyafewhavebeensightedandevenfewerhavebeenharvestedinlivingmemory.
Thefinancialimportanceofspeciesbetweenfigureshaschangedwithtime,asdoesthe
financialimportanceofsomespeciesoverotherstoday.Thesealharvesthasfluctuatedinterms
of financial importance for households and in its role of feeding dogs,whichwas phased out
32
when dog teamswere replacedwith snowmobiles. Sport hunting of polar bears began in the
1970s(Condon1999)andcontinuestobeanimportantsourceofincomeforguidesandhelpers
whospendashortperiodoftimeontheland,teachyouththeskillsrequiredfortheharvestof
polarbearandotherspeciesandareabletofinancetheirownharvestingactivitiesandpaybills
withthelargewindfallofcash.
The cycle follows a pattern but timings change slightly from year to year. Species are
expectedtoreturnduringthetimes indicatedandmanypeoplerelyonthiscycletoanticipate
harvesting activities. Peoplewithwage employmentmust hope their time off alignswith the
cycle.Forexample,arequest fortimeoff inspring2014wasbasedontheexpectedmigration
time for the ducks. However, the eider ducks came later and were behind Mashuyak (near
HolmanIsland),whichmeantthatmanypeoplemissedthem.Thosewhohadbookedthistime
offwouldhaveseenitwasted.Peoplewhodidnottimetheirvacationtocoincidewiththeducks
orthosewholivepaychequetopaychequeanddidn’thavethefundstogetgastogooutonthe
land,missed theirmain opportunity to harvest ducks to last thewinter. This also applied to
people who had the means but were not expecting the ducks to pass by so far from the
community.
Anecdotalevidenceshowsthatclimatechangeisaffectingmigrationpatternsandtiming:
“This spring I think itwas hard for duck hunting because the ice all breaking up and
everything.Wecouldn’treallygooutduckhuntingmuchbecausealltheicewasbroken
up.UsuallyIgowithmymomormysisterduckhunting.Mysondoesalotofittoobut
withtheicebreakinguphewasn’tabletogooutasmuchsoourstockpile…ormymom’s
stockpileforcountryfoodwasreallylowwiththeducks.”-JanetKanayok
4.1.2Storefood
4.1.2.1Cost
Storeboughtfoodmay,onitsown,provideanadequatedietforresidents,butthecost
(tosaynothingofqualityandculturalrelevance)ofnutritiouslydenseitemssuchasfreshand
33
frozenfoodsarerestrictiveandimpacttheabilitytocreateabalanceddiet(Collings,Wenzeland
Condon1998).Thecostof store food isnearlydouble (195%) the costof food inYellowknife
based on the Food Price Index (NWT Bureau of Statistics 2014). These costs are limiting for
somehouseholds,andespeciallythoseon incomesupport.Multipleparticipantsexpressedthe
difficultyinmakingtheirincomesupportallotmentscovertheirexpensesfortheentiremonth.
Thisdifficultymaybecompoundedbya“lackofeducationaboutnutritiousmarketfoodchoices,
byaddiction,orbysocialexclusion”(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).
Table4.1 illustrates thedifference in store foodandequipmentprice from theHBC in
1963and1991andfromtheNorthernandCo-op(wheresomeitemswerenolongeravailable
andmustbeorderedonline)in2014.However,thesewerecollectedfromJulytoOctober2014
and are not reflective of the average price based on lower prices following the arrival of the
bargeandhigherpriceswhenstockisexhaustedandmustbeflownin.Theresearcherwasnot
able toobtain a list ofpricesor thevolumeof sales,whichwas said tobe confidential by the
store managers. The IRC regional dietician had also asked for store prices lists and sales by
volume and these proved impossible to uncover (with the exception of Stanton’s, which is
ownedbyIRC).
Table4.1ComparisonofstorefoodandequipmentpricesinUlukhaktok,NT(baseduponCondonandOgina1996).Item HBC1963
(Usher1965)HBC1991(CondonandOgina1996)
Northern2014 Co-op2014
Butter(1lbcan) 1.05 3.84 5.65 3.99Evaporatedmilk(12ozcan)
0.25 1.57 2.85 3.19
Teabags(1lbbag) 1.45 4.89 7.15 4.99Coffee(1lbcan) 0.95 4.32 13.99 13.99ChocolateBar 0.13 0.91 2.85 2.79Softdrink 0.30 1.41 2.85 2.69Cigarettes 0.40(20pack) 7.50(20pack) 18.72(25pack) 19.03(25pack)Gas(1L) 1.20 3.40 7.36 7.36222Shells(20) 3.60 18.98 N/A 25.99222Rifle 69.95 649.00 N/A N/A20ftcanoe 500.00 N/A 8,299.00 N/A10HPoutboardmotor
450.00 3,200.00 3,195.00 N/A
Traps(1.5)(havetoorder)
0.95 3.79 N/A N/A
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4.1.2.2.NutritionNorthsubsidy
In an effort to alleviate high costs since the 1960s, food subsidy programs have been
appliedtofoodinnortherncommunities.ThefirstofthesewastheNorthernAirStageProgram,
whichwas an initiative of the federal government delivered by the Canada Post Corporation
(CanadianCouncil ofAcademies2014).More recently, theFoodMailProgram, an initiativeof
IndianandNorthernAffairsCanadafrom1999-2011,replacedtheNorthernAirStageProgram.
TheFoodMailProgramwasitselfreplacedbyNutritionNorthCanadain2011whichcontinues
to run today amid controversy in themedia and criticism from the Facebook advocacy page
FeedingMyFamily(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).
ThegoaloftheFoodMailProgramwastopromotehealthyeating.Bysubsidizingapart
ofthetransportationcoststocommunitiesthatareonlyaccessiblebyplaneatleastpartofthe
year,theprogramincreasedtheaffordabilityandaccessibilityofnutritiousperishablefoodand
other essential items (AANDC 2010). In the federal evaluation of the effectiveness of the
program, it was deemed an essential service to northern communities that continued to be
relevant. The evaluation found that the program was not well communicated to community
members,therewaslimitedprogramtransparency,uncertaintyastowhethertheprogramwas
reaching those who needed it most and food quality issues due to transportation times and
handling (AANDC 2010), although it was estimated by AANDC that 62% of the subsidy was
passedon(CanadianCouncilofAcademies).Finally, itwas foundthattherewas“noevidence-
based support to suggest that any identified alternatives (e.g., subsidies, program transfer,
enhanced income support, other transportation options) would be more successful, cost
effective, or have a greater impact on end users than the current postage subsidy” (AANDC
2010).
Despitethis,theNutritionNorthSubsidyreplacedtheFoodMailProgramin2011,asa
market-drivenmodelthatsubsidizesnutritiouschoicesdirectlythroughretailers,suppliersand
country food processors, who then pass savings on to consumers (Canadian Council of
35
Academies2014).Subsidizeditemsincludeperishablefruitandvegetables;milkandotherdairy
products;meatandperishablealternatives;bread,cerealandotherperishablegrainproducts,
and; perishable combination food (e.g. frozen and ready-to-cookmeals). Nutrition North also
aimstosupport“culturallyappropriateretailandnutritioneducationactivities” inaneffortto
increaseknowledgeofhealthyeating,healthystoreandcountry foodchoicesandpreparation
throughnutritionworkshops,cookingclasses,healthyfoodsamplesinstoresandschoolbased
nutritionprograms(GovernmentofCanada2014).Theannualbudgetfortheprojectasawhole
iscappedat$60million(SCAAND2011).
4.1.2.3Transportation
Becausethecommunityisonlyaccessiblebyair,thecostoftransportationofallgoodsis
substantially higher than communities that are accessible by road (even forpart of the year).
UlukhaktokisaccessedbybargeonceayearfromHayRiver(seeTable4.2forcargoratesfrom
HayRivertoUlukhaktok).Ordersareplacedbybothstores,Hamlet,UCC,HelenKalvakElihakvik
SchoolandresidentswiththeNorthernTransportationCompanyLimited(NTCL).For2015,the
cargo cutoff (the deadline by which an order must be placed) was July 2, with an expected
delivery theweekofAugust10. In2014, thebargewasdelayedbeyond thescheduleddeliver
datebyoveramonthduetolowwaterlevelsintheMackenzieandarrivedSept11.Regardless
of thearrivaldate, someparticipantsacknowledged their lackofknowledgeofhowtoplacea
bargeorderortheirlackofplanningwhenneedingtoplaceanorderinadvance.
Table4.2.2015CargoratesfromHayRivertoUlukhaktok,NT(NTCL2015).Feetype AmountGeneralcargorate(basedonarevenuetonnewhichiseither(i)1,000kilogramsofweight,or(ii)2.5cubicmetres–whicheverproducesthegreaterrevenueatagivenrate)
$421
Standard20’container(20'x8'x8.5'(lwh)withamaximumgrossweightof29,000lbs)
$6200+$975forcontainerrental
Lightdutyvehicles(Forallboats,sidebysidestyleATV's) $358ATVflatrate $600Snowmobileflatrate $850Carflatrate $2250Lightdutypickuptruck&fullsizeSUV $3500Heavydutypickuptruck $4800
36
Compared to the $0.64/lb rate paid for the barge delivery by stores in 2014, the rate
appliedtoairfreightis$2.67/lb.Perishablefoodsandnon-perishablefoodsthatareoutofstock
arealsobroughtinbyairyearroundinvariousconditions.Whentheresearcherhelpedunload
afreighterflightonAugust9,2014theshipmentwasmostlybeverageswithsomefreshproduce
wherealmosteveryboxhadatleastonemouldyitem.Theratesforfreightflowninto(andout
of)thecommunityareshowninTable4.3.
