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INTRODUCTION TO LOGICGS 2002

Introduction to Logic is a study of applications of reasoning, fallacy,syllogism, the Deductive Method, the Inductive Method, proof and its values.

Logic is an analytical and critical study of reasoning procedures inboth deductive or syllogistic and inductive methods in order to objectifyor concretize meaningfulness of any kind of informative expression forconvincing ones self and others through logical structure without anyconfusion.Course Objectives - to enable students to:

Know and understand radical meaning and function of linguisticmeans in English language form;

Know how to use linguistic means appropriately; Differentiate argument forms from those of non-argument; Know and conceptualize the relationship of rational procedures

among mental, logical and grammatical sources as well as the

origin of each source; Know how to Justify valid and invalid status of arguments

according to logical principles; and Apply logical principles for an appropriate decision making in

each particular case and situation.

Basic Understanding of LogicObjectives

Students know contextual definition of Logic. Students know a structural format of logical information.

Students can distinguish argumentative information from non-argumentative one.

What is Logic?Etymological Meaning:

(gr.) Logos, word, saying, speech, discourse (communicativemeans)Practical Meaning:- The science which investigates the principle governing correct or reliableinference- The system or principles of reasoning applicable to any branch of knowledge or

study- A particular method of reasoning or argumentation

Meaning from Academic ViewsAristotle: The study of the thought for which words are signs; it is an attempt toget truth by analysis of the thought that reflects our apprehension orunderstanding of the nature of things according to personal viewpoint under atheoretical support.

-The study of reasoning processes and structures which focus on a firmconviction of a person. That conviction is supported by at least one reference

expected as truth. Its lingual details expressed can be identified as an argument.External Components of Logical information

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Argumentative ComponentsPremise: A set of information that is used to support ones convictionEx. If a student earns GPA higher than 3.5, he can register 7 subjects.Matthew earns GPA higher than 3.5.Conclusion: Ex. A conviction derived from at least one true reference Matthew can register 7 subjects

Argumentative Examples-Any two persons who contradict each other cannot both be lying. So the

first and the third natives cannot both be lying, since they contradict each other.-Any two persons who contradict each other cannot both be lying.The first and the third natives contradict each other.They cannot both be lying.-No any Republican is a Democrat. So no Republicans are big spenders,

since all big spenders are Democrats.-No any Republican is a Democrat.

All big spenders are Democrats.So no Republicans are big spenders.-If a tenth planet exists, then its orbit is perpendicular to that of the other

planets. Either a tenth planet is responsible for the death of the dinosaurs, or itsorbit is not perpendicular to that of the other planets. A tenth planet is not not responsible for the death of the dinosaurs. Therefore, a tenth planet does not exist.

Components of argumentative expression1. At least one of the statements in the details must present evidenceIf a tenth planet exists, then its orbit is perpendicular to that of the other

planets. Either a tenth planet is responsible for the death of the dinosaurs, or itsorbit is not perpendicular to that of the other planets. A tenth planet is not responsible for the death of the dinosaurs.

2. There must be a claim that the evidence supports something.Therefore, a tenth planet does not exist.

Non-argumentative information-Dont rely on strangers. They may hurt you! ( Warning)-I Think people who have authentic culture, as ours are able to improve

our lifestyles for enhancing qualities of life within horrible economic crisis by merchandizing raw materials of agricultural products. (Opinion Presentation)

-Since Seub Nakasathian was deeply concerned with forest and wild animal protection, he sacrificed his life by committing suicide as the externalevidence for remarking his intention as the real protector for forest and wild animals. (Explanation)

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Argumentative IndicatorsPremise Indicators: As, because, due to, follow(s) from, for, on account of,since, in that, seeing that,as indicated by, may be inferred from, for the reasonthat, owing to, given that, etc.

Conclusion Indicators: Therefore, Hence, Whence, Wherefore, Thus, So,Accordingly, Consequently, It follows that, We may conclude, We may infer, Itimplies that, It entails that, It must be that, As a result, etc.

The Approach of Logicalization- Certainty- Truthfulness

Modified Issues in Logical PatternWord (s)

Sentence (s)

Paragraph (s)Chapter (s)

Book (s)

TermProposition

ArgumentArticle

Text

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Check Validation status of the argumentTelevision viewers cannot receive scrambled signals unless they have a

decoder, Whoever receives HBO receives scrambled signals. Therefore, whoeverreceives HBO has a decoder.

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The inventor of the theory of universals that traced the universalcharacter of general terms to concepts in the mind rather than to naturesexisting outside the mind.

