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Qualitative Research MethodsDr Shirley McGoughSchool of Nursing, Midwifery and ParamedicineCurtin University
15 November 2019
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
CONTENTS:
1 PRESENTATION .................................................................................................................................. 1
2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS – ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ....................................................... 10
2.1 Helpful websites .............................................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Reporting guidelines ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.3 Focus groups & interviews .............................................................................................................. 10
2.4 Framework analysis ......................................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Traditional transcribed method with the audio recording method ................................................ 11
2.6 Qualitative appraisal checklist ......................................................................................................... 11
2.7 Key resources ................................................................................................................................... 11
2.8 Presentation references .................................................................................................................. 12
2.9 Additional reading ........................................................................................................................... 12
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Presented by:Dr. Shirley McGough PhD.
School of Nursing, Midwifery and Paramedicine, Curtin University
Qualitative Research Methods
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Ngaala kaaditj Nyoongar Wadjuk moort keyen kaadak nidja boodja
In the spirit of Reconciliation, I acknowledge Nyoongar Wadjuk people as the original custodians of this land and
pay my respects to elders past, present and emerging
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OverviewThis presentation will cover:
a) What is qualitative research?
b) Overview of qualitative research designs
c) Myths about qualitative research
d) The qualitative research process
1. Getting started
2. Data collection
3. Data analysis
4. Writing up findings
e) Summary and questions Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of TechnologyCRICOS Provider Code 00301J
What is Qualitative Research?
Primarily exploratory research used when little is known about the subject area.
Tells the story of a particular individual, group or community’s experience in their words, and is therefore focused on narrative.
Is a scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data. It aims to describe the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things.
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Qualitative Research
Qualitative research contributes to the development of new knowledge by:
Enabling researchers to gain a better understanding of participants’ experiences;
Investigating how individuals, groups and communities react to, interpret and make sense of their world;
Increasing use of mixed methods research (NHMRC, 2015). a) Quantitative-qualitative, b) Qualitative-quantitative and c) simultaneous qualitative and quantitative design
NHMRC (2015). National statement on the ethical conduct in human research statement 2007, updated 2015. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Downloaded 5th October, 2016 https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter-3-1-qualitative-methods
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Qualitative Research
Many types of qualitative research methods and each has a distinct methodology.
Qualitative research can involve the use and collection of a variety of empirical materials such as case studies, personal experience, life stories and observation and cultural texts.
Data is most often collected through interviews, focus groups and observation.
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Qualitative Research DesignEach approach has a different philosophical stance that guides the questions asked and the procedure used for data collection and analysis:Grounded theory – social and psychological experience
Phenomenology –descriptions of experiences as consciously experienced by
people living these experiences.
Ethnography – observation and cultural patterns, values, perceptions
Historical research - involves examining past events to draw conclusions and make predictions about the future.
Collaborative yarning – Indigenous method of sharing information, exploring ideas in explaining new topics, leading to new understandings - positioning
Feminist - Understanding how women are positioned in society
Case Studies - Understanding how or why an individual, group, organisation,or community has experienced a problem or intervention
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Myths & misconceptions about Qualitative Research Design
The analysis of data is not rigorous or systematic The best data emerge from systematic, thoughtful, and rigorous
procedures for which methodological regulations have been written. (Harper & Kuh 2007).
Rigour/credibility in qualitiative - researchers aim for “trustworthiness”. Veracity, Consistency, Confirmability, Applicability (Noble & Smith, 2015)
Findings are not transferrable to other settings The goal is not to generalize but rather to provide a rich, contextualized
understanding of some aspect of human experience through the intensive study of particular cases (Polit & Beck, 2010).
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Myths & misconceptions about Qualitative Research Design
The sample size is too small and is not representative of the population.• Typically focus on depth of findings rather than breadth and work with
small samples of people (Aspland, 2013). Purposive sampling and data saturation.
Qualitative Data Are Useful Only When Corroborated By Numbers Not all qualitative studies require quantitative verification, and vice versa
(Harper & Kuh 2007).
