Qualitative Research. Qualitative Design Qualitative –Emphasis on philosophical base –Theory...

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Design

• Qualitative– Emphasis on philosophical base– Theory developed initially or during study– Theory as a guide– No measurement of concepts– Rich description– Develop understanding and meaning from

participants– Participants, informants, other people– Data are subjective/some objective; inclusive

Qualitative Design cont.

• Qualitative– Control unimportant– Description of phenomena– Inclusive understanding– “Tool” is the researcher using a variety of sources– Exploratory designs – Credibility– Generalizability not an aim– Involved as participant/participant-observer

Goal of Qualitative Research

• To Describe, explain, predict and control through improving comprehension of phenomena

• The strategies it uses originally come from phenomenology

Strategies

• Gestalt

• Looking at a whole picture – a cluster of linked ideas which enhances the meaning of the ideas– 1. The opposite of sedimented seeing (looking

at things from only one perspective)– 2. Implies deconstruction and moving towards

and open context

Strategies cont.• Bracketing• The researcher is expected to set aside personal

biases- to bracket them-when engaged with participants. The researcher identifies personal biases about the phenomenon of interest to clarify how personal experience and beliefs may color what is heard and reported. The researcher makes his/her perspective explicit and this allows the reader to identify how the researcher’s perspective may influence the findings. By being aware of personal biases, the researcher is more likely to pursue issues of importance to the participant rather than leading the participant to issues important to the researcher.

(See Polit p. 228 – 10 ways to help bracket)

Strategies cont.

Intuiting:

Focusing all awareness on the subject of interest – being completely absorbed – scanning for new understandings

Data Collection

• Requires a long period of time and a large accumulation of handwritten notes

• Requires discipline, good observation skills and careful review of data.

• Rigor is related to viewing phenomena with empathy and within an open context – deconstructing and reconstructing while continuing to realize that there are many other ways of viewing.

Data Collection

• Unstructured interviews – researcher does not have a clear idea of what is unknown

• Semi-structured interviews – topics or guides

• Focus –group interviews – 6-12 people

• Internet interviews

• Unstructured observation

Observation

• Aspects to observe• Participant observation

– Sequence of occurrence• Observation and active listening• Observation with limited participation• Participation and continued observation• Reflection and confirmation with informants

– Levels of observation• Descriptive observation• Focused observation• Selective observation

Observation cont.

• Think aloud – collect data while the participant is solving a problem or making a decision

• Photo elicitation – interview is guided by photos – ask participant to interpret own photos or a new set of photos

Timing and rigor

• Data collection is time consuming• Balance conciseness with maximum

description• Small number of participants• Might be idiosyncratic from population• Problems with transcribing

– Deliberate alterations– Accidental alterations– Unavoidable alterations

Computer Programs

• Text retrieval

• Code and retrieve

• Concept mapping

• Theory-building

Types of Qualitative Research

• Phenomenological – can be described as in-depth conversations taking place two or more times with 10 or fewer participants who share their insights with rich and vivid reports

• Phenomenological Researchers:– Husserl – descriptive– Heidigger – interpretive (hermeneutics)– Colaizzari – asks for validation from participants


• Phenomenological cont.– Purpose – to describe experiences as they are lived

within a unique situation, unique to an individual – to study what is perceived to be reality

– Research question – to identify the phenomena to be explored, it essence (variables) and its relationship to humans

– Methodology – not planned because it interferes with creativity – identify sources, obtain data from sources


• Phenomenological cont.– Data Analysis – There are three analysis styles:

• 1. template – apply narrative data to a template, revise as necessary and resort data according to the new template.

• 2. editing – read through and sort for meaningful segments, develop a category scheme to sort and organize data.

• 3. immersion - use subjective reflection and intuitive interpretation

– Data are interpreted as they are read and reread. They are categorized and coded as themes. The relationship of themes to each other is developed by intuitive judgment, but agreement is sought from others. An audit trail is kept.

– Outcomes – examined from the orientation of the subjects studied and the themes identified. Transferability of the findings should be considered – can the results be meaningfully applied.


• Grounded Theory Research– Purpose – an inductive research technique

used in studying areas in which little previous research has been conducted and in gaining a new viewpoint in familiar areas of research

– Methodology – all of the steps occur simultaneously – observing collecting, organizing data and forming theory from the data at the same time, using large numbers of handwritten notes and tapings.


