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Research Skills Seminar Series 2019CAHS Research Education Program

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Qualitative Research MethodsDr Shirley McGoughSchool of Nursing, Midwifery and ParamedicineCurtin University

15 November 2019

Research Skills Seminar Series | CAHS Research Education Program Department of Child Health Research | Child and Adolescent Health Service

© CAHS Research Education Program, Department of Child Health Research,Child and Adolescent Health Service, WA 2019

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

CONTENTS:

1 PRESENTATION .................................................................................................................................. 1

2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS – ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ....................................................... 10

2.1 Helpful websites .............................................................................................................................. 10

2.2 Reporting guidelines ........................................................................................................................ 10

2.3 Focus groups & interviews .............................................................................................................. 10

2.4 Framework analysis ......................................................................................................................... 11

2.5 Traditional transcribed method with the audio recording method ................................................ 11

2.6 Qualitative appraisal checklist ......................................................................................................... 11

2.7 Key resources ................................................................................................................................... 11

2.8 Presentation references .................................................................................................................. 12

2.9 Additional reading ........................................................................................................................... 12

Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of TechnologyCRICOS Provider Code 00301J

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Presented by:Dr. Shirley McGough PhD.

School of Nursing, Midwifery and Paramedicine, Curtin University

Qualitative Research Methods


Ngaala kaaditj Nyoongar Wadjuk moort keyen kaadak nidja boodja

In the spirit of Reconciliation, I acknowledge Nyoongar Wadjuk people as the original custodians of this land and

pay my respects to elders past, present and emerging


OverviewThis presentation will cover:

a) What is qualitative research?

b) Overview of qualitative research designs

c) Myths about qualitative research

d) The qualitative research process

1. Getting started

2. Data collection

3. Data analysis

4. Writing up findings

e) Summary and questions Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of TechnologyCRICOS Provider Code 00301J

What is Qualitative Research?

Primarily exploratory research used when little is known about the subject area.

Tells the story of a particular individual, group or community’s experience in their words, and is therefore focused on narrative.

Is a scientific method of observation to gather non-numerical data. It aims to describe the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things.


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Qualitative Research

Qualitative research contributes to the development of new knowledge by:

Enabling researchers to gain a better understanding of participants’ experiences;

Investigating how individuals, groups and communities react to, interpret and make sense of their world;

Increasing use of mixed methods research (NHMRC, 2015). a) Quantitative-qualitative, b) Qualitative-quantitative and c) simultaneous qualitative and quantitative design

NHMRC (2015). National statement on the ethical conduct in human research statement 2007, updated 2015. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Downloaded 5th October, 2016 https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter-3-1-qualitative-methods


Qualitative Research

Many types of qualitative research methods and each has a distinct methodology.

Qualitative research can involve the use and collection of a variety of empirical materials such as case studies, personal experience, life stories and observation and cultural texts.

Data is most often collected through interviews, focus groups and observation.


Qualitative Research DesignEach approach has a different philosophical stance that guides the questions asked and the procedure used for data collection and analysis:Grounded theory – social and psychological experience

Phenomenology –descriptions of experiences as consciously experienced by

people living these experiences.

Ethnography – observation and cultural patterns, values, perceptions

Historical research - involves examining past events to draw conclusions and make predictions about the future.

Collaborative yarning – Indigenous method of sharing information, exploring ideas in explaining new topics, leading to new understandings - positioning

Feminist - Understanding how women are positioned in society

Case Studies - Understanding how or why an individual, group, organisation,or community has experienced a problem or intervention


Myths & misconceptions about Qualitative Research Design

The analysis of data is not rigorous or systematic The best data emerge from systematic, thoughtful, and rigorous

procedures for which methodological regulations have been written. (Harper & Kuh 2007).

Rigour/credibility in qualitiative - researchers aim for “trustworthiness”. Veracity, Consistency, Confirmability, Applicability (Noble & Smith, 2015)

Findings are not transferrable to other settings The goal is not to generalize but rather to provide a rich, contextualized

understanding of some aspect of human experience through the intensive study of particular cases (Polit & Beck, 2010).


