Windsor Castle Badshahnama

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Komala, Wilma

THE WINDSOR CASTLE "BADSHAH NAMA" AND ITS PLACE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORICAL PAINTING DURING THE REIGN OF SHAH JAHAN 1628-1658

The University o f Iowa Ph.D. 1982

UniversityMicrofilms

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Copyright 1982

by

Komala, Wilma

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THE WINDSOR CASTLE BADSHAH NAMA

AND ITS PLACE IN THE DEVELOPMENT

OF HISTORICAL PAINTING DURING

THE REIGN OF SHAH JAHAN

1628-1658

by

Wilma Komala

A t h e s i s subm itted in p a r t ia l f u l f i l lm e n t o f th e requirem ents fo r th e degree o f

Doctor o f P h ilosop h y in Art H isto ry in th e Graduate C ollege o f

th e U n iv e r s ity o f Iowa

J u ly , 1982

T h esis supervisor* P ro fesso r Wayne E* B egley


G raduate C o lleg e The U n iv e r s ity o f Iowa

Iowa C ity , Iowa

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

PH.D. TRESIS

T his i s to c e r t i f y th a t th e Ph.D. t h e s i s o f

Wilma Komala

has been approved by th e Examining Committee f o r th e t h e s i s requirem ent fo r th e Doctor o f P h ilosop h y d egree in Art H is to r y a t th e J u ly 1982 g ra d u a tio n .

T h es is com m itteeT h e s is su p er v iso r C

Member

Member


TO

P r o fesso r Wayne E. B egley

fo r h is h e lp and encouragement

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TABLE OP CONTENTS

?ageLIST OP PLATES..................................................................................................... . . . £V

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.............................................................................. 1

CHAPTER I I BACKGROUND OP SHAH JAHANI PAINTING........................... 10Survey o f S ch o la r ly L ite r a tu r e ............................... 10S t y l i s t i c Sources fo r Shah Jahani P a in t in g .. 25

CHAPTER I I I SHAH JAHANI HISTORICAL PAINTING.................................. 36

Overview o f Extant I l lu s t r a t e d Shah JahaniM anuscripts and Albums................................................. 56Background o f Mughal H is to r ic a l P a in t in g . . . . 42H is to r ic a l M anuscripts Under Shah Jahan 49

CHAPTER IV PAINTINGS OF THE WINDSOR CASTLE BADSHAH NAMA.. 6 2Survey o f S ch o larly L ite r a tu r e .............................. 62P h y sica l D escr ip tio n and Date o f theM anuscript............................................................................. 67Thematic D escr ip tio n o f the P a i n t i n g s . . . . . . . 73

CHAPTER V ARTISTS OP THE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT............................. 125

In scr ib ed Works................................................................. 128U ninscribed Works............................................ ............... 155

CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION.................................................................................. 168

CATALOGUE OF THE PAINTINGS.......................................................................... 174

APPENDIX A DISPERSED WORKS PROM HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPTS... 254

APPENDIX B LIST OP ATTRIBUTIONS TO THE ARTISTS OPTHE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT...................................................... 270

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................... 278

PLATES............................................................................................................................. 290

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L I S T OF ELATES

P la t e PageI Sham sa, f o l i o 1 v , Badshah Nam a

R oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e . ........................................................ 291

I I Shamsa, f o l i o 2 r , Badshah NamaR o y a l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 292

I I I P o r t r a i t o f T im ur, f o l i o 2 v , Badshah RamaR oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ...................................................... .. 293

IV P o r t r a i t o f Shah Ja h a n , f o l i o 5r > Badshah NamaR oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e . . . ............................. 294

V R e c e p tio n o f P r in c e Khurram Upon H is D ep a rtu re f o r th e Mewar Cam paign, f o l i o 4 3 v , B adshah Nama

.R o y a l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ...................................................... .. 293

VI P r in c e Khurram r e c e i v i n g th e Subdued Rana Amar S in g h , f o l i o 46v , Badshah MamaR oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e .......................... .. ........................... 296

V II P r in c e Khurram R e c e iv in g th e Subdued Rana Amar S in g h , f o l i o 4 7 ^ , B adshah NamaR oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e . . . . . ............................................ 297

. V III J a h a n g ir R e c e iv in g p r in c e Khurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u lCampaign A g a in s t th e Rana o f Mewar, f o l i o 4 8 v ,Badshah NamaR o y a l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e . ........ .. ......................... 298

IX J a h a n g ir R e c e iv in g P r in c e Khurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u l Campaign A g a in s t th e Rana o f Mewar, f o l i o 49^ ,Badshah NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . ................................................... 299

X A r r iv a l o f A s a f Khan and tn e P r in c e s from L ah ore , f o l i o 5 0 v , B aashah NamaR oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ...................................... .. 3 0 0

XI A r r iv a l o f A s a f Khan and th e P r in c e s from L ah ore, f o l i o 51^* B adshah NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ......................................................... 301

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X I I S o la r W eighm ent o f Snah J a h a n , f o l i o 7 0 v , B ad sh ah MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ............................................................. ^02

X I I I S o la r W eighm ent o f Shah J a h a n , f o l i o B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . . . . . . . ................................... 303

XIV C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e H au ro z F e s t i v a l a t A g ra , f o l i o 7 2 v , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ............................................................ 304

XV B e s ie g in g tn e F o r t o f D h a ru r , f o l i o 9 2 v , B ad sh ah MamaR o y al L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ........................ ................................. 305

XVI D e a th o f Khan J a h a n L o d i , f o l i o 9 4 v , B ad sh ah MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ............................................................ 306

X V II R e c e p t io n o f t h e P e r s i a n A m b assad o r Munammad A l i Beg a t B u rh a n p u r , f o l i o 9 8 v , B ad sh ah MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ..................... 307

X V III The S ie g e o f Q a n d a h a r , f o l i o 1 0 2 v , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . . . . . . ............ .... ................... 308

XIX A r r i v a l o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e w i th TributeO f f e r i n g s , f o l i o 116v , B adshah ham aR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e .................................. .................... .. 309

XX C a p tu re o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e F o r t a t h u g h l i ,f o l i o 117^1 B ad sh ah MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ...................................................... 3*10

XXI D e l iv e r y o f t h e S a c h a q t o t n e H ouse o f t h e Widow o ft h e L a te P r i n c e P a rw iz , Jahan Banu Begum, Mother o f theB r i d e - t o - b e o f D a ra S n ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 0 v , B ad sh ah NamaR o y al L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ........................ .. ...................... 311

X X II D e l iv e r y o f t h e Sachaq. t o th e H ouse o f t h e Widow o fth e L a t e P r in c e P a r w iz , J a h a n Banu Begum, Mother o f theB r i d e - t o - b e o f D a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 1 r , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ............................................................ 312

X X III E s c o r t i n g D ara S h ik o h to H is W edding C erem ony, f o l i o 1 2 2 v , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . ......................... .................. .. 313

XXIV E s c o r t i n g D ara S h ik o h to H is W edding C erem ony,f o l i o 1 2 3 r , B ad sh ah NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W indsor u a s t l e . . . . ................ 314

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XXV Shah J a n a n P r e s e n t i n g W edding G i f t s t o D a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 124v , B ad sh ah NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ......................................................... 315

XXVI Shah J a h a n P r e s e n t i n g W edding G i f t s t o D a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 5 r , B a d sh a h MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . ............................ 316

XXVII W edding o f S h ah S h u ja , f o l i o 1 2 6 v , B ad sh ah NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ......................................................... 317

X X V III W edding o f S h ah S h u ja , f o l i o 1 2 7 r , B a d sh a h MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ......................................................... 318

XXIX A u ran g zeb C o n f r o n t in g a n E n ra g e d E l e p h a n t , f o l i o 1 3 4 ^ , B ads ha il NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ......................................................... 319

XXX p r i n c e K hurram K i l l i n g a T i g e r , f o l i o 1 35v , B ad sh ah Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ................................... 320

XXXI C a p tu re o f t n e F o r t o f D a u la ta b a d , f o l i o 1 4 4 r , B a d sn a h NamaR oyal L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ................................................ 321

XXXII D e p a r tu r e o f S h ah S h u ja f o r t h e D eccan , f o l i o 1 4 7 v , B ad sh ah RamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . ............................................... 322

XXX III S h ah J a h a n H u n t in g N ilg a o N ea r P a la m , f o l i o l 6 5 r , B an sn ah NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e .................... 323

XXXIV O n ag er H u n tin g i n B h e ra i n tn e P u b ja b , f o l i o 1 b b v , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . . . .................... 324

XXXV C a p tu re o f tn e '- 'F o r t s o f O rc c h a an d D ham uni, f o l i o 1 7 4 r , B a d sh a n NamaR oya l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ................................. 325

XXXVI P r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e H eads o f J u j h a r S in g h an d H is Son J a g r a j S in g h , f o l i o 1 7 b v , B a d sn a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ......................................................... 326

XXXVII C o n f e r a l o f t h e T i t l e S hah K hurram , f o l i o 1 9 2 v , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . .................................................. 527

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XXXVIII C o n f e r a l o f t h e T i t l e S hah J a h a n , f o l i o 1 9 4 ^ , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ................ . ...................................... 328

XXXIX F i n a l E n c o u n te r B etw een J a h a n g i r and P r in c e K hurram , f o l i o 1 9 5 r , B a d sh a h MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . ......................................... .. 329

XL C a p tu re o f F o r t U d g ir , f o l i o 2 0 4 v , B a d sh a h NamaR o y a l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ......................................... 330

XLI P i lg r im a g e t o t h e S h r in e o f K hw aja Mu1 i n a l D in C h i s h t i ,f o l i o 2 0 5 v , B ad sh ah MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . . . . . . ............................ .. 331

X L II P i lg r im a g e t o t h e S h r in e o f K hw aja M u 'in a l D in C h i s h t i ,f o l i o 2 0 6 r , B a d sh a h HamaR oya l L ib r a r y , W indsor C a s t l e ........................................................ 332

X L II I D e p a r tu r e o f A u ra n g z e b f o r t h e D e c c a n ,f o l i o 214v , B a d sh a h MamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ........................................................ 3 3 3

XLIV R e tu r n o f A u ra n g z e b f ro m th e D e ccan ,f o l i o 217 v , B a d sh a h RamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e ............................... .. 334

XLV W edding o f A u ra n g z e b , f o l i o 218 v , B a d sh a h RamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e . . . . . . . . . . .............................. 335

XLVI H u n tin g L io n s a t B a r i , f o l i o 22 0 v , B ad sh ah RamaR o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e 336

XLVII D e a th o f I n a y a t K hanB o d le ia n L i b r a r y , O x fo rd , MS, O u se le y Add 1 7 1 b ............. 337

X L V III A r r e s t o f S h ah A b u ' I M a 'a l i , f o l i o 7 , A kbar MamaC h e s te r B e a t ty L i b r a r y , D u D l i n . . . . . . ....................................... 338

XLIX J a h a n g i r E n t e r t a i n i n g S h e ik h s , J a h a n g i r MamaC o l l e c t i o n E dw in B i n n e y . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... 339

L J a h a n g i r i n D a r b a r , J a h a n g i r NamaB o s to n Museum o f F in e A r t s , 14 » 654* .................. 340

L I Shah J a h a n R e c e iv in g a P e r s i a n E m bassy( R e c e p t io n o f Y ad g a r B eg)B o d le ia n L i b r a r y , O x fo rd , MS. Q u se le y Add 1 7 3 ................ 341

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L II Akbar H unting i n an E n c lo s u r e , f o l i o 5 6 , Akbar NamaV ic t o r i a & A lb e r t Museum, L o n d o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

L I U C e le b r a t io n o f tn e F e s t i v a l o f A b p a s i, J a h a n g ir NamaRampur S t a t e L ib r a iy ........................................................ 343

LIY Akbar G iv in g A u d ien ce to A bd-ur-R ahm in, Akbar HamaV ic t o r i a & A lb e r t Museum, L o n d on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 4

LV L arbar o f Shah Jah an , f o l i o 433* Shah Jahan NamaB r i t i s h L ib r a r y , London, MS. Or 2 1 5 7 . . . . ................................... 345

LVI ShamsaM e tr o p o l ita n Museum o f A r t , New Y ork, 5 5 * 1 2 1 . 1 0 . 3 9 . . . 3 4 6

LVII ShamsaP r iv a t e C o l l e c t i o n .............................................................. 347

L V III Shamsa, L iw a n -i A n v a r iS o ld a t S p in k & Son, London, 24 A p r i l - 10 May 1 ^ 8 0 . . 348

LIX F r o n t i s p ie c e , M into AlbumV ic t o r i a & A lb e r t Museum, London, I . M . 8 - 1 9 2 5 .............. . . . 349

LX F r o n t i s p ie c e , M into AlbumC h e ste r B e a t ty L ib r a r y , D u b lin , 7 -19* . . . . . . . » ...................... 350

LXI P r in c e s o f th e H ouse o f TimurB r i t i s h Museum, L o n d o n . . . . . . . . .................................................... 351

LXII Shah Jahan i n D arbar (C o r o n a tio n D arbar)C o l le c t io n H enri V ev er , P a r i s . ............................... 352

L X U I Shah Jahan on th e P ea co ck ThroneC o l l e c t io n Edwin B i n n e y . . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... 353

LXIV Shah Jahan w ith a C h ildV ic t o r i a & A lb e r t Museum, London, I . S . 9 0 - 1 9 6 5 . . . * * • » 354

LXV J a h a n g ir P r e f e r in g a S u f i Sh aik h t o K ingsF reer G a l le r y o f A r t , W ashington B . C . , 4 5 . 1 5 a ...................... 355

LXVL E p iso d e i n a B azaarR o th s c h ild C o l l e c t i o n .............. 356

LXVII R aja B ik r a m a jitC le v e la n d Museum o f A r t , 4 5 * 1 7 0 . . . . . . . .............................. 357


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LX V III Shah J a h a n H o n o r in g t h e R e l i g i o u s O rth o d o x y ( N ig h t C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e P r o p h e t 's B i r th d a y )F r e e r G a l le r y o f A r t , W ash ington B . C . , 4 2 . 1 7 A & 4 2 . 1 8 a 35 8

LXIX I z z a t K han w i th O f f i c e r s a n d W ise MenC o l le c t io n Edwin B in n e y . .......................................................... 359

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1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION.

T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l f o c u s on t h e W in d so r c a s t l e

B ad sh ah Nama an d th e im p o r t a n t r o l e t h a t i t p l a y e d i n t h e d e v e lo p

m en t o f M ughal h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g u n d e r S h ah J a h a n ( r . 1 6 2 8 -1 6 5 8 ) .

The W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh a h Nama, w h ic h i s t h e o n ly s u r v i v i n g

i l l u s t r a t e d m a n u s c r ip t a c t u a l l y p ro d u c e d d u r in g t h e r e i g n o f Shah

J a h a n , r e p r e s e n t s an u n iq u e an d r a r e docum ent o f t h e p e r i o d . The

B ad sh ah Nama i s one o f t h e s e v e r a l h i s t o r i e s w r i t t e n by th e

v a r i o u s c o u r t o h r o n i c l e r s o f t h e t i m e . The t e x t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

m a n u s c r ip t r e p r e s e n t s t h e w ork o f A b d 'u l H am id L a h a u r i , a f o l l o w e r

o f A bul F a z l ,^ t h e h i s t o r i a n who im m o r ta l iz e d t h e r e i g n o f S hall

J a h a n 's g r a n d f a t h e r i n t h e t h r e e vo lum e A kbar Nama. I n t h e

e l e v e n th o r t w e l f t h y e a r o f s h a h J a h a n * s r e i g n , L a h a u r i was

summoned t o c o u r t by S h ah J a h a n a n d was o r d e r e d t o p ro d u c e a w ork

c o m p a ra b le t o A bul F a z l ' s i n m a g n itu d e a n d s t y l e . The W in d so r

m a n u s c r ip t r e p r e s e n t s o n ly one vo lu m e ( d a f t a r ) o f t h e t h r e e t h a t

c o n s t i t u t e t h e e n t i r e B a d sh a h Nama. E ach v o lu m e c h r o n i c l e s t h e

e v e n t s o f o n e t e n y e a r c y c l e o f S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n r e c k o n e d

a c c o r d in g t o t h e l u n a r c a l e n d a r . L a h a u r i h i m s e l f l i v e d t o c o m p le te

tw o v o lu m es o f th e h i s t o r y , f o r h e d i e d i n 1 6 5 4 * an d w en t i n t o

r e t i r e m e n t a few y e a r s p r i o r to t h a t . T he c o m p le t io n o f t h e

f i n a l t e n y e a r s was e n t r u s t e d t o h i s p u p i l M uhamosd W a r is . A


2

c o lo p h o n i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e t r a n s c r i p

t i o n o f t h e t e x t was do n e by Muhammad ‘Amin o f M e ssh e d , a n d t h a tp

t h e m a n u s c r ip t was c o m p le te d by 1 6 5 7 -1 6 5 8 . The i l l u s t r a t i o n s

w ere do n e by v a r i o u s c o u r t a r t i s t s , who u n d o u b te d ly w ere among

t h e m o s t s k i l l e d o f t h e a t e l i e r , f o r t h e l e v e l o f a r t i s t i c e x c e l

l e n c e i s o f a v e r y h i g h c a l i b e r .

S u r p r i s i n g l y , no s y s t e m a t i c s tu d y o f t h i s im p o r ta n t

m a n u s c r ip t h a s y e t a p p e a r e d , a n d o n ly s e v e n o f th e f o r t y - s i x

i l l u s t r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d . T he m a n u s c r ip t h a s o f t e n b e e n

m e n tio n e d i n p a s s i n g i n w o rk s on M ughal a r t , b u t i t h a s n e v e r

r e c e i v e d t h e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n i t d e s e r v e s . F u r th e r m o r e , S hah

J a h a n i p a i n t i n g i s one a r e a o f M ughal a r t w h ic h h a s b e e n l a r g e l y

i g n o r e d by s c h o l a r s , o r e l s e b e e n t r e a t e d i n a v e r y c u r s o r y

f a s h i o n . Of tn e l i t t l e p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l t h a t e x i s t s , m o s t o f

i t t e n d s to be p a r t o f l a r g e r s t u d i e s e n c o m p a ss in g a l l o f M ughal

p a i n t i n g ; t h e r e a r e o n ly a h a n d f u l o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s . B e c a u se

o f th e r e l a t i v e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o a n d t h e p a u c i t y o f Shah

J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , m o s t o f t h e a r t h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h on t h e p e r io d

h a s te n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on th e a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h is n a s u n f o r t u

n a t e l y c a u s e d s t u d i e s on t h e p a i n t i n g t o t a k e a s e c o n d a ry r o l e .

I n v ie w o f th e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f s c h o l a r s h i p on S h ah J a h a n i

p a i n t i n g , t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i n t e n d s t o m o d ify th e s i t u a t i o n by

p r e s e n t i n g an a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s m o s t im p o r ta n t b u t y e t

u n s tu d ie d m onum ent o f t h e p e r i o d — th e W in d so r C a s t l e B ad sh ah

Hama. The s tu d y w i l l b e made up o f t h r e e m a jo r d i v i s i o n s : a


3

b ack g ro u n d , t o S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , a d o c u m e n ta t io n o f t h e i c o n o -

g r a p h i c a l a n d s t y l i s t i c a s p e c t s o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , a n d a

c a t a lo g u e o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s *

I n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a s e t t i n g f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d

a n a l y s i s o f t h e b a c k g ro u n d m a t e r i a l , a n d t h i s i s e x a c t l y w h a t t h e

f i r s t s e c t i o n p r o p o s e s t o d o . A s u r v e y o f t h e s c h o l a r l y l i t e r a t u r e

p e r t a i n i n g t o S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i l l b e g in t h i s b a c k g ro u n d

s e c t i o n , w h ic h w i l l a l lo w u s t o h a v e an o v e rv ie w o f t h e e x t e n t

an d th e n a t u r e o f t h e s e c o n d a ry d o c u m e n ta t io n t h a t e x i s t s . I t

w i l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e s c a r c i t y o f s u b s t a n t i a l r e s e a r c h d e v o te d t o

th e f i e l d , a n d u n d e r l i n e t h e n e e d f o r f u r t h e r w o rk . S t y l i s t i c

s o u r c e s f o r Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i l l b e t r e a t e d n e x t . H ere th e

•p u re ly f o r m a l a s p e c t s o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i l l be t a k e n i n t o

a c c o u n t , t r a c i n g i t s d e v e lo p m e n t o u t o f J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g an d

th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i t u n d e rw e n t t o a r r i v e a t l o o k i n g th e way i t

d o e s . The m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g i s

i t s h ig h t e c h n i c a l r e f in e m e n t w h ic h r e i n f o r c e s t h e o r d e r e d fo r m a l

p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d t h e o b s e s s i v e c o n c e rn f o r m in u te d e t a i l s . I t i s

t h e f i n a l a n d m o s t p o l i s h e d fo rm o f m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g t h a t w as

b o m i n t h e A k b a r i p e r i o d an d m a tu re d d u r in g J a h a n g ir * s r e i g n .

F u r t h e r b a c k g ro u n d m a t e r i a l w i l l i n c l u d e a n o v e rv ie w

o f S h ah J a h a n i h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g . As S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g

e n c o m p a sse s n o t o n ly h i s t o r i c a l w o rk s , b u t p o r t r a i t s , s i n g l e

f i g u r e s , p l a n t s , a n i m a ls , a n d g e n r e s c e n e s a s w e l l , i t i s


4

n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r s t a n d th e s o u r c e s f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t

m a t t e r . The f i r s t s t e p w i l l b e t o s u rv e y o t h e r e x t a n t i l l u s t r a t e d

m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s o f t h e p e r i o d . A d i s t i n c t i o n w i l l b e made

b e tw e e n c o n te m p o ra n e o u s w o rk s a n d a lb u m s a s s e m b le d a t a l a t e r

d a t e . W ore o f t e n t h a n n o t , t h e s e l a t e r a s s e m b le d a lb u m s c o n t a i n

a m ix tu r e o f p a i n t i n g s t a k e n fro m a l l s o r t s o f m a n u s c r i p t s an d

a lb u m s .

M ughal h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g a s a g e n r e w i l l t h e n be

d i s c u s s e d . From A k b a r t o Shah J a h a n one s e e s an e v o l u t i o n a r y

t r e n d to w a rd s a m ore i n t r o v e r t e d an d p e r s o n a l s t a t e m e n t . Compa

r i s o n s o f b o th t h e c o n t e x t an d th e c o n t e n t s o f h i s t o r i c a l m anu

s c r i p t s fro m t h e r e i g n s o f A k b ar, J a h a n g i r an d Shah J a h a n w i l l

i l l u s t r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s t h e y s e r v e d f o r e a c h s u c c e s s iv e

e m p e ro r . A q u ic k g la n c e a t t h e v a r i o u s h i s t o r i e s p ro d u c e d u n d e r

t h e s e t h r e e e m p e ro rs r e v e a l s a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n c r e a s e i n t h e

d o c u m e n ta t io n o f t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f S hah J a h a n . F u r th e rm o re

o n e a l s o n o t i c e s t h e i n c r e a s i n g im p o r ta n c e a c c o r d e d t o t h e

p h y s ic a l - p o s i t i o n o f t h e e m p e ro rs w i t h i n t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s .

From t h e d i s c r e t e l o c a t i o n a n d m o d e s t d e p i c t i o n o f A k b a r , e v e n i n

h i s own h i s t o r i e s , o ne a r r i v e s a t t h e im m e d ia te ly p e r c e p t i b l e

f i g u r e o f S hah J a h a n , a n d che f l a g r a n t l a v i s h n e s s t h a t s u r r o u n d s

h im .

A f t e r h a v in g d e te r m in e d th e n a t u r e o f M ughal h i s t o r i c a l

p a i n t i n g , t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l t h e n p r o c e e d o n to a t r e a t m e n t o f

t h e h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s u n d e r S h ah J a h a n . One w i l l f i r s t


5

e n c o u n te r t h e v a r i o u s h i s t o r i a n s a n d t h e t e x t s th e y w r o te . I n

a d d i t i o n to A b d 'u l Ham id L a h a u r i an d h i s B ad sh ah Hama, t h e r e w ere

a b o u t s i x o t h e r o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts o f t h e r e i g n o f S hah

J a h a n . D e c id e d ly , t h e r e w ere o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts w h ic h w ere

n o t o f f i c i a l c o m m is s io n s , b u t w ere w r i t t e n i n d e p e n d e n t l y b y men o f

l e a r n i n g who h o p e d t o g a i n m e r i t i n t h e p r o c e s s .3 To sum u p th e

s e c t i o n on th e h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip t s u n d e r S h ah J a h a n w i l l b e an

a n a l y s i s o f how t h e p a i n t i n g s s e r v e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e t e x t , w h ich

i s , t h e m an n er i n w h ic h o n e may i n t e r p r e t t h e m e ssa g e t h a t w as

i n t e n d e d t o b e c o n v e y e d t o t h e r e a d e r . The t e x t i t s e l f g l o r i f i e s

t h e p e r s o n o f S hah J a h a n , an d th e s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o f h i s r e i g n .

The i l l u s t r a t i o n s v i s u a l i z e t h i s c o n c e p t b y a lw a y s p r e s e n t i n g him

i n a f a v o r a b l e l i g h t t h a t im p l i e s a c e r t a i n i n f a l l i b i l i t y .

A l l t h i s b a c k g ro u n d m a t e r i a l l e a d s up t o a d i s c u s s i o n

o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t i t s e l f . To i n t r o d u c e t h e m a n u s c r i p t , a

s u rv e y o f t h e s c h o l a r l y l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g t o i t w i l l be

p r e s e n t e d . L ik e t h e d o c u m e n ta t io n on S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , t h e r e

i s a v e r y m e a g e r q u a n t i t y . The s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l b e

f o l lo w e d by a p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t . V ery

b r i e f l y , i t i s a l a r g e a n d su m p tu o u s m a n u s c r ip t m e a s u r in g 21^ "

by 1 4 " t h a t c o n t a i n s tw o h u n d re d a n d f o r t y - o n e f o l i o s , o f w h ic h

f o r t y - s i x a r e i l l u s t r a t e d * In . t h e 1 8 th c e n t u r y , a num ber o f lo o s e

s h e e t s c o n t a i n i n g a b r i e f summary a c c o u n t o f e a c h e v e n t w ere

i n s e r t e d n e x t t o th e c o r r e s p o n d in g i l l u s t r a t i o n s . A t p r e s e n t

t h i r t y s h e e t s r e m a in , d o c u m e n tin g a l l b u t s i x o f t h e p a i n t i n g s .


6

The numbering sequence on th e se sh e e ts shows th a t some are m iss in g ,

probably having f a l l e n ou t a t some p o in t in tim e.

The them atic a n a ly s is o f each i l l u s t r a t i o n w i l l

attem pt to add a new dim ension to th e study o f Shah Jahani p a in tin g

by lo o k in g a t i t from an h is t o r ic a l and icon ograp h ica l p e r s p e c t iv e .

Over th e p a s t y e a r s , the l i t e r a t u r e on th e p eriod has tended to

co n cen tra te m ainly on s t y l i s t i c a s p e c ts , w ith th e r e s u lt th a t the

study o f o th er fe a tu r e s were r e le g a te d to a secondary p o s i t io n .

To approach the Windsor m anuscript from an h i s t o r ic a l and ico n o

g rap h ica l p e r s p e c t iv e , th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d accord

in g to su b je c t , and then the ico n o g ra p h ica l fe a tu r e s o f each one

w i l l be se p a r a te ly d e a lt w ith . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e i l l u s

t r a t io n s can be broken down in to th e fo llo w in g c a te g o r ie s : two

shamsas,4two f r o n t is p ie c e s , fo u rteen darbars, e lev en c e le b r a tio n s

and f e s t i v a l s , ten b a t t l e s , f i v e hunts, and two v i s i t s to h o ly

sh r in e s . O bviously th e ch o ice o f what was to be i l lu s t r a t e d was

th e r e s u lt o f much p lan n in g and foreth ou gh t th a t u lt im a te ly

heeded th e consent and approval o f Shah Jahan. The

frequency w ith which a c e r ta in theme i s d ep ic te d r e v e a ls c e r ta in

c h a r a c te r is t ic s o f Shah Jah an 's t a s t e in p a in tin g as w e ll as th e

image which he d es ired h is p a in te r s to communicate. I n s ig h ts in to

the customs and modes o f behavior o f Mughal c o u r tly s o c ie ty o f the

tim e w i l l a lso be a co n tr ib u tio n o f t h i s a n a ly s is .

Of th e f o r t y - s i x i l l u s t r a t i o n s , tw enty-one are signed

works, and th ey re v e a l the names o f ten a r t i s t s . The o th er


7

p a i n t i n g s h a v e t e n t a t i v e a t t r i b u t i o n s t o v a r i o u s a r t i s t s o f t h e

t i m e . From th e w id e ly s c a t t e r e d ex a m p le s o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g ,

t h e n a m e s -o f a l t o g e t h e r t w e n t y - f i v e a r t i s t s h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d ,

a n d a r e known t o h a v e w o rk ed d u r in g t h e p e r i o d . Among th e n in e

a r t i s t s who w orked on t h e m a n u s c r i p t , some a r e w e l l know n, f o r

ex am p le B i c h i t r , f o r whom t h e r e r e m a in s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o rp u s o f

s ig n e d an d d a t e d w o rk s . C lo s e e x a m in a t io n o f t h e w orks o f t h i s

c a t e g o r y o f a r t i s t s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t w i l l s e r v e to b ro a d e n

th e e x i s t i n g k n o w led g e o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t . T h e re a r e a l s o a r t i s t s ,

f o r ex am p le B o la , w hose nam es a p p e a r o n ly i n t h i s m a n u s c r ip t , and

who h a v e n o t a s y e t b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i th an y known w o rk s . T h e i r

s ig n e d an d i n s c r i b e d w o rk s a r e new d o cu m en ts f o r th e s tu d y o f th e

a r t i s t s w o rk in g u n d e r S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n . N a t u r a l l y t h e known

a r t i s t s w i l l b e t r e a t e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l th a n th e unknow n o n e s ,

t h a t i s , c o m p a ra t iv e m a t e r i a l w i l l be i n t r o d u c e d w h ic h w i l l h e lp

d e te rm in e t h e w o rk s i n t h e m a n u s c r ip t i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f th e

i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t ' s c a r e e r . A p p en d ix A p r o v id e s a l i s t o f a t t r i

b u t i o n s t o th e a r t i s t s m e n tio n e d h e r e .

The f i n a l d i v i s i o n o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l b e a

c a t a lo g u e d a c c o u n t o f e a c h p a i n t i n g i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t .

The f u n c t i o n o f s u c h a c a t a l o g u e i s t o c l a s s i f y t h e f a c t u a l

i n f o r m a t io n o f e a c h w o rk , t h a t i s , i t s d im e n s io n s , i t s a r t i s t ,

an d th e d a t e o f th e e v e n t i t d e p i c t s . A su m m arized a c c o u n t o f

e a c h e v e n t w i l l a l s o b e i n c lu d e d , an d a c o r r e s p o n d in g t e x t u a l

s o u r c e w i l l a l s o b e c i t e d . The r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h e c i t a t i o n s w i l l


8

n a tu r a lly be taken from th e Badshah Mama o f A bd'ul Hamid Lahauri

o f which c e r ta in p o r t io n s have been tr a n s la te d in S ir H.M. E l l i o t ' s

The H isto ry o f I n d ia a s T old by i t s Own H is to r ia n s , However, f o r

th o se p a in t in g s which d e p ic t ev e n ts n o t found in E l l i o t * s tr a n s la

t io n , th e c i t a t io n s w i l l be taken from th e Mulakhkhas o f In a y a t

Khan, tr a n s la te d by A .E . F u l le r and r e v is e d and e d ite d by W.E.

B e g le y . F in a l ly to con clu d e th e d is s e r t a t io n , th ere w i l l be an

appendix c o n s is t in g o f a l i s t o f th e d isp e r se d works b e lie v e d to

have once come from h i s t o r i c a l m a n u scr ip ts.


9

Motes t o C hapter I1M. H id a y a t H o sa in , "Contem porary H is t o r ia n s D urin g

th e R e ig n o f Shah J a h a n ," I s l a m i c C u ltu r e 15 ( 19 4 1 ) s 7 2 .