-William of Occam (1285-1349)Model Logic-A kind of Logic that involves such notions as possibility, necessity, belief,

and doubt.-Conductor of an exhaustive study of forms of valid and invalid syllogisms.-Contributor to the development of the concept of meta-language-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)-The Father of Symbolic Logic

3. Modern Period-John Stuart MillInductive Argument:

A logical argument that requires experiences as its references.

-Gottlob FregeModern Mathematical Logic

4. Contemporary Period-Kurt Goedel (1906-1978)Formalization of Logical Systems

Term and Its Applications

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Types of Term Distribution status is the indicator to identify a particular type of a term. Distribution status is a particular meaningfulness of information

dependent to intention of its composer which clarifies to a particular scopeof numbers of things either all, distributed or some, undistributed but notboth.

Two Types of Term Distributed term The expression that signifies to all entities being

mentioned Undistributed term The expression that signifies to some entities being

mentioned

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Distribution of termLiteral expressions

A bird The bird

Birds in the sky

Many birds in the skyEvery bird in the skyEach bird in the skyFew birds in the sky

Most birds in the skyCertain birds in forests

Figurative imaginationAll birdsAll things identical to the birdAll/some Birds in the sky

Some birds in the skyAll birds in the skyAll birds in the skySome birds in the skySome birds in the skySome birds in forests

Functions of Term in PropositionA component of a proposition

- Subject term

- Predicate term1. Subject Term The term which human mind primary selects to give a category

Position: At the front part of a sentential proposition before its copulaQuantitative indicator: All or Some2. Predicate Term

The term which human mind selects to be the category of the subject onePosition At the back part of a sentential proposition after its copula

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Characters of Predicate TermDistributed Term

Meaning of such a term expanses to every entity that term signifiesIndicator: negative copulaUndistributed Term

Meaning of such a term expanses to some entities that term signifies.Indicator: positive copula

CopulaA copula, in logical view, is a lingual means which clarifies a relational

status between a subject term and predicate term dependent to a decision of itscomposer to claim either that a subject term is a member of a predicate term ornot.

A copula, if it is observed in linguistics, is a verb to be in a present simple

form of positive or negative format dependent to its subject.

C. Function of Term in Deductive Argument1. Major Term : The predicate term of conclusion and a term in first

premise.2. Minor Term : The subject term of conclusion and a term of the second

premise.3. Middle Term : The term that appears in only premise part.

PROPOSITION AND APPLICATIONSGeneral Views about Proposition

A proposition is a logical expression which clarifies that a subject term isincluded in or excluded from a predicated term. The primary source of proposition is a judgment. A judgment appears whenever an intention of participation of two terms is initiated. A copula is an expressed form of a

judgment, in either a positive or negative form but not both in present simpleform.

Judgement An internal consideration of human mind whether the first selected

apprehension participates in the second selected one or not.

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Imaginative Judgment and proposition

Types of Proposition

1. A TypeMain IdeaAll entities of subject term are included in predicate term totally.2. E TypeMain IdeaAll entities of subject term are excluded from predicate term totally.3. I TypeMain IdeaSome entities of subject term are included in predicate term.4. O Type

Main IdeaSome entities of subject term are excluded from predicate term.

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Ordinary Statement And TransformationTransformation

The process of revealing in concrete literal expression of the judgmentformed by human intention under a grammatical rule for claiming theparticipation status between the first and the second selected terms objectively.

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DefinitionDefinition: A group of words that assigns a meaning to some words.

Term1. The objective literal determination of intensional meaning that describes thequalities or attributes the intentional expression connotes.2. The objective literal determination of extensional meaning that describes the

members of the class that intentional expression denotes.Types of Definition1. Stipulative definition - Assignment of meaning to a word for the first time.EX. Offspring from Female Lion + male tiger = liger or tigon2. Lexical definition - Meaningful report of the word described in a language inorder to eliminate the ambiguity of meaningfulness which may occur if one of the meanings were to be confused with another. The ambiguity of meaning iscontrolled by contextualization of terminological usage.Ex. Bank = Financial Institution Or The slope bordering the river3. Precising DefinitionThe meaning assigned to be appropriate and legitimate - of the contextwithin which the term is to be employed.Ex. A moment of death = The moment the brain stops functioning, as measuredby an electroencephalograph.4. Theoretical Definition - The description of viewing or conceiving entitiesthat suggests deductive consequences, further investigation, and whatever elsewould be entailed by acceptance of a theory governing these entities.Ex. Heat means the energy associated with the random motion of the moleculesof a substance5. Persuasive definition - A description that engenders a favorable or

unfavorable attitude toward what is denoted by the word to be definedEx. Abortion

5.1 The ruthless murdering of innocent human beingOr5.2 A safe and established surgical procedure whereby a woman is relievedof an unwanted burden.

Ordinary sentence and Transformation Literal display of a judgment in a logical proposition