37
Table4.3.FirstAirdomesticcargoratestoandfromUlukhaktok,NTin2015(FirstAir2015).
First Air has a special cargo rate for intercommunity shipments of country food for
personal consumption. The base rate for the transportation of country food between
communities is $1.50per kilogram (up from$1.19per kg in 2012 and $1.23per kg in 2014)
(FirstAir 2015). The current rate has also changed frombeing chargedper kg fromorigin to
destination, tobeingbrokenupbysegment.People takeadvantageof theratenonetheless. In
2014,peoplecapitalizedontheratewithmuktukmorethananyotherspecies,inpartbecause
of the large amount of pride people felt in harvesting beluga for the first time and in part
because of the lack of freezer space available to accommodate the amount of muktuk that
amountsfrom34whales.Approximately500lbsofmuktukwereshippedin2014throughFirst
Airtofamilyinothercommunitiesusingthecountryfoodrate.
ULUKHAKTOK ENVELOPEto/from Maximum
2 kgMinimum Charge
Per kg Rate 1-499
Per kg Rate500+
Minimum Charge
Per kg Rate 1-499
Per kg Rate500+
Arctic Bay 36.00 100.00 18.54 17.61 135.00 25.03 23.78
Arviat 36.00 47.00 12.04 11.44 70.00 15.66 14.87
Baker Lake 36.00 47.00 12.04 11.44 70.00 15.66 14.87
Cambridge Bay 36.00 47.00 5.30 5.04 70.00 7.16 6.80
Cape Dorset 36.00 47.00 18.34 17.43 70.00 23.84 22.65
Chesterfield Inlet 36.00 47.00 11.43 10.87 70.00 14.86 14.12
Clyde River 36.00 116.00 21.51 20.44 157.00 29.04 27.58
Coral Harbour 36.00 47.00 13.27 12.61 70.00 17.24 16.38
Edmonton 36.00 52.00 9.54 8.85 70.00 12.10 11.20
Fort Simpson 36.00 54.00 9.82 9.32 72.00 13.26 12.60
Gjoa Haven 36.00 47.00 8.58 8.15 70.00 11.59 11.01
Hall Beach 36.00 99.00 18.34 17.43 134.00 24.76 23.53
Hay River 36.00 47.00 8.84 8.39 70.00 11.93 11.33
Igloolik 36.00 99.00 18.34 17.43 134.00 24.76 23.53
Inuvik 36.00 53.00 9.76 9.28 71.00 13.18 12.52
Iqaluit 36.00 65.00 11.94 11.34 88.00 16.12 15.32
Kimmirut 36.00 77.00 14.39 13.67 105.00 19.43 18.46
Kugaaruk 36.00 52.00 9.62 9.14 70.00 12.99 12.34
Kugluktuk 36.00 47.00 2.38 2.26 70.00 3.21 3.05
Kuujjuaq 36.00 81.00 14.99 14.23 109.00 20.23 19.22
Montreal 36.00 91.00 16.74 15.90 123.00 22.60 21.47
Norman Wells 36.00 47.00 10.12 9.62 70.00 13.16 12.50
Ottawa 36.00 91.00 16.74 15.90 123.00 22.60 21.47
Pangnirtung 36.00 87.00 16.03 15.22 117.00 21.64 20.56
Pond Inlet 36.00 124.00 22.81 21.67 167.00 30.80 29.26
Qikiqtarjuaq 36.00 96.00 17.82 16.93 130.00 24.06 22.86
Rankin Inlet 36.00 56.00 10.23 9.71 74.00 13.81 13.12
Resolute Bay 36.00 100.00 18.54 17.61 135.00 25.03 23.78
Taloyoak 36.00 49.00 9.13 8.67 70.00 12.32 11.70
Whale Cove 36.00 47.00 11.43 10.87 70.00 14.86 14.12
Winnipeg 36.00 47.00 14.14 13.43 70.00 18.39 17.47
Yellowknife 36.00 47.00 7.07 6.72 70.00 9.54 9.06
DOMESTIC CARGO RATES Add 23% fuel surcharge to all rates
Add 6.5% Nav Canada surcharge to all rates
PRIORITY CARGOGENERAL CARGO
38
4.2Currentexposure-sensitivitiesaffectingfoodsecurity
This section accomplishes research objective 2, which was to document the ways in
whichmultiple stresses (climatic and non-climatic) affect food security. Determinants of food
insecuritycausedbyenvironmentalandsocio-economicchangewereexploredbyexaminingthe
ways inwhichthecountryfoodandstorefoodcomponentsofthefoodsystemarevulnerable.
ThisexplorationisbasedonthevulnerabilityframeworkasappliedtotheInuitfoodsystemin
Ulukhaktok.
4.2.1Access
This section examines the exposure sensitivities of the dual food system related to
access.Storeandcountryfoodaccessimplies“theabilityofhouseholdsandindividualstoaccess
adequateresourcestoacquirestoreand[country]foodsforanutritiousdiet”(Ford2009).
4.2.1.1.Climaticandenvironmentalconditions
In the face of rising temperatures, participants described a number of changing
environmentalconditions,includingthemeltingofpermafrost,longericefreeseason,andmore
unpredictable ocean conditions. The melting of permafrost was identified by one participant
whodescribedamudslideonahillwhere thepermafrosthadmelted.The implicationsof the
melt include the impacts of unstable ground on housing. For homeowners, this implies costly
repairs to the structure and foundation that detract from the disposable income available for
harvestingactivities.Italsomeansharvestersmayhavetospendmoremoneyongastotravel
onthetundrabyATViftheirmachineissloweddownbywet,soggyconditionsinthesummer.
The earlier melting of ice interferes with the seasonal cycle outlined in Figure 4.2.
Traditionally,kingeiderduckstravelalongtheleadintheicearoundbreakupbutarehunted
alongtheleadwhentheicebreaksup.Giventhechangesinthetimingandpatternofthemelt,
the icegetstoothintobeabletohuntducksfromthefloe.Whentheytravelalongthe lead, it
becomesnecessarytohuntducksfromthewater,whichismoredifficultgiventhemovementof
aboat.
39
Theunpredictabilityofconditionsalsomakespeoplefeelunsafewhentravelingonthe
land. This means either loading up more gear to be able to stay out longer in case of an
emergencyordelaysormakingbrief tripsornone at all. This also ties into theknowledgeof
howtobesafeontheland,buttheoldtechniquesarenolongeralwaysapplicablewhenreading
iceconditions. Inorder toadapt to theseconditions,harvestersmusthaveaknowledgeof the
factors that make traveling safe including ice conditions, weather and migration patterns,
usuallyheldbyexperiencedharvesters.Thisreinforcedtrendofdeclininghuntingparticipation
meansa reducedamountof country foodentering thesharingnetwork.Oneadaptation is the
developmentofnew,oftenlongertrailsthatareknowntobesafegivennewconditions,butthe
price of gas makes this inaccessible for people with limited income. This illustrates how
changingconditionsarecompoundedalongsidechanginglifestyles.
4.2.1.2Changinglifestyles
Since the first familiesmoved to the settlement, a rapid change in lifestyle took place
withinthecommunity.Familiestransitionedfromanomadicexistencetoasemi-nomadicone,
typicallyspendingthesummersinoutpostcampsontheland.Thishasledtoanaccompanying
transition from the subsistence economy to a mixed subsistence and wage economy with
increasingimportanceplacedonthewagecomponent.TheemploymentrateinUlukhaktokfor
2014was50.9%,withaparticipationrate(thoseemployedoractivelyseekingemployment)of
57.9%(NWTBureauofStatistics2015).Thewageearnersarerestrictedintheamountoftime
they can spend on the land. This means that they are limited to longer one- or two-day
harvestingtripsontheweekendorduringtheirtimeoffwhichneedstobesynchronizedwith
theseasonalcycle.
In order to become wage earners at all, residents are often also required to have, at
minimum,ahighschooleducation.Thetimespentinformaleducationandinwageemployment
limits the amount of time residents are able to spendon the landover their lifetime learning
fromexperiencedharvesters.However,wageearnersareoftentimespartofaresourcesharing
40
network that supports subsistence harvesters through the purchase of equipment in order to
allowforthedivisionoflabour.