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Myths & misconceptions about Qualitative Research Design

The sample size is too small and is not representative of the population.• Typically focus on depth of findings rather than breadth and work with

small samples of people (Aspland, 2013). Purposive sampling and data saturation.

Qualitative Data Are Useful Only When Corroborated By Numbers Not all qualitative studies require quantitative verification, and vice versa

(Harper & Kuh 2007).


Qualitative Research Process

1. Getting Started

2. Data Collection

3. Data Analysis

4. Writing Up Findings


1. Getting StartedQualitative research, like quantitative research, follows a predetermined process:Ethical approval (including audio/video recording)Problem identificationJustification for the study and significance of findingsStudy design and method selectionMethods for managing distressSubject selection and inclusion/exclusion criteriaData collection and analysisDescription ------------- interpretationTrustworthiness of dataReporting and publication


2. Data collection – Participant Recruitment

Depending on subject being researched:

Snowballing – one participant invites another to participate and contact researcher

Convenience sample: Available group for topic being studied- hospital setting

Single participant/group design: Case studies


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2. Data collection – Sampling

Depends on design - purposeful sampling commonly used.

In Grounded Theory, as data collection and analysis are done simultaneously purpose sampling is used then as analysis progresses, theoretical sampling may be used.


2. Data collection

Things to consider before data collection starts.

AssumptionsBracketing

Field notes/memos


2. Data collection

Most commonly through interviews or focus groups. May be teamed with observation.

Semi-structured interviews are conducted usually in a place that is convenient to participants. However, be aware of your safety if you are going to participants’ homes.


2. Data collection

Quality of data collection

McCracken (1988) referred to the long interview as “one of the most powerful methods in the qualitative armoury” (p. 9).

He proposes that, “the long interview gives one the opportunity to step into the mind of another person, to see and experience the world as they do themselves” (p.9).

Interviewing requires a high level of training and skill.

It is important to have well-trained interviewers to reduce the possibility of bias.

McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview: Qualitative research methods. London: Sage University Press.


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2. Data collection – In-depth interview

Have a well developed and rehearsed interview guide Use open ended questions Ask effective probing questions Ask respondents to think back to previous experiences Keep questions simple Avoid asking “Why” Be cautious about giving examples Move from general to specific questions Ask positive before negative questions Have a pen to write questions that may occur while listening

so you do not forget Always assess participant for potential distress during

interview Be aware of researcher distress



The “Dos”

Be familiar with your interview guide so you can move quickly from

one question to another

Probe on remarks made by participants

Use encouraging sounds

Introduce new topics as appropriate

Know what it is you want to find out

Ask the right questions to get the information you need

Spend more time listening that talking



Guidelines for In-depth interview analysis

What words are being used?

When they speak, people often communicate more than they intend.

Pay attention to the connotations of the words used.

Look out for ambiguous words that can have multiple meanings.

Explore these.

Importance of field notes and memos


Example of a field note

[This] interviewee was someone who I believed shares similar values to me. The interviewee spoke of cultural awareness education sessions that the employer had arranged and was able to recall some things discussed in this forum. However, these seemed a sterile check list of dos and don’ts rather than a real understanding of cultural issues to be considered in the delivery of care. …. The interviewee did not articulate their practical and personal care delivery…..


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3. Data Analysis

Make sense of massive amounts of data

Identify significant relationships and determine how the findings are to be communicated so the “essence” is not lost.

Challenging and at times confusing

Qualitative data can be ambiguous, resulting in a more difficult analysis

Analysis follows prescribed method of qualitative research being used. For example, grounded theory uses constant comparative method of analysis and open, axial and selective coding


3. Data Analysis – Preparing & managing your dataTranscribe your own dataDecide how you are going to manage your data –

manually or with software assistanceLeave large RH margins for annotations on transcribed

data Tidy language/ do not tidy language – remove dross

(suggest you analyse first before you tidy) [add interpretations or clarifications]

Keep your memos/field notes to hand when analysing your data set


3. Data Analysis – Stages in data analysis

Become familiar with data (review, reading, listening , transcribing)

Organising and indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification.