S l i l o C le v e la n d B ea ch , The Grand Mogul I m p e r ia l P a in t in g in I n d ia 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 6 0 (W illia m sto w n : S t e r l i n g and F r a n c in e C lark A rt I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 78»

^Wayne E. B e g le y , e d . , " C h r o n ic le o f th e K ing o f th e W orld; The Shah Jahan Nama o f ' I n a y a t Khan, th e n in e t e e n t h c e n tu r y m a n u sc r ip t t r a n s l a t i o n o f A.R. F u l l e r p r e s e r v e d in th e B r i t i s h L ib r a r y (Add. 3 0 * 77 7) " ( T y n e s c r ip t , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . x .

A shamsa i s l i t e r a l l y a sunburst. I t i s a geom etric d esign r ep r e se n tin g th e sun. Further d isc u ss io n o f t h is term can be found on pages 73- 7 4 . P la te s I and I I i l l u s t r a t e the shamsas o f th e Windsor m anuscript.


10

CHAPTER I I

BACKGROUND OF SHAH JAHANI PAINTING

S u rv e y o f S c h o l a r l y L i t e r a t u r e

The s tu d y o f M ughal p a i n t i n g d o e s n o t h a v e a v e r y lo n g

t r a d i t i o n . I t w as o n ly fro m a b o u t t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s o f t h i s c e n -

t u a r y t h a t s c h o l a r s b e g a n to t a k e a n i n t e r e s t i n t h i s a r e a o f

I n d i a n a r t . The e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e te n d e d t o b e m a in ly p r o f u s e l y

i l l u s t r a t e d w o rk s w h ic h a t t e m p te d t o c l a s s i f y M ughal p a i n t i n g

w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f b o th I n d i a n an d I s l a m i c a r t . I t w as v i t a l l y

im p o r t a n t t o c l a r i f y a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e a r t b e f o r e

s e r i o u s s t u d i e s on t h e l a t e r p h a s e s c o u ld b e d o n e . As a r e s u l t ,

a f a i r l y s u b s t a n t i a l am oun t o f s c h o l a r s h i p e x i s t s f o r t h e f o r m a t iv e

an d e a r l y y e a r s o f M ughal p a i n t i n g , t h a t i s , t h e A k b a r i p e r i o d ,

w h i le v e r y l i t t l e h a s b e e n done on t h e S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d . Though

l e s s d o c u m e n te d th a n t h e A k b a r i p e r i o d , p a i n t i n g u n d e r J a h a n g i r

h a s r e c e i v e d f a r m ore a t t e n t i o n th a n S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g . Gnr :of

t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s phenom enon i s t h a t J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g , b e in g

m ore n a t u r a l i s t i c an d e x h i b i t i n g a p ro n o u n c e d E u ro p e a n i n f l u e n c e ,

h ad a s t r o n g e r a p p e a l t o W e s te rn s c h o l a r s th a n t h e m ore c o d i f i e d

an d r i g i d S h ah J a h a n i s t y l e . M ost o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on S h ah J a h a n i

p a i n t i n g t e n d s to b e p a r t o f a l a r g e r s tu d y c o v e r in g a l l o f

M ughal p a i n t i n g , w i th s e c t i o n s o f v a r y i n g l e n g t h s an d d e p th s

d e v o te d to t h e S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d . T h e se w o rk s c a n b e c o n v e n i e n t l y


11

c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f i v e c a t e g o r i e s : g e n e r a l s u r v e y s , c a t a l o g u e s o f

e x h i b i t i o n s a n d o f c o l l e c t i o n s , p i c t u r e b o o k s , m o n o g ra p h s , an d

th e m a t i c an d s t y l i s t i c s t u d i e s . T h is s e c t i o n w i l l u n d e r ta k e t o

d i s c u s s , i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , t h e s i g n i f i c a n t w o rk s o f e a c h

c a t e g o r y .

The g e n e r a l s u rv e y b o o k s do n o t p r e s e n t d e t a i l e d

c o v e ra g e o f e i t h e r S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g o r o f M ughal p a i n t i n g .

T h e se b o o k s t r e a t a b r o a d e r s p e c tru m o f p a i n t i n g , e i t h e r I n d i a n

p a i n t i n g o r I s l a m i c p a i n t i n g , a n d d i s c u s s M ughal a r t a s one o f th e

m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h i s l a r g e r s u b j e c t . The v a l u e o f t h e s e b o o k s

l i e s i n t h e i r i l l u s t r a t i o n s . As much o f M ughal p a i n t i n g i s d i s

p e r s e d a l l o v e r t h e w o r ld , a n d o f t e n t im e s i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s ,

i t h a s b e e n q u i t e d i f f i c u l t f o r s c h o l a r s to h a v e a c c e s s t o th e m ,

a n d t h e r e f o r e i l l u s t r a t e d b o o k s a r e i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o o l s f o r t h e

s tu d y o f M ughal p a i n t i n g .

The e a r l i e s t b o o k i n t h i s c a t e g o r y i s F r e d r i c M a r t i n 's

T he M in ia tu r e P a i n t i n g a n d P a i n t e r s o f P e r s i a , I n d i a a n d T u rk e y

fro m th e 8 t h t o t h e 1 8 th C e n tu ry o f 1 9 1 2 . I t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e

a r e a o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g was i n i t s p u b l i c a t i o n o f n u m ero u s

p a i n t i n g s o f S h ah J a h a n a n d h i s n o b l e s , a n d i t s l i s t o f p a i n t e r s

an d t h e i r p r i n c i p a l w o rk s . The p a i n t i n g s o f t h e n o b le s came

m a in ly fro m M s. 18801 o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , a n im p o r ta n t monu

m en t o f t h e S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d , an d e s p e c i a l l y i n v a l u a b l e f o r th e

s tu d y o f th e c h i e f c o u r t p e r s o n a l i t i e s . M a r t in p r o v id e d n o t o n ly

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e n o b le s b u t a l s o f o r t h e a r t i s t s a s w e l l .


12

H is a p p e n d ix i n c lu d e d a l i s t o f th e a r t i s t s m e n tio n e d i n t h e t e x t

a lo n g w i th t h e i r p r i n c i p a l w o rk s a n d t h e i r l o c a t i o n s . H is t e x t u a l

m a t e r i a l was n o t p r e s e n t e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l , a n d was o n ly a v e r y

c u r s o r y a c c o u n t o f M ughal p a i n t i n g . C o n s id e r in g t h e sc o p e o f t h e

"book a n d t h e d a t e o f p u b l i c a t i o n , one c o u ld n o t e x p e c t a m ore p r o

fo u n d c o v e r a g e . A ls o o f s i m i l a r m a g n itu d e i n t h e m a t e r i a l c o v e re d

i s M aJbteau a n d V e v e r 's M i n i a t u r e s P e r s a n e s , p u b l i s h e d i n 19 1 3 .

The t e x t u a l a c c o u n t i s e x t r e m e ly s u p e r f i c i a l , a n d i s m e re ly d e s c r i p

t i v e . H ow ever, w h a t i s p e r t i n e n t t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e th e

s e v e r a l f i n e e x a m p le s o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g fro m th e V e v e r c o l l

e c t i o n . W ith o u t su c h a w o rk , t h e s e p a i n t i n g s w ou ld h a v e r e m a in e d

v i r t u a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e t o p e o p le s tu d y in g M ughal p a i n t i n g . B a r r e t t

a n d G r a y 's P a i n t i n g o f I n d i a o f 19&3 a p p e a r e d a s p a r t o f th e S k i r a

s e r i e s on th e T r e a s u r e s o f A s i a . I t c o v e r s a l l o f I n d i a n p a i n t i n g ,

a n d M ughal p a i n t i n g i s o n ly d e a l t w i th i n a s m a l l s e c t i o n , w h ile

t h e com m en tary on S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l e r r o r s ,

t h e n u m ero u s c o l o r p l a t e s , i n c l u d i n g one fro m th e W in d so r m an u sc

r i p t , a r e o f v a l u e t o t h e f i e l d o f s tu d y . M a rio B u s s a g l i ' s I n d i a n

M in ia tu r e s o f 1 9 6 6 i s a f a i r l y w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d b o o k w ith a r a t h e r

w id e s a m p lin g fro m a l l p h a s e s o f I n d i a n p a i n t i n g . E ach p a i n t i n g

h a s a n a c c o m p a n y in g com m en ta ry w h ic h re m a rk s o n t h e s t y l i s t i c

f e a t u r e s o f e a c h w ork . H is t e x t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y r a t h e r r a m b l in g

i n i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d t h e l a c k o f c h a p t e r d i v i s i o n s m akes i t

e v e n h a r d e r t o f o l l o w . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 6 8 R andhaw a a n d G a l b r a i t h

p u b l i s h e d I n d i a n P a i n t i n g , t h e S c e n e s , Them es and L e g e n d s , a n o t h e r


13

g e n e r a l s u rv e y book o n a l l o f I n d i a n p a i n t i n g t h a t g iv e s a v e r y

s u p e r f i c i a l a c c o u n t o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g . I t s t r e a tm e n t o f th e

s u b j e c t i s d e s c r i p t i v e a n d n o t a n a l y t i c a l a t a l l . I t s im p o r ta n c e

t o th e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e p e r io d com es fro m th e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f

tw o f o l i o s fro m th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t .

I n t h e c a t e g o r y o f e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e s an d c a t a l o g u e s

o f c o l l e c t i o n s , t h e r e a r e a b o u t f i f t e e n s i g n i f i c a n t w o rk s w h ic h

to u c h on th e s u b j e c t o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g . A lth o u g h th e t e x t s

t o many o f t h e s e c a t a l o g u e s a r e n o t o f a v e r y d e t a i l e d n a t u r e ,

t h e i r im p o r ta n c e to t h i s a r e a o f s tu d y i s i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f

a n d t h e b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r o f t h e s e p a i n t i n g s . P e r h a p s t h e e a r l i e s t

w ork i s S t a n l e y C . C l a r k e ^ I n d i a n D ra w in g s : T h i r t y M ughal P a i n t

i n g s o f t h e S c h o o l o f J a h a n g i r a n d F o u r P a n e l s o f C a l l i g r a p h y i n

th e W antage B e q u e s t o f 1 9 2 2 . A lth o u g h i t i s e n t i t l e d th e S c h o o l

o f J a h a n g i r , a g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f th e s e w o rk s a c t u a l l y d a t e t o th e

S hah J a h a n i p e r i o d . T he w a n ta g e B e q u e s t c o n s i s t e d m a in ly o f p o r

t r a i t s o f n o b l e s , th o u g h p l a n t a n d a n im a l s t u d i e s w ere a l s o i n c l u d

e d . £ a c h o f t h e s e t h i r t y p a i n t i n g s w as r e p r o d u c e d on an e n l a r g e d

f o rm a t w h ic h a c c e n t u a t e d some o f t h e m in u te d e t a i l s t h a t

w o u ld o th e r w i s e n o t h a v e b e e n so v i s i b l e . C l a r k e 's com m entary te n d e d

t o b e p u r e ly d e s c r i p t i v e ; f o r e x a m p le , h e w ou ld g iv e th e b io g r a p h y

o f th e p e r s o n i l l u s t r a t e d b u t w o u ld o f f e r no a n a l y t i c a l com m ent.

R em arks on t h e s t y l e w e re p r o v id e d i n a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n . I n

1929 Iv a n S tc h o u k in e p u b l i s h e d a c a t a lo g u e t o th e c o l l e c t i o n o f

M ughal p a i n t i n g s i n t h e lo u v r e Museum w h ic h w as e n t i t l e d


14

L ea M in ia tu r e s In d ie n x ie a d e l 'E p o q u e d e s G ra n d s M ogho ls a u M usee du

L o u v re * The p a i n t i n g s w ere a l l c l a s s i f i e d b y p e r io d an d l i s t e d by

a c c e s s i o n n u m b e rs . N o t v e r y m uch m a t e r i a l a p p e a r e d i n t h e ghah

J a h a n s e c t i o n , f o r th e museum d i d n o t h a v e a v e r y l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n

i n t h i s a r e a . F o r e a c h w ork w as a com m entary w h ic h , l i k e t h a t o f

C la r k e , w as d e s c r i p t i v e . I n a d d i t i o n , much o f th e d a t i n g was

som ew hat i n a c c u r a t e . A som ew hat m ore i n d e p th c a t a lo g u e i s t h e one

o f t h e M ughal p a i n t i n g s i n t h e Museum o f F in e A r t s i n B o s to n w h ic h

a p p e a re d i n 1930* W r i t t e n by A nanda K . Coom araswam y, i t b e g a n w i th

a n h i s t o r i c a l a n d s t y l i s t i c i n t r o d u c t i o n an d was f o l lo w e d by a n

a s s e s s m e n t o f th e w o rk s i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n . T h e re w ere a t o t a l o f

a b o u t t e n w o rk s o f t h e S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d , a n d f o r some o f t h e s e

h e o f f e r e d h i s p e r s o n a l o p in i o n s a n d a n a l y s i s , su c h a s a t t r i b u t i o n s

t o a r t i s t s a n d d a t i n g o f w o rk s , o f w n ic h some h a v e b e e n p ro v e n to

b e i n a c c u r a t e . S t i l l , i t i s im p o r t a n t f o r som eone to b e g in m a k in g

a t t r i b u t i o n s , a l b e i t i n a c c u r a t e , f o r f u t u r e s c h o l a r s t o h a v e a

b a s i s t o w ork f ro m .

S i r Thom as A r n o l d 's The L i b r a r y o f A. C h e s te r B e a t t y .

A C a ta lo g u e o f t h e I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e s , w h ic h w as p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 3 6 ,

c a n p e rh a p s b e c o n s id e r e d th e m o s t l u x u r i o u s c a t a l o g u e o f M ughal

p a i n t i n g e v e r to b e p r o d u c e d . The B e a t ty c o l l e c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f

some o f th e f i n e s t S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s i n t h e w o r ld , n a m e ly h i s

s h a r e o f th e M in to A lbum , a n d w h a t i s d e s i g n a t e d a s R o y a l Album B .

D e t a i l e d p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e a c h p a i n t i n g a n d th e t r a n s l a t i o n

o f a l l t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f a n eno rm ous a s s e t to s u b s e q u e n t


15

s t u d i e s . I n t h e l a t e 1930s a n d e a r l y 1940s, th e c o l l e c t o r A .C.

A r d e s h i r p u t o u t a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d "M ughal M in ia tu r e

P a i n t i n g " . T hough n o t p u r p o s e ly i n t e n d e d a s a p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s

c o l l e c t i o n , h e u s e d th o s e w o rk s a s t h e p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e f o r h i s

a r t i c l e s . "T he S c h o o l o f S h ah J a h a n " a p p e a r e d i n 1940{ a r a t h e r

l e n g t i y a r t i c l e w i th a n o t a lw a y s a c c u r a t e a s s e s s m e n t o f some o f

t h e p a i n t e r s a n d m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h a t p e r i o d . The e x h i b i t i o n o f

I n d i a n a r t h e l d a t t h e B o y a l Academ y o f A r t i n L ondon fro m 1947

t o 1948 w as among t h e e a r l i e s t i n s t a n c e s w h ere o r i g i n a l M ughal a r t

was m ade a v a i l a b l e t o a p u b l i c a u d ie n c e . I t s c a t a lo g u e a p p e a re d

i n 1950 a n d w as e d i t e d b y S i r L e ig h A s h to n . I t h a s n u m ero u s

r e p r o d u c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g a d e c e n t s a m p l in g o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s ,

an d ev e n one f o l i o fro m th e W in d so r C a s t l e B ad sh ah Mama. The

c o m m e n ta r ie s t o t h e p a i n t i n g s , l i k e m o s t o f t h e w o rk s a l r e a d y

m e n t io n e d , i s w e ig h te d t o a p u r e l y p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n .

The n ex t major e x h ib it io n o f Mughal a r t th a t

in clu d ed Shah Jahani works was a t the A sia House in New York in

1963 . The c a ta lo g u e , w r itte n by S.C . Welch, i s e n t i t l e d The Art o f

M u g h a l In d ia P a in tin g and P rec io u s O b.lects. I t p rov id es i l l u s t r a

t io n s accompanied by a n a ly t ic a l commentaries, and the te x tu a l

p reface g iv e s a b r ie f h i s t o r ic a l and s t y l i s t i c summary o f the majo

major p er io d s o f Mughal a r t .

In 1963 and 1966 the Sm ithsonian I n s t i t u t io n exhib

i t e d works from th e c o l l e c t io n s o f W.G. Archer and Edwin Binney,

r e s p e c t iv e ly . The Archer c o l le c t io n was o f Indian m in ia tu res , both


16

Mughal, and R ajput, w h ile th e Binney c o l le c t io n was o f Is la m ic a r t .

In both ca ses Mughal p a in tin g was on ly one o f the many areas w ith in

the la r g e r framework, and th er e fo r e d id n o t f ig u r e as im p ortan tly .

Yet works such a s th e se cannot be overlooked as th ey made p u b lic a lly

a v a ila b le works o f th e f i e l d th a t o th erw ise would have remained

unpublished. Another dim ension to t h i s k ind o f do cum en t a t i on comes

in the form o f s a le s ca ta lo g u e s o f m ajor c o l le c t io n s , such as th a t

o f th e Kevorkian Foundation h e ld a t S otheby's o f London in 19 6 9 . 1

Not on ly d id t h is cata logue provide i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f some very f in e

Shah Jahani p a in tin g s , but a lso had a b r ie f but d e ta ile d commentary

to each p ie c e , o u t lin in g h i s t o r ic and s t y l i s t i c fe a tu r e s as w ell as

p rovid in g a r e le v a n t b ib lio g ra p h y .

In 1974» th e P ortland Art Museum organ ized an ex h ib i

t io n e n t it le d Ind ian M iniature P a in tin g s from th e C o lle c t io n o f

Edwin Binney ^rd. The works were o f th e Mughal and Deccani sch o o ls ,

and th e ca ta lo g u e , w r itte n by Binney, con ta in ed numerous i l l u s t r a

t io n s as w e ll a s some s c h o la r ly in s ig h t s and o b se rv a tio n s to th e

iconography and th e a r t i s t s o f the v ariou s works. Of a somewhat

l e s s e r con cen tra tion on Shah Jahani p a in tin g was the 1976 e x h ib i

t io n o f P ersian and Mughal a r t h e ld a t C o ln a g h i's . The p reface to

th e s e c t io n on Mughal a r t was w r itte n by T. F alk , and was o f a

ra th er gen era l nature th a t d id n o t r e a l ly o f f e r any new in form ation

to the f i e l d o f study. The major co n tr ib u tio n o f t h i s , and in

gen era l o f a l l e x h ib it io n s , was the p u b lic a tio n o f o th erw ise

unknown works.

A lso in 1976 was the World o f Islam F e s t iv a l whose


17

ca ta logu e e n t i t le d P a in tin g frcm the Muslim Courts o f In d ia

i l lu s t r a t e d and analyzed a s ig n i f ic a n t number o f Mughal p a in tin g s

from th e Shsh Jahani era . Another e x h ib it io n o f Mughal a r t a lso

h e ld in 1976 was a t th e A sia House. I t was devoted to drawings and

p a in ted sk etch es o f th e Mughal, Rajput and Deccani sc h o o ls . The

ca ta logu e produced by S.C . Welch brought to l i g h t many preparatory

drawings and a r t i s t sk e tch es o f a number o f major p a in tin g s .

Documentation o f t h is so r t i s u su a lly ra th er d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in ,

and t h i s e x h ib it io n gathered to g e th er th e se p ie c e s , th u s adding

another diem nsion to th e study and understand ing o f Mughal p a in tin g .

By fa r the most d e ta i le d coverage o f Shah Jahani p a in tin g appeared

in M.C. B each's The Grand Mogul, th e ca ta lo g u e to th e 1978 ex h ib i

t io n h eld a t the Clark Art I n s t i t u t e . C h a r a c te r is t ic o f most

ca ta lo g u es on Mughal p a in tin g , t h is one b eg in s w ith an in tro d u cto ry

s e c t io n on th e emperors' l i v e s and the s t y l i s t i c a sp e c ts o f the

a r t . Of g r e a ter im portance however, i s the main body o f the

work, which se p a ra te ly t r e a t s albums and m an uscrip ts, in d iv id u a l

a r t i s t s and s e le c te d themes such as p o r tr a it s . Because th e

e x h ib it io n con cen tra ted on th e p er iod from 1600-1660, Shah Jahani

p a in tin g r e c e iv e d th e g r e a te s t a t te n t io n . To enhance th e sch o la r

sh ip on Shah Jahani a r t , th ere needs to be a g rea ter p r o l i fe r a t io n

o f e x h ib it io n s and c a ta lo g u e s o f t h is k ind .

The n ex t ca tegory o f l i t e r a t u r e on Shah Jahani a r t

i s the p ic tu r e books. These are u su a lly la r g e format books w ith

sev era l co lo red i l l u s t r a t i o n s th a t p resen t a very g e n e ra liz ed view o f Mughal p a in tin g . The accompanying commentaries d escr ib e th e


18

p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p a i n t i n g s an d so m e tim e s g iv e a n h i s t o r i

c a l b r i e f i n g t o th e e v e n t s d e p ic te d * An i n t r o d u c t o r y p r e f a c e g iv e s

e i t h e r a n h i s t o r i c a l o r s t y l i s t i c o v e rv ie w o f th e p e r i o d o r b o th .

J .V .S . W i lk in s o n 's M ughal P a i n t i n g o f 1 9 4 3 , R„ K r i s h n a d a s '

M ughal M in ia t t i r e s o f 1 9 5 5 ,a n d S .C . W e lc h 's I m p e r i a l M ughal f a i n t i n g

o f 1 9 7 8 ,a l l d e a l e x c l u s i v e l y w i th M ughal p a i n t i n g . E ach w ork

i n c l u d e s a s a m p lin g o f p a i n t i n g s fro m e a c h o f t h e m a jo r p e r i o d s .

W e lc h 's bo o k i s m uch m ore d e t a i l e d i n c o m p a r is o n w i th t h e o t h e r

tw o e a r l i e r o n e s , a s h e o f f e r s a m ore c o n c i s e i n t r o d u c t o r y p a s s a g e

a n d a l s o a l a r g e r n um ber o f w o rk s . A n o tn e r tw o p i c t u r e b o o k s —

W.G. A r c h e r 's I n d ia n P a i n t i n g o f i 9 6 0 a n d R . E t t i n g h a u s e n 's

P a i n t i n g s o f th e S u l t a n s a n d E m p ero rs o f I n d i a o f 1961 — t r e a t th e

l a r g e r sp e c tru m o f a l l o f I n d i a n p a i n t i n g , a n d n a t u r a l l y t h e i r

c o v e ra g e on M ughal p a i n t i n g i s l e s s e x t e n s i v e . W h ereas A rc h e r

a p p r o a c h e s t h e s u b j e c t f ro m a p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e p o i n t o f v ie w , i n

th e f o r m a t o f a c a t a l o g u e , E t t in g h a u s e n u s e s a s o r t o f th e m a t i c

a p p ro a c h . He c o n c e r n s h im s e l f w i th r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f how e m p e ro rs

h a d th e m s e lv e s p e r c e i v e d , an d d i s c u s s e s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n

th e ic o n o g ra p h y a n d t h e s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f e a c h w o rk .

N o t many s i g n i f i c a n t m o n o g rap h s a r e t o b e fo u n d f o r

th e M ughal p e r i o d , an d th e o n e s m e n tio n e d h e r e a r e d e t a i l e d t e x t u a l

s t u d i e s on s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f M ughal a r t . The e a r l i e s t m onograph

i s B in y o n a n d A r n o l d 's C o u r t P a i n t e r s o f th e G ran d M oghul o f 1921 *

w h ich i n t r o d u c e d a f o r m a t t h a t was t o s e r v e a s a m odel f o r many

s u b s e q u e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s . T h e i r bo o k b e g in s w i th an h i s t o r i c a l


19

i n t r o d u c t i o n to th e M ughal p e r i o d , f o l lo w e d by a d i s c u s s i o n o f

p a i n t i n g s fro m A k b ar t o A u ra n g z e b , t h e n by a c a t a lo g u e o f th e p l a t e s

i n c l u d e d i n th e w o rk . T h e i r a p p ro a c h i s c h i e f l y d e s c r i p t i v e , an d

th e y a r e c o n c e rn e d m a in ly w i th th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a s an i l l u s t r a

t i o n t o M ughal h i s t o r y . P . B ro w n 's 1924 book I n d i a n P a i n t i n g U nder

t h e M ughals f o l l o w s i n some w ays th e p re m is e o f B in y o n an d A r n o ld 's

b o o k , b u t i s s t r u c t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l a n d

b a s i c s t y l i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d t o g e t h e r i n one

s e c t i o n , w h i le t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n i s a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i o u s th em es

s u c h a s p o r t r a i t u r e a n d E u ro p e a n i n f l u e n c e s . A v e r y im p o r ta n t

f e a t u r e o f t h i s w ork i s t h e l i s t o f p a i n t e r s a n d t h e i r w o rk s . Brown

d o cu m en ts m a in ly A k b a r i p a i n t e r s a n d s e r v e s t o com plem en t th e

l i s t i n M a r t i n 's b o o k . A lth o u g h some o f B ro w n 's m a t e r i a l i s a

l i t t l e o u td a t e d , t h i s w ork s t i l l s e r v e s a s o n e o f th e k e y fo u n d a

t i o n s f o r an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e b a c k g ro u n d to t h e d e v e lo p e m e n t o f

M ughal p a i n t i n g . I n 1 ^ 2 9 , I . S tc h o u k in e p ro d u c e d L a P e i n t u r e I n d i e -

n n e a l 'E p o q u e d e s G ra n d s M o g h o ls , a w ork w h ic h a t t e m p te d t o p l a c e

M ughal p a i n t i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s e a r l i e r I n d i a n a n d P e r s i a n

t r a d i t i o n s , t r a c i n g th e d e v e lo p m e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r in g t h e M ughal

p e r i o d . H is m e th o d w as t o show t h i s e v o l u t i o n th r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l

m o t i f s , s u c h a s th e d e p i c t i o n o f man a n d t h e d e p i c t i o n o f n a t u r e .

T hough S t c h o u k i n e 's a p p ro a c h h a s a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g p r e m is e , a

g r e a t d e a l m ore r e s e a r c h n e e d s t o b e u n d e r ta k e n i n o r d e r to

p r e s e n t a t r u l y s u b s t a n t i a l v ie w . The f i n a l m o n o g rap h i s A .K .

D a s ' M ughal P a i n t i n g D u r in g J a h a n g i r ' s T im e, p u b l i s h e d i n 1978*


20

A lth o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y on s h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , i t o f f e r s t h e

m o st c o m p le te an d d e t a i l e d s tu d y o f i t s b a c k g ro u n d . T r a c in g th e

e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h e p e r i o d th r o u g h th e c h a r a c t e r and

c a r e e r o f J a h a n g i r , Das show s how th e c h a n g e s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l

s i t u a t i o n a f f e c t e d t h e fo rm a n d th e c o n t e n t o f t h e p a i n t i n g s . H is

a p p ro a c h to M ughal p a i n t i n g ,w h i c h c l o s e l y l i n k s s o c i a l an d p o l i t i

c a l a f f a i r s ter th e s t y l i s t i c d e v e lo p m e n t , i s u n l i k e m o s t o f t h e

e a r l i e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , w h ic h d e a l t m a in ly w i th s t y l e i n o n ly t h e

p u r e ly a r t i s t i c s e n s e , a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o v id e s new i n s i g h t s i n t o

t h e s tu d y o f t h e s u b j e c t *

I n t h e l i n e o f th e m a t i c a n d s t y l i s t i c s t u d i e s , u n f o r

t u n a t e l y v e r y l i t t l e e x i s t s . T h i s a r e a o f e x p e r t i s e i n M ughal

p a i n t i n g i s a t t h e s t a g e w here s c h o l a r s h a v e o n ly j u s t come t o

te rm s w i th t h e e v o l u t i o n an d v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f t h e s t y l e , b u t h a v e

n o t y e t p ro d u c e d many s i g n i f i c a n t t h e m a t i c s t u d i e s . The p e r i o d s

o f A k b ar an d J a h a n g i r h a v e r e c e i v e d som ew hat m ore a t t e n t i o n , an d

t h e r e a r e i n e x i s t e n c e some v e r y d e t a i l e d an d s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d i e s .

T h i s i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g c o n s i d e r i n g t h e q u a n t i t y o f m a t e r i a l t h a t

e x i s t s f o r t h e s e tw o p e r i o d s a s co m p ared t o t h a t f o r t h e S h ah

J a h a n i p e r i o d . M ost o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w o rk s a r e n o t e x c l u s i v e l y

d e v o te d t o th e f i e l d o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t r a t h e r , a r e

s t u d i e s w h ich enco m p ass a l l o f M ughal p a i n t i n g , w ith a p a r t b e in g

g iv e n to t h e w orks o f t h e Shah J a h a n i p e r i o d .

The f i r s t t h r e e w o rk s t h a t f a l l u n d e r t h i s c a t e g o r y

a l l t r e a t th e same th e m e — p o r t r a i t s . T h e se a r e C oom arasw am y 's


21

"M ughal P o r t r a i t u r e " o f 1 9 1 2 , S t c h o u k i n e 's s e r i e s o f f o u r a r t i c l e s

e n t i t l e d " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls" w h ic h a p p e a r e a b e tw e e n 1 929 a n d 19 3 5 ,

a n d I c h a p o r i a ' s " P o r t r a i t s o f t h e G r e a t e r M u g h a ls" o f 1 9 3 5 . Cooma-

r a s w a m y 's a r t i c l e i s n o t r e a l l y a t r u e th e m a t i c s tu d y o f M ughal

p o r t r a i t u r e , b e c a u s e t h e m a jo r c o n c e rn h e r e i s i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

b e tw e e n th e M ughal s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e s a n d t h e in d ig e n o u s I n d i a n

o n e s . He e x a m in e s t h i s q u e s t i o n u s in g p o r t r a i t u r e a s h i s b a s i s .

S t c h o u k i n e 's a r t i c l e s u s e d s e l e c t e d w o rk s , n o t a b l y d a r b a r s c e n e s

a n d i n d i v i d u a l p o r t r a i t s , t o p r e s e n t t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g ro u n d o f

t h e f i g u r e s d e p i c t e d . H is s t y l i s t i c a n a l y s i s i s on th e w ho le n o t

v e r y p r o f o u n d , a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f th e w o rk s s e l e c t e d w ere fro m th e

J a h a n g i r i e r a . H ow ever, t h e in f o r m a t io n p r o v id e d i n th e i d e n t i f i

c a t i o n o f an d th e b i o g r a p h i c a l s o u r c e s f o r t h e v a r i o u s p e r s o n a g e s

a r e i n v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e s . I c h a p o r i a ' s r a t h e r l e n g h t y a r t i c l e

e x a m in e s s e v e r a l p o r t r a i t s o f t h e f i r s t s i x M ughal e m p e ro r s . He

d e v o te s a l i t t l e to o m uch s p a c e t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h at i s h a p p e n

i n g i n th e w o rk , an d h i s a t t e m p t s a t a e s t h e t i c ju d g m e n ts do n o t

r e a l l y o f f e r a n y s i g n i f i c a n t i d e a s . Q u i te a num ber o f t h e w o rk s

h e r e f e r s t o h a v e b e e n r e p r o d u c e d i n o t h e r s o u r c e s , a n d h e m akes

a g r e a t e f f o r t t o p o i n t o u t e r r o r s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r

s o n s a n d e v e n t s m ade b y t h e p r e v io u s s c h o l a r s .

A c o m p le te s tu d y an d c a t a lo g u e o f a n a lbum o f p a i n t i n g s

b e lo n g in g t o N a s i r a l - D i n S h ah o f I r a n was done i n 1937 by Y.