Inadditiontotheadventofsettlement,therehasalsobeenatransitioninthestructure
ofhouseholdscomparedtotheirmakeupwhentheyfirstcameaboutandespecially inrecent
years, principally since the introduction of income support. Collings and others (2015) found
that there has been an increasing number of single mother headed households. These
householdsdon’thaveanexperiencedhunterandifasonparticipatesinharvestingactivities,he
oftenhastorelyonanothermalefamilymemberorfriendto learn.This issummarizedinthe
followingquote:
“WhenIwasmarried, Ihadnoproblemsgettingaccessto it,becauseIhadahunter inthe house, but now looking for people to buy it off is kind of hard. […] I don’t likedepending on people. I don’t like asking for help. So it’s hard to feedmy kids healthynutritiousfoodwhenthere’snohunterinthehouse.SoIthinkthat’stheonlythingIseewrongaboutbeingseparatedishavingnohunterinthehouse.”-JanetKanayokThereisincreasingrecognitioninthecommunitythatsinglemothershavelimitedaccess
to country foods and hunters will sometimes share with single mothers outside their family
networkinrecognitionofthis.
Finally, the bureaucratization of community life has also become a hindrance when
attemptingtoengageinharvestingactivities.Forexample,residentsarerequiredtohavetheir
Possession and Acquisition Licence in order to buy ammunition. The course offerings in the
communityarelimitedandoftennotwelladvertised.Manytimes,peopleresorttohavingother
people with licenses do the purchasing for them (often the same person who is doing the
teaching,e.g.thegrandfatherofaboywillbuyshellsforbothofthem,themotherreimbursing
thegrandfatherassheisnotabletolegallybuythemherself).Anotherexampleisthesupport
programs in the form of CHAP and IHAP, which involve more paperwork in the form of an
applicationthatrequirestimespentinthecommunity.
4.2.1.3Accessanduseofincome
Thehighpriceofstorefoodwasidentifiedasabarrier.Despitethis, foodchoicesoften
includesomelargeticket,lownutrient-denseitemssuchaspop.In2014,poppriceswerevery
41
high for the kinds that are preferred, run out quickly and need to be flown in. A dip in price
occursbeforethebargetofreeupspacebyliquidatingthelessconsumedvarieties.
Inhouseholdswherethereisnoactiveharvest,moreincomemustbeusedonstorefood.
As is thecase forsinglemothers, inahouseholdwhereonepartnerhasan injuryordisability
andisn’tabletohunt,theremayalsobeanincreasedrelianceonstorefoods:
“…Inoticedthatwhenmyhusbandgothurt,wespentalotofmoneyonthestoreboughtfood.Althoughwe’regettingfoodfromourfamily,butyouknow,itcan’tlastforeverandever throughout the year. So we’re spending a lot more at the Northern.” – SusieMalgokakBecausea largerportionofdisposable income isbeingput towardstore foods, even if
householdswere able to be part of a sharing network through family ties, theymay not feel
comfortabledrawingonthisnetworkforcountryfoodsbecauseof theethicofreciprocityand
theirinabilitytocontributefinanciallytothenetwork.
Useofincomebasedonaknowledgeofbudgetingisalsoalimitationthataffectsaccess.
Residentsmaynothavetheknowledgetobudgetfortheirneeds,especiallywhentheyreceive
incomesupport for thewholemonthorare livingpaycheque topaychequeandhave tomake
theirmoney lastuntil thenextpayment.This lackofbudgetingwas illustratedbyparticipants
whentheystatedthattheyneededcertainthingsandbecausethepricescouldn’tbehelped,they
justpaidtheamountratherthanlookingforotheroptionsorbuyingwhatwasonsale.
Thehighcostofstorefoodandanincreaseinstorefoodconsumptionrelativetocountry
foodcauseconcernsforfoodsecurityandhealth.55%ofincomeinInuithouseholdsisspenton
foodcosts,withtheremaindergoingtoanalreadyhighcostofliving(Duhaimeetal.2002).
4.2.2Availability
This section examines the exposure sensitivities of the dual food system related to
availability.Storeandcountryfoodavailabilityreferstotheavailabilityofsufficientfood(Ford
2009).
4.2.2.1Wildlifedistributionandabundance
42
Wildlifedistributionandabundanceisthekeyfactorintheavailabilityofcountryfood.
Belugaswereopportunisticallyharvestedin2014,ananomalousyearintermsofwhalestaken.
Arecordtotalof34belugaswereharvested.Theideathatthebelugarangeisexpandingbased
onfoodavailabilityandforageecologyhasbeensupportedbypreliminaryfindingsofsandlance
(also spotted in the shallowwatersofQueen’sBaybyparticipants) in the stomachofbelugas
sampled inUlukhaktok. One participantwas echoed by otherswho stated that belugaswere
sometimesspotted in thewatersnearUlukhaktokwithin the last20years,but itwasnevera
regularsightingorthetargetofanactivehunt:
“…when Iwasayounggirl, therewerehardlyanywhales.Once inagreat,greatwhilesomewouldcome in.Thatwas the time Jimmyand themused tobehere. I rememberthey were the hunters then, they were hunting the whale when it came in. Just one,maybejustoneeverysoandsobutthisyear,there’salotofit.Andagain,Ithinkit’stheirfoodsomehowgettinghereandtheyfollow.”-SusieMalgokakParticipantsalsoobservedthatnewpredatorshaveappearedintheformofgrizzlies.In
2010,thefirst ‘grolarbear’washarvestedbyaresidentandprovidesevidencethatthegrizzly
range is expandingnorthwardand that thesebears areproducingviableoffspring.This could
impactthenumberofpolarbearsorgrizzlybearpreyavailableforharvest.
Finally,manyparticipantsobservedthatlessmuskoxandcaribouarepresentneartown.
Theprevailingnarrativeindicatesthatmuskoxandcariboupopulationsareinverselyrelatedso
thatduringtimesofcaribouabundance,muskoxpopulationsaredepressedandviceversa.
4.2.2.2Logistics
TheavailabilityofstorefoodsislimitedtowhatcanbepurchasedattheNorthern,Coop,
QuickStoporthatcanbeorderedfromtheInuvikStanton’sandthelesserusedoptionofonline
shoppingfordryandfrozengoods(e.g.throughAmazonorM&MMeatShopsonlineordering).
The items that can be purchased are limited to what can be brought in by barge during the
summer(atacargorateof$0.64/kg)and flown in throughout therestof theyear (atacargo
rateof$2.67/kg).In2014,thisonlyoccurredonTuesday,ThursdayandSaturdayonscheduled
First Air flights or on separately scheduled freighters. There is also the option of making
43
requestsofthestoremanagerwhodoestheordering(e.g.oneresidentrequestsflatsofcherries,
whicharenotnormallyshippedinduetoperceivedtastepreferences).
Becausethereexistswhatisessentiallyaduopolyonstorefood,thereistheideainthe
community that there is price fixing between the two stores. During the communitymeeting
regarding the regional economic survey that was conducted by the Inuvialuit Regional
Corporation in2014, therewerecalls foraStanton’s inUlukhaktok inorder tobenefit froma
largervarietyofitemsandlowerprices.
4.2.3Quality
This section examines the exposure sensitivities of the dual food system related to
quality. Store and country food quality refers to “the ability to obtain safe food of sufficient
nutritionalandculturalvalue”(Ford2009).
4.2.3.1Wildlifecondition
Fifteen participants explicitly perceived country food to be healthier than store food.
Thismay inpart stem from thepublic awareness campaignswithmessagespropagated since
the90saboutthesafetyofcountryfoods.Thismessagingismeanttoreassurepeopleandincite
them to continue eating country food despite what they might hear in the media around
contaminants(especiallymercury)infoods.Thebenefitsofeatingthesefoodsourcesoutweigh
therisks(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).
Someparticipantsraisedanomaliesinmeat.Participantsraisedtheissueofwormsand
blistersinchar.Manyofthesesameparticipantsdidnotknowwheretheseabnormalitiescame
fromandcalledformoreresearchorawarenesstoberaisedaroundtheissue.Therewasalso
one case of brucellosis in a human known by the researcher. This zoonotic disease is passed
betweenmuskoxandhumans.Thispersonwasevacuatedformedicalservicesontwoormore
occasions and remained outside of the community for an extended period of time while
receivingmedicalattention.
44
4.2.3.2Nutritionalcontentandcondition
Becauseofthelogisticsdescribedabove,theproducethatarrivesbyair isoftenof low
quality.Thisduetoconditionsduringtransport,especiallyduringthewintertimewhenproduce
freezesandthawsmultipletimesenroutetoitsdestination.Fordryorfrozengoods,theamount
of time required to reach the destination oftenmeans that items are close to or passed their
expirydate,asdescribedbyoneparticipant:
“…somany things that factor into eating properly and good food and nutritious food.Right from cost to being able to afford, knowing to check expiry dates. Like notmostInuitknowthat, they justbuy it.Theysee it.Today,moreandmorepeopleare findingout about expiry dates but expiry dates sometimes overcome sales because you couldaffordit,youbuyitwhileit’sonsale.Andit’sonsalebecauseoftheexpirydate.”–EmilyKudlakNutritional content may also be at a low priority for residents when shopping at the
stores. A combination of lack of nutritional knowledge, the high price of nutritionally dense
items and the desire to satisfy a cravingmeans that awindfall of cash (e.g. Nevada or bingo
winnings) or payday often meaning ‘treat day’. It is viewed as good parenting (and
grandparenting)tobeabletoprovidechildrenwith‘junk’.Forexample,duringaweeklongstint
atsummercampatKegivic,asinglemotherdrovetwoandahalfhoursoverlandtoprovideher
childwithjunkfoodboughtforhimbyhisgodmother.