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Qualitative Research Process
1. Getting Started
2. Data Collection
3. Data Analysis
4. Writing Up Findings
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1. Getting StartedQualitative research, like quantitative research, follows a predetermined process:Ethical approval (including audio/video recording)Problem identificationJustification for the study and significance of findingsStudy design and method selectionMethods for managing distressSubject selection and inclusion/exclusion criteriaData collection and analysisDescription ------------- interpretationTrustworthiness of dataReporting and publication
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2. Data collection – Participant Recruitment
Depending on subject being researched:
Snowballing – one participant invites another to participate and contact researcher
Convenience sample: Available group for topic being studied- hospital setting
Single participant/group design: Case studies
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2. Data collection – Sampling
Depends on design - purposeful sampling commonly used.
In Grounded Theory, as data collection and analysis are done simultaneously purpose sampling is used then as analysis progresses, theoretical sampling may be used.
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2. Data collection
Things to consider before data collection starts.
AssumptionsBracketing
Field notes/memos
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2. Data collection
Most commonly through interviews or focus groups. May be teamed with observation.
Semi-structured interviews are conducted usually in a place that is convenient to participants. However, be aware of your safety if you are going to participants’ homes.
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2. Data collection
Quality of data collection
McCracken (1988) referred to the long interview as “one of the most powerful methods in the qualitative armoury” (p. 9).
He proposes that, “the long interview gives one the opportunity to step into the mind of another person, to see and experience the world as they do themselves” (p.9).
Interviewing requires a high level of training and skill.
It is important to have well-trained interviewers to reduce the possibility of bias.
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview: Qualitative research methods. London: Sage University Press.
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2. Data collection – In-depth interview
Have a well developed and rehearsed interview guide Use open ended questions Ask effective probing questions Ask respondents to think back to previous experiences Keep questions simple Avoid asking “Why” Be cautious about giving examples Move from general to specific questions Ask positive before negative questions Have a pen to write questions that may occur while listening
so you do not forget Always assess participant for potential distress during
interview Be aware of researcher distress
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2. Data collection – In-depth interview
The “Dos”
Be familiar with your interview guide so you can move quickly from
one question to another
Probe on remarks made by participants
Use encouraging sounds
Introduce new topics as appropriate
Know what it is you want to find out
Ask the right questions to get the information you need
Spend more time listening that talking
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2. Data collection – In-depth interview
Guidelines for In-depth interview analysis
What words are being used?
When they speak, people often communicate more than they intend.
Pay attention to the connotations of the words used.
Look out for ambiguous words that can have multiple meanings.
Explore these.
Importance of field notes and memos
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Example of a field note
[This] interviewee was someone who I believed shares similar values to me. The interviewee spoke of cultural awareness education sessions that the employer had arranged and was able to recall some things discussed in this forum. However, these seemed a sterile check list of dos and don’ts rather than a real understanding of cultural issues to be considered in the delivery of care. …. The interviewee did not articulate their practical and personal care delivery…..
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3. Data Analysis
Make sense of massive amounts of data
Identify significant relationships and determine how the findings are to be communicated so the “essence” is not lost.
Challenging and at times confusing
Qualitative data can be ambiguous, resulting in a more difficult analysis
Analysis follows prescribed method of qualitative research being used. For example, grounded theory uses constant comparative method of analysis and open, axial and selective coding
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3. Data Analysis – Preparing & managing your dataTranscribe your own dataDecide how you are going to manage your data –
manually or with software assistanceLeave large RH margins for annotations on transcribed
data Tidy language/ do not tidy language – remove dross
(suggest you analyse first before you tidy) [add interpretations or clarifications]
Keep your memos/field notes to hand when analysing your data set
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3. Data Analysis – Stages in data analysis
Become familiar with data (review, reading, listening , transcribing)
Organising and indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification.
De-identifying data to protect participants’ confidentiality
Coding
Report writing, including excerpts from original data (e.g., quotes from interviews).