G o d a rd . H er w ork i s e n t i t l e d "Un Album de P o r t r a i t s d e s P r in c e s

T im u r id e s d e l ' I n d e . " T h i s a lbum As c o m p r is e d o f p o r t r a i t s o f


22

v a r i o u s d i g n i t a r i e s a n d c o u r t s c e n e s o f a n d fro m th e r e i g n s o f

J a h a n g i r a n d S hah J a h a n . H er a r t i c l e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c a t a lo g u e o f

th e alhum w h ich i s p r e f a c e d ' by a b r i e f n o te on th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f

th e a lb u m by N a s i r a l - D i n S h a h , t h e a r t i s t s w hose n am es a p p e a r i n

th e a lb u m , a n d f i n a l l y a n h i s t o r i c a c c o u n t o f th e h i g h l i g h t s o f

J a h a n g i r ' s a n d S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n s . The c a t a l o g u e o f f e r s a

p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n a s w e l l a s some b i o g r a p h i c a l in f o r m a t io n to

th o s e f i g u r e s w h ic h h e l d im p o r t a n t r a n k s a n d p o s i t i o n s . Y e t

a n o t h e r s tu d y o f p o r t r a i t u r e i s A .C . E a s tm a n 's a r t i c l e " F o u r M ughal

E m pero r P o r t r a i t s i n t h e C i ty A r t Museum o f S t . L o u i s " . He e x a m in e s

i n g r e a t d e t a i l f o u r p o r t r a i t s o f Humayun, A k b a r , J a h a n g i r and

S hah J a h a n r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r t h e p o r t r a i t o f sh a h J a h a n he p ic k s

o u t t h e m o s t s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s an d p ro c e e d s t o g iv e an i n - d e p t h

a n a l y s i s . He n o t e s t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h e ic o n o g ra p h y , and th e

uncom m onness o f h i s p o s t u r e . H is d i s c u s s i o n i n c l u d e s t h e c i t i n g o f

o t h e r r e l a t e d w o rk s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e a r g u m e n t . T h is i s p e rh a p s

o n e o f t h e few i n s t a n c e s w h e re s p e c i a l e m p h a s is i s g iv e n to

ic o n o g ra p h y , a n d a s s u c h , h i s a r t i c l e r e p r e s e n t s a m a jo r s t e p

to w a rd s a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e i n th e s c h o l a r s h i p o f S h ah J a h a n i

p a i n t i n g .

"Ah I n d i a n M a n u s c r ip t o f th e G o le s ta n o f t h e s h a h

J a h a n p e r io d " by J .V .S . W ilk in s o n o f 1957 i s a s tu a y o f a v e r y

r a r e S hah J a h a n i m onum ent an i n t a c t c o n te m p o ra n e o u s i l l u s t r a t e d

m a n u s c r i p t . H is t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s m a n u s c r ip t c o n s i s t s o f a

p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n , a n a c c o u n t o f t h e s c r i b e , an e x a m in a t io n


23

o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , a n d an a n a l y s i s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s . A lth o u g h

v e r y b r i e f , t h i s a r t i c l e h i g h l i g h t s th e im p o r ta n t e le m e n ts t o b e

c o n s id e r e d i n th e s tu d y o f an y m a n u s c r i p t . A lth o u g h n o t d e a l i n g

e x p l i c i t l y w i th a S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , B . E t t i n g h a u s e n 's "The

E m p e ro r 's C h o ic e " o f 1961 re m a in s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t to th e do

m ain o f M ughal p a i n t i n g . T h is i s t h e f i r s t t im e t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l

p a i n t i n g was s i n g l e d o u t f o r a d e t a i l e d i c o n o g r a p h i c a l s tu d y ,

p r o v i d i n g th u s a p a t t e r n f o r f u t u r e w o rk s o f t h i s k i n d . F u r t h e r

m o re , t h e a r t i s t who p a i n t e d t h i s p a r t i c u l a r w o rk , B i c h i t r , was

one w hose c a r e e r f l o u r i s h e d u n d e r S hah J a h a n , a n d s o t h e o b s e r

v a t i o n s a n d c o m m e n ta r ie s a b o u t h i s s t y l e a r e u s e f u l to w a rd s a

b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s d e v e lo p m e n t . The L e n in g r a d Album

was p u b l i s h e d i n 1 962 u n d e r th e j o i n t a u t h o r s h i p o f Iv a n o v ,

A s h u s h k in a , G rek an d G y u z a ly a n a . The a lbum c o n t a i n s a m ix tu r e o f

p a i n t i n g s , b o th I n d i a n a n d P e r s i a n , o f th e 1 5 t h t o th e 1 8 th c e n

t u r i e s . Many o f t h e p a i n t i n g s d a t e t o th e r e i g n o f S hah J a h a n ,

a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e o f v a l u e to w a rd s t h e s tu d y o f t h i s a r e a o f

p a i n t i n g . M o re o v e r , q u i t e a few o f t h e s e w o rk s e x i s t i n s e v e r a l

v e r s i o n s , some r o u g h ly c o n te m p o ra n e o u s a n d some o f a much l a t e r

d a t e . T h is p r o v id e d a n o p p o r tu n i ty t o ex am in e t h e t r a n s m u ta t i o n s

t h a t o c c u r when a p a i n t i n g i s c o p ie d s e v e r a l t im e s o v e r .

A n o th e r s tu d y o f an e n t i r e a lbum i s 0 . K u r z 's "A

Volume o f M ughal D raw in g s an d M in ia tu r e s " o f 1967* I t i s a s m a l l

a lbum o f d ra w in g s an d m i n i a t u r e s , some d a t i n g to th e r e i g n o f

2S hah J a h a n , t h a t was a s s e m b le d by an E u ro p e a n . T h e se c o n s i s t


24

m a in ly o f p o r t r a i t s k e t c h e s o f v a r i o u s m em bers o f an d d i g n i t a r i e s

a t t h e c o u r t . The m a jo r s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s a lbum t o t h e s tu d y o f

S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g i s an u n f i n i s h e d g e n e a l o g i c a l t r e e o f S h ah

J a h a n an d h i s s o n s . K u rz g iv e s some v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g t h e o r i e s a s

t o t h e r e a s o n s b e h in d g e n e a l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s o f t h e M ughal e m p e ro r s .

The f i n a l w ork o f th e t h e m a t i c c a t e g o r y i s P . P a l ' s A s p e c ts o f

I n d i a n A r t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 7 2 . T h is b o o k c o n t a i n s a c o l l e c t i o n o f

p a p e r s p r e s e n t e d a t a sym posium on I n d i a n a r t h e l d i n L os A n g e le s

i n O c to b e r 1970* A lth o u g h no one a r t i c l e e x p r e s s i v e l y d e a l s w i th

S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , t h r e e o f them to u c h on r e l a t e d a s p e c t s .

T h e se a r e B .B . J o h n s o n 's "A P r e l i m i n a r y s tu d y o f t h e T e c h n iq u e o f

I n d i a n M in ia tu r e P a i n t i n g ” , R . S k e l t o n 's "A D e c o r a t iv e M o t i f i n

M ughal A r t ” , an d M.H. K a h le n b e r g 's ”A S tu d y o f th e D ev e lo p m en t and

Use o f th e M ughal p a t k a ( S a s h ) w i th R e f e r e n c e to t h e L os A n g e le s

C o u n ty Museum o f A r t C o l l e c t i o n ” . T h e s e a r t i c l e s a i d g r e a t l y i n

t h e r e a lm o f t h e d a t i n g o f w o rk s . E ach a u t h o r p ic k e d one m o t i f

t o s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e b r o a d e r a s p e c t s o f

M ughal p a i n t i n g .

prom t h i s s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on S hah J a h a n i

p a i n t i n g , one g e t s an i d e a o f w h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d o c u m e n ta t io n i s

i n e x i s t e n c e . I t i s q u i t e e v i d e n t t h a t much m ore w o rk .n e e d s t o be

do n e i n t h e a r e a i n o r d e r t h a t i t be f u l l y u n d e r s to o d . E ach w ork

m e n tio n e d r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t r i b u t i o n i n one way o r a n o t h e r t o th e

f i e l d o f s tu d y , a n d i n o r d e r t o p u r s u e f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , th e s e

b o o k s an d a r t i c l e s h a v e t o b e c o n s u l t e d c o l l e c t i v e l y .


25

S t y l i s t i c s o u r c e s f o r s h a h J a h a n i P a i n t i n g

The d e f i n i t i o n o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s t i l l r e m a in s

r a t h e r n e b u l o u s . I t h a s r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n fro m s c h o l a r s

a n d o f t e n t im e s h a s b e e n r a t h e r h a s t i l y d i s m i s s e d . I t h a s v a r i o u s

l y b e e n r e f e r r e d to as the f in a l proliferation of M ughal p a i n t i n g

b e f o r e i t s d e c l i n e , an d th e s t a t e w h e re t h e d e c l i n e h a s a l r e a d y

s e t i n . The f o l l o w i n g a r e s t a t e m e n t s made a t v a r i o u s t im e s by

d i f f e r e n t s c h o l a r s c o n c e r n in g th e n a t u r e o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g .

From 1924 one r e a d s f ro m P . B row nt

R e g a rd e d a s a w h o le , t h e p a i n t i n g e x e c u te d d u r in g S h a h J a h a n 's r e i g n p r e s e n t s u s w i th an i n t e r e s t i n g ex am p le o f an a r t w h ic h , w h ile o u tw a r d ly m a i n t a i n i n g t h e se m b le n c e o f i t s o r i g i n a l v i t a l i t y , n e v e r t h e l e s s m a n i f e s t s i n i t s f o r c e d s u p e r i o r i t y th e f i r s t p r e m o n i t i o n s o f d e c a y . . . I n a w ord o n e d e t e c t s b e h in d a l l t h e l a v i s h d i s p l a y w n ic h i s t h e m a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e p a i n t i n g u n d e r S h ah J a h a n , , t n a t s e n s e o f o v e r - r i p e n e s s w h ich i s a s u r e s ig n o f d e c l i n e .

Coom araswam y, i n h i s c a t a lo g u e to t h e B o s to n Museum s t a t e s t h a t

M ughal p a i n t i n g u n d e r S h ah J a h a n i s a l r e a d y o v e r - r i p e : t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f t h e s t y l e i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p a r e n t . . .

And f i n a l l y i n 1965* S *G* W elch w ro te t h a t

S h ah J a h a n 's l i f e seem s t o h a v e g a in e d i n c e re m o n io u s n e s s y e a r by y e a r . And a s i t c h a n g e d so d i d M ughal p a i n t i n g , w h ic h now e x c lu d e d v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e R a j p u t , . c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t h a d s o e n l iv e n e d i t i n t h e A kbar p e r i o d .

The a b o v e s t a t e m e n t s a l l s a y s o m e th in g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f S hah

J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t n o t one o f them com es t o p e r f e c t g r i p s a s t o

w h at t h e s t y l e a c t u a l l y i s . T h e re i s s o m e th in g m o re , a n d t h i s h a s

t o b e p r o p e r l y a n a l y z e d .

The o r i g i n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e M ughal s t y l e o f


26

p a in tin g i s a su b je c t which has r e c e iv e d co n sid era b le a t te n t io n .

Since th e d isco v ery o f the T uti Nama in 19&3 by S. Lee and P.

Chandra^, one has become w e ll acquainted w ith th e sy n th e s is o f

Indian and P ersian s t y l e s , and a l i t t l e l a t e r , o f th e a s s im ila t io n

o f European sou rces th a t crea ted the mature phase o f Akbari

p a in tin g . The Mughal p a in tin g s t y le d id n o t remain s ta t ic * i t

ev o lv ed . The path i t took in i t s developm ent was th a t o f a con stan t

refin em en t o f i t s tech n iq u es . The apex was reached during the

re ig n o f Shah Jahan. The s t y l e o f t h is p er io d can be d escr ib ed as

b ein g te c h n ic a lly p e r fe c t , in th a t th e forms d isp la y ed a remarkable

accuracy and th e com p osition s a s tr u c tu r e and order n ever seen

b efo re in th e devlopment o f Mughal p a in t in g . B efore d isc u s s in g the

exact n ature o f t h is phase o f Mughal p a in t in g , i t would be b e s t to

f i r s t examine the im m ediate r o o ts from which i t evo lved , th a t i s ,

Jah an g ir i p a in tin g .

3y th e re ig n o f Jahangir, Mughal p a in tin g had already

a tta in e d a mature phase, and was to reach i t s f in e s t moments in

th e development o f th e s t y l e . Jah an gir’ s lo v e fo r p a in tin g fa r

surpassed th a t o f h i s fa th e r Akbax. So g rea t was J a h a n g ir 's lo v e

fo r p a in tin g th a t he c u lt iv a te d a co n n o isseu rsh ip o f p a in tin g to

a f in e a r t . This can be a t t e s t e d to by a statem ent he made in

h i s p r iv a te memoirs.

As regards m y se lf , my l ik i n g fo r p a in tin g and my p r a c t ic e in ju dging i t have a rr iv ed a t such a p o in t when any work i s brought b efo re me, whether o f deceased a r t i s t s or th o se o f the p resen t day, w ithout th e names b ein g to ld to me, I say on the spur o f th e moment th a t i t i s the work o f such and such a man. And i f th ere be a p ic tu r e co n ta in in g many p o r tr a it s , and each fa c e be the work o f a d if f e r e n t m aster, I can d isco v er which


27

f a c e i s th e w ork o f e a c h o f th e m . I f an y o t h e r p e r s o n h a s p u t i n t h e e y e a n d t h e ey eb ro w o f a f a c e , I c a n p e r c e iv e w hose w ork t h e o r i g i n a l f a c e i s , and who h a s p a i n t e d th e ey e a n d t h e ey e b ro w . '

B e c a u se o f h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d l i k i n g f o r t h e m ore s u b t l e q u a l i t i e s

o f a p a i n t i n g , J a h a n g i r to o k a s t r o n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r a lbum p a i n t

i n g s . A lbum s w ere a c o l l e c t i o n o f a s s o r t e d p a i n t i n g s , u s u a l l y o f

a n i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t . They te n d e d t o b e s m a l l e r th a n m a n u s c r ip t s

a n d a l lo w e d f o r a p r i v a t e a n d i n t i m a t e e n jo y m e n t o f th e w o rk s .

T h e re w o u ld b e no c o r r e s p o n d in g t e x t , b u t r a t h e r i t w ou ld b e com ple

m e n te d by p i e c e s o f p o e t r y w r i t t e n i n e x q u i s i t e c a l l i g r a p h i c

s t y l e s . Among J a h a n g i r ' s m o s t fam o u s a lb u m s a r e t h e B e r l i n Album

8an d t h e G u lsh a n A lbum .

P r e f e r r i n g q u a l i t y t o q u a n t i t y , h e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d h i s9

a t e l i e r , w e e d in g o u t th o s e who w ere l e s s a d e p t a t t h e a r t , an d

t h e o n e s h e r e t a i n e d w ere a l l m a s t e r s i n t h e i r own r i g h t . . U n lik e

A k b a r 's a t e l i e r , h i s w as n o t a p r o d u c t i o n l i n e . The a r t i s t s w ere

t h e r e t o r e p r o d u c e a r t f o r a r t ' s s a k e , a n d n o t j u s t f o r t h e s a k e

o f l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f w o rk s . N o t o n ly was h e a k e e n p a t r o n , b u t

h e a l s o p e r s o n a l l y s u p e r v i s e d an d e n c o u ra g e d h i s p a i n t e r s , b e s to w

in g g i f t s a n d t i t l e s u p o n th o s e who p ro v e d t o b e o u t s t a n d i n g .

P e rh a p s th e m o s t re n o w n o n e i s A b u l H a sa n , who r e c e i v e d t h e t i t l e

o f N a d ir a l Zam an, th e w onder o f t h e a g e . U nder J a h a n g i r ' s r e f i n e d

s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e a r t i s t s , e x c e l l e n t c r a f t s m e n t h a t th e y w e re ,

p ro d u c e d some o f t h e o e s t I n d i a n m i n i a t u r e s , a n d no p a i n t e r - u n d e r

1 oany o t h e r k in g e v e r e x c e l l e d th e m . w

P e r h a p s t h e h i g h l i g h t o f J a h a n g i r i a r t i s t h e


28

c u lm in a t io n i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f n a t u r a l i s m . I t w as n o t a new

c o n c e r n , b u t o n e t h a t h a d a l r e a d y b eg u n t o b e d e v e lo p e d i n t h e

a t e l i e r o f A k b a r . N a tu r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w as o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t to

t h e M u g h a ls , a n d w i th t h e a d v e n t o f t h e E u ro p e a n s , who b ro u g h t w i th

them a n a s s o r tm e n t o f p r i n t s , i t was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e a r t i s t s t o

s tu d y and a s s i m i l a t e th o s e t e c h n iq u e s w h ic h a l lo w e d t h e i r W e s te rn

c o u n t e r p a r t s t o p ro d u c e a t r u e r d e p i c t i o n o f n a t u r e . T h is i n c lu d e d

t h e u s e o f c o l o r s h a d in g a n d t h e p la y o f l i g h t a n d d a r k t o a c h ie v e

a m ore t h r e e d im e n s io n a l a n d m o d e lle d e f f e c t . P e r h a p s t h e m o st

s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f E u ro p e a n a r t t o M ughal p a i n t i n g w as i n

11i t s a b i l i t y t o p o r t r a y p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d d ram a i n p a i n t i n g .

J a h a n g i r ' s p a i n t e r s q u i c k l y a b s o r b e d t h e s e m e th o d s a n d w ere so o n

p r o d u c in g d e e p a n d co m p lex c h a r a c t e r s t u d i e s . The s k e t c h d ra w in g

f o r t h e D e a th o f I n a y a t Khan o f a ro u n d 1b18 ( P l a t e X L V Il) , f o r

e x a m p le , show s th e l i m i t s t o w h ic h h i s a r t i s t s c o u ld a t t a i n i n

t h e p o r t r a y a l o f human e m o t io n s .

A c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n an A k b a r i a n d a J a h a n g i r i p a i n t

i n g w i l l s e r v e t o c l a r i f y t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t . Prom th e r e i g n o f

A k b ar o n e t a k e s a s an ex am p le t h e A r r e s t o f S h ah A b u 'l M a 'a l i ,

12f o l i o 7 fro m th e C h e s te r B e a t ty A k b a r Nama, ( p l a t e X L V IIl) an d

fro m t h e r e i g n o f J a h a n g i r i s J a h a n g i r E n t e r t a i n i n g s h e ik h s , a

p a i n t i n g fro m a d i s p e r s e d J a h a n g i r Nama m a n u s c r i p t , now i n t h e

1 *5c o l l e c t i o n o f E . B in n e y I I I . ' ( p l a t e XLIX) The ca lm an d o r d e r

l i n e s s o f t h e J a h a n g i r i w ork i s t h e m o s t n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t f e a

t u r e fro m th e A k b a r i o n e . B o th t h e s e s ire a u d ie n c e s c e n e s , b u t


29

w h e re a s th e f i g u r e s a n d o b j e c t s a r e v e r y m uch c row ded i n th e A k b a ri

o n e , t h e y a r e s p a c e d a p a r t a n d m ore n e a t l y p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e l a t t e r .

F ig u r e s i n t h e A k b ar Kama show v e r y l i t t l e f a c i a l e m o tio n s , an d

a r e d e l i n e a t e d i n a v e r y s t y l i z e d a n d so m e tim e s tw o -d im e n s io n a l

m a n n e r . I n th e J a h a n g i r Nama o n e s e e s f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n s w h ich

d i s p l a y t o some e x t e n t t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e p e o p le . F u r th e r m o re ,

th e f i g u r e s a r e m uch W e ig h t i e r a n d s o l i d l y b u i l t . W hereas t h e

d r a p e r y i n t h e A k b a r Mama i s m o s t ly com posed o f s t y l i z e d p a t t e r n s

an d f o l d s , o n ly i n a few i n s t a n c e s do th e y show m o d e l l i n g , th o s e o f

th e J a h a n g i r Nama a r e g a rm e n ts t h a t a r e t r u l y w orn by th e v a r i o u s

f i g u r e s . T h e se few o b s e r v a t i o n s u n d e r l i n e t h e m a in d i f f e r e n c e s

b e tw ee n th e s t y l e s o f t h e s e tw o p h a s e s o f M ughal p a i n t i n g an d

show th e e v o l u t i o n a t t a i n e d by J a h a n g i r ' s a r t i s t s

fro m th e m ore v ig o r o u s b u t l e s s r e f i n e d p a t h o f A k b a r . They h ad b e e n e n c o u ra g e d t o p a i n t w i th i n c r e a s e d v e r i s i m i l i t u d e an d s u b t l e t y , w i th s o f t e r . c o l o r s , l e s s t u r b u l e n t r h y th m s , an d m ore h a rm o n io u s d e s i g n s .

As th e c h r o n o l o g i c a l f o l l o w u p t o J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g ,

S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g c a r r i e d on some o f th e f e a t u r e s a l r e a d y p r e

v a l e n t i n t h e s t y l e r e l a t i v e l y u n c h a n g e d a n d a t t h e sam e tim e

i n s t i t u t e d some im m ense t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . A lth o u g h fo n d o f th e

a r t s , S h ah J a h a n w as n o w h ere n e a r a s a v i d an a r t l o v e r a s was

J a h a n g i r . I t i s known t h a t h e d e v o te d m o s t o f h i s a r t i s t i c

e n e r g i e s to w a rd s t h e r e a lm o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , a n d t h e r e f o r e p a i n t i n g

o n ly r e c e i v e d h i s s e c o n d a ry c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

N a t u r a l l y i t c o u ld n o t be e x p e c te d t h a t th e s c h o o ls o f p a i n t i n g w o u ld a l s o r i s e to s i m i l a r h e i g h t s an d e c l i p s e e v e r y t h in g t h a t h i s f a t h e r h a d a c h ie v e d i n t h i s a r t . 5


30

S hah J a h a n g r e a t l y r e d u c e d th e num ber o f th e a r t i s t s i n h i s a t e l i e r ,

b u t t h i s s e l e c t e d c o rp c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m o st s k i l l e d a n d t h e m o st

t a l e n t e d o n e s . A l t o g e t h e r th e nam es o f a b o u t tw e n t y - f i v e a r t i s t s

h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d , an d t h i s num ber i s p r o b a b ly p r e t t y c l o s e to

t h e a c t u a l num ber t h a t re m a in e d i n th e i m p e r i a l s t u d i o . F o r th o s e

a r t i s t s n o l o n g e r em p lo y ed by t h e c o u r t , th e y h a d t o s e a r c h e l s e

w here f o r p a t r o n a g e . T h o se w i th a h i g h e r a r t i s t i c a b i l i t y fo u n d

th e m s e lv e s i n t h e s e r v i c e s o f o t h e r m em bers o f t h e c o u r t a n d th e

n o b i l i t y . The m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g p a t r o n f o r t h i s c l a s s was t h e p r in c e

D a ra S h ik o h . The l e s s a d e p t a r t i s t s

f e l l b a c k on th e in d ig e n o u s m e th o d o f e s t a b l i s h i n g th e m s e lv e s i n sh o p s i n t h e b a z a a r , t h e r e t o c a t e r f o r a l e s s r e l i a b l e b u t m ore g e n e r a l dem and f o r t h e i r h a n d iw o rk .

T h u s i t c a n b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e p a i n t i n g p ro d u c e d u n d e r th e

p a t r o n a g e o f S hah J a h a n w as t r u l y a c o u r t a r t o f th e m o s t im p e c c a b le

o r d e r .

The p a i n t i n g p ro d u c e d u n d e r S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n w as o f

a v e r y e l e g a n t a n d s o p n i s t i c a t e a s t y l e . The a c t i o n an d l i v e l i n e s s

fo u n d i n A k b a r* s r e i g n , a l r e a d y c a lm e d down a n d to n e d down u n d e r

J a h a n g i r , h a d now b e e n e v e n f u r t h e r m e llo w ed o u t . The f o r m a l i t y

t h a t p e r s i s t e d i n th e s t y l e b y f a x t r a n s c e n d e d t h e o r d e r e s t a b l i

sh e d i n J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g ; i t h a d r e a c h e d a p o i n t w here s.C.1 7

W elch te rm e d i t a s a " c r y s t a l l i n e c o l d n e s s " . T h ese c h a n g e s i n

t h e p a i n t i n g s t y l e w ere i n many w ays a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e c h a n g e s

t h a t o c c u re d i n th e c o u r t l y l i f e an d m a n n e rs o f S hah J a h a n 's

r e i g n . P a r t o f t h i s may b e a t t r i b u t e d to h i s m oves i n m a k in g


I n d i a a p r e - e m in e n t ly I s l a m i c s t a t e . Many o f t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g

u n - I s l a m i c c u s to m s t h a t w ere in t r o d u c e d , by A k b a r a n d t o l e r a t e d by

J a h n g i r , w e re a b o l i s h e d by S h ah J a h a n . .Among t h e s e w ere th e

p r o s t r a t i o n to th e t h r o n e a n d t h e a l lo w a n c e o f i n t e r - m a r r i a g e

18b e tw e e n H in d u s a n d M u s l im s . S t r i c t o r th o d o x y r e q u i r e s th e e l im

i n a t i o n o f p r a c t i c e s a n d th o u g h t s t h a t ad d f l a v o r an d c o l o r to an

o th e r w is e r a t h e r m o n o to n o u s way o f l i f e . I n a d d i t i o n , S hah J a h a n 's

s e l f - i m a g e a s t h e p e r f e c t m o n a rc h a n d h i s d e s i r e t o b e p o r t r a y e d

a s s u c h , d id n o t a l lo w f o r f r i v o l i t y o r s p o n t a n e i t y t o d e t r a c t

fro m t h i s p e r f e c t e d s e l f im a g e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a r t p ro d u c e d u n d e r

Shah J a h a n t a k e s on a p u r i s t q u a l i t y : w o rk s a r e t i g h t l y com posed

an d n o th i n g i s o u t o f p l a c e .

I n o r d e r t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t , i t w o u ld be b e s t t o

com pare a Shah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w i th a J a h a n g i r i o n e . We may ta k e

a s e x a m p le s tw o d a r b a r s c e n e s : J a h a n g i r i n D a rb a r o f a b o u t 1620 i n

19t h e Museum o f F in e A r t s i n B o s to n ( P l a t e L) a n d S hah J a h a n

20H e c e iv in g a P e rs ia n Em bassy o f a b o u t 1628 i n t h e B o d le ia n L i b r a r y

( P l a t e L i ) . I f J a h a n g i r i p a i n t i n g h a d a p p e a r e d o r d e r l y i n c o m p a ri

so n t o A k b a r i p a i n t i n g , s h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g h a s r e a c h e d th e e p i to m e .

The f i g u r e s a r e n e a t l y a n d im p e c c a b ly a r r a n g e d . To a c h ie v e t h i s

i n c r e a s e d f o r m a l i t y , t h e l i v e l i n e s s o f e x p r e s s io n s a n d g e s t u r e s h a d

to be s a c r i f i c e d , th o u g h t h i s d o e s n o t i n an y way im p ly a s t y l i s

t i c r e g r e s s i o n . The f i g u r e s r e m a in s t e a d f a s t l y im p a s s iv e , an d th e

h o r s e s , i n t h e i r c a lm n e s s , a p p e a r a lm o s t l i k e g r a c e f u l an d s t y l i

z e d l i n e s . On th e o t h e r h a n d , t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f p a i n t i n g h av e


52

a t t a i n e d an u n s u r p a s s e d p e r f e c t i o n ; e a c h d e t a i l i s c a r e f u l l y d e l i n

e a t e d , a n d t h e r e i s n o t a s p e c k o u t o f p l a c e . The c o l o r s h a v e b e e n

r e n d e r e d i n s o l i d t o n e s , a d e v ic e w h ic h a c c e n t u a t e s t h i s o r d e r

l i n e s s . To s m i t u p , o n e c o u ld s a y t h a t

th e t e c h n iq u e h a s becom e so consum m ate an d o f su c h v i s u a l im p a c t t h a t i t h a s f u l l y a ssu m ed a n e x p r e s s iv e w e ig h t o f i t s o w n .2 *

Two o t h e r r e f in e m e n t s i n t h e a r t o f t h e p e r i o d c a n be

22s e e n i n l a n d s c a p e an d p o r t r a i t u r e . I n la n d s c a p e one s e e s f o r

th e f i r s t t im e th e u s e o f g r a d a t i o n s o f to n e s t o o b t a i n t h e e f f e c t

o f a r e c e s s i o n i n t o a d i s t a n c e ; w o rk s o f th e e a r l i e r p e r io d s u s e d

23a d i f f e r e n c e i n s c a l e a n d p l a n e t o i n d i c a t e d i s t a n c e s . The

a d v a n c e s m ade i n p o r t r a i t u r e w ere m o s t ly r e l a t e d t o t h e im p ro v e d

m a s te r y o f t h e p a i n t i n g t e c h n iq u e . A lth o u g h p o r t r a i t s f ro m t h i s

t im e d e p i c t im p a s s iv e an d e x p r e s s i o n l e s s p e o p le , t h e r e h a s n e v e r

b e e n s u c h r e f in e m e n t an d s u b t l e t y i n t h e p o r t r a y a l o f f a c i a l f e a

t u r e s , a d e v ic e w h ic h a l lo w s f o r t h e r e v e a l i n g o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y

w i th o u t t h e b e t r a y a l o f e m o t io n s . T h ese tw o a d v a n c e m e n ts came

fro m an ev e n f u r t h e r a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n iq u e s o f E u ro p e a n

p a i n t i n g t h a t h a d b eg u n t o b e e x p l o i t e d u n d e r J a h a n g i r .

HavingV considered a l l th ese fa c to r s , i t i s now

p o ss ib le to g ive a r e d e f in it io n to Shah Jahani p a in tin g . Rather

than being the d ec lin in g phase o f Mughal p a in tin g , i t i s the lo g ic a l

conclusion to a s ty le o f p a in tin g that was an a ss im ila tio n o f

several very d iverse elements* Persian, Indian, and European. The

early period o f Mughal p a in tin g strove to combine these elements


33

in to a com posite y e t harmonious s t y l e . As t h i s com bination

reached m aturity during th e r e ig n o f Jahangir, th ere was no need

to rep eat th e same e f f o r t s during Shah Jahan 's r e ig n . Thus, a l l

th a t was l e f t was to p e r fe c t the te c h n ic a l a sp ect o f th e p a in tin g

i t s e l f . Forms were co n so lid a ted and the com p osition s were

t ig h ten ed up, u n t i l a s t a t e o f p u r ity was a tta in e d . However, t h is

s t a t e m ight n o t have been ach ieved i f n o t fo r th e temperament o f

Shah Jahan, th e p r in c ip a l patron o f the a r t s . Being a p e r fe c tio n

i s t , he demanded a p e r fe c t p a in tin g s t y l e , and th e r e fo r e th e a r t

executed under h is patronage s tro v e towards p u r ity and p e r fe c t io n .


34

M o te s t o C h a p te r I I

^M ilo C le v e la n d B eac h , The G ran d M ogul I m p e r i a l P a i n t i n g i n I n d i a 1 6 0 0 -1 6 6 0 (W il l ia m s to w n : S t e r l i n g an d F r a n c in e C la rk A r t I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 7 6 .

OO tto K u rz , ’’Volume o f M ughal P a i n t i n g s an d M in ia

t u r e s , " J o u r n a l o f t h e W arbu rg a n d C o u r t la n d I n s t i t u t e s 30 ( 1 9 6 7 ) : 2 5 2 .

5P e rc y B row n, I n d i a n P a i n t i n g U nder t h e M ughals

(O x fo rd s The C la re n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 ) 1 p . 9 8 .

^A nanda K. Coomaraswam y, C a ta lo g u e o f t h e I n d i a n C o l l e c t i o n s i n t h e Museum o f F in e A r t s , B o s to n , v o l . V is M ughal P a i n t i n g (C a m b rid g e : H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 1 1 .

5J S t u a r t C ary W elch , G ods, T h ro n e s , a n d P e a c o c k s

N o r th e r n I n d ia n P a i n t i n g fro m Two T r a d i t i o n s : 1 5 th to 1 9 th C e n t u r i e s (New Y o rk : A s ia S o c i e ty , I n c . , 19^5)» P® 3 9 ,

^Pram od C h a n d ra , The T u ti-N am a o f th e C le v e la n d Museum o f A r t an d t h e O r ig in s o f M ughal P a i n t i n g , w i th a fo re w o rd b y Sherm an E . Lee (G ra n z : A kadem ische B ru ck u n d V e r l a n g s a n s t a l t , 1 9 7 6 ) . F o r a c o m p le te s tu d y o f t h i s s u b j e c t p l e a s e r e f e r .

7A le x a n d e r R o g e r s , t r a n s . an d H enry B e v e r id g e , e d . ,

The Til<7.nV-1—Jahang-f-H nr- M em oirs o f J a h a n g i r . 2nd e d . (D e lh i : M unshiram M a n o h a r la l , 1 9 6 8 ) , I I p p . 2 0 -2 1 .

QE r n s t K uhnel an d Hermann G o e tz , I n d i a n Book

P a i n t i n g from J a h a n g i r ' s Album i n t h e S t a t e L i b r a r y . B e r l i n (L o n d o n : K egan, P a u l , F r e n c h , T ru b n e r & Co. L t d . , 1 9 2 6 ) , a n d M ilo C le v e la n d B e a c h , "The G u ls h a n Album a n d i t s E u ro p ea n S o u r c e s ," B o s to n Museum o f F in e A r t s B u l l e t i n 65 ( 1 9 ^ 5 ) s 6 2 -9 1 . P le a s e r e f e r f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e B e r l i n Album an d th e G u lsh a n Album.