4.2.4Storage
The total freezer spacewas calculated for 47 of 114 households and broken downby
type(Table4.4).Thestandardsizefreezeraboveafridgeis6cubicfeet.Thisissupplementedby
largerchestfreezers.
Table4.4.Averageamountoffreezerspaceincubicfeetperhouseholdtype.Householdtype Totalhouseholds Householdssampled Averageamountof
freezerspace(cu.ft)Elder-headed 35 15 32.2Family 33 15 18.7Singlemother 22 9 13.4Singlefather/bachelor
16 5 12.6
Singlewoman 4 1 6Couple 4 2 16
45
Thecommunityfreezerwasalocationwherehunterscouldstorelargepiecesofmeator
wholeanimalssuchassealsandlayentirefishflat.Thisfacilitywasavailableuntil2004when
regionalfundingfortheservicedriedup.Familieshadlockersandpaidafeefortheuseofthe
communityfreezer.Atanoperatingcostof$30,000ayear,thesefeeswerenotenoughtokeep
thedoorsopenwithoutexternalfundingsources(seeFigure4.3).Twoicehouses(underground
storageinthepermafrost)werealsopreviouslyinusebutweredecommissioned(Figure4.4).In
2013,intheabsenceofaworkingcommunityfreezeroricehouse,fundingwassecuredbya3rd
party and a committee was formed to build a new icehouse. However, the members of the
committeecouldnotagreeonalocationforthebuildandtheprojectranintobarriersrelatedto
insuranceandminingregulationsassociatedwiththedig.Inordertoavoidlosingthe$50,000in
funding (GNWT Time-honoured Aboriginal Actions Sustaining Traditional Eating (TAASTE)
grantthatneededtobespentbyMarch31),theHTCandUCCorganizedacommunitymuskox
huntofapproximately30muskoxthatweredistributedtoeveryhouseholdinthecommunity.In
the ISR, there is currently one working community freezer in Paulatuk (with a proposed
research project on its evaluation) and one icehouse in Tuktoyaktuk (currently closed to the
publicbutstillavailableforusebyresidentswithstorage).Thereisalsooneicehousebuiltby
InuitandwhalersonHerschelIslandthatremainsinseasonaluse(YukonGovernment2006).
In the absence of community storage space, the Hunters and Trappers Committee
distributedapproximately10chestfreezerstohouseholdswhicheffectivelychangedthesharing
mechanismtobefree-flowingexchangewherepeoplewereabletohelpthemselvestosharing
through bilateral exchange between households with well stocked freezers to households in
needofcountryfood.Thesehouseholdshaveabsorbedthecostofthefreezerswhichwasshifted
fromthegovernment,andmanyhouseholdsunplugtheirfreezerstoreducepowercostsduring
the winter months when food can be kept frozen in the porch. One ingenious harvester
increasedtheamountofstoragespaceavailableinhischestfreezerbybuildinganextensionout
ofplywood.The freezerwas fullofmuktukandducks,whichwererotatedtokeepeverything
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frozen.Thisextensionwasremovedwhentheharvesterwasabletoprocureanadditionalchest
freezer.
Figure4.3.AbandonedcommunityfreezerinUlukhaktok,NT.
Figure4.4.DerelicticehouseinUlukhaktok,NT.
The ability to store preferred country foods impacts household food security. Storage
becomes a factor in availability in the sense that ifmeat cannot be preserved, it is no longer
availableforconsumption.Thebulkofpreservationinthecommunitytakestheformofstorage
infreezers,eitherthoseabovefridgesorinchestfreezersdistributedbytheHTCover10years
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agoorsoldattheNorthernandCoop.Thesefreezersareoftentimesnotlargeenoughtostore
largepiecesofmeatwithoutthembeingcutupintosmallportionswhicharemorelikelytobe
freezerburntorforfishtobelaidflatwithoutbeingtwistedtofit.Oneparticipantsummeditup
asfollows:
“Yeah.Freezerspace.Icehouse,walk-infreezer,it’sabigissue.Itwassonicetobeableto get seals in the summer, freeze themwhole in thewalk-in freezer, in the icehousewithout skinning them and then pick them up around Christmas during your familysuppersandstuffandbring theminandskin itand it’snot freezerburnt, it’s likenewbecause you froze itwhole. It’s sonice to be able to do that for thewintermonths.” -EmilyKudlakStorageisprimarilyaconcernduringthesummermonths,asevidencedbytheseasonal
cycle, when the majority of meat is caught andmust be stored in freezers until they can be
movedtotheporchorboxesoutsideforthewinter. Forthisreason,harvestsmayattimesbe
limitedbytheabsenceofafunctionalcommunityfreezeroricehousebecauseofthelimitations
imposed by the amount of freezer space available. This is demonstrated in households with
activehunters(mainlyelder-headedandfamilies)where largeramountsof freezerspacethan
the community average enable them to store their harvest (e.g.musk-ox, fish, caribou, ducks,
muktuk).Thesehouseholds inturnplayarole inprovidingcountry foods forhouseholdswith
lessfreezerspacebysharingwhattheyareabletostore.Householdswithoutanactivehunter
either do not keepmeat in their freezers because it is available to be shared from others or
because they don’t have the freezer space themselves, creating conditions whereby active
harvestersmust also primarily be responsible for storage.When askedwhether they needed
morefreezerspace,singlemothersansweredinthenegativebecausetheirstorageneedswere
beingmetinotherhouseholds:
“Idon’tgetbigportionsofcountryfoodlikethehuntersdo,likethemainhunters.Ijust
geta littleportion that’llmaybebegood forawhileandmymomhasall the foodso I
don’t…maybeonceinawhileIgotoherhouseandgetalittlecountryfoodandbringit
homebutthat’saboutit...She’sgotallthefreezers.”-DonnaAkhiatak
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The householdswith themost freezer space (elder-headed and families) indicate that
theyarecentralnodesinthefoodsharingnetwork.Elderstendtohavelargeamountsoffreezer
spacebecause there is a strongethicof sharingwithelders,with childrenbeing laudedwhen
they remember to share or bring food to elders and with people who share with elders
garneringmuch respect from the community.Families tend tohavea largeamountof freezer
space because there is often at least one active hunter in the household.What isn’t shared is
storedattheirhousetobeeatenbythefamilyortobesharedlateronintheyear.Forexample,
withinasharingnetworkoneelder-headedhouseholdwillhave inputs fromtheelderherself,
her son and her grandson contributing to the stores while her other son, grandsons and
daughter,whoisasinglemother,drawonthereservesforthemselvesandagranddaughter.
Inbothhouseholdtypes,meatwillbesharedtoclearroominanoverlyfullfreezer.This
wasthecaseduringthesummerof2014whenroomwasmadeforthelargeamountsofmuktuk
beingpreserved.Roomwasmadeagainwhenmuktukwasreplacedwithcaribou,muskox,fish,
etc.
Another drawback of limited freezer space comes during the summer months when
there is not enough space to store ice for drinking water. This was illustrated when one
participantsaid:
“…foryourdrinkingwater inthespringtimeweusedtobagupicefromthe lakesandbringittothewalk-infreezerandthenwhenallthesnowmelts,youhavenomoreplacetocollectsnowinthespringtime,yougotothewalk-infreezer,grabyourbag,dumpitinyourcontainerandthatwasanothergoodwaytohaveyourfreshwater, thewalk-infreezerandicehouse.”–EmilyKudlakLonger summers (during which the majority of harvesting activities take place) with
increasingtemperaturesresultinthewideningofthewindowduringwhichtimemeatmustbe
storedinfreezersratherthantheporch,andthusincreasingamountsofmeatandnumbersof
species must be preserved during that time. Longer periods of preservation increase power
coststomaintainarunningfreezeruntilthewinter.
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Storageisalsoaconsiderationinthelogisticsofstorefood.Storefoodpriceisimpacted
bythehighcostoftransportation,warehousinganddistributionoffoodintheArctic(Canadian
Council ofAcademies2014). InUlukhaktok, theNorthern storehasa storagearea for smaller
itemsthatisaccessiblethroughadooratthebackofthestoreandalargerstorageareabeside
the storewhich housesmostly large furniture items aswell as dry goods to last the year, in
theory,untilthenextresupplybybarge.Becausethereisnotenoughcommercialstorageforthe
drygoodsto last the fullyear,essential items(suchas flourwhich is inhighdemandandalso
bulky) are flown in once the supply of stored dry goods is exhausted. Stock often runs out
aroundspringandresultsinanincreaseinpriceuntilresupplyattheendofsummer.Stockof
non-essentialitemssuchaspop(which,in2014,wasboughtinmassquantitiestothedetriment
ofotheressentialsandwhichispricedquitehighduringtheyearduetotheweightpercan)are
liquidatedatareducedpricebeforethearrivalofthebarge.