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Example of early data analysis
But, but, um, um, er, maybe if I, er, were, er, more culturally
aware –That might not be a, an issue.
Okay.
You know, because ,you know, I don’t know that very much.
Yeah, I, I’m learning all the time but I actually don’t know a
lot. You know about the, the, the historical inner workings of
the Aboriginal community. I, I, I just don’t know.
Not knowing
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3. Data Analysis – Theoretical sensitivity
Theoretical sensitivity is the ability to recognise what is important in the data and to interpret it correctly
A good understanding of the literature and clinical practice in the area
Continual re analysis of data
Interviews do not occur in a vacuum; everything takes place in some kind of context. Sometimes, the context can have a big impact on the findings.
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3. Data Analysis
One of the greatest challenges in qualitative research is knowing how much attention to place on various comments.
Need to ask yourself: To what extent is this belief, attitude or valued shared by others?
Frequency and intensity of comments (counting, content analysis)
Trends/themes
Iteration (data collection and analysis is an iterative process moving back and forth between participants)
What are major findings, what are minor findings, and what isn’t a finding at all?
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Memos - Example of emerging category
fear
fear of not knowing
fear of making
things worse
fear from previous
experiences
fear how one will be
perceived
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3. Data Analysis – Data Saturation
No new information is coming from analysis
Categories/themes are clear and well defined
Connections are clear between categories/themes and sub categories/sub themes
Good descriptors to provide insights into experiences
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3. Data Analysis – Critical Thinking
Key points when thinking critically are:
Persistence: Considering an issue carefully and more than once
Evidence: Evaluating the evidence put forward in support of the belief or viewpoint
Implications: Considering where the belief or viewpoint leads; what conclusions would follow; are these suitable and rational; and if not, should the belief or viewpoint be reconsidered
Check for hidden assumptions
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3. Data Analysis
Researcher summarises collected data
Reduce it to a descriptive & then interpretative level
Attempt to find meaning
Stages of analysis not necessarily linear, in practice occur simultaneously and repeatedly.
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3. Data Analysis – Managing coding
Use computer software program
Be creative, cut and paste blocks of text onto index cards.
Group cards that have similar labels together
Revisit piles of cards to see if clusters still hold together
Use diagrams and pin boards what works for you.
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For example -Grounded Theory Coding Open coding: Line by line identify a number of open codes
(breaks data up) - (Descriptive)
Theoretical coding: Makes connections between open codes ( brings data back together). Identify core categories.
Selective coding: Relationship between categories (Interpretative) .
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Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research
Qualitative researchers ensure trustworthiness, credibility,
and transferability of findings by:Adherence to all steps of methodology
Detailed descriptions of the methodological process in written reports.
Researcher checks & consensus
Documenting assumptions before starting research
Audit trails & memos to demonstrate the validity of decisions made by the researcher during data collection, analysis & interpretation
Place finding within the context of literature
Using COREQ (Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research) checklist in reporting findings and publications .http://cdn.elsevier.com/promis_misc/ISSM_COREQ_Checklist.pdf
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4. Writing up the findings
Translation of data into story that will be read by others.
Findings should be a rich, tightly woven account that "closely approximates the reality it represents".
Implications for practice and research translation to interdisciplinary care
Economic benefits to clinical care
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References Aspland, T. (2013). Misconceptions of qualitative research design: perspectives of examiners.
In Discourse, Power, and Resistance Down Under: Volume 2 (pp. 9-22). Brill Sense.
Harper, S. R., & Kuh, G. D. (2007). Myths and misconceptions about using qualitative methods in assessment. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007(136), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.227
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview: Qualitative research methods. London: Sage University Press
McGough, S., Wynaden, D., & Wright, M. (2018). Experience of providing cultural safety in mental health to Aboriginal patients: A grounded theory study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(1), 204-213. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12310
NHMRC (2015). National statement on the ethical conduct in human research statement 2007, updated 2015. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Downloaded 5th October, 2016 https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter-3-1-qualitative-methods
Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence-based nursing, 18(2), 34-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/eb-2015-102054
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: Myths and strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(11), 1451-1458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004
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Comments and questions?