^ S t u a r t C ary W elch , I m p e r i a l M ughal P a i n t i n g (New Y o rk : G eorge B r a z i l l e r I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 2 6 .

^ B r o w n , p . 7 4 *

^ B e a c h , "The G u lsh a n A lbum ": 9 0 .

1 2 S i r Thomas W. A rn o ld , The L i b r a r y o f A. C h e s te r B e a t ty A C a ta lo g u e o f t h e I n d i a n M in ia tu r e s , r e v i s e d a n d e d i t e db y J .V .S . W ilk in s o n (B lo o m sb u ry : S n e ry W alk e r L t d . , 1 9 3 6 ) , I I p i . 8 .

1 *5B eac h , The G rand M ogul, p . 6 0 .


35

^ W e lc h , I m p e r i a l M ughal F a i n t i n g , p . 2 6 .

15 A .C . A r d e s h i r , "M ughal M in ia tu r e P a i n t i n g : The S c h o o l o f Shah J a h a n , " Roopa L ek h a I I ( 1 9 4 0 ) : 25«

^Brown, p . 96.

17 W elch , I m p e r i a l M ughal P a i n t i n g , p . 2 8 .

18 K .R . tian u n g o , "Some S i d e l i g h t s on th e C h a r a c te r and C o u rt L i f e o f Shah J a h a n , " J o u r n a l o f I n d i a n H is to r y 8 ( 1 9 2 9 ) : 4 5 .

19' W elch , I m p e r i a l M ughal P a i n t i n g , p i . 1 7 .

2 0 Brown, p i . XXIV.

2^ B e a c h , The G rand M ogul, p . 2 8 .

22A r d e s h i r , 2 5 .

2 ^R.H* P in d e r - W i ls o n , " T h re e I l l u s t r a t e d M a n u s c r ip ts o f t h e M ughal P e r i o d , " A rs O r i e n t a l i s I I ( 1 9 5 7 ) s 417*


3 6

CHAPTER I I I

SHAH JAHANI HISTORICAL PAINTING

O v erv iew o f E x ta n t I l l u s t r a t e d S hah J a h a n i

M a n u s c r ip t s a n d A lbum s

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o b e p r e c i s e a b o u t t h e a c t u a l num ber

o f c o n te m p o ra n e o u s S h ah J a h a n i m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s , t h e r e b e in g

n o e x i s t i n g r e c o r d s o f s u c h in f o r m a t i o n . From an e x a m in a t io n o f

th e e x t a n t m a n u s c r ip t s a n d a lb u m s c o m m iss io n e d o r a s s e m b le d d u r in g

th e r e i g n o f S h ah J a h a n , t h i r t e e n s e p a r a t e w o rk s h av e b e e n i d e n t i

f i e d * f o u r m a n u s c r ip t s a n d n in e a lb u m s . The f o u r m a n u s c r ip t s and

t h r e e o f th e a lb u m s a r e s t i l l i n t a c t , w h i le t h e o t h e r s i x a lb u m s

a r e e i t h e r f r a g m e n ta r y o r d i s p e r s e d . The m a in p ro b le m e n c o u n te r e d

i n th e s tu d y o f m a n u s c r i p t s an d a lb u m s i s t h a t t h e s e w o rk s o f t e n

u n d e rw e n t r e m o u n t in g , a n d t h e r e a r e c h a n c e s t h a t th e y m ig h t n o t

h a v e b e e n r e a s s e m b le d a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l s t a t e s . F u r t h e r

c o m p l ic a t io n s a r i s e f ro m t h e d i s p e r s a l o f s u c h w o rk s , a n d o n e o f t e n

f i n d s p a g e s fro m a S h ah J a h a n i a lbum o r m a n u s c r ip t i n c o r p o r a t e d

i n t o an album o f a l a t e r d a t e .

The i n t a c t w o rk s a r e t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B ad sh ah Nama,

th e G o le s ta n o f S a d i i n t h e C h e s te r B e a t ty L i b r a r y , th e B r i t i s h

Museum B u s ta n o f S a d i , t h e M a th n a v i m a n u s c r ip t o f Z a f a r K han i n th e

R o y a l A s i a t i c S o c ie ty L i b r a r y , th e N a s i r u d D in Album o f t h e

G u l i s t a n L i b r a r y i n T e h r a n , th e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y B a ra S h ik o h


37

A lbum , a n d th e B o d e l ia n L i b r a r y L a ra S h ik o h A lbum . The B ad sh ah

Nama, t h e B u a ta n , t h e G o le a t a n , a n d th e N a a i r ud D in Album w ere

c o m m iss io n e d by S hah J a h a n , w h i le t h e o t h e r t h r e e w e re c r e a t e d

upo n th e commands o f m em bers o f t h e c o u r t o r t h e n o b i l i t y .

T h e i r p r e s e n c e s a t t e s t t o t h e c o n t in u e d h ig h s t a n d a r d o f a r t i s t i c

a c t i v i t y o u t s i d e t h e r o y a l a t e l i e r .

Of a l l t h e m a n u s c r i p t s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , o n ly t h e

W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh a h Nama, t h e t o p i c o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , i s

a c h r o n i c l e Qf s h a h J a h a n , e m p e ro r o f I n d i a . I t d o c u m e n ts , i n

t h e t e x t a n d th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , t h e e v e n t s o f t h e r e i g n o f S hah

J a h a n . The m a n u s c r ip t o f Z a f a r Khan i s a p e r s o n a l r e c o r d o f th e1

l i f e o f a c u l t u r e d a m ir d u r in g th e r e i g n o f S h ah J a h a n . A lth o u g h

th e t e x t a n d t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s r e l a t e t o i n c i d e n t s i n Z a f a r K h a n 's

l i f e , th e y a r e n o t a m e t i c u l o u s a n d e x a c t d o c u m e n ta t io n l i k e t h e

h i s t o r i e s o f S h a b J a h a n . B a t h e r , one c o u ld s e e t h i s m a n u s c r ip t

a s a d i a r y r e n d e r e d i n a p o e t i c a l fo rm . The p a i n t i n g s b e a r some

s i m i l a r i t i e s t o th o s e o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , e s p e c i a l l y i n

th e h o r i z o n t a l - v e r t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p a c e , b u t th e y l a c k th e

to u c h o f e l e g a n c e t h a t i s t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g h a l lm a r k o f w o rk s

fro m th e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r .

The o t h e r tw o m a n u s c r ip t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n s o f

two w o rk s by th e P e r s i a n p o e t S a d i . B o th t h e G o le s ta n a n d th e

B u s ta n w ere c o p ie d by t h e sam e s c r i b e , Hakim Bokn a l - D i n M a s 'u d ,

who i s b e t t e r known a s H akim B o k n a . The f o r m e r m a n u s c r ip t d a t e s

t o 1628/1629 (1038 H) w h ile th e l a t t e r t o 1629 (1039 H )# 2 As th e y


38

b o th come fro m th e b e g i n n in g o f S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n , th e y a r e s t y l i s

t i c a l l y n o w h ere n e a r l y a s e v o lv e d a s t h e B a d sh a h Nama, w h ic h w as

c o m p le te d a t a much l a t e r d a t e . N in e i l l u s t r a t i o n s g r a c e t h e con

t e n t s o f t h e G o le s ta n , a n d a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a p e r i o d i n w h ich

P e r s i a n i n f l u e n c e w as b e in g m ore a n d m ore d i s c a r d e d .^ T h ese n in e

p a i n t i n g s a r e c o m p o s i t i o n a l ly a l l v e r y s im p le , a n d th o u g h n o t y e t

r i g i d l y s t r u c t u r e d , th e y show i n d i c a t i o n s o f b e i n g o r g a n iz e d a lo n g

a som ew hat g e o m e tr ic p l a n e . The p o r t r a i t s a r e p e rh a p s t h e m o s t

b e a u t i f u l f e a t u r e s h e r e . S t i l l e x p r e s s i v e a n d l i v e l y , th e y h av e

b e e n w o rk ed t o a f i n i s h w h ic h b r i n g s o u t t h e s u b t l e t y o f t h e c h a r a c

t e r i z a t i o n . T h is t r a i t i s s e e n o n a much m ore r e f i n e d l e v e l i n

t h e p o r t r a i t s o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t . T h e re a r e t e n i l l u s t r a

t i o n s i n t h e B u s ta n m a n u s c r i p t , w h ic h a c c o r d in g t o P in d e r - W i ls o n ,

r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk s o f f o u r d i f f e r e n t a r t i s t s . ^ L ik e t h e G o le s t a n ,

t h e c o m p o s i t io n a l s t r u c t u r e i s s im p le an d a l r e a d y show s a b a s i c

g e o m e tr ic o r g a n i z a t i o n . The t r e a t m e n t o f th e l a n d s c a p e by t h e

e f f e c t o f t o n a l g r a d a t i o n s i s a new f e a t u r e w h ic h becom es g r e a t l y

r e f i n e d i n l a t e r w o rk s s u c h a s i t i s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t .

The two B a ra S h ik o h a lb u m s w ere c o m m iss io n e d by him

a n d c o n t a i n b o th p a i n t i n g s a n d c a l l i g r a p h y . .An i n s c r i p t i o n on

th e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y a lbum d e n o te s t h a t i t w as a g i f t fro m

B a ra S h ik o h t o h i s w if e N a d i r a B anu Begum i n 1 6 4 1 /1 6 4 2 (1051 H ) .^

T h is a lbum c o n t a i n s a m ix tu r e o f d i f f e r e n t p i c t o r i a l m o t i f s —

f l o w e r s , a n im a ls , p o r t r a i t s , a s s o r t e d g ro u p s c e n e s an d E u ro p e a n

p r i n t s . I t s i n t i m a t e a n d r e t i c e n t mood i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t fro m


39

t h e m a j e s t i c s p le n d o r fo u n d i n t h e w o rk s o f th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t .

H ow ever, one can d e t e c t c e r t a i n s t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e

r e f in e m e n t a n d p r e c i s i o n a c c o r d e d t o t h e d e t a i l s , a n d o f th e e l e

g a n c e t h a t e n o b le s e v e n t h e m o s t b a n a l o b j e c t . The P a r a S h ik o h

Album i n t h e B o d le ia n L i b r a r y h a s a much d i f f e r e n t p i c t o r i a l make

u p . I t c o n t a i n s m a in ly p o r t r a i t s o f P a r a , h i s f a m i l y , an d h i s

a n c e s t o r s , a lo n g w i th a v a r i e t y o f g ro u p s c e n e s a n d E u ro p e a n w o rk s .

W hile t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y album i s a p i c t u r e boo k w i th charm

i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s , t h e u n i f y i n g them e o f th e B o d le ia n L i b r a r y one

i s l e s s o b v io u s . T h i s a lb u m o p en s w i th s e v e n o rn a m e n ta l p a g e s ,

f o l l o w e d by tw o sh a m sa s a n d p o r t r a i t s o f a n e n th r o n e d T im ur a n d a n

e n th r o n e d P a r a on f a c i n g p a g e s . A n o th e r tw o sh am sas come a f t e r

t h i s . The sh a m sa s a n d t h e tw o p o r t r a i t s b e a r s t r i k i n g r e s e m b le n c e s

t o r o y a l m a n u s c r ip t s a n d a lb u m s o f a r e i g n i n g e m p e ro r . T h is c o u ld

b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s P a r a e n v i s i o n i n g h i m s e l f a s t h e n e x t em p ero r an d

p r e m a tu r e ly c r e a t i n g a w ork t o g l o r i f y h i s f u t u r e s t a t u s . I n

s t y l i s t i c t e r m s , t h i s a lb u m d o e s n o t m a tc h up i n o v e r a l l b e a u ty t o

e i t h e r t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t o r t o t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y a lb u m .

Many o f t h e p a i n t i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e f i g u r a l w o rk s , l a c k p r e c i s i o n

i n e x e c u t io n a n d r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e f i n i s h i n g to u c h e s .

The N a s i r u d P in Album i s a n d i s n o t a w ork o f S hah

J a h a n 's r e i g n . I t i s com posed m a in ly o f p o r t r a i t s , a g r e a t many

o f w h ic h d a t e t o t h e r e i g n o f J a h a n g i r . Of th e o t h e r p a i n t i n g s ,

a few come f ro m t h e 1 8 th c e n t u r y w h i le t h e r e s t a r e o f S hah J a h a n 's

t im e . The a lbum i s t h u s b e l i e v e d to h a v e b e e n b eg u n d u r in g


40

J a h a n g i r ' s r e i g n , f i n i s h e d u n d e r S h ah J a h a n , a n d was re b o u n d by

S h ah N a d ir u d D in i n 1844* who p r o b a b ly a d d e d o r r e p l a c e d a few o f

th e l e a v e s . ^ I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o t h i n k t h a t t h i s a lbum w as a

S hah J a h a n i c o m m iss io n , a n d t h a t p a i n t i n g s f ro m t h e e a r l i e r p e r io d

h a d b e e n o r d e r e d t o b e i n c l u d e d . A s t i l l m ore l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n

i s t h a t t h i s w ork w as a p r o j e c t o f P r in c e K h u r r a m t h a t w as com ple

t e d o n ly a f t e r h e came t o t h e t h r o n e a s S hah J a h a n .

The s i x d i s p e r s e d o r f r a g m e n ta r y a lb u m s t h a t a r e b e

l i e v e d to h a v e b e e n p ro d u c e d u n d e r Shah J a h a n * s o r d e r s a r e t h e M in to

A lbum , w h ic h i s p a r t l y i n t h e C h e s te r B e a t ty L i b r a r y a n d p a r t l y i n

t h e V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum; t h e w a n ta g e Album now i n t h e

V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum; t h e K e v o rk ia n Album w h ic h i s d iv id e d

b e tw e e n t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum o f A r t a n d t h e F r e e r G a l l e r y o f

A r t ; t h e L a t e S h a h J a h a n Album w h ic h h a s b e e n th r o u g h ly d i s p e r s e d

b e tw e e n v a r i o u s m useum s, l i b r a r i e s an d p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s ; Album

A d d .18801 i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum; an d P r i n c e K h u rru m 's Album w h ich7

w as d i s p e r s e d th r o u g h a n a u c t i o n a t S o t h e b y 's . ' I n a d d i t i o n , i t

i s n e c e s s a r y t o m e n t io n t h e H e rm ita g e Album o f t h e L e n in g ra d

Museum, f o r a l th o u g h a s s e m b le d i n t h e 1 8 th c e n t u r y , i t c o n t a i n s

some v e r y f i n e S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g s w h ic h u n d o u b te d ly o r i g i n a t e d

fro m v a r i o u s m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s . The M in to , W antage an d

K e v o rk ia n Album s c o n t a i n m a in ly v e r y f i n e p o r t r a i t s , b u t ail so

i n c l u d e a few g ro u p a c t i v i t y s c e n e s an d a n im a l s t u d i e s . A p p a r e n t ly

th e y w ere a l l a s s e m b le d d u r in g S h ah J a h a n 'a r e i g n , b u t c o n t a i n

8p r e v i o u s l y u n m o u n te d , o r r e m o u n te d w orks o f J a h a n g i r ' s r e r g n .


41

T h ese a lb u m s h a v e ta k e n t h e i r nam es fro m t h e c o l l e c t o r s t o whom

th e y b e lo n g e d . T he L a te S h ah J a h a n Album w as b ro k e n a p a r t i n 1909 9

i n P a r i s , ' a n d now o n ly a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f i t c a n b e a c c o u n te d f o r .

Of w h a t r e m a in s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s a lbum c o n t a in e d m o s t ly p o r

t r a i t s w i th a n o c c a s i o n a l s p r i n k l i n g o f o t h e r s u b j e c t s . L ik e w is e ,

Album A d d .18801 i s c o m p le te ly com posed o f p o r t r a i t s . They r e p r e

s e n t t h e c h i e f n o b le s a t t h e c o u r t o f S h ah J a h a n , a n d b e a r a s c r i p

t i o n s t o e i g h t a r t i s t s . An i n s c r i p t i o n i n t h e a lbum r e c o r d s i t s

10” p io u s d o n a t io n ” i n 1 6 6 1 /1 6 6 2 (1 0 7 2 H ). The P r i n c e Khurram Album

w as made f o r P r i n c e K hurram b e f o r e h i s a c c e s s i o n t o t h e t h r o n e ,

a n d i s d a t e d t o 1 6 1 1 /1 6 1 2 (1 0 2 0 H ) . ^ I t w as a s m a l l a lbum o f

tw e n ty f o l i o s , a n d r e p r e s e n t s p a i n t i n g s fro m t h e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r

o f A kbar and J a h a n g i r , a n d c a l l i g r a p h i c s p e c im e n s by p r i n c e

12K h u rism . L ik e th e o t h e r a lb u m s , t h i s one i s p r e d o m in a n t ly com

p o s e d o f p o r t r a i t s .

T h is o v e rv ie w o f S h ah J a h a n i a lb u m s h a s i n d i c a t e d

t h a t S h ah J a h a n 's c h i e f i n t e r e s t l a i d i n p o r t r a i t s . A nim al an d

p l a n t s t u d i e s u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d th e w o rk s o f a r t i s t s o f a n e a r l i

e r . p e r i o d , w h i le h i s a r t i s t s p ro d u c e d m a in ly i n d i v i d u a l p o r t r a i t s

o r f i g u r a l g r o u p s . I n t h e s e w o rk s , th e b a c k g ro u n d s e t t i n g s a r e

m i n i m a l t o n o n - e x i s t i n g . I t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o g e t a c o m p le te

p i c t u r e o f t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g by j u s t lo o k

i n g a t a lbum p a i n t i n g s , f o r t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r n o i n d i c a t i o n a s

t o how th e f i g u r e s r e l a t e t o t h e i r s e t t i n g s . H ow ever, i n manu

s c r i p t p a i n t i n g , w here an e v e n t i s b e in g n a r r a t e d , one g e t s


42

f i g u r e s s e t a g a i n s t a b a c k g ro u n d , be i t a r c h i t e c t u r a l o r l a n d s c a p e ,

an d th u s one i s a b l e t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r n o t th e a r t i s t was

s u c c e s s f u l i n c r e a t i n g a u n i f i e d p i c t u r e . B e c a u se a m a n u s c r ip t

p a i n t i n g p r e s e n t s a l a r g e r p e r s p e c t i v e , i t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

im p ly t h a t a t t e n t i o n t o d e t a i l h a s b e e n s a c r i f i c e d . On th e con

t r a r y , t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B ad sh ah Nama show a

r e m a rk a b le c a r e an d a c c u r a c y t o some o f th e m i n u t e s t a s p e c t s .

By lo o k i n g a t b o th a lb u m a n d m a n u s c r ip t p a i n t i n g s , one i s a b l e to

s a y t h a t th e c o u r t a r t i s t s o f S h ah J a h a n 's t im e w o rk ed i n a

d e t a i l e d a n d h ig h l y r e f i n e d m a n n e r , a n d w ere a b l e to a c h i e v e t h i s

on b o th an i n d i v i d u a l a n d on a l a r g e r m ore com plex s c a l e .

B ack g ro u n d o f M ughal H i s t o r i c a l P a i n t i n g

The e x i s t e n c e o f t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B ad sh ah Nama i s

d o c u m e n ta ry p r o o f t h a t i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip t s e n jo y e d

a c e r t a i n p o p u l a r i t y d u r in g th e r e i g n o f S h ah J a h a n . I t * is t h e

o n ly s u r v i v i n g ex am p le o f i t s k i n d , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i n f e r ,

fro m t h e s c a t t e r e d num ber o f s i n g l e s h e e t p a i n t i n g s t h a t r e s e m b le

th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t i n c o n t e n t an d p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e e x i s t e n c e

o f o t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s . B e c a u se o f t h e l a t e r

m i l i t a r y r a i d s on t h e M ughal t r e a s u r y , a n d t h i s i n c l u d e d th e

l i b r a r i e s , many m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s w ere d e s t r o y e d o r l o s t i n

t h e t u r m o i l . H i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s w ere b y no m eans a n in n o v a

t i o n o f t h e S h ah J a h a n i e r a , b u t h a d b e e n i n v o g u e s in c e t h e o n s e t

o f th e M ughal p e r i o d . T h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t an d c h a n g in g c h a r a c t e r i s

t i c s a r e p o s s i b l e to t r a c e . I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t a l th o u g h


45

h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g w as a b u n d a n t , t h e r e w ere few i l l u s t r a t e d e d i

t i o n s o f t h e s e m a n u s c r i p t s . The i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n s w ere by f a r

m ore su m p tu o u s th a n j u s t t h e p l a i n t e x t u a l o n e s , an d t h e c h o ic e o f

t h e p a r t i c u l a r t e x t t o b e i l l u s t r a t e d g iv e s some i n d i c a t i o n s a s

t o w h a t e a c h s u c c e s s i v e e m p e ro r c o n s id e r e d i m p o r t a n t . T h is s e c

t i o n w i l l e n d e a v o r t o t r a c e a n e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e

i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s f ro m t h e r e i g n s o f A k b a r t o

S hah J a h a n . The n o n - i l l u s t r a t e d o n e s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d o n ly i n

t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e a c h e m p e r o r 's a t t i t u d e to w a rd s h i s t o r i c a l

d o c u m e n ta t io n .

The f i r s t q u e s t i o n t o c o n s id e r i s why w ere t h e r e

h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s . The r e c o r d i n g down o f e v e n t s a s th e y

to o k p la c e i n d i c a t e s a d e s i r e t o p r e s e r v e i n w o rd s t h e p r e s e n t f o r

t h e f u t u r e , be i t th e n e a r f u t u r e o r p o s t e r i t y . T h is i n t u r n

show s th e im p o r ta n c e g r a n t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t : t h e M ughal e m p e ro rs

h a d t h e i r l i v e s and d e e d s d o cu m en ted b e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e d them

s e l v e s t o be o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e i r e r a . I n a d d i t i o n t o e s t a

b l i s h i n g o n e 's p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o th e f u t u r e , h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g

a l s o e s t a b l i s h e s o n e 's p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e p a s t . I n a l l o f

t h e M ughal h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s one f i n d s r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r

l i n e a g e an d e s p e c i a l l y t o T im u r, th e f i r s t a n c e s t o r o f t h e M ughal

l i n e . G e n e a lo g ic a l c o n c e r n s a n d th e k e e p in g o f h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s

1 3w ere p a r t o f t h e M u g h a ls ' I s l a m i c h e r i t a g e . ^ I f o n e c o n s id e r s

t h a t th e M u g h als w ere a f o r e i g n d y n a s ty i n I n d i a , a n d t h a t t h e i r

e a r l y r i s e t o pow er w as a s tu m u ltu o u s a s i t w as s u c c e s s f u l ,


44

p e r h a p s i t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e i r n e e d f o r t h i s ty p e

o f r e c o r d s . N o t o n ly sh o w in g th e m s e lv e s t o b e an im p o r ta n t f o r c e

w i t h i n t h e i r p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , b u t a l s o by d e m o n s t r a t in g an e s te e m e d

p a s t — T im ur d i d a f t e r a l l o n c e in v a d e I n d i a - - th e y o f f e r

t h e i r r a i s o n d ’ e t r e f o r b e in g t h e r u l e r s o f I n d i a .

From th e r e i g n o f A k b a r t h e r e a r e a b o u t s e v e n

h i s t o r i e s w h ich d o cu m en t i n f u l l a n d i n p a r t h i s r e i g n . The

m a j o r i t y w ere w r i t t e n u p o n i m p e r i a l command, an d t h e r e i s e v e n one

w h ic h he o r d e r e d t o b e w r i t t e n i n S a n s k r i t . ^ Of a l l t h e

p e r s o n a l h i s t o r i e s , o n ly t h e A k b ar Nama o f A b u l F a z l was e v e r

i l l u s t r a t e d , a n d to d a y t h e r e r e m a in s o n ly tw o s u c h e d i t i o n s . A bul

F a z l w as A k b a r 's p e r s o n a l m i n i s t e r an d f r i e n d , an d h i s h i s t o r y i s

th e m o s t c o m p le te a n d d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e r e i g n . A num ber o f

o t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip t s w e re a l s o p ro d u c e d d u r in g

t h i s t im e . None o f t h e s e d e a l ^ e x p r e s s i v e l y w i th A k b a r , b u t

i n s t e a d , w i th h i s a n c e s t o r s an d h i s h e r i t a g e .

O f t h e s u r v i v i n g i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r i e s , th e e a r l i e s t

i s t h e Hamza Nama w h ic h d a t e s t o a ro u n d 1 5 7 0 . I t i s a q u a s i

h i s t o r i c a l w ork a b o u t th e l i f e o f Hamza, u n c le o f t h e p r o p h e t

Mohammed t h a t c o m b in es f a c t w i th f i c t i o n . I t c a n b e c o n s id e r e d

m ore o f a s an a d v e n tu r e s t o r y th a n a s an h i s t o r y . As i t d o e s n o t

d e a l a t a l l w i th A k b a r , i t o f f e r s n o th in g a s f a r a s t h e h i s t o r i c a l

f a c t s o f h i s r e i g n a r e c o n c e r n e d . H ow ever, i t d o e s r e f l e c t h i s

temperament a t th a t tim e. The Hamza Nama, b ein g a s to ry o f

excitem ent and adventure in a way m irrors h is b o y lik e ch a ra cter ,


45

an d t h e tu m u ltu o u s b e g in n in g s o f h i s r e i g n . He a s c e n d e d th e th r o n e

a t th e ag e o f t h i r t e e n a n d h a d i n h e r i t e d a n e m p ire w h ich was

n e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l l y so u n d n o r e c o n o m ic a l ly p r o s p e r o u s . The m o s t

f e r t i l e an d p o p u lo u s p r o v in c e s h a d b e e n d e v a s t a t e d by fa m in e c a u s e d

b y f a i l u r e o f r a i n s a n d tw o y e a r s o f d e s t r u c t i v e w a r f a r e . ^ A k b a r 's

e a r l y c a r e e r w as s p e n t n o t o n ly i n f i g h t i n g o f f o t h e r c l a im a n t s t o

t h e t h r o n e , b u t a l s o i n t h e c o n q u e s t o f t e r r i t o r y f o r t h e e x p a n s io n

o f t h e e m p ir e . I t was o n ly e i g h t y e a r s l a t e r t h a t h e co m m iss io n e d

16h i s f i r s t p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y , t h e T a r ik h - 1 A k b a r S h a h i , f o r w h ich

t h e r e a r e n o known i l l u s t r a t e d v e r s i o n s .

The f i r s t i l l u s t r a t e d m a n u s c r ip t w h ich f e a t u r e s A k b ar

i s t h e T im ur Nama o f 1 5 8 0 -1 5 8 5 , now i n th e O r i e n t a l P u b l i c L i b r a r y

a t B a n k ip o re . H ere A k b a r i s o n ly a s u b s i d i a r y c h a r a c t e r , a n d h i s

p r e s e n c e i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t

t h i s may e x p r e s s t h e f u n c t i o n o f th e e m p e ro r a s t h e i n s t i g a t o r o f o t h e r m e n 's a c t i v i t y , a s a v i s u a l d e v ic e i t d i l u t e s r a t h e r th a n e n f o r c e s an y sy m b o lism o f p o w er.

T h i s s t a t e m e n t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e n o t i o n t h a t a t t h i s t im e A kb ar

d i d n o t f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e h i s m o n a rc h ic a l s t a t u s , a n d t h a t he

c h o s e t o b e d e p i c t e d l i k e so * The e a r l i e s t i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n o f

a n a c t u a l h i s t o r y o f A k b ar i s t h e V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t M useum 's

A k b ar Nama w h ic h d a t e s a ro u n d 1590* E ven h e r e , t h e f i g u r e o f A kb ar

d o e s n o t a p p e a r v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t , th o u g h h i s p r e s e n c e i s much m ore

18e v i d e n t th a n i n th e T im ur Nama. T a k in g f o r exam ple t h e s c e n e o f

1QA kb ar h u n t i n g i n a n e n c l o s u r e , f o l i o $6 o f t h e A k b a r Nama 7 ( P l a t e

L l l ) u o ne r e c o g n i z e s A kbar a s t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e , b u t a t t e n t i o n i s


46

n o t f o c u s e d upon h im . B a t h e r , o n e ’ s ey e i s c a u g h t up i n th e

s w i r l i n g e x c i te m e n t a n d f r e n z y o f t h e a n im a ls th e m s e lv e s , a n d i n

th e b r i g h t l y c o l o r e d t r a p p i n g s o f t h e s u r r o u n d in g o n - lo o k e r s . As

w i l l b e s e e n l a t e r on i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i n S h ah J a h a n i h is to ^ a -

i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y no m i s t a k in g a s t o who th e

em p e ro r i s , n o r i s t h e r e a n y d e t r a c t i o n away fro m h im .

O nly one o t h e r co p y o f t h e A k b ar Nama s u r v i v e s fro m

t h i s p e r i o d . I t was p r o d u c e d i n 1600 an d i s now d iv i d e d b e tw e e n

t h e C h e s te r B e a t ty L i b r a r y a n d t h e B r i t i s h M useum. H ow ever,

s e v e r a l o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip t s w ere p ro d u c e d a t t h i s t im e .

They i n c l u d e t h r e e e d i t i o n s o f t h e Razm Nama, t h e P e r s i a n t r a n s

l a t i o n o f t h e S a n s k r i t M a h a b h a ra ta ; t h e B ab u r Nama; th e D arab

Nama, an a d a p t a t i o n o f F i r d o u s i ' s S h ah Nama; an d th e Ja m i a l

T a w a r ik h , t h e h i s t o r y o f th e M o n g o ls . A l l t h e s e m a n u s c r ip t s a s

w e l l a s th o s e m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r o n , show i n one way o r a n o t h e r ,

t h e r o o t s o f A k b a r 's h e r i t a g e : t h e c h r o n i c l e s o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r

B a b u r , a h i s t o r y o f h i s a n c e s t r y d a t i n g b a c k to T im u r, a n a c c o u n t

o f th e l i n e a g e o f h i s o t h e r g r e a t a n c e s t o r G e n g h is K han , t h e

t r a d i t i o n o f P e r s i a i n t h e S h ah Nama, an d fro m th e Razm Nama w ere

t h e r o o t s h e was c r e a t i n g i n I n d i a . I n summary one c o u ld s a y

t h a t A k b a r 's c o n c e rn w i th h i s t o r y w as m a in ly w i th t h e p a s t , t h a t

i s , him i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s a n c e s t o r s . T h a t h e a l s o h a d h i s l i f e

d o cu m en ted show s a much m ore l a s t i n g n e e d f o r l e a v i n g a l e g a c y t o

h i s d e s c e n d a n ts an d t o p o s t e r i t y .

U nder J a h a n g i r th e h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip t t a k e s on a


47

v e r y d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t ; i t becom es much m ore i n t r o v e r t e d an d much

l e s s c o n c e rn e d w i th t h o s e f e a t u r e s one f i n d s i n A k b a r i m a n u s c r i p t s .

J a h a n g i r h a d no n e e d t o e s t a b l i s h a n e m p ire , one w as h a n d e d down

t o h im . L ik e w is e , h e h a d n o n e e d t o o f f e r m uch j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r

h i s b e in g on t h e t h r o n e , h e was t h e c ro w n ed p r i n c e . The o n ly

o t h e r c l a im a n t t o t h e t h r o n e , h i s ' so n . K h u s ra u , was d is p e n s e d

w i th e a s i l y w i th o u t a n y r e t a l i a t i o n . A lth o u g h p ro u d o f h i s

h e r i t a g e , i t w as p e r h a p s a l s o th e v e r y n a t u r e o f h i s te m p e ra m e n t:

h i s g r e a t e r c u l t u r a l a s o p p o se d t o a n a d v e n t u r i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n ,

a n d h i s known f o n d n e s s f o r w o r ld ly p l e a s u r e s , t h a t made him l e s s

p r e o c c u p ie d w i th t h e n o t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n ta t io n .