4.3Currentadaptivestrategies
Thissectionaddressesresearchobjective3anddocumentscurrentadaptivestrategies
employedtomanageorcopewithclimaticandnon-climaticexposure-sensitivitiesaffectingfood
security. When participants discussed specific ways to support food security they mainly
focused on access to food, including: government subsidies such as Nutrition North for store
foods; harvester assistance programs for country foods; and food and resource sharing
networks as a means of acquiring both country and store foods. Participants also noted the
flexibility and adaptability of hunters to changing conditions including harvesting alternative
species of wildlife and during different times of year. In addition to these responses, most
participantsalludedtopre-existingsocietalchallengesthatareexacerbatingstressestothefood
systemandactasbarrierstoadaptation.Thesebarrierscanalsobeconsideredentrypointsto
supportadaptationandarediscussedhere.
4.3.1Sharingnetworks
Inuit resource sharing and food sharing networks are long-standing strategies for
maintaining food security and their continued importance has been documented (Collings,
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MartenandPearce2015).Today,withhighhuntingcostsandconstrainedschedules,thesharing
of financial resources required to supportharvestingactivities (e.g.purchasinggasornaptha;
purchasingasnowmobile,boatorATV)oftenresultsinfoodsharingandprovidescountryfoods
tothosewhomayotherwisenothaveaccess.
Formal and informal food sharing networks have been documented in Ulukhaktok.
Today,most foodsharing is informalandtakestheformofsharingbetweenrelativesbutmay
alsooccurasagifttoanunrelatedelderorfriend.Forexample,onthereturntripfromawhale-
turned-muskoxhuntdescribedinsection4.3.2,theboatdriverpassedanislandwhereanelder
lives.Theboatdriverstoppedanddeliveredamuskoxlegbeforecarryingon.Uponreturntothe
community, themuskoxmeatwas cut up and ground andmost of themeatwas kept by the
harvester’smother,who acts as a central node in the sharingnetworkbyproviding themain
mealof thedaytochildren,grandchildrenandfriends.Thebackstrapwastheonlyportionof
meatkeptbytheharvester. Informalfoodsharingofcountryfoodwasalsoevidentduringthe
summerbelugahuntwhen34belugawhaleswerelandedbyUlukhaktokhunters.Ofthewhales
landed,mostwerebroughtbacktothecommunityandbutcheredonthebeachesofQueen’sBay,
which provided an accessible area for community members to gather and help with the
butchering.Thosewhowerepresentwouldtakemuktukandmeatawayingarbagebagsoroffer
todeliverbagstoelderswhoweren’tpresent.
FoodsharingalsotakesplacebetweencommunitiesintheISRandNunavut.Duringthe
2014belugawhalehuntitwascommontoseeboxespiledhighintheFirstAirmanager’shome,
filledwithmuktukandwhalemipkuforfamilymembersinothercommunities.Approximately
500lbsofmuktukwasshippedviaFirstAirtofamilymembersandfriendsinothercommunities
in2014.ThisisbutoneofmanyexamplesofintercommunitytradeinwhichUlukhaktomuitwill
send country foods that are regionally abundant in exchange for those that are available in
anothercommunity(e.g.exchangingeiderducksinUlukhaktokforgeeseinSachsHarbour).
Community harvests are a mechanism by which hunters are subsidized to acquire
country foods,whichare thensharedthroughout thecommunity.Theharvestsaremostoften
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organized jointly by the Hunters and Trappers Committee and Ulukhaktok Community
Corporation and employ harvesters (including payment for the use of their equipment ) to
harvestmuskox,caribouor fishanddistribute itpreferentiallytoeldersandsinglemothers in
the community before dividing it between the remaining households in the community. One
participantwasverysupportiveofcommunityharvests,sayingthat“underNutritionNorth,they
shouldreallybegivingfundingtoeachcommunitytodoahuntparticulartoeachcommunity,
whattheirdietisandsupplythatunderNutritionNorthtohouseholds.Notonlytodisabledand
elderly andunemployedbut to everyhouseholdbecauseeven those that areworking, it’snot
alwayseasyforthemtogooutandhunt.”–EmilyKudlak
4.3.2Speciessubstitutionandopportunisticharvesting
Only one participant explicitly identified species substitution as a feasible option for
dealing with changes in environmental conditions or distribution and abundance of wildlife
populations,despite the fact that it isa copingmechanism thathasbeenused forgenerations
andwasapparent throughparticipantobservation.Opportunisticharvesting is a strategy that
stems from a subsistence way of life. To neglect to harvest an animal when an opportunity
presentsitselftoahunterwouldbeanopportunitywasted.Assuch,ifaspeciesisnotabundant
oravailableandanotherpresentsitself,aharvestertakesadvantageofthatopportunityorrisks
notbeingabletoprovideforone’sfamily.
An example of opportunistic harvesting occurred during the field season when the
researcherwentoutwithafewhuntersonaboatridetowardPrinceAlbertSoundinsearchof
belugawhales.Normally, in 2014, harvesterswould set out afterwhaleswhen theyhadbeen
seenfromthebluffsor ifsomeonehadreportedseeingwhales intheareabutthishunterhad
justreceivedalargeamountofgasolinefromahuntersupportprogramandwaswillingtotake
aleisurelyrideinsearchofwhales.Thismissiongotdivertedwhenalonemuskoxwasspotted
atMasoyak,notfarfromthesettlement,andallthoughtsofbelugaswereabandonedinfavourof
hunting the muskox at hand. The boat was equipped with a number of guns suitable for
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harvesting a number of animals and the lone muskox was taken and brought back to the
community
Another such example took place while the researcher was pulling in the boat after
returningfromasummersealhuntandaharvesteraskedtheresearchertobringafishingrod.
Because a by-law exists that no shots may be fired within 2 miles of the community, the
harvesterhadthrownarockandhitaswaninthehead,knockingitunconsciousbeforeitwas
hookedwiththefishingrod,reeledinanditsneckwaswrung.Itwasservedbytheharvester’s
motherforlunchthenextdayintheformofsoup.
Speciessubstitutionwasan importantadaptivestrategy in2014whentheduckswere
notasreadilyaccessibleasinpreviousyears.Theunexpectedwhaleharvestmadeuptosome
extent for the lackofducks thatpeoplecounton to stock their freezers.Thesheernumberof
whalesharvestedmeantthatthewhalesweren’tquiteasvaluableastheduckswerethatyear.
Hadtheanomalouswhalesnotbeenpresentthatsummer,harvestersmighthavehadtorelyon
speciessubstitutionbyharvestingmorecharorbytravelingfartherawayfromthecommunity
toharvestmoremuskoxorcaribouthatyearinordertoreplacetheamountofcountryfoodlost
bytheshortfall.
4.4Opportunitiesforandbarrierstoadaptation
Thissectionalignswithobjective4oftheresearch,whichwasto identifyanddescribe
opportunities and barriers to enhancing food security. Opportunities and barriers were
identifiedanddescribedinresponsetothelocalizedclimaticandnon-climaticstressesandthe
adaptive strategies being employed in the community in order to identify opportunities and
barriersthatarebothrelevantandfeasible.
4.4.1Opportunitiesforadaptation
4.4.1.1Commercializationofcountryfoods
Historically, therewas a perception that you don’t sell country food and peoplewere
reluctant to buy something that shouldn’t be sold (Gombay 2007).Within the last few years,
perhapspromptedbytheincreaseinincomesupportandtheshifttoincreasedsinglemother-
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headedhouseholds,peoplearelessreluctanttobuycountryfoods,withonehousehold(asingle
motherherself)regularlysellingbagsofmipku(driedcariboumeat).
Some participants on the fringes of a sharing network (e.g. those on income support) and
otherwise, expressed an interest in the commercialization of country food through a country
foodstore,countryfoodbeingsoldinthegrocerystore(e.g.KitikmeotFoodsLtdproducts)ora
countryfoodrestaurant.
Country foodsold in stores isperceivedasbeingdifferent thanbuyingdirectly froma
friendorrelative.Inabind,someonemightbuymuskoxorreindeermeatfromtheQuickStop.It
israrethatacommunitymemberwouldbuyafishfromthesmallscalecommercialfishery,for
example,withthemajorityofthosesalesbeingmadetovisitorsfromelsewhereortobuyersin
Inuvik.
4.4.1.2Huntersupport
There are twomainhunter supportprograms established to alleviate a portion of the
costs associated with subsistence harvesting. The first is the Community Hunters Assistance
Program,administeredbytheUCCandthesecondistheInuvialuitHuntersAssistanceProgram,
administeredbyIRC.
TheUlukhaktokCommunityCorporationacceptsapplicationsfromactiveharvestersfor
upto50gallonsofgasforboats,snowmobilesandATVswithanexplanationofhowitwillbe
puttouse.
The Inuvialuit Regional Corporation administers the Inuvialuit Hunter Assistance Program,
which,alongwith theGNWT,acceptsapplications fromharvesters for largeequipmentand, if
accept,willcoverupto75%ofthecosts.Thecostsgotowardsthepurchaseofmajorequipment
such as snowmobiles, 4-wheelers, boats and outboard motors. It also covers some smaller
equipmentincludingradios,GPSunits,binoculars,tents,stoves,firearms,generators,sledsand
chainsaws, sewingmachines, stoves, heaters, fish nets and ice augers. In order to qualify for
IHAP, theapplicantmustbean Inuvialuitbeneficiaryunder the IFA,must self-identify as1) a
full-timeorpart-timeharvester,2)afull-timeharvesterbutlimitedincome,3)needinglimited
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start-up funds to become a harvester. The applicant must list members of household, past
assistance (last 3 years) under IHAP or similar program, income, current equipment in
household, and a request for assistance (quote from retailer) for snowmobile, boat, outboard
motororATV,andmustprovideanexplanationofwhytheassistanceisneededandhowitwill
helptheapplicantandtheirhousehold.TheIHAPcontributionformajorequipmentamountsto
up to 75%of total costwith amaximumof $5000 and the contribution forminor equipment
amounts toup to75%of totalcostwithamaximumof$1000. In2014,5majorand2minor
applicationsweresuccessful.