De-identifying data to protect participants’ confidentiality

Coding

Report writing, including excerpts from original data (e.g., quotes from interviews).


Example of early data analysis

But, but, um, um, er, maybe if I, er, were, er, more culturally

aware –That might not be a, an issue.

Okay.

You know, because ,you know, I don’t know that very much.

Yeah, I, I’m learning all the time but I actually don’t know a

lot. You know about the, the, the historical inner workings of

the Aboriginal community. I, I, I just don’t know.

Not knowing


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3. Data Analysis – Theoretical sensitivity

Theoretical sensitivity is the ability to recognise what is important in the data and to interpret it correctly

A good understanding of the literature and clinical practice in the area

Continual re analysis of data

Interviews do not occur in a vacuum; everything takes place in some kind of context. Sometimes, the context can have a big impact on the findings.


3. Data Analysis

One of the greatest challenges in qualitative research is knowing how much attention to place on various comments.

Need to ask yourself: To what extent is this belief, attitude or valued shared by others?

Frequency and intensity of comments (counting, content analysis)

Trends/themes

Iteration (data collection and analysis is an iterative process moving back and forth between participants)

What are major findings, what are minor findings, and what isn’t a finding at all?


Memos - Example of emerging category

fear

fear of not knowing

fear of making

things worse

fear from previous

experiences

fear how one will be

perceived


3. Data Analysis – Data Saturation

No new information is coming from analysis

Categories/themes are clear and well defined

Connections are clear between categories/themes and sub categories/sub themes

Good descriptors to provide insights into experiences


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3. Data Analysis – Critical Thinking

Key points when thinking critically are:

Persistence: Considering an issue carefully and more than once

Evidence: Evaluating the evidence put forward in support of the belief or viewpoint

Implications: Considering where the belief or viewpoint leads; what conclusions would follow; are these suitable and rational; and if not, should the belief or viewpoint be reconsidered

Check for hidden assumptions


3. Data Analysis

Researcher summarises collected data

Reduce it to a descriptive & then interpretative level

Attempt to find meaning

Stages of analysis not necessarily linear, in practice occur simultaneously and repeatedly.


3. Data Analysis – Managing coding

Use computer software program

Be creative, cut and paste blocks of text onto index cards.

Group cards that have similar labels together

Revisit piles of cards to see if clusters still hold together

Use diagrams and pin boards what works for you.


For example -Grounded Theory Coding Open coding: Line by line identify a number of open codes

(breaks data up) - (Descriptive)

Theoretical coding: Makes connections between open codes ( brings data back together). Identify core categories.

Selective coding: Relationship between categories (Interpretative) .


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Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers ensure trustworthiness, credibility,

and transferability of findings by:Adherence to all steps of methodology

Detailed descriptions of the methodological process in written reports.

Researcher checks & consensus

Documenting assumptions before starting research

Audit trails & memos to demonstrate the validity of decisions made by the researcher during data collection, analysis & interpretation

Place finding within the context of literature

Using COREQ (Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research) checklist in reporting findings and publications .http://cdn.elsevier.com/promis_misc/ISSM_COREQ_Checklist.pdf


4. Writing up the findings

Translation of data into story that will be read by others.

Findings should be a rich, tightly woven account that "closely approximates the reality it represents".

Implications for practice and research translation to interdisciplinary care

Economic benefits to clinical care


References Aspland, T. (2013). Misconceptions of qualitative research design: perspectives of examiners.

In Discourse, Power, and Resistance Down Under: Volume 2 (pp. 9-22). Brill Sense.

Harper, S. R., & Kuh, G. D. (2007). Myths and misconceptions about using qualitative methods in assessment. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007(136), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.227

McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview: Qualitative research methods. London: Sage University Press

McGough, S., Wynaden, D., & Wright, M. (2018). Experience of providing cultural safety in mental health to Aboriginal patients: A grounded theory study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(1), 204-213. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12310

NHMRC (2015). National statement on the ethical conduct in human research statement 2007, updated 2015. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Downloaded 5th October, 2016 https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter-3-1-qualitative-methods

Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence-based nursing, 18(2), 34-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/eb-2015-102054

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: Myths and strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(11), 1451-1458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004


Comments and questions?