The m o s t im p o r ta n t h i s t o r i c a l docum ent fro m th e r e i g n

o f J a h a n g i r i s t h e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i , so m e tim e s known a s th e

J a h a n g i r Nama, w h ic h w as h i s p e r s o n a l d i a r y a n d m e m o irs . He

r e c o r d e d n o t o n ly t h e s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o f t h e t im e , b u t a l s o h i s

r e a c t i o n s t o new a n d s t r a n g e t h i n g s , f o r e x am p le h i s f i r s t im p re s

s io n s o f a t u r k e y , a s w e l l a s h i s p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s a n d p l e a s u r e s ,

s u c h a s t h e one h e h a d f o r p a i n t i n g . The T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i i s

t h e r e f o r e a n i n t i m a t e d i a r y r a t h e r t h a n a p i e c e o f h i s t o r i c a l

w r i t i n g , an d m ore i m p o r t a n t l y , I t was w r i t t e n by h i m s e l f . I n t h i s

m an n er h e h a r k s b a c k t o th e s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f h i s g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r

B a b u r , w hose d i a r y i s a l s o w e l l know n. T h e re a r e o n ly t h r e e o t h e r

h i s t o r i e s o f h i s r e i g n t h a t w ere known to h a v e b e e n made a t h i s

20r e q u e s t , an d n o n e o f t h e s e h a s b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d . T h e re i s

e v id e n c e t h a t an i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n o f th e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i


48

o n ce e x i s t e d , an d th o u g h i t no l o n g e r s u r v i v e s , t h e r e s t i l l r e m a in s

s e v e r a l d i s p e r s e d p a g e s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t a l th o u g h some

o f t h e p a i n t i n g s r e c o r d e d e v e n t s o f h i s l i f e , th e y w ere n o t i n th e

t r a d i t i o n o f A k b a r i h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s , b u t t h a t t h i s m a n u s c r ip t

h a d m ore t h e c h a r a c t e r o f an a lbum o f p a i n t i n g s r a t h e r t h a n t h a t

21o f a h i g h l y c o o r d in a t e d m a n u s c r i p t . The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n fro m

t h e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i l e n d s s u p p o r t t o t h i s s u g g e s t io n .

M u q arrab K h a n . . .w e n t w i th d i l i g e n c e t o G oa, a n d r e m a in in g t h e r e f o r some t im e , lo o k e d a t t h e p r i c e th e F r a n k s a s k e d f o r them t h e r a r e t i e s h e m e t e i t h a t t h a t p o r t . . .W h e n h e r e t u r n e d . . .h e p ro d u c e d b e f o r e me o n e by o n e th e t h i n g s a n d r a r e t i e s h e h ad b r o u g h t . . . I b o th d e s c r i b e d them a n d o r d e r e d t h a t p a i n t e r s s h o u ld d raw them i n t h e J a h a n g i r Nama, so t h a t t h e am azem ent t h a t a r o s e f ro m h e a r i n g o f them m ig h t b e i n c r e a s e d . 2 2

A p a r t fro m th e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i t h e r e w ere n o o t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d

h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s p ro d u c e d d u r in g J a h a n g i r ' s r e i g n . The ty p e s

o f m a n u s c r ip t s he c o m m iss io n e d te n d e d t o be i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o t h e

w o rk s o f fam o u s p o e t s . H is r e i g n i s known f o r r o y a l a lb u m s —

m u raq q a s — w h ic h w ere c o m p i la t io n s o f in d e p e n d e n t p i c t u r e s o f

23p e r s o n a l i t i e s , e v e n t s , o r o b j e c t s t h a t a r o u s e d h i s c u r i o s i t y . '

T h is i n i t i a t i o n on h i s p a r t l e d t o a p o p u l a r i t y o f a lb u m s t h a t

l a s t e d th r o u g h o u t S h ah J a h a n * s r e i g n .

The m a n n e r i n w h ic h he i s d e p i c t e d i n h i s m a n u s c r ip t

show s h im t o b e s e l f a s s u r e d an d c o n t e n te d ; f o r e x a m p le , th e s c e n e

o f t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a l o f A b p a s i ^ ( P l a t e L I I ] ) . H is

v e r y p o s i t i o n i n th e p a i n t i n g f o c u s e s him a s t n e c e n t r e o f a t t e n

t i o n . N ot o n ly i s h e p l a c e d r i g h t a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e co m p o si

t i o n , h i s h a lo a l s o s i n g l e s him o u t . He i s t h e o n ly s e a t e d f i g u r e ,


49

a n d t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e w h ic h s e p a r a t e s h im fro m th e r e s t

o f t h e c ro w d . I t i s v e r y u n l i k e a w ork fro m th e A kbar Nama w h ere

th e f i g u r e o f A kbar h a s a te n d e n c y to m e ld i n t o t h e c ro w d . A lso

n o te w o r th y a r e th o s e p e r s o n a l to u c h e s w h ic h r e f l e c t h i s own con

c e r n s a n d i n t e r e s t s , su c h a s t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f p a i n t i n g s o f

E u ro p e a n f i g u r e s i n th e b a c k g ro u n d , an d th e e a s y a n d r e l a x e d

m a n n e r i n w h ic h h e s i t s . To sum up th e s t a t e o f h i s t o r i c a l manu

s c r i p t s u n d e r J a h a n g i r , one c o u ld s a y t h a t h i s m a jo r c o n c e rn w as

t o p r e s e n t h i m s e l f i n r e l a t i o n t o w h at p l e a s e d an d am used h im .

H is a n c e s t r y a n d th e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f h i s p o s i t i o n a s t h e r i g h t f u l

e m p e ro r p l a y s o n ly a v e r y s e c o n d a ry p o s i t i o n .

H i s t o r i c a l M a n u s c r ip t s U nder S h ah J a h a n

U nder S h ah J a h a n t h e r e a p p e a re d a n i n c r e a s e i n th e

p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s . The num ber o f c o u r t h i s t o

r i a n s a p p o in te d t o e u l o g i z e th e l i f e a n d d e e d s o f S h ah J a h a n w ere

much g r e a t e r th a n u n d e r e i t h e r A k b a r o r J a h a n g i r . T h ese h i s t o r i a n s

w ro te n o t o n ly p r o s e a c c o u n t s o f t h e r e i g n , b u t a l s o w ro te p o e t i c

r e n d i t i o n s a s w e l l a s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e l i f e a t th e c o u r t . S hah

J a h a n 's m o t i v a t i o n s f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s e h i s t o r i e s w ere tw o

f o l d . F i r s t l y , th e w r i t i n g an d k e e p in g o f h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s w as a

25p r a c t i c e o f l o n g s t a n d i n g i n t h e I s l a m i c w o r ld . T h e r e f o r e i t was

o n ly n a t u r a l t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n w as m a in ta in e d u n d e r S hah J a h a n .

M ore i m p o r t a n t l y th o u g h , was t h e a t t e n t i o n g r a n t e d t o t h e m ag n i

tu d e o f t h e s e d o c u m e n ts . He n e e d e d a m odel u p o n w h ic h t o b a s e h i s

p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y , an d f o r t h i s h e c h o se th e A k b a r Nama. T h is w ork


50

was n o t o n ly g r a n d io s e i n s i z e , b u t w as a l s o e lo q u e n t i n s t y l e ,

an d S h ah J a h a n s o u g h t f o r h i s p e r s o n a l c h r o n i c l e s t o e m u la te i f

n o t t o s u r p a s s t h e A k b a r Nama.

To d a t e we a r e aw are o f s i x s e p r a t e h i s t o r i e s w r i t

t e n u p o n t h e o r d e r s o f S h ah J a h a n . O n ly o n e i s c o m p le te d , a n d i t

i s c o n s id e r e d a s t h e o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e r e i g n . T he o t h e r s

a r e o n ly p a r t i a l a c c o u n t s , f o r t h e i r a u t h o r s e i t h e r d i e d o r w ere

d i s m is s e d b e f o r e e v e r f i n i s h i n g t h e i r w o rk s . F o r h i s o f f i c i a l

h i s t o r y , S h ah j a h a n h a d d e c id e d t h a t h i s r e i g n b e d iv i d e d i n t o

d e c a d e s , a n d t h a t e a c h o f t h e s e t e n y e a r s be d e a l t w i th i n a

s e p a r a t e v o lu m e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e o f f i c i a l c h r o n i c l e s , t h e r e

w ere a l s o o t h e r h i s t o r i e s w h ich w ere w r i t t e n u p o n t h e i n i t i a t i v e

o f t h e a u t h o r s th e m s e lv e s . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s tu d y o f h i s t o

r i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e y a r e o f n o t much im p o r ta n c e , a n d t h e r e f o r e

w i l l n o t b e d i s c u s s e d .

ta k in g a l l th e ex tan t court h i s t o r ie s in to account,

record s show th a t th e Padshah Nama. o f J a la l a l-D in Tabatabai was

one o f th e e a r l i e s t . Tabatabai a rr iv ed in In d ia in the 8 th year

o f Shah Jahan*s r e ig n , 1634 (1044 * 0 , whereupon he was appointed

court h is to r ia n and a ss ig n ed the ta sk o f c h r o n ic lin g f iv e y ea rs 26o f the r e ig n . Only p a rt o f t h i s work su r v iv e s , and t h i s

rem aining p o rtio n documents th e 5th to th e 8 th regn al y ea rs as

reckoned accord in g to th e s o la r ca len d er . H is work was n ever

f in is h e d , fo r he was fo rced out o f h is p o s it io n due to th e j e a l -27o u s i e s o f h i s r i v a l s . When e x a c t l y h e s to p p e d w o rk in g i s n o t


51

known. A c lo s e contemporary o f Tabatabai was Aiminai Q azwini,

whose work was a lso e n t i t l e d the Padshah Nama. and i t record s the

f i r s t ten y ea rs o f th e r e ig n . Qazwini a rr iv ed in In d ia in th e

5th y ea r , 1632 (1041 H), and was appointed cou rt h is to r ia n in the

9th y ea r , 1636 (1045 H)» a t which tim e he was ordered to prepare a28h is t o iy o f the f i r s t ten y ea rs o f the r e ig n . U nlike T ab atab ai's

work, which was dry and te d io u s , Q azw in i's Padshah Mama was29w r itte n in a h ig h ly flo w ery s t y l e . As Qazwini began working

a f t e r Tabatabai, i t i s v ery l i k e l y th a t he based a good p art o f

h is work on th a t o f h i s c o llea g u e . Qazwini was apparently

d ism issed from h is p o st a s court h is to r ia n sh o r t ly a f te r th e 10th

y ea r , 1637 (1046 H), because Shah Jahan had then decided to change

the system o f d a tin g from a so la r to a lunar c a l e n d e r , a n d as

Qazwini*s work fo llo w e d th e so la r reckon ing, i t was considered

o b s o le te .

From around the m iddle o f th e 10th y ea r , 1637 (1046 H)f

th ere ap p aren tly were two o th er h is to r ia n s engaged in composing

p o e t ic a l accounts o f th e r e ig n . N e ith er o f th e se works was com

p le te d . The f i r s t o f th e se h is to r ia n s was Abu T alib Hamadani

Kalim, whose Padshah Nama was an e p ic poem in th e Mathnavi v e r se

fo r m .^ Kalim was a tta ch ed to th e cou rt sh o r tly a f te r Shah

Jahan's a c c e s s io n , became h is f a v o r ite p o et, and was awarded the

t i t l e o f M alik a l Shu'ra (k in g o f p o e t s ) .^ I t has been recorded

th a t he was in Kashmir in 1637 (1046 H) w r it in g h is Padshah Namar

which he never f in is h e d . The oth er p o et was H ajji Mohammed Jan

Qudsi, whose work i s e n t i t l e d Zafar Nama-i Shah Jahani,. I t i s


52

a l s o a n u n c o m p le te d h i s t o r y o f S h ah J a h a n i n t h e M a th n a v i v e r s e

f o r m . ^ Q u d si came t o I n d i a i n 16 3 2 (1 0 4 2 H ) , a n d w as o r i g i n a l l y

i n t h e s e r v i c e o f 'A b d A l l a h Khan F i r o z J a n g , who one y e a r l a t e r ,

34i n t r o d u c e d him t o t h e c o u r t . L ik e K a lim , Q u d s i was a l s o

r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n w o rk in g on h i s p o e t i c a l h i s t o r y i n 1637

( 1 0 4 6 H ), th o u g h h i s w h e re a b o u ts a r e unknow n. T h e re i s , i n a d d i

t i o n t o t h e s e tw o p o e t i c a l h i s t o r i e s m e n tio n e d h e r e , a t h i r d o n e ,

b u t f o r w h ic h no d a t e s h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d . I t i s th e P a d sh a h Nama

o f Y ahya M ir Mohammed K a s h i . K a s h i a r r i v e d i n I n d i a som etim e

d u r in g S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n , e n t e r e d th e s e r v i c e s o f t h e c o u r t , an d

35r o s e t o th e p o s i t i o n o f I m p e r i a l L i b r a r i a n . ^ S h o r t l y a f t e r t h i s

a p p o in tm e n t , h e w as commanded t o w r i t e a m e t r i c a l h i s t o r y o f Shah

J a h a n . H is w o rk , a l s o e n t i t l e d t h e P a d sh a h Nama w as n e v e r f i n i s h e d

a s h e f e l l o u t o f r o y a l f a v o r , an d p re s u m a b ly was d i s c h a r g e d fro m

h i s d u t i e s .

A b d 'u l Ham id L a h a u r i 's B ad sh ah Nama i s t h e o f f i c i a l

a n d th e m o s t c o m p le te c h r o n i c l e o f th e S h ah J a h a n i e r a . I t i s a

t h r e e v o lu m e w ork d o c u m e n tin g th e f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f S hah J a h a n 'a

r e i g n a s re c k o n e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e l u n a r c a l a n d a r . A lth o u g h one

u s u a l l y a t t r i b u t e s t h e B ad sh ah Nsuna t o L a h a u r i a l o n e , h e w as i n

r e a l i t y o n ly r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e w r i t i n g o f t h e f i r s t tw o v o lu m e s ,

t h a t i s t h e f i r s t tw e n ty y e a r s o f t h e r e i g n (1 6 2 7 -1 6 4 7 / 1 0 57 -1057

H ) . L a h a u r i d ie d i n 1 6 5 4 (IO 65 H ), an d v e r y l i k e l y w en t i n t o

r e t i r e m e n t a few y e a r s p r i o r to t h a t . The c o m p i la t io n o f th e

t h i r d vo lum e w as th u s e n t r u s t e d to h i s p u p i l Mohammed W a r i s . ^


53

As t h i s t e x t w as t h e o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e r e i g n , a c l o s e s c r u

t i n y o f th e f a c t s w as deemed, n e c e s s a r y so a s t o e n s u r e t h a t th e y

d id n o t r e f l e c t u n f a v o r a b l y u p o n S hah J a h a n . The e d i t i n g and

r e v i s i n g w e re t h e t a s k o f t h e d iv a n S a d u l l a h K h an , who w orked

t i l l 1 6 5 6 (1067 H ), t h e d a t e o f h i s d e a t h , w h e reu p o n th e jo b w as

c o n t in u e d by A l a - a l M ulk T u n i t h e n e x t d iv a n . The c h o ic e o f

L a h a u r i a s th e a u t h o r o f t h e o f f i c i a l c o u r t h i s t o r y was b a s e d

up o n h i s r e p u t a t i o n a s a w r i t e r i n t h e f l o r i d p a n e g y r ic t r a d i t i o n

o f A b u l F a z l . Som etim e i n th e 1 1 th o r 1 2 th y e a r , so o n a f t e r th e

d i a n i s s a l o f Q a z w in i, L a h a u r i was summoned o u t o f h i s s e m i - r e t i r e

m en t a n d c a l l e d to c o u r t to a ssu m e t h e p o s i t i o n o f o f f i c i a l c o u r t

h i s t o r i a n . He was th e n c o m m iss io n e d t o w r i t e a h i s t o r y m o d e lle d

on A bul F a z l ' s A k b ar Hama, b u t w h ic h w as t o be on a much m ore70

e l a b o r a t e s c a l e . T he f i r s t two v o lu m es by L a h a u r i w ere com ple

t e d i n 16 4 8 (1037 H ), w h i le Mohammed W a r is ' t h i r d vo lu m e was

f i n i s h e d i n 1657 (1 O67 H)* The m a in s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f o r t h e s e

h i s t o r i a n s w as t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e d a i l y c o u r t a c t i v i t i e s

c o m p ile d by t h e m u n s h is ( c o u r t r e c o r d e r s ) a n d k e p t i n t h e i m p e r i a l

r e c o r d s d e p a r t m e n t . ^ I n a d d i t i o n , L a h a u r i b a s e d m o s t o f h i s

f i r s t vo lum e on th e i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e a d y w r i t t e n by T a b a ta b a i an d

Q a z w in i.

The f i n a l p i e c e o f c o m m iss io n e d h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g

was t h e Cv>pT Cham an by C h a n d a rb h a n . U n lik e t h e o t h e r w orks

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h i s w as n o t a c h r o n i c l e o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e

r e i g n , b u t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e c p u r t , t h e p a l a c e s , t h e f e s t i v a l s ,


54

and. t h e c i t i e s . C h a n d a rb h a n b eg an h i s c a r e e r a s a s e c r e t a r y t o an

o f f i c i a l a t S hah J a h a n 's c o u r t i n 1628 (1 0 J7 H ), a n d e n t e r e d th e

im p e r i a l s e r v i c e i n 1 6 4 5 (1 0 5 4 H ). I n 1647 (1 0 5 6 H) h e was

a p p o in te d w aq a i n a v i s - i - h u d u r , w hose d u t i e s w as t o a t t e n d t o S hah

J a h a n on h i s j o u r n e y s a n d t o r e c o r d t h e d a i l y c o u r t o c c u ra n c e s .^ ®

I t w as p r o b a b ly w i th h i s a p p o in tm e n t to t h i s p o s t t h a t h e w as

c o m m iss io n e d to w r i t e t h e Cha-r Chaman. T h is w ork i s d i v i d e d i n t o

tw o p a r t s : t h e f i r s t c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s f e s t i

v a l s a t th e c o u r t , w h i le t h e s e c o n d s p e a k s a b o u t th e s p le n d o r s o f

th e c o u r t , t h e d a i l y o c c u p a t io n s o f S h ah J a h a n , a n d o f f e r s a

d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e p r i n c i p a l c i t i e s .

A lth o u g h n o t co m m iss io n e d h i s t o r i e s o f S hah J a h a n , i t

h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y t o m e n tio n th e 'A m al i S a l i h o f

Mohammad S a l i h Kanbo a n d th e M u lak h k h as o f I n a y a t K han. T h ese

tw o w o rk s a r e a b r id g e m e n ts o f t h e m uch l o n g e r a n d m ore c o m p lic a

t e d c o u r t h i s t o r i e s . T hey a r e e x t r e m e ly u s e f u l t o t h e s tu d y o f

t h e S hah j a h a n p e r i o d a s th e y p r o v id e o r i e f b u t s u c c i n c t c o v e ra g e

o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e r e i g n . The 'A m al i S a l i h , i n a d d i t i o n ,

t a k e s t h s h i s t o r y o f S h ah J a h a n r i g h t up t o t h e en d o f h i s r e i g n

a n d i n t o t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f A u r a n g z e b 's . ^ L a h a u r i1s an d

W a r i s ' B ad sh ah Nama e n d s a t t h e JO th y e a r o f th e r e i g n , an d d o e s

n o t docum en t t h e im p r is o n m e n t o f S h ah J a h a n b y h i s s o n . The

M u lak h k h as i s t h e o n ly e n t i r e l y t r a n s l a t e d docu m en t fro m th e

S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d , a n d f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y , th e u n p u b l i s h e d

t r a n s l a t i o n o f A .R . P u l l e r , r e v i s e d a n d e d i t e d by W .E. Beg l e y , h a s

b e e n an i n v a l u a b l e a s s e t ( s e e b i b l i o g r a p h y ) .


55

T h a t S h ah J a h a n com m issioned , so many w o rk s a b o u t h im

s e l f i n d i c a t e s t h e n e e d a n d d e s i r e t o e s t a b l i s h h i s p o s i t i o n f o r

t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e f u t u r e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t h e w as l i k e A k b a r ,

b u t d i f f e r e d fro m him i n t h a t he w as b e q u e a th e d a s t a b l e an d p r o s

p e r o u s e m p ir e . H ow ever h i s r i s e t o t h e t h r o n e w as n o t a sm ooth

an d o r d e r l y o n e . As h e w a sn ’ t t h e o n ly c l a im a n t t o t h e t h r o n e , he

h a d t o p l o t , schem e a n d m u rd e r t o o b t a i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f e m p e ro r .

Y e t , i n s p i t e o f t h i s , h e was w e l l r e c e i v e d by t h e p o p u la c e f o r

he h a d d i s p o s e d o f a l l p o s s i b l e r i v a l s o f t h e r o y a l b lo o d an d t h e p e o p le a t l a r g e w ere p r e p a r e d t o w elcom e a r u l e r who h a d show n a b i l i t y a s a g e n e r a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r a f t e r t h e im pot e n t g o v e rn m e n t o f h i s f a t h e r .

One c a n s e e a t t h e b a c k o f a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s , S h ah J a h a n * s n e e d to

show t h e w o r ld t h a t h e w as a l e g i t i m a t e e m p e ro r , a n d t h i s he d id

by o r d e r i n g h i s t o r i e s o f h im s e l f t o b e m ade. He a l s o p la c e d a

g r e a t d e a l o f e m p h a s is on h i s a n c e s t r y , an d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s

d e s c e n d e n c y Yrom T im u r, he e v e n a d a p te d o ne o f T im u r’ s e p i t h e t s

f o r h i m s e l f . He s t y l e d h im s e l f S a h ib Q i r a n ( l o r d o f t h e a u s p i c i

o u s p l a n e t a r y c o n j u n c t i o n ) , w h ich w as a m an n er o f c a l l i n g h im s e l f

a s e c o n d T im u r, a n d t h e r e b y l e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o h i s p o s i t i o n .

E verything from h is re ig n — the f e s t i v a l s , th e a rch i

te c tu r e , the a r ts — were more sumptuous than anything ever cre

a ted . One cou ld dem onstrate t h i s p o in t by lo o k in g a t pages from

h is t o r ic a l m anuscripts o f Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. A com

p arison between any page o f a Shah Jahani m anuscript w ith th a t o f

an Akbari or a Jah an giri one c le a r ly i l l u s t r a t e s t h is su p er io r

l e v e l o f s o p h is t ic a t io n and e leg a n ce . Take fo r example th ree


56-

a u d ie n c e s c e n e s fro m th e r e s p e c t i v e h i s t o r i e s o f t h e s e t h r e e

e m p e ro rs* A k b a r g i v i n g a u d ie n c e t o Abd u r R ahm in fro m th e A kbar

N a m a ^ ( P l a t e LIV), J a h a n g i r i n B a r b a r fro m th e J a h a n g i r N a m a ^

( P l a t e L ), a n d t h e d e p a r t u r e o f A u ra n g z e b f o r t h e D e c c a n , f o l i o

214v fro m t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh a h Nama ( P l a t e X L II l) . I n t h e

S h ah J a h a n i w o rk , t h e a c t i o n u n f o l d s i n a v e r y l i m i t e d s p a c e s

th e v e r y n u c l e u s o f t h e a u d ie n c e h a l l . S h ah J a h a n i s p h y s i c a l l y

s e p a r a t e d fro m th e r e s t o f t h e p e o p le by t h e e n f r a m in g e le m e n ts

o f t h e p i l l a r s . H is im m e d ia te b a c k g ro u n d i s a h a l o , w h ic h s e t s

h im u p a s th e m o s t im p o r t a n t f i g u r e h e r e . I n J a h a n g i r ' s d a r b a r ,

t h e s p a c e r e p r e s e n t e d i s a c t u a l l y no l a r g e r th a n t h a t i n Shah

J a h a n 's a u d i e n c e , b u t t h e p o i n t o f v ie w fro m w h ich h e i s s e e n —

a low p e r s p e c t i v e — m akes h im a much m ore d i s t a n t a n d t h e r e f o r e

a l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e . F u r th e r m o r e , a l th o u g h s e p a r a t e d fro m

t h e r e s t by s i m i l a r a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , h e a p p e a r s h e d g e d i n ,

f o r n o t o n ly ax e t h e p i l l a r s p l a c e d so c l o s e so t h a t h e d o e s n ' t

h a v e much s p a c e a ro u n d h im , b u t th e p r o x im i ty a n d p r o f u s i o n o f

t h e s u r r o u n d in g p e o p le d e t r a c t s fro m h i s c e n t r a l im a g e . The

A k b ar a u d ie n c e s c e n e i s d e p i c t e d i n a v e r y m uch l a r g e r s p a t i a l

a r e a . A lth o u g h s e t a p a r t by b e in g on a th r o n e on a d i a s , A k b a r 's

s i g n i f i c a n c e i s n e g a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s s p a c e i s s h a r e d by

tw o o t h e r f i g u r e s . I n a d d i t i o n , o n e 's a t t e n t i o n c a n n o t f o c u s on

h im , f o r t h e r e i s to o much o t h e r s e c o n d a ry a c t i o n g o in g on , a n d

o n e 's ey e c a n n o t b u t h e l p w a n d e r in g o v e r t h e p a g e . O nly i n th e

S h ah J a h a n i w ork i s t h e r e s u c h a r i g i d s y m m e tr ic a l c o m p o s i t io n


57

w h ic h c l e a r l y d e f i n e s e a c h p e r s o n 's p o s i t i o n . T h is sym m etry

h e i g h te n s th e s e n s e o f s t a b i l i t y a n d ca lm w h ich i n t u r n g iv e s th e

w ork a n a i r o f r e g a l i t y an d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . As m e n tio n e d

p r e v i o u s l y , s o p h i s t i c a t i o n a n d e l e g a n c e a r e t h e p r e v a l e n t f e a t u r e s

o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g .

P e r f e c t i o n a n d o r d e r l i n e s s w e re th u s t h e f e a t u r e s

w h ic h S hah J a h a n saw a s t h e im age o f h i s r e i g n . H ow ever, a l l t h i s

r e g a l i t y , s u m p tu o u s n e s s , e l e g a n c e , a n d p e r f e c t i o n w ere o n ly an

im a g e ; i t a p p e a r e d to o p e r f e c t , a lm o s t f o r c e d . H is h i s t o r i e s do

n o t h a v e t h e e a s y n a r r a t i v e f lo w o f t h e A k b ar Nama. n o r t h e f r a n k

a n d c a n d id o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i . I n s t e a d S hah

J a h a n 's h i s t o r i e s p o r t r a y h im a s t h e p e r f e c t e d im age o f w hat an

i d e a l e m p e ro r s h o u ld b e . T h is a r t i f i c e c a n t h e r e f o r e o n ly b e a

c o v e r f o r a much m ore s e r i o u s p ro b le m , w h ic h h e r e f u s e d t o f a c e

an d w a n te d to c o n c e a l fro m h i s p e o p l e . A lth o u g h a v e r y a b l e

a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d g e n e r a l , h e w as by no m eans f l a w l e s s . He w as

u n a b le t o e x te n d t h e M ughal e m p ire much b ey o n d t h e l i m i t s e s t a b

l i s h e d by A k b a r , a n d e n c o u n te r e d n u m ero u s f a i l u r e s a n d s e tb a c k s i n

c a m p a ig n s i n t h e D eccan a s w e l l a s i n t h e c e n t r a l A s ia n s p h e r e .

M o re o v e r , t h e u p h e a v a ls w h ic h m ark e d h i s r i s e t o pow er o n ly s e r v e d

a s a n e n c o u ra g e m e n t t o t h e b lo o d y w a rs o f s u c c e s s io n s

s o n s , who w ere a l l to o e a g e r to r u l e a n d th o u g h t n o th i n g o f o u s t i n g

t h e i r f a t h e r fro m t h e t h r o n e a n d c o n f in i n g h im to p r i s o n . The

f o l l o w i n g re m a rk by one o f t h e l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s on S hah J a h a n i

h i s t o r y a p t l y t h e r e i g n ' s p r e d i l e c t i o n t o d e s t r u c t i o n .


58

S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n w as th e m o s t g l o r i o u s e p o c h o f m e d ie v a l h i s t o r y . T h e re w as p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r i t y a n d a n a l l - r o u n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e . The m o s t g l o r i o u s b u i l d i n g s w ere e r e c t e d , t h e m o s t a m b i t io u s m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s w ere u n d e r ta k e n . But... u n d e r n e a th t h i s g l i t t e r i n g a r r a y o f pomp an d m a g n i f ic e n c e , s i g n s o f d e c l i n e a r e a l s o n o t i c a b l e , a n d th e s o u r c e o f a l a r g e num ber o f d i s a s t r o u s t e n d e n c ie s w h ic h c u lm in a t e d i n a c r a s h a f t e r t h e d e a th o f A u ra n g z e b may b e w i th j u s t i c e t r a c e d to t h e r e i g n o f Shall J a h a n . 4 5


59

N otes to Chapter I I I

1R.H. P inder-W ilson , "Three I l lu s t r a t e d M anuscripts o f th e Mughal P eriod ," Are O r le n ta lia I I C1957)* 421.

oJ .V .S . W ilkinson, "An Indian M anuscript o f th e

G olestan o f th e Shah Jahan P eriod ," Are O r ie n ta lis I I ( l 957)* 423 .

5ib id , 425.

^Pinder-W ilson, 417•5S ir L eigh Ashton, e d ., The Art o f In d ia and Pakistan

a Commemorative Catalogue o f the E x h ib itio n Held a t th e Roval Academy o f A rts London 1847-1948 (London: Faber and Faber Ltd.1950 ) , p. 167 . :

^Yedda A. Godard, "Un Album de P o r tr a it s des P r in ces Timurides de l ' I n d e ," Athar e Iran 2 (1 9 3 7 )s 179-181.

7Milo C leveland Beach, The Grand Mogul Innae-rial

P a in tin g in In d ia 1600-1660 (W illiam stown: S te r l in g and Francine Clark Art I n s t i t u t e , 19 7 8 ), PP* 73-77•

QRobert S k e lto n , "A D ecorative M otif in Mughal Art,"

in A spects o f Indian P a in t in g , ed: P. Pal (L eiden: E .J . B r i l l , 1972), p. 150.

^Fredrik Robert M artin, The M iniature P a in tin g and P a in ters o f P e r s ia . In d ia and Turkey from the 8th to the 18th Century (London: Holland P r e ss , 1912), p . 85.

10Beach, p . 77*

11ib id , p . 74 .12 Catalogue o f Hig h ly I mportant O rien ta l M anuscripts

and M iniatures The Kevorkian F o u n d a t io n (Sotheby and C o., Monday1 s t December 1969 ) , P. 61.

13Otto Kurz, "Volume o f Mughal P a in tin g s and M iniatu r e s ." Journal o f th e Warburg and Courtland I n s t i t u t e 30( 1967) : 261 .

14R.C. Majumdar, gen . e d . , The H istory and C ulture o f the Ind ian P e o p le , v o l . 7* The Mughal Empire (Bombay:B haratiya Vidya Bhavan, 1974)* p. 15.

15 Sir Richard Bum , e d . , The Cambridge H isto ry o f In d ia , v o l . IV: The Mughal P eriod (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1937 ) , P. 69 .


60

^M ajundar, p.4«17'Deborah Brown L evine, "The V ic to r ia and A lbert

Museum Akbar-Nama: A Study in H isto ry , Myth and Image" (Ph.D. d is s e r t a t io n , The U n iv ers ity o f M ichigan, 1974), P» 110.

18ib id , p . 1 0 9 .

19 Stuart Cary Welch, Im peria l Mughal P a in tin g (New York; George B r a z il le r , I n c . , 1978), p i . 14*

20Majundar, pp. 8- 9 .

Beach, p . 61.22Alexander R ogers, tr a n s . and Henry B everidge, e d . ,

The T u zu k -i-Jah an glri or Memoirs o f Jah an gir . 2nd ed. (D elh i: Munshiram M anoharlal, 19^ 8), I p . 215.

2^Beach, p. 4 3 .OA

Percy Brown, Indian P a in tin g Under the Maighals (Oxford: The Clarendon P r e ss , 1924) , f r o n t is p ie c e .

^Wayne E. B eg ley , e d . , "C hronicle o f the King o f the World: The Shah Jahan Nama. o f 'In a y a t Khan, th e n in e tee n th century m anuscript t r a n s la t io n o f A.R. F u ller preserved in the B r it is h L ibrary (Add. 3 0 ,7 7 7 )" (T y p escr ip t, 1 9 8 1 ), p . i x .

^ i b i d , p . x i .

C harles Ambrose S torey , P ersian L iter a tu r e : a B io-B iograp h ica l Survey (London: Roayl A s ia t ic S o c ie ty o f Great B r ita in and Ir e la n d , 1927-1939), P» 565*

^ ® ib id , p . 5 6 6 .

29D.N. M arshall, Mughals in In d ia : a B iograp h ica l Survey (Bombay: A sia P u b lish in g House, 1 967), P« 240.