4.4.1.3Subsidiesandprograms
Health Canada is responsible for programs such as the Aboriginal Diabetes Initiative,
Brighter Futures, and the Nutrition North subsidy as well as research grants. These are
implementedatthecommunitylevelwithvaryinglevelsofsuccess.
The Aboriginal Diabetes Initiative is a good program in theory but has issues with
uptake. In2014, theAboriginalDiabetes InitiativePhase3wasongoing (2010-2015)with the
stated goal of reducing “type 2 diabetes among Aboriginal people by supporting health
promotion and primary prevention activities and services delivered by trained community
diabetesworkersandhealthserviceproviders”(HealthCanada2013).Inpractice,theprogram
is administered by the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation’s Regional Dietician, who provides
diabetesworkshopswith diabetes friendly snacks and leads discussions surrounding healthy
diet and exercise. Theseworkshops have low attendance rates and there ismuchwork to be
done on culturally appropriatemessaging around healthy diet and exercise. For example, the
Canadian Diabetes Association’s ‘Plate Method’ is distributed to diabetic elders whose main
stapleismeat,whereastheplatemodelindicateditmustbehalfcoveredinvegetables.
The Brighter Futures Program “is a community-based health promotion and ill-health
preventionprogram forFirstNationsand Inuit communities.Theprogram typicallypromotes
health and prevents ill-health through learning-related activities that strive to increase
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awareness, change attitudes, build knowledge and enhance skills…First Nations and Inuit
communities have the flexibility to determine which program component(s) to provide
community-basedprograms,servicesand/oractivitiesin”(HealthCanada2013).Eachprogram
must include at least one element out of five, which include communitymental health, child
development, injuryprevention,healthybabies and/orparenting skills (HealthCanada2013).
TheBrighterFuturesprogramemploysonepart-time staff personat theKayutakCentrewho
wasresponsiblefortheimplementationofprogramsinthecommunity.Oneoftheseprogramsis
the Breakfast Program at Helen Kalvak Elihakvik School, where a community member is
employedduringtheschoolyeartoallowchildrentoeatahealthymealbeforethestartofthe
schoolday.Anumberofparentsexpressedreliefduringthesummertimethattheirchildwould
soonbereceivingahealthymealinthemorningoncetheschoolyearbeganagain.Community
membersmay apply for additional programs under Brighter Futures through the Community
Corporation.
TheNutritionNorthprogram, in addition to the subsidy, alsodeliversweekly cooking
classesthroughalocalinstructortoteachresidentshowtointroducenutritiousstorefoodsinto
theirdietby teachingvarioussimplerecipes.Theclass iswell runbya local teacherandwell
attendedbywomenofallages.Therecipesweresimpleandteachattendeeshowtocookwith
(not necessarily affordable) nutritionally dense ingredients they may not have experience
cookingwith.
Health Canada also funded two years of a knowledge transmission project under the
Climate Change and Health Adaptation Program for Northern First Nations and Inuit
Communities,knownasNunaminIllihakvia:Learningfromtheland(2013-2014)andTumivut:
Inthetracksofourancestorstowardsahealthyfuture(2014-2015).ThegoalsoftheNunamin
Illikhakviaprojectwereasfollows(withsimilargoalsforTumivutrelatedtocaribou):
1.facilitatethetransferofknowledgeandskillsamongexperiencedhunters,Eldersandyounger
generation Inuit forhow tomake seal hunting equipment, how to travel on the sea iceunder
changingclimaticconditions,andhowtohuntsealsinthewinter;
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2. involve younger generation Inuit in butchering and sharing seal meat in the community
followingtraditionalfoodsharingnetworks;
3.teachtraditionalsealskinpreparationandsewingskills;
4. conduct Inuit-led interviewswithElders,huntersandsewers toevaluate theprojectand to
better understand relationship between seal hunting and health in the context of a changing
climate;and
5. develop multi-media research and learning tools that promote Inuit knowledge and skills
related to seal hunting, seal skin preparation and sewing skills and their importance to Inuit
health.
Theprogramprovidedanumberofemploymentopportunitiestocommunitymembers
andalsocontributedtophysicalandmentalwellbeingthroughincreasedphysicalactivity,time
spentlearningskillsandspeakingthelanguagewithelders,asenseofprideanddistributionof
harvestedmeatfromhuntingtripstocommunitymembers.
Finally, a number of programs provide support for residents of the Northwest
Territories of low socio-economic status, such as the Income Assistance program (support in
covering basic living needs on a case by case basis, as well as supplementary benefits for
education and training costs, child care expenses, and record suspension application fees in
ordertoenterthelabourforce),theSeniorHomeHeatingSubsidyProgram,theNWTChildTax
Benefit (inaddition to theNationalprovidedby the federalgovernment)and theNWTSenior
CitizenSupplementaryBenefit for low income seniors.Theseprogramsoffset thehigh cost of
living in the north and may impact household food security by liberating funds that may
otherwisehavebeenspentonbasicneeds.
4.4.2Barriers
4.4.2.1Familypolitics
ThecommunityofUlukhaktokwassettledbyfour‘familygroups’:twobandsofCopper
InuitknownastheKangiryuarmiutfromPrinceAlbertSoundareaandtheKanghiryuatjagmiut
from theMinto Inlet area (Jenness 1922), Puivlingmiut fromRead Island aswell as residents
57
with heritage from the Mackenzie Delta and the Inupiat (Collings 2011). Despite the
intermarriageof the families, thedistinctionsbetween thegroupsare importantandcontinue
today. An added dimension of these distinctions comes from the dynamics of a small town,
wherebythosewhohavelivedtherealltheirliveshavehistorieswitheachpersonintheroom
and failings from the past may impact current events. These complexities may not be
immediately perceived by the outsider, which is why some third party interventions fail. An
exampleofthistookplaceduringtheicehouseinitiativewhichtooktheformofacommitteeto
plan the construction. This committeewasmade up ofmember of different ‘families’ and the
memberswouldhavepreferredtohavetheicehousebuiltinalocationeasilyaccessedbytheir
family.Intheend,theicehousewasstalledbytheobstacleposedbyinsurancebutthedissention
amongmembersabouttheappropriatelocationwouldhaveledtodifficultiesbeforefiscalyear
end.
4.4.2.2Relianceonimportedgoods
Relianceonimportedgoodsmeansthepriceoflivingishigherandthatthecommunityis
notassuchasself-sufficientasitwasbeforesettlement.Thehighcostofgasolineisduetothe
fact that it must be brought in by barge every year, as is diesel which is needed for power
generationandoilforheatinghomes.Thesenecessitiesarepaidforthroughemploymentinthe
wageeconomy,inacommunitywheretherearefewemploymentopportunities.Engagementin
thewageeconomymeansthatanindividualhasatleastahighschooleducation,meaningthey
spentlesstimeonthelandduetothetimeduringtheweekspentintheclassroom.Nowthatthis
individualhasaccesstomoneyfortheequipmentneededtospendtimeontheland,theyhave
limitedtimeandknowledge,whichtheythencan’tpassontotheirchildren.
While relianceondogs for travelatone timerequiredharvestingseals to feeda team,
nowharvestersarereliantoncostlymechanizedequipment,suchassnowmobiles,whichfewer
and fewer people know how to repair as they are builtwithmore digital components.When
componentsdobreakdown,iftheycan’tbefoundonanotherderelictmachine,theymustoften
beorderedfromthesouthandaharvestermustwaitforthemtoarrivebymail.
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Theadventofstorefoodinthecommunityhasalsoledtothenutritiontransitionandan
increasedrelianceonstorefood,tothedetrimentofcountryfoodconsumption.Thismeansthat
a larger portion of household income is being spent on store food, providing less financial
freedomtoengageinharvestingactivities.
4.4.2.3Deleteriousactivities
Decisions to spend financial resources on deleterious activities results in less money
available for basic household items or harvesting activities. This type of decision-making is
presentyear roundbut is especiallyprevalentduring the shoulder seasons (ice freezeupand
thaw)when it isnotpossible to travelon the landandduring the coldestmonthsof theyear
whentherearefeweractivitiesandfewerpeoplechoosetoharvest.
An example of this type of decision-making took place when a father of five sold the
family’s snowmobile at a reduced price during the summer months, wanting to get rid of it
quicklyinordertoafforddeleteriousactivities.Thiscanbeseenasacopingmechanismifassets
arebeingliquidatedtocoverhouseholditems,butineithercase,futurefinancialorfoodsecurity
isreducedasmaterialresourcesaredepleted.