2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS – ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

2.1 Helpful websites Qualitative research journals

Qualitative research :http://journals.sagepub.com/home/qrj

Ethnography – Sage journal: http://journals.sagepub.com/home/eth

Grounded theory online: http://www.groundedtheoryonline.com/what‐is‐grounded‐theory/

Curtin library resources: http://libguides.library.curtin.edu.au/finding‐qualitative‐research

NHMRC (2015). National statement on the ethical conduct in human research statement 2007,

updated 2015. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Downloaded 5th October, 2016

https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/book/chapter‐3‐1‐qualitative‐methods

2.2 Reporting guidelines Equator – Enhancing the Quality and transparency of health research

http://www.equator‐network.org/?post_type=eq_guidelines&eq_guidelines_study_design=qualitative‐research&eq_guidelines_clinical_specialty=0&eq_guidelines_report_section=0&s=

2.3 Focus groups & interviews Carey, M.A. Focus groups – What is the same, what is new, what is next? Qualitative Health Research. 2016; 26(6):731‐733. doi:10.1177/1049732316636848

Gibson, F. Conducting focus groups with children and young people: Strategies for success. Journal of Research in Nursing. 2007; 12(5):473‐483. doi: 10.1177/1744987107079791

Liamputtong P. Focus group methodology. London: Sage Publications; 2011. Accession Number.

Rabiee F. Focus‐group interview and data analysis. Proc Nutr Soc. 2004 [cited 2004]; 63 :655‐660. DOI:10.1079/PNS2004399.

Lambert SD, Loiselle CG. Combining individual interviews and focus groups to enhance data richness. J Adv Nurs. 2008; 62 :228‐237. DOI:10.1111/j.1365‐2648.2007.04559.x.

Krueger R, Casey M. Focus Groups: a practical guide for applied research. 4th edition ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publication; 2009

Kaplowitz MD, Hoehn JP. Do focus groups and individual interviews reveal the same information for natural resource valuation? Ecological Economics. 2001; 36 :237‐247. DOI:10.1016/s0921‐8009(00)00226‐3.

2.4 Framework analysis Pope C, Ziebland S, Mays N. Analysing qualitative data. Br Med J. 2000; 320 :114‐116. Available from: http://edocs.library.curtin.edu.au/eres_display.cgi?url=dc60090915.pdf&copyright=1.

Gill F, Leslie G, Grech C, Latour J. An analysis of Australian graduate critical care nurse education Collegian. 2015; 2 :71‐81. DOI:10.1016/j.colegn.2013.11.006.

Ritchie J, Lewis J, editors. Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. London: Sage Publications Ltd; 2003.

Ward DJ, Furber C, Tierney S, Swallow V. Using Framework Analysis in nursing research: a worked example. J Adv Nurs. 2013; 69 :2423‐2431. DOI:10.1111/jan.12127.

Smith J, Firth J. Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach. Nurse Researcher. 2011; 18 :52‐62. Available from: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2010938895&site=ehost‐live.

2.5 Traditional transcribed method with the audio recording method Halcomb EJ, Davidson PM. Is verbatim transcription of interview data always necessary? Appl Nurs Res. 2006; 19 :38‐42. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2005.06.001.

Greenwood M, Kendrick T, Davies H, Gill F. Hearing voices: Comparing two methods for analysis of Focus Group data. Appl Nurs Res. 2017; DOI:10.1016/j.apnr.2017.02.024.