^ B e g le y , p. x iv .

^ S torey , p. 572.

^ S la r sh a ll, p. 8 3 4 *

^^M. Hidayat H osain, "Contemporary H isto r ia n s During th e Reign o f Shah Jahan," I s la m ic C ulture 15 ( 1941)* 68 .


61

^ S t o r e y , p . 568.

^ M a rsh a ll, p. 1893 .

56ib id , p. 20 .

37 S torey , p. 574 .

^H oaain, 72.39B eg ley , p . x v i i i .

4°S to r e y , p . 570.

41 C harles R ieu , C atalogue o f th e P ersian Manuscript** in th e B r it is h Museum (London: B r it is h Museum, 1879), I , p. 263 .

42Bum , p. 216.

4^Mario B u ssa g li , Indian M in ia tu res, tr a n s . Raymond R udorff (New D elh i: The Macmillan Company o f In d ia L im ited , 1976), p i . 24.

44Welch, p i . 17.45Banarsi Prasad Saksena, H istory o f Shah Jahan o f

D flh i (A llahabad: C entral Book Depot, 1962), p . xxx.


62

CHAPTER IV

THE PAINTINGS OP THE WINDSOR CASTLE BADSHAH NAMA

The Windsor C a stle Bad shah Nam a. i s an unique document

fo r th e study o f Mughal p a in tin g during the re ig n o f Shah Jahan,

i t b ein g the on ly su r v iv in g example o f a contemporaneous i l lu s t r a t e d

h is t o r ic a l m anuscript. A study o f t h i s m an u scrip t's p a in tin g s

a llo w s fo r a broader understanding o f th e nature o f h i s t o r ic a l

p a in tin g , as w e ll as o f the v a r io u s a r t i s t s whose works are repre

sen ted . An a n a ly s is o f th e imagery o f the p a in tin g s en ab les one to

comprehend the way Shell Jahan wanted h im se lf to be p erce iv ed by

o th ers and th e r e fo r e , th e con cep tion he had o f h im se lf . A fter

surveyin g the sc h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e and g iv in g a p h y sica l d e sc r ip t io n

o f th e Windsor m anuscript, t h is chapter w i l l con cen trate on a

them atic a n a ly s is o f th e p a in tin g s con sid ered as a group — based

upon th e more d e ta ile d assessm ent o f each p a in tin g in th e ca ta lo g u e .

Survey o f S ch o la r ly L ite r a tu r e

The s c h o la r ly l i t e r a t u r e on the Windsor C a stle Badnhafr

Mama i s extrem ely sca n ty . Very few o f the i l l u s t r a t i o n s have even

been reproduced, and excep t fo r a few p a ss in g r e fe r e n c e s , n o th in g o f

substance has ever been p u b lish ed on th e m anuscript i t s e l f . The

e a r l i e s t contemporary r e fe m c e to th e m anuscript appeared in 1950 ,

in S ir Leigh A sh ton 's The Art o f In d ia and P a k ista n , th e ca ta logu e


63

to an e x h ib it io n h eld in 1947 at London's Eoyal Ac ad any o f A rt,

The Windsor m anuscript was one o f th e item s e x h ib ite d , and in th e

ca ta lo g u e , f o l i o 117*, th e 1632 a s sa u lt on the Portuguese a t Huglai

was reproduced, dim ensions o f both the p a in tin g and page were pro

v id e d , a long w ith a summary o f th e event and th e d a te o f th e work,

but n oth in g was m entioned about the m anuscript as a w hole. The next

p u b lish ed page from th e Windsor m anuscript w^s in W.G. Ar c h e r 's

Indian Mini a t Tire s o f 1960, a p ic tu r e book d ea lin g w ith both Bajput

and Mughal p a in t in g s . The p a in tin g reproduced was f o l i o 49r,

Jahangir R eceiv in g P rin ce Khurram A fter Hia S u ccessfu l Campaf/fn

A gainst the Rana o f Mewar. Formal q u a l i t i e s o f the work were

d iscu ssed on ly c u r s o r ily !

a recou rse to m od ellin g and shading th a t occured under Shah Jah an ,. . f ig u r e s r e ta in th e q u ie t g ra v ity from th e Jah an giri p erio d , a g r e a te r u se o f p e rsp ec tiv e to convey the i l l u s i o n o f d e p t h . . .

In 1963* B a rrett and Gray’ s P a in tin g o f In d ia , a gen eral survey o f

a l l o f Ind ian p a in tin g , reproduced f o l i o l6 5 r , Shah Jahan Hunting

N jg lao . The authors dated th e p a in tin g s in the m anusoript to the

l a s t yea rs o f Shah Jahan*s r e ig n , and a lso s ta te d th a t:

the m anuscript was tw ice in the 18th century "improved" by the a d d itio n o f more p a in t in g s . Some o f th e se are in the most rom antic s t y l e which th e Mughal school ever a c h i e v e d . . . 2

T his claim seems to be u n ju s t i f ie d , as a comparison between any o f

th e Windsor m anuscript p a in tin g s and one from an 18th century manu

s c r ip t , such as the Shah Jahan Nama in the B r it is h L ibrary immedi

a te ly r e v e a ls very d i s t in c t and d if f e r e n t c h a r a c te r is t ic s which

cannot be exp la in ed away by m erely assuming th e hands o f d if f e r e n t


64

a r t i s t s . (S ee P la te LV). The s t y le o f th e B r it is h L ibrary

m anuscript i s c h a r a c te r is t ic o f the l a t e r p er io d and i s very

remote from th a t o f th e Windsor m anuscript.

I n 1 9 6 3 S .C .W e lc h p u b l i s h e d The A r t o f M ughal I n d i a .

th e c a t a lo g u e t o a n e x h i b i t i o n h e l d a t t h e A s ia H ouse i n New Y o rk .

He r e p r o d u c e d f o l i o 9 4 v , th e D eath o f Khan J a h a n L o d i . H is

c o v e ra g e on t h e m a n u s c r ip t was t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d t o t h a t d a t e .

C o n v e n t io n a l c o u r t s u b j e c t s p r e d o m in a te , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o m a g n i f i c e n t p r o c e s s i o n s , c ro w d ed w i th t h e p a n o p ly o f th e G rand M o g u l, h u n t in g s c e n e s , w ed d in g s a n d b a t t l e s .

He a l s o l i s t e d t h e nam es o f t e n a r t i s t s whom h e c la im e d c o n t r i

b u te d t o t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s ; th e y a r e L a le h a n d , S a d i k i , M urad " p u p i l

o f N a d ir a l Zam an", B i c h i t r , B o la , B a lc h a n d , A h id , P a k /P ia k , s h i r

D a s t , a n d D a lw a t .^ i n 1 9 6 8 , R andhaw a an d G a l b r a i t h i n I n d i a n

P a i n t i n g , t h e S c e n e s , Them es an d L e g e n d s , a g e n e r a l s u rv e y b o o k on

a l l o f I n d i a n p a i n t i n g , p u b l i s h e d tw o a d d i t i o n a l f o l i o s , 7 ^ t S o la r

W eighm ent o f S hah J a h a n ? a n d 220v . H u n tin g l i o n a t B a r i . B o th w ere

d i s c u s s e d a s b e in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t no

a c c o u n t o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t i t s e l f w as g iv e n . A n o th e r p u b l i s h e d

p a g e fro m t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t a p p e a r e d i n B . G a s c o ig n e 's The

G r e a t M o g h u ls , a p r o f u s e l y I l l u s t r a t e d p o p u la r b o o k on t h e M ughal

p e r io d * P o l i o 5 0 V, t h e A r r i v a l o f A sa f Khan a n d t h e P r in c e a

fro m L a h o re w as r e p r o d u c e d , a n d w as d i s c u s s e d n e i t h e r a s a S h ah

J a h a n i p a i n t i n g n o r i n t h e c o n te x t o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

I n 1 9 7 6 , S .C . W elch i n h i s book I n d i a n D raw in g s an d

P a i n t e d S k e tc h e s o n ce a g a i n made r e f e r e n c e t o t h e W indso r


65

m a n u s c r ip t . H ere he d a t e d a l l t h e p a i n t i n g s t o S hah J a h a n * s

r e i g n , th u s q u e s t i o n e d th e s t a t e m e n t made by B a r r e t t an d G ray i n

196 3 t h a t p a r t o f th e m a n u s c r ip t w as a d d e d i n th e 1 8 th c e n t u r y .

He r e p r o d u c e d a p r e p a t o r y s k e t c h f o r f o l i o 4 2 v , R e c e p t io n o f

B r lh c e K hurram upon h i s d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e M evar c a m p a ig n , now i n

t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y , w h ic h w as a l s o r e p r o d u c e d i n P e rc y

Brown* s I n d i a n P a i n t i n g U nder th e M u g h a l a a n d J .V .S . W i lk in s o n 's

M ughal P a i n t i n g . W elch o f f e r e d th e f o l l o w i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o th e

m a n u s c r ip t :

. . . some m i n i a t u r e s seem t o h a v e b e e n done so o n a f t e r t h e e v e n t th e y d e s c r i b e w h i le o t h e r s fro m v ag u e w r i t t e n o r sp o k e n d e s c r i p t i o n s . . . seem s th e a r t i s t s p a i n t e d m o s t o f t h e im p o r ta n t e v e n t s a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n w as m ade when th e boo k was a s s e m b le d a t t h e en d o f S hah J a h a n 's r e i g n . . . 5

I t i s v e r y p o s s i b l e t h a t th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s w ere n o t a l l c o n c e iv e d

a s a w h o le , an d t h i s p ro b le m w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r on i n t h i s

ch ap ter. In 1974* E. Binney a lso reproduced another prepatory

s k e t c h t o a p a i n t i n g i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t . ^ He s u g g e s te d

t h a t t h i s w ork w as t h e s o u r c e f o r th e s k e t c h d i s c u s s e d by W elch .

The m o s t r e c e n t a n d th e m o s t d e t a i l e d t r e a tm e n t o f

t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t i s t o b e fo u n d i n M .C. B e a c h 's The G rand

M ogul o f 1978* One f i n d s i n t h i s bo o k a s h o r t h i s t o r y o f and

some r e f l e x i o n s on c e r t a i n o f th e p r o b le m a t i c f e a t u r e s o f th e

m a n u s c r i p t . I n p a r t i c u l a r h e n o t e s t h e a r t i s t s a n d th e a p p e a ra n c e

o f th e m a n u s c r i p t . F o r t h e a r t i s t s , h e c i t e s n in e nam es a lo n g

w i th t h e i r a s c r i b e d w o rk s . The a r t i s t s m e n tio n e d a r e B a lc h a n d ,

L a lc h a n d , Ham D as, M u rad , B i c h i t r , B o la , A b id , P a y a g , an d M ir


66

7D u s t . T h e re a r e a few d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n h i s l i s t , t h e one

p r o v id e d by W elch i n 1963* ‘tile nam es o f t h o s e who a c t u a l l y

w orked on th e m a n u s c r i p t . T h is p ro b le m w i l l b e c l a r i f i e d i n

C h a p te r V o f t h i s s t u d y . I n c o n n e c t io n w i th th e p r o b le m a t i c

f e a t u r e s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t , B each s u g g e s te d t h a t th e m a n u s c r ip t a s

i t i s to d a y may n o t b e i n t a c t . The e x i s t e n c e o f a num ber o f w orks

r e l a t e d t o th e s u b j e c t o f h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g l e d h im t o b e l i e v e

t h a t some o f th e s e may h a v e b e e n c o n c e iv e d f o r t h e W in d so r m anu-Q

s c r i p t . T h a t n o n e o f th e p a i n t i n g s i n th e m a n u s c r ip t w ere d a te d

o n ly c a s t , f u r t h e r u n c e r t a i n t y upon t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , f o r i t was

im p o s s ib l e t o know w h e th e r th e p a i n t i n g s w ere s p e c i a l l y co m m issio n ed

f o r t h e p r o j e c t o r w h e th e r th e y w ere c h o s e n fro m a s t o c k p i l e

o f e x i s t i n g p a i n t i n g s . T h a t t h e v a r i o u s s c a t t e r e d p a i n t i n g s o f

a h i s t o r i c a l n a t u r e w ere made f o r an i l l u s t r a t e d h i s t o r y o f Shah

J a h a n i s p r o b a b ly t r u e , b u t i t w ou ld b e m ore p r o b a b le to assum e

t h a t t h e y w ere made f o r p e rh a p s t h e se c o n d v o lu m e o f L a h a u r i 1s

h i s t o r y o r p e r h a p s f o r a n o t h e r h i s t o r y , r a t h e r th a n f o r th e

W in d so r B ad sh ah Nama i t s e l f . The se c o n d f a c t o r w h ic h c r e a t e d t h i s

u n c e r t a i n t y was th e o b v io u s e v id e n c e o f r e m o u n t in g t h a t th e

m a n u s c r ip t u n d e rw e n t . B e c a u se o f t h i s , B each su p p o se d t h a t i n t h e

p r o c e s s some o f th e o r i g i n a l p a i n t i n g s may h a v e f a l l e n o u t . T h a t

t h e m a n u s c r ip t was r e m o u n te d i s u n d e n i a b le , b u t th e r e s e a r c h

c o n d u c te d f o r t h i s s tu d y show s t h a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e manu

s c r i p t i s n o t r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f ro m w h a t i t w as i n th e 1 7 t h

c e n t u r y .


67

The s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e h a s shown t h a t t h e

m a j o r i t y o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s m ade t o t h e m a n u s c r ip t h a s te n d e d t o

i s o l a t e o n e o r tw o w o rk s a n d d i s c u s s them a s s i n g l e p a i n t i n g s , an d

n o t a s a p a r t o f a l a r g e r f ra m e w o rk . E x c e p t f o r t h e p a s s a g e s i n

S .C . W e lc h 's I n d i a n D ra w in g s an d P a i n t e d S k e tc h e s a n d M .C . B e a c h 's

The G ran d M o g u l, no f a c t u a l i n f o n n a t i o n a b o u t t h e m a n u s c r ip t h a d

e v e r b e e n im p a r te d . B o th W elch a n d B each b r o u g h t u p th e q u e s t i o n

o f c e r t a i n i r r e g u l a r i t i e s t h a t a r e im m e d ia te ly e v i d e n t when o ne

v ie w s th e m a n u s c r ip t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . I n f a c t , t h e r e i s n o th i n g

o v e r l y p r o b le m a t i c a b o u t t h e m a n u s c r i p t , an d t h e e n s u in g p o r t i o n

o f t h i s s tu d y w i l l p l a c e th e s e and o t h e r q u e s t i o n s i n t o t h e i r

p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e s .

P h y sica l D escr ip tio n and Pat* o f th e M anuscript

The W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh a h Nama i s a l a r g e an d m ag n i

f i c e n t m a n u s c r ip t t h a t m e a s u re s 2 5 x 14&"* I t i s bou n d i n

g i l d e d l e a t h e r w i th m u l t i - c o l o r e d f l o r a l d e s ig n s a ro u n d i t s

b o r d e r . I t c o n t a i n s tw o h u n d re d an d f o r t y o ne b u f f c o l o r e d p a g e s

o f a u n ifo rm s i z e o f 22-£" x 14"» an d e a c h p a g e i s a d o rn e d w i th

f i n e l y i n l a i d g o ld l e a f d e s i g n s . Of t h e s e tw o h u n d re d an d f o r t y

one f o l i o s , t h e r e a r e f o r t y f o u r i l l u s t r a t i o n s an d tw o i l l u m i n a

t i o n s . T h e se i l l u s t r a t i o n s a l l d e p i c t s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s fro m th e

l i f e o f S h ah J a h a n an d c o r r e s p o n d t o c e r t a i n p a s s a g e s i n th e t e x t .

A lth o u g h t h e p a i n t i n g s , v a r y i n s i z e , on th e a v e r a g e th e y a r e a b o u t

13 3 /4 " x 1 0 " . 0 ^ f o r t y - f o u r i l l u s t r a t e d p a g e s i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t , o n ly f o r t y - t w o r e l a t e t o s p e c i f i c e v e n t s . T h e s e f o r t y


68

tw o p a i n t i n g s c a n b e c o n v i e n t l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two b ro a d c a te g o

r i e s , o f s c e n e s w i th i n t h e c o u r t , a n d s c e n e s o u t s i d e th e c o u r t .

O f t h e s c e n e s w i t h i n t h e c o u r t t h e r e a r e d a r b a r s ( a u d ie n c e s ) a n d

s c e n e s o f f e s t i v a l s an d c e l e b r a t i o n s . A l t o g e t h e r t h e r e a r e foui> -

t e e n p a i n t i n g s o f d a r b a r s an d e le v e n o f f e s t i v a l s a n d c e l e b r a t i o n s .

B a t t l e s , h u n t s a n d v i s i t s t o h o ly s h r i n e s c o m p ris e th e s c e n e s

o u t s i d e th e c o u r t . Ten p a i n t i n g s a r e d e v o te d t o b a t t l e s , f i v e to

h u n t s a n d tw o t o v i s i t i n g h o ly s h r i n e s . T h e se f o r t y - t w o w orks

a r e d i s p e r s e d th r o u g h o u t t h e m a n u s c r ip t a n d a r e a r r a n g e d a c c o r d in g

t o t h e t e x t u a l s e q u e n c e o f th e B a a sh a h Nama. The o t h e r tw o w o rk s ,

t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s ( f o l i o s 2v a n d 3 r ) , a r e n o n - n a r r a t i v e i n n a t u r e ,

a n d th e y a r e fo u n d r i g h t a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e w o rk . I n a d d i t i o n

t h e r e a r e tw o i l l u m i n a t e d p a g e s , f o l i o s 1v a n d 2 r , w h ic h a r e n o n

n a r r a t i v e g e o m e tr ic d e s i g n s . T h e se f o u r r i o n - n a r r a t i v e p a g e s

f u n c t i o n r a t h e r l i k e t i t l e p a g e s w h ic h s e r v e t o i n t r o d u c e th e

c o n t e n t s o f th e b o o k . A c o lo p h o n d a t e s t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e

t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t e x t b y Mohammed Amin o f M essh ed t o 1 6 5 7 -

1658 (1067 H).9

U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e m a n u s c r ip t

c i t e d tw o d i f f e r e n t f o l i a t i o n s , c o r r e s p o n d in g e i t h e r to th e o r i g i

n a l P e r s i a n o n e o r t o t h e one t h a t w as a d d e d l a t e r i n We s t e m

n u m e r a l s . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e c o r r e s p o n d t o th e a c t u a l d i s p o s i t i o n

o f t h e p a g e s i n th e m a n u s c r i p t . T h is h o w ev er w as am ended i n

D ecem ber 1980 by th e l i b r a r i a n s a t W in d so r C a s t l e , an d i t i s t h i s

new f o l i a t i o n w h ic h i s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . P r e s e n t l y t h e r e a r e


69

t h ir t y lo o s e sh e e ts in s e r te d o p p o site c e r ta in o f th e p a in tin g s in

th e m anuscript. These s h e e ts , w r itten in P ersia n , summarize a l l

hut s ix o f the even ts d ep ic te d in the p a in tin g s , and they were

in clu d ed in the m anuscript sometime in th e 18th century. They

m ight have been added when the m anuscript was in th e p o sse ss io n o f

Nawab A saf ud-Daula o f Lucknow who bought i t in th e 18th century

fo r 12,000 s i l v e r rupees (approxim ately £ 1 5 0 0 ) .10 The exact date

o f th e purchase and the s e l l e r are unknown. Prom the Nawab's

lib r a r y , th e m anuscript was o ffe r e d to Lord Teignsmouth, then the

Governor General o f In d ia , who deemed th a t i t would be a f i t t i n g1 1g i f t to th e King o f England, George I I I , and thus th e m anuscript

found i t s way to th e Royal L ibrary a t Windsor C a stle .

The borders o f the p a in tin g s and th e obvious s ig n s

o f rem ounting, e s p e c ia l ly on f o l i o s 2v and 94v» le a d s one to

b e lie v e th a t th e Windsor m anuscript as i t i s today i s n o t a tru e

r e f le c t io n o f what i t look ed l ik e in th e 17th cen tu ry . Two

exp lan ation s have been proposed* th a t the m anuscript f e l l apart

and was com p letely remounted a t a l a t e r d a te , or th a t the manu

s c r ip t was never a c tu a lly e n t ir e ly f in is h e d , and was assem bled on ly

a t some la t e r d a te . The second h y p o th esis i s p re ferred . Prom the

colophon one knows th a t th e tr a n sc r ip t io n o f th e t e x t was ach ieved

in 1657-1658, a d ate which does not im ply th a t th e m anuscript was

a c tu a lly in a f in is h e d s t a t e . In l i g h t o f the tumultuous even ts

th a t occured a t th a t tim e , which le d to Shah Jahan 's eventual

imprisonment by Aurangzeb, i t i s very p o s s ib le th a t the m anuscript


70

w as n e v e r a c t u a l l y f i n i s h e d . T h u s , t h e r e r e m a in e d a t e x t u a l copy

f o r t h e f i r s t t e n y e a r s a n d t h e f o r t y - s i x i l l u s t r a t i o n s . O b v io u s ly

A u ra n g z e b w o u ld h a v e h a d no d e s i r e t o c o m p le te t h i s g r a n d i o s e p ie c e

o f s e l f - f l a t t e r y a n d p ro p a g a n d a w h ic h h i s f a t h e r h a d c o n c e iv e d ,

a n d m o re o v e r i t i s v e r y u n l i k e l y t h a t w h i le i n p r i s o n S h ah J a h a n

w o u ld h a v e g iv e n t h i s p r o j e c t m uch th o u g h t , f o r i t c o u ld no l o n g e r

s e r v e i t s o r i g i n a l d e s i g n s . I n th e c to u rse o f t h i s s t u d y , e v id e n c e

p o i n t s i n f a v o r o f a n u n f i n i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t . F i r s t l y , t h e sh am sas

on th e o p e n in g f o l i o s o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t a r e u n i n s c r i b e d . S ham sas

u s u a l l y c o n t a i n t h e nam e o f t h e p a t r o n , a n d a c o m p a r is o n w i th one

1 2fro m a S h ah J a h a n i a lb u m ( P l a t e L V l) r e v e a l s i t t o b e p r o f u s e l y

i n s c r i b e d w i t h a g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e nam e o f S h ah J a h a n . A n o th e r

1 5sh a m sa , t h i s one fro m a l a t e S h ah J a h a n i a lbum i s u n i n s c r i b e d

( p l a t e L V I l ) , a n d a g a i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a lb u m , l i k e th e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t , may h a v e a l s o m e t t h e same f a t e o f h a v in g ^ n e v e r b e e n

t o t a l l y c o m p le te d .

F u r th e r m o r e , th e b o r d e r s o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t

a r e u n l i k e an y o f t h o s e i n c o n te m p o ra n e o u s a lb u m s o r m a n u s c r i p t s .

T hey a r e m uch h e a v i e r a n d s u r p r i s i n g l y u n o r n a t e i n d e s i g n , an d

l a c k t h e c o l o r e d f i g u r e s , a n i m a ls , p l a n t s , a n d b i r d s w h ic h a r e

fo u n d i n m o s t S h ah J a h a n i a lb u m s a n d m a n u s c r i p t s . I n an e a r l y

m a n u s c r ip t o f t h e p e r i o d , a B u s ta n o f S a d i w h ic h i s c u r r e n t l y i n

t h e B r i t i s h Museum, t h e b o r d e r s e x h i b i t

g o ld m a r g in a l d e c o r a t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f b i r d s a n d a n im a ls i nt r e e s a n d f l o w e r s a g a i n s t a c o l o r e d


71

Of course i t i s e n t ir e ly p o ss ib le that h is to r ic a l manuscripts may

have had a cer ta in kind o f border, but there i s no way o f knowing

fo r sure. But g iven the l e s s jew el-rlike f in is h , i t i s in a l l

p rob ab ility more l ik e ly th a t the present borders o f the Windsor

manuscript were not the production o f the im perial a t e l ie r o f Shah

Jahan, and as such fu rth er supports the notion th at the manuscript

was n ot compiled under Shah Jahan*s su pervision .

Although the m ajority o f the p a in tin gs are in proper

chronological order, th ere are a few d iscrep en c ies . But asid e from

the p a in tin gs showing d iscrep en c ies in the ages o f Shah Jahan and

the princes (to be d iscu ssed in the C atalogue), only one subject

seems d is tr a c t in g ly out o f sequence. This i s f o l io 214v. De-parture

o f Aurangzeb fo r the Deccanr which occured in 1655 ( l 045 *0, w hile

the preceeding s e t o f p a in tin g s , the pilgrim age to the shrine o f

Khwaja M u'inal Din C h ish ti, took p lace in 1636 (1046 H). This how-

ever may have been a d e lib e r a te arrangement in order to s itu a te the

departure scene ju s t before Aurangzeb*s return from the Deccan,

f o l io 217v, which occured in 1637 (1046 H). In ad d ition , a rather

su rp risin g om ission from the manuscript i s the coronation scene,

which i f there were one, should come before f o l io 50v , the A rrival

o f Asaf Khan and the P rinces from Lahore. I t seems te r r ib ly strange

th a t Shah Jahan would have n eg lec ted to in clu d e a d ep iction o f the

very event th a t launched h is career as emperor o f the Mughal empire,

a p o s itio n fo r which he fought and schemed so hard to obta in . These

above mentioned fa c to r s corroborate the h yp othesis th at the pa in tin gs

in the manuscript may not have been assembled u n t i l some time a f te r


72

t h e ir ex ecu tio n .

The in c lu s io n o f seem ingly m isp laced even ts r e la t in g

to th e princehood o f Shah Jahan has g r e a t ly d istu rb ed v a r io u s

sch o la rs who have d isc u sse d the m anuscript. Such scen es are in

r e a l i t y n o t m isp laced , fo r as Wayne B egley f i r s t observed , th e se

in c id e n ts were an in te g r a l p art o f L ah au ri's t e x t and were in tr o -16

duced fo r d id a c t ic purposes. They tak e th e form o f f la sh b a ck s or

as p a r a l le l in c id e n ts . One such example can be found in f o l i o 135v,

which fo llo w s the d e p ic t io n o f Aurangzeb's courage in an elephant

f ig h t ( f o l i o 134^ ). The purpose o f th e second p a in tin g i s to show

Shah Jah an 's own v a lo r during a t ig e r hunt when he was a p r in ce .

Here i s a prime example where th e author d e l ib e r a te ly f l a t t e r s Shah

Jahan by showing th a t he was as brave i f n o t braver than h is own

son. While Aurangzeb o n ly fended o f f an enraged e lep h an t, P r in ce

Khurram a c tu a lly saved th e l i f e o f a serv a n t. This and th e o th er

d ep icted f e a t s o f P r in ce Khurram ( f o l i o s 43v; 46v-4 7 ^ j 48v-49r;

192v; 194v**‘'95r ) are thus e n t ir e ly c o n s is te n t w ith th e primary

purpose o f the m anuscrip t, the g lo r i f i c a t io n o f Shah Jahan.

T his d is s e r t a t io n does n o t purport to g iv e d e f in i t e

answers to a l l problems w ith in th e m anuscript, i t goes o n ly as f a r

as to o u t lin e them and to o f f e r c e r ta in p o s s ib le s o lu t io n s . The

c o n c lu s io n s a rr iv ed a t here are based both on fa c tu a l m a ter ia l and

com parative d ed u ctio n s, fo r which con crete ev idence i s q u ite l im ite d .

I t i s hoped th a t fu tu r e r esea rch in th e area w i l l uncover a d d itio n a l

in form ation th a t w i l l c o n tr ib u te to an even g re a te r understanding o f

t h i s m anuscript in p a r t ic u la r and Shah Jahani p a in tin g in g en e ra l.


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T h e m a tic D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e P a i n t i n g s

T h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e s tu d y w i l l a n a l y z e t h e i l l u s t r a

t i o n s i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t f ro m a t h e m a t i c p o i n t o f v ie w .

T h e se i l l u s t r a t i o n s c a n h e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o th e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s :

tw o f r o n t i s p i e c e s , f o u r t e e n d a r b a r s , e l e v e n f e s t i v a l s a n d c e l e b r a

t i o n s , t e n b a t t l e s , f i v e h u n t s , a n d tw o v i s i t s to* h o ly shrines.

E x c e p t f o r t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s , th e y r e p r e s e n t t h e d i f f e r e n t

a c t i v i t i e s t h a t w e re o f im p o r ta n c e t o S hah J a h a n . A lth o u g h show

i n g v a r i o u s f a c e t s o f l i f e a t th e c o u r t , th e y r e m a in u n i f i e d i n

t h e i r m e ss a g e a n d i m p l i c a t i o n t o th e im ag e S h ah J a h a n w is h e d to

p o r t r a y , t h a t i s , t h a t h e w as a p e r f e c t , a lm o s t d i v i n e r u l e r . The

tw o f r o n t i s p i e c e s d i r e c t l y m a n i f e s t t n i s im ag e a n d a s s u c h , s e r v e

a s a m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e i n t r o d u c t i o n , n o t o n ly t o th e p i c t o r i a l

l a y o u t o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t , b u t a l s o t o i t s i c o n o g r a p h i c a l i m p l i c a

t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f o r t y - f o u r p a i n t i n g s , t h e r e a r e

tw o i l l u m i n a t e d p a g e s w h ic h b e g in t h e m a n u s c r i p t . T hey a r e g e o

m e t r i c d e s ig n s c a l l e d s h a m s a s . A sh a m sa , o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d a s

• s u n b u r s t ' , i s a p i c t u r e o f t h e su n r e n d e r e d i n a p r o f u s e l y

d e c o r a t e d g e o m e t r ic d e s i g n . I n a r c h i t e c t u r e t h e s e p i c t u r e s w ere

17o f t e n a f f i x e d t o t h e g a t e s o r w a l l o f p a l a c e s . A b u l F a z l

r e f e r s t o t h e sh am sa a s

a d i v i n e l i g h t , w h ic h God d i r e c t l y t r a n s f e r s t o k i n g s , w i th o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f m en; a n d k in g s a r e f o n d o f e x t e r n a l s D e ln d o u r b e c a u s e th e y c o n s i d e r i t a n im age o f th e D iv in e g l o r y . 18


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T he w ord sn am sa i s p r o b a b ly d e r i v e d e i t h e r fro m

'S h a m a s h ', t h e nam e o f t h e o ld S e m i t ic su n g o d , o r fro m th e

A r a b ic w ord 'S h a m s ', m e a n in g t h e sun* S h am sas h a v e b e e n i n t e r

p r e t e d a s h e a v e n ly im a g e s , t h e c e n t e r o f t h e d e s ig n s b e in g t h e

a x i s w h ic h c o n n e c ts t h e e x i s t e n t i a l w o r ld w i th t h o s e a b o v e an d

b e lo w . O f te n t im e s t h e c e n t e r o f t h e im a g e w o u ld be i n s c r i b e d

W ith t h e nam e o f t h e p r e s e n t e m p e ro r ( P l a t e L V l) o r w i th h i s

s e a l ( P l a t e L V I I l ) . I n m a n u s c r i p t s an d a lb u m s th e y f u n c t i o n e d a s

th e o p e n in g p a g e s , a s i s t h e c a s e i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t .

The sh a m sa s h e r e , h o w e v e r , a r e u n i n s c r i b e d , a n d a s h a s a l r e a d y

b e e n m e n t io n e d , t h i s f e a t u r e may b e i n d i c a t i v e t h a t t h e m a n u s c r ip t

i s an u n f i n i s h e d o n e .

The F r o n t i s p i e c e s

Im m e d ia te ly f o l l o w i n g th e two sh a m sa s a r e t h e f r o n t i s

p i e c e s . T h ese tw o f a c i n g p a g e s c o n s i s t o f a p o r t r a i t o f T im ur

on th e r i g h t s i d e , a n d a p o r t r a i t o f Shah J a h a n on t h e o t h e r .

B o th a r e s e a t e d on su m p tu o u s t h r o n e s , an d T im u r i s i n t h e a c t o f

h a n d in g a crow n t o S hah J a h a n . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s s c e n e

i s t h a t S h ah J a h a n 's p o s i t i o n on tn e t h r o n e , t h a t i s , a s t h e

p r e s e n t r u l e r , i s b e in g s a n c t i o n e d a n d a p p ro v e d by T im u r , t h e

f o r e f a t h e r o f t h e M ughal l i n e . The ic o n o g ra p h y o f t h i s m o t i f

a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a n i n n o v a t i o n o f th e S hah J a h a n i e r a , f o r

n o t h i n g s i m i l a r t o t h i s i s t o be fo u n d i n a n y e a r l i e r w o rk s . As

th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t- i s t h e o n ly e x t a n t h i s t o r i c a l m a n u s c r ip t

o f t h i s p e r i o d , i t i s i m p o s s ib l e t o know w h e th e r o t h e r su c h


75

m a n u s c r i p t s h a d t h i s ty p e o f ic o n o g ra p h y f o r t h e i r f r o n t i s p i e c e s .