4.4.2.4Changinglevelsoftraditionalknowledge
Decreasinglevelsofknowledgetransmissionareabarriertofoodsecurity.Asalludedto
above, various constraints are placed on an individual’s time from a young age. Limited time
spenton the landwithexperiencedharvestersdue to commitments in theWesterneducation
system mean that less traditional knowledge is being passed down to younger generations.
Whattraditionalknowledgeistransmittedhasthebenefitofprovidingchildrenwithimportant
characteristics such as patience and forethought. These childrenmay go on to engage in the
wageeconomy,whichlimitstheirtimeforon-the-landactivitiesandlimitstheamountoftime
andknowledgetheyareable tosharewith theirchildren.Thesechildrenthenhaveareduced
likelihoodoflearningevenaportionoftheknowledgeofpreviousgenerations.Theproblemis
compoundediftheyarenotabletoengageinthewageeconomy,theymayhavelimitedincome
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toput towardharvestingactivitiesandagainaren’table to learnor transmit theskillsneeded
forbeingontheland.
Traditional knowledge that is being passed down has often been acquired under
differentcircumstancesthanthosethatharvestersarecurrentlyexperiencing.Inthefaceofthe
stressors of changing environmental and climatic conditions, traditional knowledge is not
alwaysenoughtorespondtocontemporarychangingconditions.Asoneparticipantstated:
“We’restilllearning.Andit’schangingreallyquicklybecauseofclimatechange.Sointhespringtimewhenweusedtobeabletogetoursupplyoftroutdryfish,likeinJune,weused to startmaking trout dry fish to gowith ourmealswithducks inmid-June.Twoyears in a rowwe couldn’t do that because of the quick thaw. So everythingweweretaught about hunting, what time of year to go, when it’s safe, is all changing now soeverything’ssounpredictable.Sowedon’tgoanymore…Youcan’tdoanythingbut tryandexperienceandlearn.Nothingreallyyoucoulddobutgowiththechangesandhopetobesafe.”-EmilyKudlakAnotherfactorinthetransmissionoftraditionalknowledgeiscommunicationbetween
eldersandyouth.Thereareahandfulofelders inthecommunitythatonlyspeakInuinnaqtun
with grandchildrenwho only speak English. One elder expressed, through a translator, great
frustration that shewasn’t able to communicatewithhergrandchildrenand teach themwhat
shehadlearned:
“Shesaidonethingshenoticeswithhergrandchildrenandherchildren(grandchildrenmainly)isthattheydon’tknow,theyhaveacommunicationproblem.Becauseshecan’ttalkEnglishandtheycan’ttalktheir…herlanguageanymore.Becausethey’veforgottenortheywerenottaught.MaybebecausetheyweremostlytalkedtoinEnglish.Shesaidshe would love to teach them on how to prepare their food, to keep their food fromspoilingbuttheyhave,shehasacommunicationproblem.”-JeanKagyut(interpretedbySusieMalgokak)It has been suggested by Condon et al. (1995) that there is a growing lack of interest
among young Inuit in harvesting activities who are acquiring less and less training, have
restricted financial access to harvesting equipment, are undergoing the nutrition transition,
benefit less financially fromactivities suchas sealingand trappingand increasinglyengage in
organizedsportssuchashockey.
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4.4.2.3 Budgetingandnutritionalknowledge
As inmostCanadiansettings,highschoolgraduatesarenotnecessarilyequippedwith
the skills to run a household, including the budgeting skills to cover basic costs with a set
amount of funds. Without an understanding of how to select the most nutritious food on a
budget, an individual must either sacrifice quality, quantity or both. This lack of household
economicsknowledgeappliestotheplanningrequiredtosaveforandplaceabargeorder.Even
ifahouseholdisforwardthinkingandplacesabargeorderforbasic,often-useditemsthatare
moreexpensivewhenflownin(e.g.flour),theincentivetodosoisreducedwhenothersinthe
communityorsharingnetworkbecomeawarethatonehouseholdhasastoreofitemswhichcan
bedrawnfromas“agrocerystoreforthefamily”.
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CHAPTERFIVE:DISCUSSION
ThisresearchexaminedthevulnerabilityofanInuitfoodsystemtoclimatechangeinthe
context of multiple climatic and non-climatic stressors through a case study of Ulukhaktok,
NorthwestTerritories.WhileotherstudiesfocusonclimatechangeasakeystresseffectingInuit
food security, this research suggests that risks associated with climate change should be
considered in the broader context of other socio-economic-political stresses already effecting
foodsecurity,andwhichconditionhowInuitexperienceandrespondtoclimatechange.
The research shows that storage is an important determinant of food security. The
finding that storage is the backbone, which supports the availability of country food is not
surprising given that Inuit now live in permanent settlements and depend on cold storage
facilities during summer months. Unlike most store food, access to country food is highly
seasonal and harvesting activities are concentrated during the spring, summer and fall in
preparationforthecolderwintermonths.Theseharvestingactivitiescoincidewiththewarmest
timeof theyearwhenmeatmustbekept in cold storageuntil it canbemoved toanoutdoor
locationforthewinter.Withoutacentralcoldstoragefacilityinwhichtokeepmeat,harvesting
is limitedbyhowmuchfreezerspaceahunterhasaccessto.Furthermore, focusingstorage in
households, rather than a central facility, affects food sharing networks; sharing becomes
bilateraltwopersonexchanges,ratherthanafreeflowingexchangewherepeopleonthefringe
of sharing networks can involve themselves without invoking issues of pride (i.e. help
themselvestomeatfromacommunityfreezer).
Sometraditionalsourcesofadaptivecapacitytoupholdfoodsecurityarestillrelevant.
Sharing networks involving food, equipment, freezer space and even money continue to be
relevantformanyInuitintermsofaccessingbothcountryandstorefoods.Huntingisadynamic
activityandthesuccessofInuithuntershaslongbeenlinkedwiththeabilitytobeflexibleinthe
face of change. Hunters are accustomed to altering harvesting activities to accommodate
changingconditionsontheland,seaandice,andchangesinwildlifeavailabilityandcontinueto
62
dosotodayunderchangingclimaticconditions.Insomecases,however,theseandothersources
of adaptive capacity have been compromised by societal stresses including family politics, a
greater reliance on imported goods, deleterious activities (e.g. drugs, alcohol, gambling),
changing levels of traditional knowledge, budgeting, and nutritional knowledge. This finding
reinforceswhatotherresearchhasfoundinafoodsecuritycontext:addressingthenon-climatic
driversofstress,whilenotdirectedatclimatechangeorfoodsecurityperse,willinadvertently
enhance individual and collective adaptive capacity to deal with current and expected future
riskstofoodsecurity(Pearceetal.2010;Pearceetal.2011).Theresultssupporttheargument
for greater Inuit food sovereignty; food security initiatives should be driven by community
needs. Individual community needs could be recorded and communicated in a regional food
security strategy that could be implemented through a body similar to the Nunavut Food
SecurityCoalition(ataskgroupoftheNunavutRoundtableforPovertyReduction)orFoodFirst
NL (a provincial, member-based non-profit organization). The implementing body would be
structuredinawaythatcombinesastrongemphasisoncommunityvoiceswiththeknowledge
andexperienceoforganizationsalreadyactive in facilitating foodsecurity initiatives. Suchan
initiativewouldrequiresecure,long-termfundingtopaysalariedstafftodocumentcommunity
foodneedsandprovideadequatefundingtoimplementactions.
CHAPTERSIX:CONCLUSIONS
This chapter summarizes themainmessages of this research and highlights scholarly
andpracticalcontributions.Thisresearchsupportsandbuildsonfindingsfrompreviousstudies
examining food security and demonstrates that food security is affected by underlying socio-
economic conditions that are exacerbated by climate change. In particular, this research
identifies the roleof storageas adeterminantof food security,whichneeds tobe included in
conceptualizationsof foodsecurityandshouldbe included in futureresearchon foodsecurity
63
withInuitcommunities.AdaptationoptionsmustsupportInuitsovereigntyandreinforceboth
formalandinformaladaptationmechanisms.
5.1Summaryofkeyfindings
Themainmessagesofthisresearchare:
There is a need for a more adequate framework to assess food security in the
Arctic.Theresultsofthisstudyshowtheinterconnectionbetweenthewageeconomyandthe
subsistence economy as well as the country food and store food system. The current
frameworksmakeanartificialdistinctionbetweenthestoreandcountryfoodsystemaswellas
betweenthewageandsubsistenceeconomy.Recentwork(e.g.CanadianCouncilofAcademies
2014andtoagreaterdegreeICCAlaska2016)hasmovedawayfroma focusonthepillarsof
food security toward Inuit-developed conceptualizations of food security with a greater
emphasis on food sovereignty and the connectivity of all dimensions and drivers of food
security. Recent work has also addressed culturally appropriate assessment processes. The
Alaskan Inuit Food Security Conceptual Framework: How to Assess the Arctic from an Inuit
Perspectiveisasteptowardthis.AsimilarframeworkintheWesternArctic,onethattakesinto
accountuniqueInuitprioritiesandviewsasawayofassessingfoodsecurity, isawayofmore
holistically identifying and supporting food security adaptation options that are relevant and
feasibleforcommunities.