2.6 Qualitative appraisal checklist CASP

http://media.wix.com/ugd/dded87_951541699e9edc71ce66c9bac4734c69.pdf

Joanna Briggs Institute

http://joannabriggs.org/assets/docs/critical‐appraisal‐tools/JBI_Critical_Appraisal‐Checklist_for_Qualitative_Research2017.pdf

McMaster Critical Review guidelines for Qualitative Studies

Qualitative synthesis

https://wiki.joannabriggs.org/display/MANUAL/2.4+The+JBI+Approach+to+qualitative+synthesis

Developing a qualitative review protocol

https://wiki.joannabriggs.org/display/MANUAL/2.6+Developing+a+qualitative+review+protocol

2.7 Key resources COREQ (Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research) Checklist

http://cdn.elsevier.com/promis_misc/ISSM_COREQ_Checklist.pdf

NVivo software support for qualitative research

https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo/nvivo‐products

Australian Government (2014). National Statement on ethical conduct in human research (2007) (updated May 2015). Canberra: National Health Medical Research Council.

The association for qualitative research: The hub of qualitative thinking. Retrieved on 1 October 2018

https://www.aqr.org.uk/dir/

2.8 Presentation references

Aspland, T. (2013). Misconceptions of qualitative research design: perspectives of examiners.

In Discourse, Power, and Resistance Down Under: Volume 2 (pp. 9‐22). Brill Sense.

Harper, S. R., & Kuh, G. D. (2007). Myths and misconceptions about using qualitative methods in

assessment. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007(136), 5‐14.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.227

McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview: Qualitative research methods. London: Sage University

Press

McGough, S., Wynaden, D., & Wright, M. (2018). Experience of providing cultural safety in mental

health to Aboriginal patients: A grounded theory study. International Journal of Mental Health

Nursing, 27(1), 204‐213. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12310

Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence‐based

nursing, 18(2), 34‐35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/eb‐2015‐102054

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: Myths and

strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(11), 1451‐1458.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004

2.9 Additional reading Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006; 3

:77‐101. DOI:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.

Creswell J. Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc; 2009.

Fereday J, Muir‐Cochrane E. Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2006; 5 :80‐92.

Flick, U. (Ed.) The SAGE Handbook of qualitative data analysis. London, England: Sage. 2013

Guest G, Bunce A, Johnson L. How Many Interviews Are Enough? Field Methods. 2006; 18 :59‐82. DOI:10.1177/1525822x05279903.

Morse, J.M. Critical analysis of strategies for determining rigor in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Health Research. 2015; 25: 1212‐1222. doi 10.1177/1049732315588501

O'Brien B, Harris I, Beckman T, Reed D, Cook D. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research: A Synthesis of Recommendations. Acad Med. 2014; 89 :1245‐1251. DOI:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388.

Vaismoradi M, Turunen H, Bondas T. Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nursing & Health Sciences. 2013; 15 :398‐405. DOI:10.1111/nhs.12048.

Denzin, N. (2016). Critical qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Inquiry 23(1) 8‐6.

DOI:10.1177/1077800416681864

Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2017). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed.). United States: Thousand Oaks.

Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods 3(1), 42‐55. DOI:10.1177/160940690400300104

Holliday, A. (2007). Doing and writing qualitative research London: Sage Publications.

Maxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative research design: An integrative approach (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Noble, H. (2016). What is grounded theory? Evidence Based Nursing 19(2), 34‐35. DOI:10.1136/eb‐2016‐102306

Quinn Patton, M., (2014). Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Sauro, J. (2015) 5 types of qualitative methods. Retrieved October 2018 from https://measuringu.com/qual‐methods/

Streubert, H. & Rinaldi Carpenter, D. (2011). Qualitative research in Nursing: Advancing the humanistic imperative (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

Taylor. B., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences. United Kingdom: Routledge.

Broeder, J. & Donze, A. (2010). The role of qualitative research in evidence‐based practice. Neonatal Network 29(3), 197‐202. DOI: 10.1891/0730‐0832.29.3.197

Onwuegbuzie, A. & Leech, N. (2007). A call for qualitative poser analyses. Quality and Quantity 41:105‐121. DOI: 10.1007/s1135‐005‐1098‐1

Wynaden, D. The experience of caring for a person with a mental illness: A grounded theory study. (2007). International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 16: 381‐389 DOI:10.1111/j.1447‐0349.2007.00493.x

Research Skills Seminar Series 2019CAHS Research Education Program

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Research Skills Seminar Series | CAHS Research Education Program Department of Child Health Research | Child and Adolescent Health Service

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