A lbum s o f t h e p e r i o d , o f w h ic h t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l ,

e x h i b i t f r o n t i s p i e c e s w i t h an im a g ry n o t u n l i k e t h a t o f th e

W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t . T h ey a r e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t th e y show

T im u r , B a b u r a n d Humayun on one p a g e , a n d S h ah J a h a n , J a h a n g i r

a n d A k b a r on tn e f a c i n g o n e . I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e r e s p e c t i v e

w a z i r s o f e a c h e m p e ro r a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d . To d a t e t h e r e e x i s t

f o u r e x a m p le s o f a lbum f r o n t i s p i e c e s . T hey a r e i n t h e N a s i r u d -20 21

B in A lbum . t h e M in to A lbum , t h e l e f t p o r t i o n o f th e L a te S h ah

22J a h a n A lbum , an d th e r i g h t p o r t i o n fro m a n o t h e r r o y a l a lb u m . J

The s a n c t i o n i n g o f S h ah J a h a n a s tn e l e g i t i m a t e em p ero r i s m o s t

e v i d e n t i n t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s t o t h e M in to A lbum . The r i g h t

p o r t i o n , i n t h e V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t M useum, show s T im u r , B ab u r

a n d Humayun e n th r o n e d w i th t n e i r r e s p e c t i v e w a z i r s — M ir z a

S h a h ru k h , M irz a R ustam a n d B a i r am Khan — s t a n d i n g i n f r o n t o f

them ( P l a t e L IX ) . The l e f t p o r t i o n , i n t n e C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y ,

d e p i c t s A k b a r , J a h a n g i r a n d S h a h j a h a n s e a t e d on t h r o n e s w i th

K han Azam, I t i m i d a l - D a u l a a n d A s a f Khan s t a n d i n g b e f o r e them ( P l a t e

L X ). T im ur i s h a n d in g a c row n to A k b ar on t h e o t h e r s i d e , who i s

h a n d in g i t d i r e c t l y o v e r t o S h ah j a h a n . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e

g e s t u r e s a r e t h a t S h ah J a h a n i s r e c e i v i n g t h e a p p r o v a l o f n o t o n ly

h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s b u t a l s o o f t h e f o r e f a t h e r o f t h e d y n a s ty .

T h e se ty p e s o f f r o n t i s p i e c e s s e r v e t o e s t a b l i s h S h ah

J a h a n a s t h e n e x t r i g n t f u l h e i r t o t h e M ughal t h r o n e . He i s b e in g

h a n d e d th e c ro w n , a sym bol o f k i n g s h i p , by one o f t h e p r e v i o u s


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r u l e r s . T he f i g u r e o f T im u r i s t h e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t i n th e r e p

r e s e n t a t i o n . He i s t h e f o r e f a t h e r o f t i ie M ughal l i n e , t h e a n c e s

t o r p a r e x c e l l e n c e . T h e i r d e s c e n t f ro m T im u r w as t r a c e d on

t h e p a t e r n a l s i d e , w h i l e on th e m a te r n a l s i d e i t was t r a c e d t o

2 4G e n g h is K han . M uch r e f e r e n c e i s made t o T im u r i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e

f ro m t h e M ughal p e r i o d , a n d i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t th e y to o k much

p r i d e a n d h o n o r i n t h e i r h e r i t a g e . T he t e x t s o f t h e v a r i o u s

h i s t o r i e s o f S h ah J a h a n o f t e n h a v e a fe w p a g e s d e v o te d t o a k in d

o f g e n e a l o g i c a l a c c o u n t t h a t b e g in s w i th T im u r . S h ah J a h a n w en t

o n e s t e p f u r t h e r i n h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r T im u r ; h e i d e n t i f i e d h im

s e l f w i th h im . T h is h e d i d by a d o p t in g o n e o f T im u r 's e p i t h e t s

f o r h i m s e l f , a n d tn e o n e h e c h o s e w as S a h ib Q i r a n ( l o r d o f th e

a u s p i c i o u s p l a n e t a r y c o n j u n c t i o n ) .

Not on ly was a l o t o f im portance p laced on the person

age o f Timur, but a lso on th e concept o f so v e re ig n ty a^ e s ta b lish e d

by th e te n e ts o f Islam . The u n d erly in g prem ise o f Is la m ic monar

chy was th a t i t was an a u to c r a t ic r u le , an in s t i t u t i o n d iv in e ly

25ordained by God, and i t was in t h is s p i r i t th a t th e Mughal

emperors r u le d . In e f f e c t th ey b e lie v e d th em selves to be i n f a l

l i b l e , and th ey conveyed t h i s n o tio n to th e ir s u b je c ts . This

a t t itu d e had been adopted by th e ir a n cesto r Timur. In Tim ur's

memoirs h e s ta t e s th a t:

whenever God Alm ighty e x a lt s any person to the throne o f so v e r e ig n ty , he c o n fe r s on him s p e c ia l d ig n ity and wisdom, by means o f which he ren d ers mankind ob ed ien t to him; t h i s v ir tu e i s a ray o f th e Grace o f G0d which sh in es on the


77

m o n a rc h , and a s l o n g a s h e i s g r a t e f u l f o r t h e f a v o r , h i s f o r t u n e an d d o m in io n c o n t in u e t o i n c r e a s e . ^6

The Mughals co n sid ered th em selves th e la w fu l r u le r s o f the whole

o f In d ia , and e x i s t in g lo c a l powers such as th e Deccani kingdoms

were con sid ered o n ly as s u c c e s s fu l r e b e ls . The t i t l e s and r ig h t s

o f independent k in g s were never acknowledged by th e M ughals.2^

C onsidering th a t th e Mughals were a dynasty fo r e ig n to

In d ia , i t i s hard ly su r p r is in g th a t they cla im ed d iv in e r ig h t and

c o m p le te d o m in an ce o v e r t h e i r s u b j e c t s . By m a k in g t h i s c l a im ,

th e y h o p e d t o i n s p i r e o b e d ie n c e , a n d r e d u c e th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

r e b e l l io n . The t e n e ts o f k in gsh ip as p r a c t ic e d by Shah Jahan

were l i k e th ose e s ta b lis h e d by Akbar and documented by h is

h is to r ia n Abul F a z l. The fo llo w in g re fe r en c e w i l l serve to

i l l u s t r a t e t h e im a g e S hah J a h a n a n d h i s a n c e s t o r s h a d o f

th e m s e lv e s a s k i n g s a n d r u l e r s .

No d i g n i t y i s h i g n e r i n tn e e y e s o f God th a n r o y a l t y ; a n d th o s e who a r e w i s e , d r i n k f ro m i t s a u s p i c i o u s f o u n t a i n . A s u f f i c i e n t p r o o f o f t h i s , f o r t h o s e who r e q u i r e o n e , i s t h e f a c t t h a t r o y a l t y i s a rem ed y f o r t h e s p i r i t o f r e b e l l i o n , a n d th e r e a s o n why s u b j e c t s o b e y . E v en t h e m e a n in g o f t h e w ord F a d s h a h show s t h i s ; f o r p ad s i g n i f i e s s t a b i l i t y a n d p o s s e s s i o n , a n d sh a h m eans o r i g i n , l o r d . A k in g i s t h e r e f o r e t h e o r i g i n o f s t a b i l i t y a n d p o s s e s s i o n . I f r o y a l t y d i d n o t e x i s t , t h e s to rm o f s t r i f e w o u ld n e v e r s u b s i d e , n o r s e l f i s h a m b i t io n d i s a p p e a r . M an k in d , b e in g u n d e r th e b u rd e n o f l a w l e s s n e s s an d l u s t , w ou ld s in k i n t o th e p i t o f d e s t r u c t i o n ; th e w o r ld , t h i s g r e a t m a rk e t p l a c e , w ou ld l o s e i t s p r o s p e r i t y , a n d th e w h o le e a r t h becom e a b a r r e n w a s te . B u t by th e l i g h t o f i m p e r i a l j u s t i c e , some f o l l o w w ith c h e e r f u l n e s s th e r o a d o f o b e d ie n c e , w h i l s t o t h e r s a b s t a i n f ro m v i o l e n c e th r o u g h f e a r o f p u n is h m g g t ; a n d o u t o f n e c e s s i t y make c h o ic e o f t h e p a t h o f r e c t i t u d e .

C o n s id e r in g th e im p o r ta n c e w h ic h a l l t h e M ughal r u l e r s

p l a c e d on th e n o t i o n a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s o v r e i g n t y , one may


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e x p e c t t h a t p e r h a p s t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e ty p e o f im a g e ry d i s c u s s e d

a b o v e w o u ld h a v e b e e n fo u n d i n e a r l i e r w o rk s , th o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r

ily '- a s f r o n t i s p i e c e s . H ow ever s i n c e t h e im p a c t o f t h i s m o t i f i s

i n t h e l e g i t i m i z a t i o n a n d j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f s o v e r e ig n p o w e r, t h e

n e e d f o r w o rk s s u c h a s t h e s e w e re n o t r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e p r e c e d in g '^

r e i g n s . S hah J a h a n , m o re so th a n an y o f h i s a n c e s t o r s , h a d a

n e e d t o j u s t i f y h i s a c t i o n s w h ic h b r o u g h t h im t o h i s p r e s e n t

p o s i t i o n . He was t h e o n l y m o n a rc h t o t h a t d a t e who h a d w i l l f u l l y

m u rd e re d h i s r e l a t i v e s i n o r a e r to e n s u r e t h a t h e w o u ld b e th e

n e x t on th e t h r o n e , a n d s o , fo u n d i t i m p e r a t i v e t o g iv e h i s d e e d s

a c lo a k o f l e g a l i t y . One su c h m e th o d was to b e d e p i c t e d r e c e i v i n g

t h e b l e s s i n g s o f h i s a n c e s t o r s f o r h i s e n th ro n e m e n t . A n o th e r w as

to h a v e h i s c o u r t h i s t o r i a n s w r i t e o f f h i s b r a n d o f m u rd e r a s a

j u s t i f i a b l e n e c e s s i t y . T h is i s i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e w i th a p a s s a g e

fro m Mohammad S a l i h K am b u 's 1A m a l - i - S a l i h .

I t i s e n t i r e l y l a w f u l f o r t h e s o v r e ig n s t o r i d t h i s m o r t a l w o r ld o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r b r o t h e r s a n d o t h e r r e l a t i o n s w hose t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n i s c o n d u c iv e t o t h e common g o o d . . . an d l e a d e r s , s p i r i t u a l a n d t e m p o r a l , j u s t i f y t h e t o t a l e r a d i c a t i o n o f r i v a l c l a i m a n t s t o t h e f o r t u n a t e t h r o n e on g ro u n d s o f e x p e d ie n c y a n d common w e l f a r e .

A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e n o p i c t o r i a l p r e c e d e n t s f o r t h e

f r o n t i s p i e c e i m a g e r y , t h e r e a r e , f ro m e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , d e p i c t i o n s

o f t h e p r e s e n t e m p e ro r w i t h h i s a n c e s t o r s . T h e se a p p e a r a s

im a g in a r y g ro u p s c e n e s p o r t r a y i n g t h e v a r i o u s r u l e r s o f t h e M ughal

a n d T im u r id l i n e s g ro u p e d t o g e t h e r a s i f i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i th

e a c h o t h e r . One s u c h e x a m p le , w h ic h i n c i d e n t a l l y a l s o h a p p e n s

t o b e t h e o l d e s t known p a i n t i n g o f t h e M ughal s c h o o l , i s t h e m uch


79

dam aged c l o t h p a i n t i n g e n t i t l e d E m p e ro rs a n d P r i n c e s o f t h e H ouse

o f T im u r . now i n th e B r i t i s h Museum ( P l a t e L X l) . I t d e p i c t s a

g a r d e n p a v i l l i o n i n w h ic h a r e s e a t e d Humayun on one s i d e a n d A k b a r ,

J a h a n g i r a n d S hah J a h a n on t h e o t h e r . They a r e s u r r o u n d e d by t h e i r

T im u r id a n c e s t o r s a n d a t t e n d e n t s . The A k b a r , J a h a n g i r an d S h ah

J a h a n g ro u p h a s b e e n fo u n d t o b e a l a t e r i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f t h e

J a h a n g i r i p e r i o d , a n d i t h a s b e e n c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t i n t h e o r i g i n a l

v e r s i o n , T im ur o c c u p ie d t h i s p l a c e w h ere t h e t h r e e a r e s e a t e d . ' ’®

T h is p i e c e w as o b v io u s ly a w o rk o f H um ayun 's r e i g n , a n d i s an

a t t e s t a t i o n o f t h a t M ughal e m p e r o r 's p r i d e i n h i s d e s c e n t fro m

31T im u r . The p r i n c e s who l i n e t h e l e f t s i d e o f t h e p a v i l l i o n a r e

T im u r 's d e s c e n d a n t s down t o Hum ayun. T h a t J a h a n g i r h a d h i s imme

d i a t e f a m i ly g ro u p i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e w ork i n d i c a t e s h i s c o n c e rn

w i th th e r o o t s o f h i s a n c e s t r y .

As h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t io n e d , S hah J a h a n 's h i s t o r i c a l

m a n u s c r i p t s f u n c t i o n e d a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s own s e l f e s te e m . The

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s o f t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh ah

Nama p l a c e S h ah J a h a n i n a som ew hat s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n , f o r i t

i s r e a l l y t h e p r e s e n c e o f T im u r w h ic h g i v e s him t h e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y

h e w is h e s t o e s t a b l i s h . Y e t a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e im a g e s r e v e a l s

a few s u b t l e d e v i c e s w h ic h p o r t r a y S h ah J a h a n a s t n e m ore g r a n d io s e

a n d m a g n i f i c e n t p e r s o n . S h ah J a h a n 's t h r o n e i s m uch m o re e l a b o r a t e

a n d m o re f i n e l y o rn a m e n te d t h a t t h a t o f T im u r; i t i s a l s o l a r g e r .

T he i n l a i d j e w e l s an d c a r v i n g s a r e m ore i n t r i c a t e l y l a i d o u t an d

a r e m ore p r o f u s e ; e v e n h i s c u s h io n s a r e o f a r i c h e r q u a l i t y . He


80

a l s o h a s a n a d d i t i o n a l f o o t s t o o l t h a t i s n o t fo u n d i n th e o t h e r .

On h i s b o d y S hah J a h a n w e a rs a g r e a t e r am ount o f j e w e l l r y , an d

t h e b a c k g ro u n d a r e a o f a n a t m o s p h e r i c a l l y r e n d e r e d sk y a d d s a

c e r t a i n dynam ism a n d o p u le n c e t h a t i s a b s e n t i n t h e p l a i n t u r q u o i s e

g ro u n d b e h in d T im u r . • P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c r a f t y d e v ic e i s t h a t o f

t h e h a l o . W h ereas S h a h J a h a n 's h a lo i s u n d e n ia b le t o t h e p o i n t

t h a t r a y s o f l i g h t e m a n a te f ro m i t , T i m u r 's h a l o i s l e s s c e r t a i n .

The c i r c u l a r o b j e c t b e h in d h i s h e a d c o u ld b e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a

h a l o , a p l a i n one o f c o u r s e , b u t i t c o u ld j u s t a s w e l l b e r e a d a s

p a r t o f t h e t r a p p i n g s o f th e b a c k r e s t t o h i s t h r o n e . T ru e t o h i s

n a t u r e , S h ah J a h a n w as n o t t o b e o u td o n e , n o t e v en by t h i s

v e n e r a t e d a n c e s t o r .

P a l a c e S c e n e s

Of th e e v e n t s t h a t t a k e p la c e w i t h i n t h e p a l a c e s , t h e r e

a r e d a r b a r s ( a u d ie n c e s c e n e s ) an d s c e n e s o f f e s t i v a l s a n d c e l e b r a

t i o n s . .B o th t h e s e ty p e s o f e v e n t s c o n s i t u t e d an im p o r ta n t p a r t

o f t h e d a i l y f u n c t i o n i n g o f l i f e i n t h e p a l a c e s . C o u r t a u d ie n c e s

w ere h e l d s e v e r a l t im e s a d a y , w h ere e a c h s e s s i o n w as d e v o te d t o

a s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e . T h e re w e re many o c c a s i o n s to o when l a r g e

o r g a n iz e d f e s t i v a l s w e re c a l l e d f o r . T h e se i n c lu d e d n o t o n ly

s p e c i a l e v e n t s s u c h a s t h e w ed d in g o f one o f t h e p r i n c e s , b u t a l s o

i n c lu d e d th e a n n u a l ce rem o n y o f t h e w e ig h in g o f t h e e m p e ro r

a g a i n s t v a r i o u s c o m m o d it ie s . The c o u r t b e in g t h e s e a t o f m uch

pomp a n d m a g n i f i c e n c e , r e q u i r e d t h a t e l a b o r a t e c e re m o n ie s

a c c o m p a n ie d — a n d e v e n t u a l l y becam e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f — b o th


81

a u d ie n c e s a n d f e s t i v a l s - I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e e v e n t s w e re a l s o

d e e p ly r o o t e d i n th e M ughal t e n e t s o f g o v e rn m e n t, a s w e l l a s i n

t h e b e l i e f s a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f t h e t im e .

D a r b a r s

The g r e a t . m a j o r i t y o f t h e p a i n t i n g s i n th e W in d so r

C a s t l e B a d sh a h Mama a r e d e v o te d t o e v e n t s t h a t d e s c r i b e t h e m a n n e r

i n w h ic h a f f a i r s o f s t a t e w e re m a n ag ed . T h e se a r e t h e d a r b a r

s c e n e s , f o r m a l a u d i e n c e s h e l d d a i l y w h e re m a t t e r s o f g o v e rn m e n t

a n d s t a t e p o l i c i e s w e re d i s c u s s e d an d s e t t l e d . T h e s e d a r b a r s

w e re c o n d u c te d n o t o n ly w i th r e g u l a r i t y , b u t a l s o w i th a g r e a t

o b s e r v a n c e t o s t r i c t l y p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s o f e t i q u e t t e a n d m odes o f

b e h a v i o r . C o n s id e r in g t h e im p o r ta n t r o l e d a r b a r s p la y e d i n

t h e d a y t o d ay f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e e m p ir e , i t c a n be q u i t e e a s i l y

u n d e r s to o d why p r o p e r p r o t o c o l w as c o n s id e r e d a n e c e s s i t y .

F u r th e r m o r e , i n l i g h t o f w h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o u t t h e

s e l f im age o f t h e M ughal e m p e ro r s , S h ah J a h a n i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a d

o f th e m s e lv e s , t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r su c h p a i n t i n g s i s s e l f - e v i d e n t .

The p a i n t i n g s h e r e r e v e a l n o t o n ly t h e p h y s i c a l fra m e w o rk o f

d a r b a r s , b u t a l s o p r o v id e i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e m e n t a l i t y o f M ughal

c o u r t l i f e a s a w h o le .

T h e re a r e f o u r t e e n p a i n t i n g s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t

t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t o t a l o f tw e lv e s e p a r a t e d a r b a r s , e a c h o f them

b e in g one w h ere some s i g n i f i c a n t i n c i d e n t to o k p l a c e . The m a jo r

i t y • o f them w ere h e l d a t A g ra , e i t h e r i n t h e p u b l i c o r t h e

p r i v a t e a u d ie n c e c h a m b e rs , a n d t h e r e s t to o k p l a c e a t A jm ir ,


82

L a h o re a n d B u rh a n p u r . From th e p a i n t i n g s th e m s e lv e s , i t i s im p o s

s i b l e to d e r i v e an a c c u r a t e o r d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e h a l l s ,

f o r no tw o p a i n t i n g s a r e i d e n t i c a l , o n e c a n g e t some i d e a a s t o

t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p l a c e , b u t n o t o f th e d e c o r a

t i v e t r a p p i n g s . C o n s id e r in g t h a t t h e s e p a i n t i n g s w e re c o m p le te d

a f t e r t h e f a c t , an d w e re t h e r e f o r e n o t o n - t h e - s p o t r e c o r d i n g s , i t

i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e y a r e n o t t r u e t o l i f e d e p i c t i o n s . T h is

d e v i a t i o n vwas n o t a p r im a r y c o n c e r n t o S h ah J a h a n , who w as l e s s

p r e o c c u p ie d w i th t r u e r e a l i s m th a n h e w as w i th th e o v e r a l l im ag e

o f m a g n i f ic e n c e a n d s p l e n d o r . A l l o f t h e s e d a r b a r s w ere p a i n t e d

i n t h a t v e r y p r e c i s e a n d a lm o s t p e r f e c t m a n n e r w h ic h i s c h a r a c t e r

i s t i c o f t h e f i n e s t p h a s e o f S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g . The c o m p o s i t io n s

a r e a l l c e n t r a l l y s t r u c t u r e d an a s y m m e tr ic a l ly b a l a n c e d , w h ich

c r e a t e s a v e r y s t a b l e a n d o r d e r e d a p p e a r a n c e . T h i s d e v ic e p r o

d u c e s a s e n s e o f m a j e s t y , a t o t a l im ag e o f g r a n d e u r , w h ere th e

e m p e ro r r e i g n s a b o v e h i s p e o p l e . S h ah J a h a n 's p o s i t i o n , n o t o n ly

i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c o m p o s i t io n , b u t a l s o s e a t e d a b o v e th e c o u r t

i e r s who o b e d i e n t l y s t a n d i n ro w s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r a n k s w i t h i n

th e c o u r t , f u r t h e r e n h a n c e s t h i s im a g e . One g e t s t h e im p r e s s i o n

o f e v e r y t h i n g b e in g u n d e r p e r f e c t c o n t r o l .

The r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s o f c o u r t a t t e n d a n c e a n d

th e b e h a v i o r t h e r e i n s e r v e d a d u a l f u n c t i o n ; o f p ro v o k in g an i n t i -

m i a a t i n g a u r a o f o r d e r on th e one h a n d , an d o f h a v in g an o r d e r l y

fram e w o rk w i t h i n w h ic h th e em p e ro r c o u ld e x e r c i s e h i s c o n t r o l ,

on t h e o t h e r . On th e l e v e l o f a p p e a r a n c e s , t h i s p ro v e d to b e v e r y


83

s u c c e s s f u l . One i s g i v e n th e im p r e s s i o n o f a n e v i d e n t l y im p o se d

a u t h o r i t y f ro m th e p r e s e n c e o f S h ah J a n a n . H ow ever, i n r e a l i t y

t h i s w as n o t t h e c a s e ; a s th e h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d h a s shown i t

t o b e o th e r w i s e . R e b e l l i o n fro m w i t h i n h i s own f a m i ly t o r e a p a r t

t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d h i s m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s

m e t w i th fe w e r v i c t o r i e s th a n w h a t o n e i s l e d to b e l i e v e . H ow ever

a s h i s t i t l e S h ah J a h a n i m p l i e d , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o b e 'k i n g

o f t h e w o r l d ' , a n d s t r o v e t o b e p e r c e i v e d a s s u c h . I n t h i s r e s -

p e c t h e w as m o s t s u c c e s s f u l .

O f t h e tw e lv e d a r b a r e v e n t s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t ,

f i v e o f them r e c o u n t i n c i d e n t s fro m th e p r in c e h o o d o f S hah Ja h a n *

T hey w ere i n t r o d u c e d h e r e a s a m eans o f d ra w in g p a r a l l e l s w i th a

c u r r e n t i n c i d e n t , a s w e l l a s o f a d d in g a n o t e o f p r e s t i g e t o th e

i l l u s t r i o u s c a r e e r o f S h ah J a h a n . The d a r b a r s fro m h i s p r in c e h o o d

c h o s e n f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t w ere t h e d e p a r

t u r e a n d r e t u r n o f P r i n c e K hurram fro m t h e c a m p a ig n a g a i n s t t h e

R a n a o f M ew ar; t h e c o n f e r r a l o f t h e t i t l e s 'S h ah * a n d 'S h a h J a h a n '

u p o n P r i n c e K hu rram ; a n d t h e d e p a r t u r e o f K hurram f o r th e D eccan i n

1620. The d a r b a r s a f t e r h i s a c c e s s i o n w ere t h e a r r i v a l o f A s a f Khan

a n d th e p r i n c e s f ro m L a h o re i n 1628; t h e N a u ro z d a r b a r o f 1629

when I r a d a t Khan w as t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e D eccan* th e r e c e p t i o n o f

t h e P e r s i a n a m b a s s a d o r Muahmmad A l i Beg a t B u rh a n p u r i n 1631; t h e

a r r i v a l o f th e P o r tu g u e s e w i th t r i b u t e o f f e r i n g s i n

1 6 3 2 ; t h e d e p a r t u r e o f S h ah S h u ja f o r t h e D eccan i n 1 6 3 3 . t h e

d e p a r t u r e o f A u ra n g z e b f o r th e D eccan i n 1635; a n d h i s r e t u r n i n


84

1637.I t c a n e a s i l y "be s e e n t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g s r e v e a l a p r e

o c c u p a t io n w i th D e c c a n i a f f a i r s . T h i s t e r r i t o r y h a d a lw a y s b e e n

a s o r e s p o t f o r th e M u g h a ls , who e n c o u n te r e d m uch d i f f i c u l t y i n

t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o g a i n d o m in a n c e th e r e * T h i s o b s e s s i o n t o

g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e D eccan f i r s t b e g a n d u r in g A k b a r1s r e i g n , an d

h e w as a b l e t o a n n e x K h a n d e sh a n d B e r a r a n d t o t e m p o r a r i l y c o n q u e r

32A hm adabad . J J a h a n g i r c o u ld o n ly p u t te m p o ra ry c h e c k s on A hm adabad,

a n d h i s r e i g n d id n o t r e a l l y s e e an y e n la r g e m e n t o f t h e e m p ire i n

t h i s d i r e c t i o n . U nd er SUah J a h a n , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w as s l i g h t l y

m ore s u c c e s s . H is o n s l a u g h t s i n t o t h e s o u th e r n k in g d o m s y i e l d e d

some r e s u l t s , a n d by t h e en d o f h i s r e i g n , K h a n d e sh , B e r a r , Ahmada

b a d a n d G o lc o n d a w ere a l l p a r t o f t h e e m p ir e . O n ly B i j a p u r r e m a in e d

a n in d e p e n d e n t s t a t e , b u t i t s t i l l p a i d t r i b u t e t o t h e M u g h a ls .

The a b i l i t y t o a b s o r b t h e s e s o u th e r n s t a t e s i n t o t h e e m p ire was a

s o u r c e o f g r e a t p r e s t i g e f o r S b ah J a h a n 1s s e l f c o n c e p t a s t h e a l l -

p o w e r f u l r u l e r , a n d i t w as e x p r e s s e d i n t h o s e d a r b a r s c e n e s w h ic h

d e p i c t e i t h e r t h e b e f o r e o r t h e a f t e r o f a s u c c e s s f u l D e c o a n i

c a m p a ig n . As w i l l b e s e e n i n t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s , D e c c a n i a f f a i r s

w ere a l s o g r e a t l y r e p r e s e n t e d . R e f e r e n c e s t o h i s c a m p a ig n s a s a

p r i n c e n o t o n ly h e i g h te n e d t h e s u c c e s s s t o r y , b u t a l s o s e r v e d to

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f h i s s o n s a n d o f f i c e r s w o u ld n o t

h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e i f h e h a d n o t p a v e d t h e w ay .

The i n c i d e n t s o f t h e o t h e r d a r b a r s a l s o im p r e s s u p o n

t h e v ie w e r a n im ag e o f t h e g r a n d e u r o f t h e M ughal c o u r t , b o th by


85

t h e i r p h y s i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s an d t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f th e e v e n t s

c h o s e n f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n . F o l i o s 43v , t h e r e c e p t i o n o f P r in c e

K hurram u p o n h i s d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e Mewar c a m p a ig n ;an d 1 1 6 v t h e

a r r i v a l o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e w i th t r i b u t e o f f e r i n g s , d e p i c t

t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f tw o s u c c e s s f u l m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s ; t h e fo rm e r

a g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f M ew ar an d th e l a t t e r a g a i n s t th e P o r tu g u e s e a t

H u g h l i . W hat m akes f o l i o 45v a l l t h e m ore im p r e s s i v e i s t h a t i t

d a t e s t o t h e p r in c e h o o d o f S h ah J a h a n . i t show s him. a b o u t t o be

s e n t o f f on h i s f i r s t m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n , w h ic h s e c u r e d t h e e v en

t u a l s u b m is s io n o f t h e o n ly r e m a in in g t e r r i t o r y i n R a j p u ta n a w h ich

a t t h a t t im e w as n o t u n d e r M ughal d o m in a t io n . The p e a c e n e g o t i a

t i n g o f f e r i n g s o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e show t h e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n th e

w e a l th a n d s p le n d o r o f th e M ughal c o u r t a n d t h e s p a r s e g i f t s w h ic h

w ere a l l t h a t t h e P o r tu g u e s e c o u ld a f f o r d . T h i s s c e n e , t h e r e f o r e ,

n o t o n ly i m p l i e s t h e p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h o f th e e m p ire , b u t a l s o

a f f o r d s a v e r y g r a p h ic d i s p l a y o f t h e i r f a r s u p e r i o r w e a l th .

F o l io 9 8 v , t h e r e c e p t i o n o f th e P e r s i a n a m b a ssa d o r

Muhammad A l i B eg , i s a n o t h e r b o a s t o f th e r i c h e s s e o f t h e e m p ire .

R e l a t i o n s w i th P e r s i a h a d a lw a y s b e e n a l i t t l e t e n s e , f o r b o th

c o u n t r i e s w ere som ew hat j e a l o u s a n d m i s t r u s t f u l o f t h e o t h e r .

I n d i a , on t h e one h a n d , r e g a r d e d i t s e l f a s s u p e r i o r on a c c o u n t o f

i t s l a r g e r t e r r i t o r i a l h o l d i n g s ; w h i le on th e o t h e r h a n d , P e r s i a

lo o k e d down r a t h e r d i s d a i n f u l l y on I n d i a f o r i t c o n s id e r e d i t s e l f

t o b e c u l t u r a l l y m ore s o p h i s t i c a t e d . Y e t e m m is a r ie s w e re c o n

s t a n t l y b e in g e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n th e tw o c o u n t r i e s , a n d i t h a s b e e n


86

s a i d t h a t

t h e t r u e r a i s o n d ' e t r e o f t h e c o n s t a n t e x c h a n g e o f e n v o y s , o v e r a n d a b o v e th e p u r s u i t o f s e c r e t i n f o r m a t i o n , was t h e d e s i r e o f e i t h e r p a r t y t o im p r e s s t h e o t h e r w i th g r a n d e u r .* ^

A lth o u g h a c c o m p a n ie d by a r e t i n u e o f g i f t b e a r i n g s e r v a n t s , t h e

P e r s i a n a m b a ss a d o r a p p e a r s i n a l e s s ' su m p tu o u s l i g h t t h a n d o e s

Shah J a h a n , f o r t h e t r a y s o f t h e P e r s i a n ' s g i f t s a r e c o v e r e d u p ,

t h e r e f o r e d i s p l a y i n g n o t h i n g o f v a l u e a n d s p l e n d o r . T h i s a g a in

s h a r p e n s t h e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n S h ah J a h a n who i s , a s u s u a l , b e d e c k e d

i n a l o t o f f i n e j e w e l l r y . A lth o u g h f o l i o 50v > t h e a r r i v a l o f

A sa f Khan a n d th e p r i n c e s f ro m L a h o re , seem s t o d e n o te a to u c h o f

p e r s o n a l s e n t im e n t o n t h e p a r t o f S h ah J a h a n , i t s t i l l f u n c t i o n s

l i k e t h e r e s t by sh o w in g him i n a t r i u m p h a l p o s i t i o n . H e re h i s

v i c t o r y , th o u g h n o t e x p l i c i t l y i m p l i e d , i s t h a t w h ic h h e g a in e d

o v e r th e o t h e r r i v a l s t o th e t h r o n e . T he f a c t t h a t h e now h o ld s

th e t i t l e o f e m p e ro r a n d t h a t h i s s o n s h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t b a c k

s a f e l y fro m t h e i r p l a c e o f r e f u g e , i s a n a t t e s t a t i o n t o h i s

p e r s o n a l v i c t o r y .

