Qualitative ResearchPaper 3

Qualitative Research:Theory & Practice

The debate in relation to epistemology• Epistemology: The study of knowledge and justified

belief▫How can we know about the world?

• Ontology: Looking at if social reality exist independently of human perceptions and interpretations

• Ritchie & Lewis (2003) created 3 questions in the debate in relation to epistemology▫Helps understand the difference between research in

the natural sciences (biology, anatomy, etc.) and the social sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.)

▫Social Sciences uses quantitative (e.g. surveys) as well as qualitative methods and they should not be viewed as competing but complementary to research questions

Three Questions1. What is the relationship between the researcher

and the researched?• Researched should not be impacted by the researcher• Not objective and value-free…assumptions can

influence analysis• Researcher should use reflexivity

2. What can be held as truth?• Natural Sciencescorrespondence theory of truth• Social Sciencescoherenece theory of truth

3. How is knowledge gathered?• Natural SciencesDeductive process (cause-and-

effect relationships, generalization, and prediction)• Social SciencesInductive process (collected evidence

reaches a conclusion)

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative• Text data (transcripts

or field notes)• Open-ended and

flexible (open for interpretation)

• “Rich data” (plenty of details about people, places, conversations, etc.)

• Not easy to analyze• Can use a theory or

create a theory

•Numerical data•Uses statistical tests

•Meant to be used for generalization beyond the sample which was used

Strengths & Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

Strengths Weaknesses• Provides rich data• Investigate complex

issues• Explain a phenomena• Identify and evaluate

factors that help solve problems

• Generate new ideas for theories

• Own environmentvalidity

•Time consuming•No clear strategy for analysis

•Interpretation of data may be subjective▫Reflexivity can help reduce this

Generalization•Results are relevant to situations outside

the original study•Representational:

▫Applied to populations outside the population of the study

•Inferential:▫Applied to settings outside the setting of

the study▫Transferability or external validity

•Theoretical:▫Theoretical concepts derived from study

can be used to further develop theory

Ethical Considerations•Informed consent•Protection of participants•Anonymity & confidentiality

•*We’ve already covered this info, revisit it!

Sampling Techniques

Probability Non-probability•Related to

statistical probability and representativeness

•Random selection

•Does not use random selection

Sampling Techniques

•Purposive Sampling•Snowball Sampling•Convenience Sampling

Qualititative Research:Interviews

Qualitative Research: Interviews

•Semi-structured interviews•Focus groups•Narrative interviews

Considerations before the interview• Consider relevant sampling methods (purposive)• Training the interviewer to reduce interviewer

effects▫ effects caused by the presence of an interviewer

• Reading non-verbal signs• Choice of interviewer

▫gender, age, ethnicity• Create an interview guide

▫script based on previous literature• Ethical considerations• Flexibility and open-ended questions• Practice questions, difficult words (equipment

too)

Type of Questions•Descriptive

▫“What happened?” “What does it feel like to…”

•Structural▫“What does it mean to your life to suffer

from cancer?”•Contrast

▫“Did you prefer being in that school or the other one?”

•Evaluative▫Did you feel afraid when you went

through chemo?”

Considerations during the interview

•Data recording ▫notes, recorder, video taping ▫Permission for recordings

•Eye-contact•Prepare notes/questions in front of

interviewee•Establish rapport (trust)•Active listening technique: repeating

thoughts/answers back to interviewee

Considerations after the interview•Transcription of the data

▫Changing it into a written and useful text in preparation for analysis

•Verbatim vs. postmodern transcripts▫Word for word or included all pauses, false

starts, laughter/sobs•Informed consent and briefing must take

place▫Allow them to read over notes/listen to

recording

Data Analysis: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)

•Used to identify key themes, concepts, & categories

•Includes Grounded Theory: Used to study social processes in sociology which involves coding (finding specific categories in the data material)

•Identifies & integrates categories of meaning from the data

•Aim: Generating a new theory based on the data

Coding Process

Higher-level categories emerge while the lower-level categories are integrated into meaningful units

Low-level categories emerge; coding process continues

Descriptive labels are given to discrete instances of phenomena

Thoughts According to Willig (2001) •Grounded Theory enables the researcher to

study social processes but IPA allows the researcher to gain an insider’s view of how individual participants make sense of the world

• IPA uses hierarchal organization just like grounded theory

•Goal of IPA: gain insight into how an individual perceives & explains a phenomenon▫Uses semi-structured interviews, focus groups,

diaries, or narrative interviews▫Data collection is not based on prior

assumptions or existing theories

Analysis Based on Interpretation•Analysis is based on interpretation of

participant’s experience which is derived from paying attention to the presented phenomenon rather than including one from the outside

•Diversity is key; looks for divergence and convergence in the themes

•Looks at the interpretation of texts to gain insight of the lived experience of the participants but this does not reflect the actual lived experience