• Grounded Theory- Grew out of social science. – Glaser and Strauss are the researchers most

often associated with this method– The focus is on the main concern or the

problem that must be resolved. The core variable is the manner in which that concern is resolved


• Grounded theory cont. – methodology – Conceptual categories may be originally

identified, but researchers also generate new categories and integrate them into a theory grounded in the data. Constant comparison is used to develop and refine the categories by asking “What is this? What else is it like, What is it different from?” Example = Compathy


• Concept development – the framework is further developed and thinking moves from inductive to deductive by clustering categories (reduction), by selective reading of the literature ( to merge findings from earlier studies with present findings), by selective sampling – making data collection more specific and, finally, by allowing emergence of the core variable – the most important concept

• Concept formation – a beginning conceptual framework is developed from the data. When the concept is finalized it is compared with the data.

Grounded Theory cont.

Outcomes – the research report presents the theory supported by examples from the data – it is a narrative discussion of the study process and findings

1. Substantive theory – grounded in data on a specific substantive area (compathy)

2. Formal grounded theory – developed from a compilation of substantive grounded theory studies about one phenomenon (comfort)


• Ethnographic Research – a methodology for studying cultures where there is limited knowledge about a phenomenon, where the researcher wants to grasp the totality of a human lifestyle, to examine recurrent and patterned lifeways of people and to understand “meaning in context”– Ethnography – a systematic process of observing,

detailing describing, documenting and analyzing the lifeways or patterns of a culture - the description and interpretation of cultural behavior


Ethnographic Research cont.Ethnoscience – a method of obtaining insights into the meaning of particular things and events as understood by participants of a culture. The assumption is that every culture guides its members “views of the world.”

1. emic – the ways members of a culture see the world

2. etic – the way outsiders interpret the experience of that culture.


• Ethnographic Research cont.– Three types of data

• Cultural behavior (what the do)• Cultural artifacts (what they make or use)• Cultural speech (what they say)

– Institutional ethnography – studying an organization – the social organization and work processes

– Auto ethnography – self scrutiny (or groups or cultures to which the researcher belongs


• Ethnographic Research– Steps

• Identify the culture to be studied• Identify significant variables within the culture• Literature review• Gain entrance (explain purpose to those in power)• Cultural immersion (living with and being accepted)• Acquiring informants to interpret the culture• Gathering data• Analyzing data (clarifying with informants)• Describe the culture• Develop theory


• Historical research– It is the systematic collection, critical evaluation and

interpretation of historical evidence. It is usually qualitative, but sometimes quantitative data are used, such as records.

– Purpose – to examine events of the past through a holistic framework – to examine meaning and to identify concepts and relationships, to draw inferences. Historians try to discover new knowledge – not just summarize existing knowledge .


– Historical Research• Methodology – formulate an idea or topic

– Develop research questions – focus on explaining past– Develop an inventory of sources

» Primary sources – provided by first hand informants» Secondary sources – second or third hand accounts

of historical events or experiences– Clarify validity and reliability of data– Develop a research outline– Data collection– Analysis of data– Develop a written outline– Write a research report


• Historical Research cont.– Collection – periodicals, diaries, books, letters,

newspapers, minutes of meetings, reports, physical remains, objects, photos, films, legal documents, drawings, records, tapes, etc. Primary sources – first hand information – and secondary sources

– Data – events, situations or statements made in the past. There is no control over the documents, artifacts or records available. It is not a literature review.


• Historical Research cont.– Evaluation

• External criticism – authenticity and genuiness of data – physical aspects

• Internal criticism – worth of the evidence – content- compared to other people’s accounts, knowledge of the time when the document etc. was produced, knowledge of the biases of the writer, knowledge of the competence of the writer

– Analysis• Analysis of the data is logical rather than statistical


• Case Studies– Intrinsic – researcher doesn’t have to find the

case – it’s already there– Instrumental – the researcher has a question

and must find a case that illustrates it– These are not case reports– These are not generalizable, but can

challenge generalizations


• Narrative Analysis– These are analyses of stories told by subjects– They communicate meaning by different

forms of storytelling, pitch of voice, changes in voice, pauses and hesitations


• Descriptive Qualitative Study– Descriptive quantitative studies are more

common– This is strait description with no interpretation

Triangulation

• The use of multiple methods and sources – Quantitative and qualitative in the same study– Can use different methods in sequence, i.e.,

first qualitative, then descriptive quantitative, then correlational quasi-experimental or experimental

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