2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS – ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
2.1 Helpful websites Qualitative research journals
Qualitative research :http://journals.sagepub.com/home/qrj
Ethnography – Sage journal: http://journals.sagepub.com/home/eth
Grounded theory online: http://www.groundedtheoryonline.com/what‐is‐grounded‐theory/
Curtin library resources: http://libguides.library.curtin.edu.au/finding‐qualitative‐research
NHMRC (2015). National statement on the ethical conduct in human research statement 2007,
updated 2015. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Downloaded 5th October, 2016
https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter‐3‐1‐qualitative‐methods
2.2 Reporting guidelines Equator – Enhancing the Quality and transparency of health research
http://www.equator‐network.org/?post_type=eq_guidelines&eq_guidelines_study_design=qualitative‐research&eq_guidelines_clinical_specialty=0&eq_guidelines_report_section=0&s=
2.3 Focus groups & interviews Carey, M.A. Focus groups – What is the same, what is new, what is next? Qualitative Health Research. 2016; 26(6):731‐733. doi:10.1177/1049732316636848
Gibson, F. Conducting focus groups with children and young people: Strategies for success. Journal of Research in Nursing. 2007; 12(5):473‐483. doi: 10.1177/1744987107079791
Liamputtong P. Focus group methodology. London: Sage Publications; 2011. Accession Number.
Rabiee F. Focus‐group interview and data analysis. Proc Nutr Soc. 2004 [cited 2004]; 63 :655‐660. DOI:10.1079/PNS2004399.
Lambert SD, Loiselle CG. Combining individual interviews and focus groups to enhance data richness. J Adv Nurs. 2008; 62 :228‐237. DOI:10.1111/j.1365‐2648.2007.04559.x.
Krueger R, Casey M. Focus Groups: a practical guide for applied research. 4th edition ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publication; 2009
Kaplowitz MD, Hoehn JP. Do focus groups and individual interviews reveal the same information for natural resource valuation? Ecological Economics. 2001; 36 :237‐247. DOI:10.1016/s0921‐8009(00)00226‐3.
2.4 Framework analysis Pope C, Ziebland S, Mays N. Analysing qualitative data. Br Med J. 2000; 320 :114‐116. Available from: http://edocs.library.curtin.edu.au/eres_display.cgi?url=dc60090915.pdf©right=1.
Gill F, Leslie G, Grech C, Latour J. An analysis of Australian graduate critical care nurse education Collegian. 2015; 2 :71‐81. DOI:10.1016/j.colegn.2013.11.006.
Ritchie J, Lewis J, editors. Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. London: Sage Publications Ltd; 2003.
Ward DJ, Furber C, Tierney S, Swallow V. Using Framework Analysis in nursing research: a worked example. J Adv Nurs. 2013; 69 :2423‐2431. DOI:10.1111/jan.12127.
Smith J, Firth J. Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach. Nurse Researcher. 2011; 18 :52‐62. Available from: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2010938895&site=ehost‐live.
2.5 Traditional transcribed method with the audio recording method Halcomb EJ, Davidson PM. Is verbatim transcription of interview data always necessary? Appl Nurs Res. 2006; 19 :38‐42. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2005.06.001.
Greenwood M, Kendrick T, Davies H, Gill F. Hearing voices: Comparing two methods for analysis of Focus Group data. Appl Nurs Res. 2017; DOI:10.1016/j.apnr.2017.02.024.