Inuitfoodsecurityshouldbeexaminedholisticallyandadaptationoptionsshould
reinforce both formal and informal mechanisms. When the topic of interviews with
participants shifted focus from exposure-sensitivities to adaptive capacity, the majority of
participantswere unable to identify specificways inwhich theywere dealing or adapting to
challenges. In the face of barriers that seem overwhelming, some participants were of the
opinion that adaptation was out of reach. Those who were able to identify specific ways to
combat food insecuritymainly focusedoncountryand industrial foodaccess throughexisting
subsidies such asNutritionNorth for store foods and CHAP and IHAP for harvesting country
64
foods. However, there exists an adaptive capacity within the community and goes beyond
institutionalizedmechanismsofsupportthattakevariousforms.Thiscallsforthereinforcement
of adaptation options that support such informal mechanisms as food sharing networks and
resourcesharingnetworksthatbridgethecountry foodandstore foodcomponentsaswellas
thewageandsubsistenceeconomy.
Food storage is an important pillar of Inuit food security.Oneway of reinforcing
informaladaptationmechanismsisthroughagreateremphasisonstorageintherecommended
holistic foodsecurity framework.Thisresearchuses thepillarsof foodavailability,accessand
qualityasthedefinitionoffoodsecurity,whereassomedefinitionsoffoodsecurityincludeuse
rather than availability as one of the three pillars (in addition to access and availability). Use
refersto ‘appropriateusebasedonknowledgeofbasicnutritionandcare,aswellasadequate
waterandsanitation’(WHO2006).Otherworkplacesstorageundertheumbrellaofavailability,
asfoodisonlyavailableafterithasbeenharvestedifitcanbeproperlypreserved.Neitheruse
noravailabilityencompassstorageperse.Onitsown,storageisakeyconsiderationaswellasa
possibleadaptationoption.InUlukhaktok, increasingtheamountofstorageavailabletoelder-
headed and family households as nodes in the sharing network is a relevant and feasible
adaptationoption.
Adaptation interventions to strengthen food security are most effective if they
supportInuit foodsovereignty. In this case, foodsovereignty is “basedon theprinciple that
decisions about food systems, including markets, production modes, food cultures, and
environments, should be made by those who depend on them. Support for autonomous
community food systems, community-based research, and community-based solutions that
respond to locally identified needs emerged as essential steps towards meeting the goal of
sustainableandlocalfoodself-sufficiency”(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).Inthissense,
efforts to address food security aren’t necessarily geared toward addressing food security
65
directly, or focusing on either climatic or non-climatic stressors, but rather addressing
underlyingfactorsthatincreaseadaptivecapacity.
Currently, community tours are carried out by regional and federal decision-making
bodies to gain insight into community wants and needs. These community tours provide a
snapshot into community life, don’t necessarily reflect all inputs and the take-awaymessages
may getmuddledwithout community context. Atworst, they result in the implementation of
projects by third parties that do not address community priorities, or are meant to address
community priorities but cannot be successfully executed. A lack of capacity to provide
guidanceduring thesecommunity toursorprojectsat thecommunity levelusingdocumented
community knowledge and a lack of any holistic community food security forum or board
ensurethatthedecision-makingstructuresremaintop-downinpracticeratherthanbottom-up.
Increasingcapacitytoinfluencethedecision-makingprocesswillresultin,andbeanoutcomeof,
greaterInuitsovereignty.
5.2Scholarlycontributions
Thisresearchprojectseekstomakebothscholarlyandappliedcontributions.Theuseof
a case studywill increase the understanding of food security at the local level in the light of
multiplestressors(Duerden2004).Theresearchprocessusedinthecasestudywillserveasan
example for other researchers undertaking case studies in the Canadian Arctic and will also
provide material for future longitudinal studies examining food security in the context of
climaticandsocio-economicfactors.
5.3Practicalcontributions
Further, this project will prove useful to the community of Ulukhaktok and policy
makersresponsiblefortheimplementationofadaptioninitiatives.Byidentifyinganddescribing
opportunities and barriers to enhancing food security, it is possible to highlight adaptation
measuresthatarebothrelevantandfeasiblegiventhe localized impactsofclimaticandsocio-
economic factors. One such practical adaptation measure is the reopening of the community
66
freezer, whichwill increase storage for elder-headed and family householdswho require the
most storage space. This adaptation initiativemoderates the restriction placed on harvesting
activities during the warmer months, when outdoor storage is not available and when
harvestersaremostactiveandneedtopreservefoodfortherestoftheyear.
67
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APPENDICES
AppendixA:EthicsApproval(UniversityofGuelphResearchEthicsBoard)
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AppendixB:ResearchLicence(AuroraResearchInstitute)
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AppendixC:InterviewGuide
Theme QuestionBackgroundinformation - Age?
- Relationshipstatus?- HaveyoualwayslivedinUlukhaktok?- Doyouworkintown?- Howmanypeoplelivewithyou?- Doyouownorrentyourhouse?
Householdcharacteristics(startherewithintroduction)
- Whopreparesmealsatyourhouse?- Whohunts?Howoften?- Howoftendoyoueatcountryfood?Howoftento
youshare/receivecountryfood?- Howmanypeopleeathere?Howoften?What
meals?Doyougoanywheretoeat?Quality - Canyoutellmeaboutniqainnaqvs.qablunaaqtat
niqit(“realfood”/countryfoodvs.storeboughtfood)?(e.g.nutrition?preference?contaminants?access?quality?)
Availability - Isthereanythingaffectingyourabilitytogetstorefood?(Choiceofstock?Price?)Whatdoyoudoaboutit?
- Isthereanythingaffectingyourabilitytogetcountryfood?(Equipment?Knowledge?Money?)Whatdoyoudoaboutit?
- Haveenvironmentalchanges(e.g.icechanging,animalsarefurther,extremeweather)affectedyourabilitytogetcountryfood?Whatdoyoudoaboutit?
- Hastheamountorqualityoffoodchangedfrompreviousyears?Whatdoyoudoaboutthat?(seeseasonalcycle)
- Areyougivenanysupportinaccessingfood?- Doyouoranyoneinyourhouseholdeatother
foodsthatyoudonotlikeasmuchbutareeasierorcheapertoget?
- Whatcouldbedonetomakefoodmoreaccessible?Future - Doyouthinkenvironmentalchallenges(e.g.
changingice,animalsgettingfurtherfromthecommunity,extremeweather,etc.)willcontinueinthefuture?Whatwillyoudo?Areyouconcerned?
- Doyouthinkotherchallenges(e.g.highpricesoffoodandequipment,changingaccesstoequipmentandstorage,etc.)willcontinueinthefuture?Whatwillyoudo?Areyouconcerned?
Storage - Isstoringyourfoodachallenge?- Howmanyfreezersdoyouown?Whatsize?- Aretheretimesofyearyouwishyouhadmore
freezerspace(e.g.forducks,muskox,caribou,fish)?
- Doyoueversharefreezerspace?Conclusion - Isthereanythingyouwouldliketoadd?
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AppendixD:ConsentForm
ConsentForm
InuitTraditionalKnowledgeandAdaptationtotheHealthEffectsofClimateChangeWhatistheresearchabout?Aim:AssessInuitfoodsecurityinlightofclimatechangeandexamineadaptationoptions.Whoisinvolved?Researchteam:ColleenParkerandTristanPearceYourrights:Ihavebeenfullyinformedoftheobjectivesoftheprojectbeingconducted.Iunderstandtheseobjectivesandconsenttoparticipatinginaninterviewfortheproject.IunderstandthatstepswillbeundertakentoensurethatmyinformationwillremainconfidentialunlessIconsenttobeingidentified.IalsounderstandthatifIwishtowithdrawfromthestudy,Imaydosoatanytimeuntilthecompletionofthestudywithoutrepercussions.
☐Mynamecanbepublishedinconnectionwiththisproject(myidentitywillnotremainconfidential)☐Directquotationswithmynamemaybeused(myidentitywillnotremainconfidential)☐Idonotwantyoutopublishmyname(myidentitywillremainconfidential)☐Ihavereadtheletterofconsentandclearlyunderstandmyrightsandresponsibilitiesconcerningtheresearch☐IconfirmthatIamovertheageof16
NA
ME
(Ple
aseprint):_____________________________________
Signature:_____________________________ Date:_________________
Signatureofwitness:________________________ Date:_________________
☐Igivepermissionforaudiorecording☐Igivepermissionforacopyoftheaudiotapetobekeptsecurelyinthecommunity,intheKayutukCentretowhichonlytheresearchteamwillhaveaccessfordocumentationpurposesuntilcompletionofthestudy.
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AppendixE:AnticipatedManuscriptsTitle Authors JournalExaminingtheVulnerabilityofanInuitFoodSystemtoClimateChangeintheContextofClimaticandNon-ClimaticStressors:ACaseStudyofUlukhaktok,NT
ColleenParker,TristanPearce,BenBradshaw,PhyliciaKagyut,SusieMalgokak
RegionalEnvironmentalChange
TheRoleofStorageasaDeterminantofFoodSecurityinUlukhaktok,NT
ColleenParker,TristanPearce,PhyliciaKagyut,SusieMalgokak,PeterCollings,BenBradshaw
Arctic