Process for Rich-thick Descriptions

Systematic search for

themes• First reading

Connect themes in

meaningful ways to

establish more themes

• Subsequent readings

Researcher will use

elicited themes to draw

conclusions

• Research report

• Supported by verbatim extracts

Analytic Strategy in IPA

1. Reading and rereading the transcripts2. Identification of emergent themes3. Structuring emergent themes4. Summary table of the structured

themes and relevant quotations that illustrate each theme

5. Data saturation: analyzing data until no new information can be extracted

Qualitative ResearchObservations

Qualitative Research: Observations•Aim: To gather first-hand information in a

naturally occurring situation•Purpose: To understand what it means to

be a member of that particular group/look at behaviors

•Provide accounts of the observation on different levels of interaction in hopes to identify and explain social structures within the group

•Usually combined with other methods ▫interviews

Basic Methods of Observation•Participant Observations

▫Taking part in the situation while during research

•Non-participant Observations▫Not part of the situation

•Naturalistic Observation▫Takes place in the natural environment of the

group/person being studied•Overt Observation

▫Participants know they are being observed•Covert Observation

▫Participants DO NOT know they are being observed

Analysis of Data for Observations•Inductive approach: Beginning to

create a picture as they collect the data and examine the participants

•Based off of field notes and then compared to data from other sources (pictures, interviews, journals, etc.)

•Uses grounded theory to analyze the “thick” field notes▫Description▫Coding and connecting themes▫Produce an account

Description•Create a complete description of the

phenomenon of interest which includes ▫the context of the action

What is happening? What are they doing? How are others reacting?

▫ intentions of the participant Why are they behaving that way?

▫the process in which the action is embedded Cause and effect?

•Thick description rich data

Coding and Connecting Themes•Organizing information into categories•Purpose: To provide tools for analysis

▫It would not be possible to know what is analyzed thus not allowing comparison of data

•Classification Process: Reading and then rereading field notes in an interactive way: ▫Asks questions: Who? What? Where? Why?

•Create graphs/charts of categories and their connections and supply examples▫Allows data to be clear and shows related themes

•Memos: Notes about notes (shows readers how and why connections were reached)

After Classification•Themes created Higher-order themes (main themes) subthemes

•Interpretation of data is based off of comparison of the collected data as well as evidence from other sources

•Thinking Critically is crucial▫Looking for data that supports & contradicts

▫Looking for alternative explanations

Producing an Account• Written account based on all the elements of the

analysis• Coherent explanation and an overall theoretical

framework for understanding the phenomenon▫Theoretical framework must be grounded (based

on the categories identified during the observation) Theoretical Triangulation made be used (alternative

theories to explain the phenomenon)• Researcher should consult the data (and perhaps

the participants) to see if the theories support the interpretation

• Final step: ask other researchers to take a critical look at the analysis to see if there is support

Final Considerations

•Researcher should make is possible for the reader to track and verify how the conclusion was reached

•Generalization is possible▫Inferential ▫Theoretical

Qualitative Research:Case Studies

Qualitative Research: Case Studies•An in-depth investigation of human

experience▫One person, family, social group, an event,

organization▫Single case or multiple case (series of cases

are compared)•Usually takes place in participants’

natural environment

Types of Case StudiesIntrinsic Instrumental

• Represent nothing but themselves

• Very unique and not common situations

• Researcher wants to gain insight into one particular phenomenon▫Person who was

kept as a prisoner in a basement for many years

• Represents a more general/common phenomenon

• In theory, anyone that has experienced the situation under investigation will react in similar ways▫Homeless▫Losing a child▫Suffering from

cancer

Types of Case StudiesDescriptive Explanatory

•Generate a detailed description of a phenomenon

•Generate new knowledge

•Are not always analyzed in terms of an existing theory

•Describe and find possible explanations for the phenomenon under investigation

•Theoretical analysis is based on an existing theory or a new theory is generated

Thoughts According to Willig (2001)

•A case study should always be seen in context and the specifications about the context should be addressed▫Psychological, sociocultural, historical, & biological dimensions are important

▫Example: A case study on resilience in street children Early development, familial relations, personality, social support

Steps for A Case Study•Choose participants using a sampling

method•Choose a method

▫Usually a semi-structured interview▫Triangulation▫*Conclusions are based on multiple sources

Personal notes (letters, journals, photographs) Focus groups Observations Questionnaires Clinical notes

•*Case studies are not considered a method but rather a RESEARCH STRATEGY

Strengths of a Case Study

1. Opportunity to investigate phenomenon that could not be studied otherwise

2. Permits insight into social processes in a group

3. Stimulates new research4. Contradicts established theory

and helps develop new theories

Limitations of a Case Study

1. Difficult to define a case study2. Subject to researcher bias3. Memory distortions and effects

of social desirability

Ethical Considerations•Few participants which can jeopardize

anonymity •Active participation of participants via

interviews or writing about experiences that may cause distress/anxiety▫Time consuming self-reflection can lead to

dealing with painful memories emotions