2.6 Qualitative appraisal checklist CASP
http://media.wix.com/ugd/dded87_951541699e9edc71ce66c9bac4734c69.pdf
Joanna Briggs Institute
http://joannabriggs.org/assets/docs/critical‐appraisal‐tools/JBI_Critical_Appraisal‐Checklist_for_Qualitative_Research2017.pdf
McMaster Critical Review guidelines for Qualitative Studies
Qualitative synthesis
https://wiki.joannabriggs.org/display/MANUAL/2.4+The+JBI+Approach+to+qualitative+synthesis
Developing a qualitative review protocol
https://wiki.joannabriggs.org/display/MANUAL/2.6+Developing+a+qualitative+review+protocol
2.7 Key resources COREQ (Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research) Checklist
http://cdn.elsevier.com/promis_misc/ISSM_COREQ_Checklist.pdf
NVivo software support for qualitative research
https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo/nvivo‐products
Australian Government (2014). National Statement on ethical conduct in human research (2007) (updated May 2015). Canberra: National Health Medical Research Council.
The association for qualitative research: The hub of qualitative thinking. Retrieved on 1 October 2018
https://www.aqr.org.uk/dir/
2.8 Presentation references
Aspland, T. (2013). Misconceptions of qualitative research design: perspectives of examiners.
In Discourse, Power, and Resistance Down Under: Volume 2 (pp. 9‐22). Brill Sense.
Harper, S. R., & Kuh, G. D. (2007). Myths and misconceptions about using qualitative methods in
assessment. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007(136), 5‐14.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.227
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview: Qualitative research methods. London: Sage University
Press
McGough, S., Wynaden, D., & Wright, M. (2018). Experience of providing cultural safety in mental
health to Aboriginal patients: A grounded theory study. International Journal of Mental Health
Nursing, 27(1), 204‐213. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12310
Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence‐based
nursing, 18(2), 34‐35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/eb‐2015‐102054
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: Myths and
strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(11), 1451‐1458.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004
2.9 Additional reading Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006; 3
:77‐101. DOI:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
Creswell J. Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc; 2009.
Fereday J, Muir‐Cochrane E. Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2006; 5 :80‐92.
Flick, U. (Ed.) The SAGE Handbook of qualitative data analysis. London, England: Sage. 2013
Guest G, Bunce A, Johnson L. How Many Interviews Are Enough? Field Methods. 2006; 18 :59‐82. DOI:10.1177/1525822x05279903.
Morse, J.M. Critical analysis of strategies for determining rigor in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Health Research. 2015; 25: 1212‐1222. doi 10.1177/1049732315588501
O'Brien B, Harris I, Beckman T, Reed D, Cook D. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research: A Synthesis of Recommendations. Acad Med. 2014; 89 :1245‐1251. DOI:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388.
Vaismoradi M, Turunen H, Bondas T. Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nursing & Health Sciences. 2013; 15 :398‐405. DOI:10.1111/nhs.12048.
Denzin, N. (2016). Critical qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Inquiry 23(1) 8‐6.
DOI:10.1177/1077800416681864
Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2017). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed.). United States: Thousand Oaks.
Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods 3(1), 42‐55. DOI:10.1177/160940690400300104
Holliday, A. (2007). Doing and writing qualitative research London: Sage Publications.
Maxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative research design: An integrative approach (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
Noble, H. (2016). What is grounded theory? Evidence Based Nursing 19(2), 34‐35. DOI:10.1136/eb‐2016‐102306
Quinn Patton, M., (2014). Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
Sauro, J. (2015) 5 types of qualitative methods. Retrieved October 2018 from https://measuringu.com/qual‐methods/
Streubert, H. & Rinaldi Carpenter, D. (2011). Qualitative research in Nursing: Advancing the humanistic imperative (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
Taylor. B., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences. United Kingdom: Routledge.
Broeder, J. & Donze, A. (2010). The role of qualitative research in evidence‐based practice. Neonatal Network 29(3), 197‐202. DOI: 10.1891/0730‐0832.29.3.197
Onwuegbuzie, A. & Leech, N. (2007). A call for qualitative poser analyses. Quality and Quantity 41:105‐121. DOI: 10.1007/s1135‐005‐1098‐1
Wynaden, D. The experience of caring for a person with a mental illness: A grounded theory study. (2007). International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 16: 381‐389 DOI:10.1111/j.1447‐0349.2007.00493.x
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