T h e se d a r b a r s c e n e s n o t o n ly p r o v id e a n i l l u s t r a t e d

a c c o u n t o f t h e m i l i e u w h e re t h e m a k in g o f s t a t e p o l i c i e s to o k

p l a c e , b u t a l s o g iv e a n i d e a a s t o w h a t w as c o n s id e r e d t o b e t h e

m o s t im p o r t a n t e v e n t s o f t h o s e y e a r s . Of p r im a r y c o n c e rn w as t h e

d e s i r e t o g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e D e c c a n , f o l l o w e d by t h e e x e r t i o n

o f t h e M u g h a ls ’ s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e to w a rd s th e n e i g h b o r i n g s t a t e s .

H ow ever, t h e t r u e m e ss a g e c o n v e y e d by t h e s e p a i n t i n g s f o c u s e s n o t

so m uch on th e g l o r i o u s c o n d i t i o n o f t h e e m p ir e , b u t on th e


87

p e r s o n a l i t y o f S h ah J a h a n , who i s t h e d o m in a n t f i g u r e th r o u g h o u t .

A u d ie n c e s w e re h e l d on a d a i l y b a s i s , a n d t h e r e w ere

u s u a l l y s e v e r a l a u d ie n c e s e a c h d a y . The f r e q u e n c y w i th w h ic h t h e s e

to o k p l a c e v a r i e d a c c o r d in g t o e a c h em pero r* s p r e f e r e n c e . S hah

J a h a n h a d f o u r a u d ie n c e s a d a y , e a c h b e in g c o n v e n e d f o r a s p e c i f i c

p u r p o s e , a n d w ere h e l d i n a d i f f e r e n t h a l l o f t h e p a l a c e . Of t h e s e

f o u r a u d i e n c e s , t h r e e o f them w ere a c t u a l d a r b a r s , w h e re a s t h e

o t h e r w as a n a p p e a r a n c e a t t h e p a l a c e b a l c o n y . I n a l l t h e p a l a c e s

o f t h e c a p i t a l c i t i e s o f t h e em p ire w ere v a r i o u s ch am b ers s p e c i a l l y

c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s . Kven i f th e e m p e ro r

h a p p e n e d t o b e t r a v e l l i n g , d a i l y a u d ie n c e s w o u ld s t i l l b e h e l d ,

a n d t h e s e w o u ld t a k e p l a c e u n d e r a t e n t , o n j o u r n e y s , a l l t h e

n e c e s s a r y t r a p p i n g s f o r c o u r t r e c e p t i o n s , s u e d a s a t h r o n e , a

r a i s e d p l a t f o r m , t h e s t a n d a r d s e t c . , w ere ta k e n a lo n g t o e n s u re

an u n i n t e r r u p t e d c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e f o r m a l i t i e s o f s t a t e g o v e rn

m e n t.

S h ad J a h a n * s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e o f th e d ay to o k p l a c e

a t t h e j h a r o k a d a r s h a n o f t h e p a l a c e . J h a r o k a m eans w in d o w ^

a n d d a r s h a n com es f ro m t h e S a n s k r i t r o o t 'd a r s h * w h ic h m eans th e

35v i e w i n g o f a n i d o l o r s a i n t . ^ h e d a r s h a n to o k p l a c e f i r s t t h i n g

i n t h e m o rn in g , a n d f u n c t i o n e d a s a m eans o f sh o w in g th e p e o p le

t h a t t h e e m p e ro r w as s t i l l a l i v e an d w e l l . J h a r o k a s o f p a l a c e s

w ere s i t u a t e d on th e s i d e w h ic h f a c e d th e r i v e r , r i g h t a lo n g th e

56 *ed g e o f t h e p a l a c e w a l l . .Betw een th e p a l a c e w a l l a n d t h e r i v e r

was a l a r g e a r e a w h e re t h e p u b l i c g a t h e r e d t o s e e t h e e m p e ro r .


88

When h e a p p e a re d ., h e w o u ld be g r e e t e d b y s h o u t s o f 'P a d s h a h S a la -

m a t ' , m e a n in g lo n g l i v e t h e k i n g . A t t h i s t im e c o m p la in t s fro m

t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c w e re h e a r d , p r o v i d i n g t h a t a w r i t t e n p e t i t i o n

w as f i r s t p r e s e n t e d . L a h a u r i s t a t e d t h a t :

t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n w as t h e i n n o v a t i o n o f H a z r a t 'A r s h i A sh y a n i ( i . e . A k b a r ) , a n d i t h a s b e e n c o n t in u e d b y h i s M a je s ty a l s o , so t h a t th e p e o p le m ig h t g e t th e b l e s s i n g o f s e e in g th e k in g b e f o r e b e g in n in g t h e i r d a i l y w o rk , a n d t h e n e e d y a n d th e o p p r e s s e d may g e t j u s t i c e a n d r e d r e s s w i th o u t f o r m a l i t y o r h in d e r e n c e .5 7

A lth o u g h i n t h e o r y t h i s m o rn in g a p p e a ra n c e g a v e t h e s e m b le n c e o f

a f a i r a n d d e m o c r a t i c g o v e rn m e n t w here e v e n th e common p e o p le

h a d d i r e c t a c c e s s to t n e k in g , i n p r a c t i c e i t w as n o t t h e c a s e ,

f o r a d m is s io n t o t h e e n c l o s u r e b e n e a th t h e p a l a c e w indow w as o n ly

a c c e s s i b l e t o t h o s e who h a d f a v o r a b l e c o n n e c t io n s w i th th e g u a r d s ,

an d t h e r e i s e v id e n c e t h a t S hah J a h a n c o m p la in e d o f n o t b e in g a b l e

to o b t a i n e v e n tw e n ty p e t i t i o n s a d a y . ^ From t im e t o t im e e l e

p h a n t f i g h t s an d o t h e r s p o r t i n g e v e n t s w ere h e l d d u r in g t h i s

m o rn in g a u d ie n c e , a n d i n t o t a l i t w o u ld l a s t f o r a b o u t an h o u r . 59

The s e c o n d a u d ie n c e o f t h e d a y , w h ic h w as a d a r b a r ,

to o k p l a c e i n t h e d iw a n - i - k h a s - o - a m , t h e room o f p u b l i c a u d i e n c e s .

T h is w as a p u b l i c d a r b a r w h ere m a t t e r s o f t h e d ay w ere r e v ie w e d ,

a p p o in tm e n ts m ade, d i g n i t a r i e s a n d f o r e i g n e m i s s a r i e s p r e s e n t e d ,

a n d d e p a r tm e n ta l a n d p r o v i n c i a l r e p o r t s f i l e d . S hah J a h a n s a t on

a t h r o n e t h a t w as p l a c e d on a r a i s e d p l a t f o r m w h ich w as c e n t r a l l y

l o c a t e d a lo n g th e b a c k w a l l o f t h e h a l l . A c o n te m p o ra ry h i s t o r i a n ,

C h a n d a rb h a n , h a s l e f t t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r y v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n o f

t h e ce rem o n y t h a t to o k p l a c e a t t h e s e a u d i e n c e s .


89

Of h i s a u s p i c i o u s a p p r o a c h ( a c c o r d i n g t o e s t a b l i s h e d c u s to m , fro m t h e m u s ic g a l l e r y s i t u a t e d i n f r o n t o f t h e a u g u s t J e h r o - K ah ), t h e k e t t l e d r u m o f j o y p r o c la im s t n e fam e a l o u d . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , c o n fo rm a b ly t o t h e r u l e s o f t h i s m ig h ty e m p ir e , p a s s i n r e v ie w , f l e e t s t e e d s , w i th i n l a i d an d e n a m e lle d f u r n i t u r e ; re n o w n e d e l e p h a n t s , r e s e m b l in g m o u n ta in s , an d d e c k e d i n c o m p le te t r a p p i n g s o rn a m e n te d w i th g o ld a n d p r e c i o u s s t o n e s . T hen th e p r i n c e s o f h ig h d e s c e n t , a g r e e a b ly t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r a n k s , h a v e p e r m i s s i o n t o b e s e a t e d n e a r t h e i m p e r i a l t h r o n e . A f t e r w h ic h t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s , — K h an s , O m arah, a n d M i r z a s . . . , th e m i n i s t e r s o f s t a t e , v i z i e r s . . . , t h e p r i n c i p a l n o b i l i t y , p u b l i c o f f i c e r s , g e n t le m e n o f t h e sw o rd an d o f t h e p e n . . . S y e d s o f h i g h d e g r e e , g r e a t S h e i k h s . . . t o g e t h e r w i th t h o s e o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . . . a s w e l l a s t h e v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s o f H in d o o s t a n . . . a g r e e a b ly t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r a n k , s t a t i o n , d i g n i t y , o f f i c e , c o n d i t i o n a n d q u a l i t y , b e i n g a r r a n g e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e s , th e y h a v e n o t t h e p o w er t o s t i r o r to sp e a k m ore t h a n i s becom m ing t h e i r s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r s .

The b u s i n e s s o f t h i s d a r b a r w as m a in ly f o r r o u t i n e

m a t t e r s . F i r s t t h e s e c r e t a r i e s r e a d o u t t h e i r m i n u te s , th e n th e

b a k h s h i s ( p a y m a s te r g e n e r a l s o f t h e arm y) m ade re c o m m e n d a tio n s

c o n c e r n in g p o s t i n g s o r i n c r e m e n t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e v a r i o u s o f f i c e r s .

Any o f f i c e r s wno h a p p e n e d t o oe g o in g o r h a v in g j u s t r e t u r n e d fro m

th e p r o v in c e s w o u ld b e p r e s e n t e d a t t h i s t im e . A f t e r t h e b a k s h i s 1

r e p o r t cam e th o s e o f t h e S a d r - i - k u l ( t h e c h i e f m i n i s t e r o f e c c l e

s i a s t i c a l a n d j u d i c i a l a f f a i r s ) , an d h i s s u b s e q u e n t recom m enda

t i o n s f o r p ro m o t io n s a n d s a l a r y i n c r e a s e s . ^ w hen t h e s e m a t t e r s

w ere c o n c lu d e d , f o r e i g n a m b a s s a d o rs w ere t h e n r e c e i v e d . U s u a l ly

th e y w ere a c c o m p a n ie d b y a r e t i n u e o f g i f t b e a r e r s . One s u c h

i n s t a n c e c a n b e s e e n i n f o l i o JQv o f th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e

r e c e p t i o n o f Muhammad A l i B eg , t h e P e r s i a n a m b a s s a d o r , a t B u rh a -

n a p u r . I f t h e r e a l s o h a p p e n e d t o b e an y m e r c h a n ts o r t r a d e r s

who h a d u n u s u a l o r u n iq u e g o c d s , th e y w ou ld be a s k e d t o p r e s e n t42

th e m s e lv e s a t c o u r t t o d i s p l a y t h e i r m e r c h a n d is e . F o l lo w in g


90

t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n s came t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r n o b l e s t o f i l e t h e i r

p e r s o n a l p e t i t i o n s . On s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s , p r i n c e s o r n o b le s

who h a d r e c e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d th e m s e lv e s w ere g r a n t e d a r e c e p t i o n

a t t h i s d a r b a r . T h is w as one o f t h e h i g h e s t fo rm s o f h o n o r t o be

p u b l i c l y b e s to w e d u p o n a p e r s o n . I n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , one

s e e s P r i n c e K hurram b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t o J a h a n g i r , b o th b e f o r e a n d

a f t e r e m b a rk in g upo n m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s . C o n s id e r e d a s one o f th e

f i n e s t m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s o f t h e t im e , a n d h a v in g p ro v e d h i m s e l f i n

b a t t l e on n u m e ro u s a c c o u n t s , h e w as t h u s a c c o r d e d t h i s h o n o r a s a

r e w a rd f o r h a v in g a c h i e v e d p r e s t i g e f o r t h e e m p ir e . L ik e w is e i n

f o l i o 5 0 v , A s a f K han, a f t e r h a v in g e n s u r e d t h e s a f e t y o f S hah

J a h a n * s t h r e e s o n s d u r i n g th e t r o u b l e d d a y s p r e c e e d in g th e a c c e s

s i o n to th e t h r o n e , i s h e r e b e in g p r e s e n t e d o n th e b a lc o n y o f th e

a u d ie n c e h a l l a s a to k e n o f g r a t i t u d e a n d r e c o g n i t i o n f o r h i s

c o u ra g e o u s a c t .

The n e x t a u d ie n c e o f th e d ay to o k p l a c e i n t h e

a f t e r n o o n , a n d w as h e l d i n t h e d a u l a t - k h a n a - i - k h a s , t h e p r i v a t e

a u d ie n c e h a l l . I t w as a p r i v a t e d a r b a r w h e re t h e to p m i n i s t e r s —

th e v a k i l , t h e w a z ir a n d t h e d iv a n s — d i s c u s s e d s t a t e m a t t e r s

w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e p u b l i c l y b r o u g h t u p . 45 The b u s i n e s s b e in g

t r a n s a c t e d , o b j e c t s f ro m th e t r e a s u r y , th e r o y a l l i b r a r i e s an d

t h e f a c t o r i e s w ere th e n b r o u g h t o u t f o r d i s p l a y a n d i n s p e c t i o n .

Among t h e s e o b j e c t s w e re j e w e l s , gem s, m a n u s c r i p t s , a lb u m s ,

p a i n t i n g s , c a l l i g r a p h i c s p e c im e n s , v a r i o u s a rm s , sw o rd s a n d g u n s ,

a n d an a s s o r tm e n t o f r a r e m e rc h a n d is e su c h a s f i n e s i l k s an d


91

c a r p e t s . P o e t s , a r t i s t s a n d a r t i s a n s w ere c a l l e d u p o n t o e x h i b i t

t h e i r s k i l l s , w h i le w is e a n d l e a r n e d men w ere a s k e d to p ro v e t h e i r

k n o w led g e i n d i s c u s s i o n s a n d d e b a t e s on v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s . ^4 Time

w as a l s o s p e n t i n a p p r o v in g an d c r i t i c i z i n g th e p l a n s f o r n e w ly

p ro p o s e d r o y a l b u i l d i n g s t h a t w e re p r e s e n t e d b y th e a r c h i t e c t s

a n d e n g i n e e r s . T h i s a s s e m b ly u s u a l l y l a s t e d a b o u t tw o h o u r s .

The f i n a l a u d ie n c e o f t h e d a y to o k p l a c e im m e d ia te ly

a f t e r t h e e v e n in g p r a y e r s , a n d w as h e l d i n t h e d a u l a t k h a n a - i - k h a s ,

t h e p r i v a t e c h a m b e rs . A t te n d a n c e a t t h i s d a r b a r was m uch s m a l l e r

th a n a t t h e m o rn in g o n e , f o r t h i s was b a s i c a l l y a c o u n c i l w h ere

o n ly m i n i s t e r s a n d a c e r t a i n num ber o f h ig h o f f i c i a l s w e re

45p r e s e n t . A lth o u g h m o s t o f t h e b u s i n e s s c o n d u c te d h e r e w as a l s o

r o u t i n e , i t w as o f a m o re p r i v a t e n a t u r e , b e in g c o n c e rn e d a s i t

w as w i th s t a t e p o l i c i e s . S om etim es f o r e i g n d i g n i t a r i e s w ere a l s o

i n v i t e d t o a t t e n d , a n d t h i s was r e g a r d e d a s a m ark o f h ig h h o n o r .

The F r e n c h t r a v e l l e r , a n d p h y s i c i a n , B e r n i e r , who s p e n t t im e a t t h e

M ughal c o u r t d u r in g t h e l a s t d a y s o f S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n a n d d u r in g

A u r a n g z e b 's , h a s l e f t t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n :

The h a l l i s , h o w e v e r , v e r y h an d so m e , s p a c i o u s , g i l t an d p a i n t e d , a n d r a i s e d 4 ^ 5 F re n c h f e e t f ro m th e p a v e m e n t, l i k e a l a r g e p l a t f o r m . I t i s i n t h i s p l a c e t h a t t h e K in g , s e a t e d i n a c h a i r , h i s Umrahs s t a n d i n g a ro u n d h im , g r a n t s m ore p r i v a t e a u d i e n c e s t o h i s o f f i c e r s , r e c e i v e s t h e i r ^ r e p o r t s , a n d d e l i b e r a t e s on im p o r t a n t a f f a i r s o f s t a t e .

C o u r t a u d i e n c e s , a s p a r t o f th e w o rk in g f u n c t i o n s o f

t h e g o v e rn m e n t, w ere i n th e m s e lv e s c e r e m o n ie s w h ic h w ere s u b j e c t e d

t o many r a t n e r s t r i n g e n t r u l e s an d r e g u l a t i o n s . A t te n d a n c e was

c o m p u ls o ry f o r t h e o f f i c i a l s an d m i n i s t e r s a t t a c h e d t o t h e c i t y


92

c o u r t , a n d a h e a v y p u n is h m e n t w as m e t o u t t o t h o s e who f a i l e d to

m ake a n a p p e a r a n c e . On th e w h o le , p e o p le d i d n o t m is s t h e d a r b a r s ,

n o t so m uch fro m th e f e a r o f i n c u r r i n g th e h e a v y f i n e — w h ic h was

th e p u n is h m e n t f o r a b s e n c e — b u t f ro m t h e f e a r o f l o s i n g h o n o r

a n d f a c e . As A bul F a z l so a p t l y s ta t e d * -

A d m it ta n c e t o t h e „ c o u r t i s a d i s t i n c t i o n c o n f e r r e d o n t h e n a t i o n a t l a r g e . 4

F u r th e r m o r e , b e in g p r e s e n t a t d a r b a r s w as a s i g n t h a t o n e w as i n

th e e m p e r o r 's f a v o r . I f a n o b le w ere t o i n c u r t h e e m p e r o r 's d i s -

p l e a s u r e , h e w o u ld b e f o r b i d d e n t o b e p r e s e n t a t f u t u r e d a r b a r s .

D u r in g t h e a u d i e n c e s , n o one w as a l lo w e d t o s p e a k o r move w i th o u t

p r i o r p e r m i s s i o n .

I n e v e r y q u a r t e r b e tw e e n t h e o u t e r an d t h e i n n e r b a l l u s t r a d e a r e s t a t i o n e d a c t i v e i4 e e r T o o z e k s a n d Y is s a w u l s , b e a r i n g w ands o f g o ld a n d s i l v e r , i n l a i d a n d e n a m e l le d , t o g e t h e r w i th t h e K h id m u tte a h a n d t h e i n f a n t r y , who t a k e p r o p e r c a r e t h a t no i n d i v i d u a l c a n p o s s i b l y move o u t o f h i s p l a c e . 4 -'

S i m i l a r l y , e a c h p e r s o n h a d h i s a s s i g n e d s p o t w h ic h w as d e te r m in e d

b y h i s r a n k an d p o s i t i o n w i t h i n th e g o v e rn m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e . The

em p ero r w as t h e o n ly p e r s o n who w as s e a t e d , a n d h i s t h r o n e o r

c h a i r w as a lw a y s o n a r a i s e d p l a t f o r m so t h a t h e w o u ld b e a b o v e

e v e ry b o d y e l s e . O n ly t h e p r i n c e s a n d a h a n d f u l o f f a v o r e d h ig h

50r a n k i n g n o b l e s w e re p e r m i t t e d t o s t a n d o n t h e p l a t f o r m .

A t te n d a n c e a t c o u r t w as s u b j e c t e d t o a s e t c o d e o f

b e h a v io r a n d f o r m a l e t i q u e t t e . T h e s e m a n n e rs h a d b e e n d e c r e e d a t

t h e o n s e t o f t h e M ughal r u l e i n I n d i a , a n d w as s u b j e c t e d o n ly to

m in o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s u n d e r e a c h e m p e ro r . The m o s t c o m p le te d o cu

m e n ta t i o n o f th e r u l e s an d r e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e c o u r t a r e fo u n d i n


93

A bul F a z l 1s A in - i - A k b a r i an d i n t h e C h a r C harm an o f C h an d rab h a n

a r e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c o u r t c e re m o n ie s a t w h ic h t h e s e r u l e s a r e

a p p l i e d . When t h e e m p e ro r e n t e r e d t h e a u d ie n c e h a l l , a l l t h e

p e o p le p r e s e n t p e r fo rm e d t h e s a l u t a t i o n know n a s t h e k o r n i s h ,

w h ic h r e q u i r e d t h e p a lm o f t h e r i g h t h a n d t o b e p l a c e d up o n th e

f o r e h e a d a n d f o r t h e h e a d t o be b e n t d ow nw ards .

T h is mode o f s a l u t a t i o n . . . s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h e s a l u t e r h a s p l a c e d h i s h e a d ( w h ic h i s t h e s e a t o f t h e s e n s e a n d t h e m in d ) i n t o th e h a n d o f h u m i l i t y , g i v i n g i t t o t h e r o y a l a s s e m b ly a s a p r e s e n t , a n d h a s m ade h i m s e l f i n o b e d ie n c e a n d r e a d y f o r a n y s e r v i c e t h a t may be r e q u i r e d o f h im .

T h e re a r e s e v e r a l e x a m p le s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t w h e re t h e

k o m i s h i s p e r f o r m e d , a n d i t i s q u i t e c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n

f o l i o 48 v by t h e man o n th e e l e p h a n t . When one w as p r e s e n te d to

o r w as t a k i n g l e a v e o f t h e e m p e ro r , an d when a g i f t , t i t l e , f a v o r ,

o r h o n o r was b e s to w e d , a g e s t u r e o f r e s p e c t , t h e t a s l i m , h a d t o b e

show n, D u r in g S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n , f o u r t a s l i m s w ere p e r fo rm e d

a t t h e s e o c c a s i o n .

The s a l u t a t i o n c a l l e d t h e t a s l i m , c o n s i s t e d i n p l a c i n g th e b a c k o f t h e r i g h t h a n d on t h e g ro u n d , a n d th e n r a i s i n g i t g e n t l y t i l l t h e p e r s o n s t a n d s e r e c t , when h e p u t s th e p a lm o f h i s h a n d upo n t h e c row n o f h i s h e a d , w h ic h p l e a s i n g m a n n e r o f s a l u t i n g s i g n i f i e s t h a t h e i s r e a d y t o g iv e h im s e l f a s a n o f f e r i n g .

F o l i o 214v i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e d e p a r t u r e o f A u ran g zeb

f o r t h e D e c c a n , i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t a s l i m m a n n e r o f s a l u t a t i o n .

P r o s t r a t i o n b e f o r e t h e th r o n e ( s i j d a ) a n d k i s s i n g

th e g ro u n d (z a m in b o s ) w e re a l s o o t h e r g e s t u r e s o f o b e d ie n c e t h a t

w ere p e r fo rm e d by c o u r t i e r s u p t i l l t h e r e i g n o f J a h a n g i r ; th e y


94

w e re a b o l i s h e d by S h ah J a h a n . 53 The s i j d a h s a n d th e z am in b o s w ere

b o rro w e d by t h e M u g h a ls , p r o b a b ly d u r in g A k b a r 's r e i g n , fro m

e x i s t i n g H in d u c u s to m s , a n d i n S hah J a h a n 's d e s i r e t o p u r s u e a

m o re o r th o d o x I s l a m i c p o l i c y , h e e n s u r e d t h a t h i s r e f o r m s sox igh t

t o e r a d i c a t e m any o f t h e u n - I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e s . ^ Prom t h e L u b b u t

T a w a r ik h - i H in d by B in d r a b a n , a h i s t o r i a n o f A u r a n g z e b 's r e i g n ,

com es th e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t o f S hah J a h a n 's r e f o r m o f t h i s p r a c t i c e .

I t h a s lo n g b e e n c u s to m a ry w i th th e s u b j e c t s o f t h i s s t a t e t o p r o s t r a t e th e m s e lv e s b e f o r e th e K in g i n g r a t e f u l r e t u r n f o r an y r o y a l f a v o u r s c o n f e r r e d on th e m , an d on th e r e c e i p t o f r o y a l m a n d a te s . T h i s j u s t K in g ( s h a h J a h a n ) , on h i s a c c e s s i o n t o th e t h r o n e , com m anded t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e s h o u ld be a b o l i s h e d , a n d a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f M ah ab a t Khan (K h a n -k h a n a n ) , h e e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t e a d t h e p r a c t i c e o f k i s s i n g t h e g r o u n d . T h is a l s o b e in g a f t e r w a r d s fo u n d e q u a l l y o b j e c t i o n a b l e , t h e K in g , a c t u a t e d by h i s d e v o t io n an d p i e t y , o r d e r e d t h a t i t l i k e w i s e s h o u ld b e d i s c o n t i n u e d ; a n d t h a t th e u s u a l m ose o f s a l u t a t i o n by b o w in g a n d to u c h in g t h e h e a d s h o u ld b e r e s t o r e d , w i th t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , t h a t , i n s t e a d o f d o in g so o n ly o n c e , a s b e f o r e , t h e a c t s h o u ld b e p e r fo rm e d t h r i c e s e v e r a l t i m e s . C i r c u l a r o r a e r s , e n f o r c i n g t h e o b s e rv a n c e o f t h i s p r a c t i c e , w ere i s s u e d to a l l th e G o v e rn o rs w i t h i n th e r o y a l d o m i n i o n s . 5 5

The sm o o th f u n c t i o n i n g o f th e p o l i c i e s o f t h e s t a t e

w as m a in ta i n e d n o t o n ly by t h e s e r e g u l a r l y s c h e d u le d c o u r t a u d i

e n c e s , b u t a l s o by a b o d y o f v a r i o u s m i n i s t e r s who w ere r e s p o n

s i b l e f o r a s e p a r a t e s e c t o r o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , who i n t u r n

h a d lo w e r r a n k e d o f f i c i a l s w o rk in g u n d e r th e m . The f u n c t i o n s o f

t h e s t a t e w ere d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p r i n c i p a l u n i t s o f c o n t r o l : th e

r e v e n u e , t h e m i l i t a r y , th e p u b l i c w o rk s an d i n d u s t r i e s , a n d th e

j u d i c i a l , e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l d e p a r t m e n t s .5 6 R ev en u e

w as i n t h e c h a rg e o f t h e d iv a n ; m i l i t a r y t h a t o f t h e m ir b a k s h i ;

p u b l i c w o rk s t h a t o f t h e m ir sam an ; a n d th e j u d i c i a l t h a t o f t h e


95

s a d r . T h e se f o u r m i n i s t e r s w e re r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e w a z i r , who n o t

o n ly saw t h a t t h e y c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d u t i e s , b u t a c t e d

a s t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y b e tw e e n th e e m p e ro r a n d t h e m i n i s t e r s . 57

U n d o u b te d ly , t h e w a z i r w as t n e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n

i n th e e m p ir e , f o r t h e e m p e ro r h a d t o h a v e c o m p le te t r u s t a n d

c o n f id e n c e i n h im . S h a ll J a h a n h a d o n ly o n e w a z i r , h i s f a t h e r i n

la w A sa f K h an , a n d when th e l a t t e r d i e d i n t h e 1 5 t h y e a r o f t h e

r e i g n , S h a h J a h a n p r e f e r e d t o l e a v e th e p o s t v a c a n t . 5®

F iv e men h e l d t h e p o s t o f d iv a n u n d e r t h e r e i g n o f

S h ah J a h a n . T hey w ere I r a d a t Khan ( 1 s t y e a r ) , A f z a l Khan (2 n d to

1 2 th y e a r s ) , I s la m K han ( 1 3 t h t o 1 9 t h y e a r s ) , S a 'd u l l a h Khan ( 1 9 t h

t o 3 0 th y e a r s ) , an d R a i R ay an f o r t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e r e i g n .

The d u t i e s o f a d iv a n w e re o f an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n a t u r e . N o t o n ly

w as h e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l m a t t e r s c o n c e r n in g f i n a n c e an d r e v e n u e ,

b u t a l s o f o r t h e a u t h o r i s a t i o n o f a p p o in tm e n t s , o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s

a n d s t a t e d o c u m e n ts . 59 y h i l e t h e d iv a n d e a l t w i th s t a t e a d m in is

t r a t i o n , th e m ir b a k s h i r w as i n c h a rg e o f m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s . He

h a n d le d t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n a n d p ay m en t f o r th e a rm y , made recom m en

d a t i o n s f o r p r o m o t io n s a n d a p p o in tm e n ts w i t h i n t h e r a n k s , an d

e n s u r e d t h e m a in te n a n c e o f t h e h o r s e s a n d e q u ip m e n t . S h ah J a h a n

h a d e i g h t m i r b a k h s h i r * S a d iq K han ( 1 s t t o 6 t h y e a r s ) , I s la m

Khan ( 6 t h t o 8 t h y e a r s ) , M ir J u m a la ( 8 t h t o 1 0 th y e a r s ) , Mutammad

K han ( 1 0 th t o 1 3 t h y e a r s ) , S a l a b a t K han ( 1 3 th t o 1 7 t h y e a r s ) ,

A s a l a t Khan ( 1 7 t h t o 2 0 t h y e a r s ) , J a f a r Khan ( 2 0 t h t o 2 3 rd y e a r s ) ,

an d K h a l i l u l l a h K han ( 2 3 r d t o 3 0 th y e a r s ) .


96

The m ir sam an was i n c h a rg e o f t h e k a rk h a n a s (m e a n in g

l i t e r a l l y f a c t o r i e s ) a n d s t o r e s m a in ta in e d by th e c e n t r a l g o v e m -

61m e n t f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f th e s t a t e . He saw t o th e m a n u f a c tu r in g

a n d s t o r i n g o f g o o d s , n o t o n ly t h o s e f o r i n d u s t r i a l n e e d s , b u t a l s o

th o s e w h ic h w ere n e c e s s a r y f o r d a i l y u s e . - T h e re w ere f i v e men who

h e l d t h i s p o s i t i o n u n d e r S h ah J a h a n ; A f z a l K han , M ir J u m a la , A q.il

K han , S a d u l l a Khan a n d M u lla a l a - u l M ulk ( a l s o known a s F a i z a l

K h a n ) , m a m a s — o r d o c t o r s o f th e la w — w e re a body o f l e a r n e d

men who w ere e x p e r t s on m a t t e r s o f th e la w , b o th s t a t e a n d r e l i

g io u s . T hey w ere c o n s u l t e d i n m a t t e r s o f j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d i n th e

t e a c h i n g o f I s l a m i c p r i n c i p l e s . T h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o t h e

s t a t e a n d c o u n c i l w as t h e s a d r , a n d h i s m a in f u n c t i o n was t o e n s u r e

t h a t a l l men f u l f i l l e d t h e i r d u t i e s a c c o r d in g t o t h e t e n e t s o f

I s l a m . O n ly t h r e e s a d r s w ere a p p o in te d d u r in g tn e r e i g n o f

S hah J a h a n ; M u sav i Khan ( 1 s t t o 1 6 th y e a r s ) , S a y y id S a d r B0k h a r i

G u j a r a t i ( 1 6 th t o 2 0 th y e a r s ) a n d S a y y id H i d a y a t u l l a ( 2 1 s t t o '}Qth

y e a r s ) . T h i s summary o f t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f t h e s t a t e show s a

d i v i s i o n o f p o w ers a n d d u t i e s w h ic h e l i m i n a t e s a n o v e r l a p p in g o f

f u n c t i o n s , a n d a t t h e same t i m e , by g i v i n g o n ly l i m i t e d r e s p o n s i

b i l i t i e s t o e a c h s e c t o r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p r e v e n t s an y o n e

m i n i s t r y fro m e v e r becom m ing to o p o w e r f u l . I n t h i s way s h a h J a h a n

w as a b l e t o h a v e a w e l l s t r u c t u r e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sy s te m w hose

p o w ers w e re k e p t i n c h e c k .

W edding C e l e b r a t i o n s a n d F e s t i v a l s

The o t h e r ty p e s o f s c e n e s t h a t t a k e p la c e w i t h i n t h e


97

c o u r t s a x e t h e c e l e b r a t i o n s a n d f e s t i v a l s , w h ic h t o t a l a num ber o f

e l e v e n p a i n t i n g a , r e p r e s e n t i n g f o u r s e p a r a t e i n c i d e n t s . T h re e o f

t h e s e a r e w ed d in g c e r e m o n ie s , a n d t h e o t h e r i s an a n n u a l w eig h m en t

o f S h ah J a h a n . S ix p a i n t i n g s d e p i c t t h e c e l e b r a t i o n s o f P a r a

S h ik o h 's w ed d in g - - i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e a r e t h e a c t u a l w e d d in g d ay

and tw o p r e p a r a t o r y f e s t i v a l s — tw o r e p r e s e n t t h a t o f S h ah S h u ja ,

a n d o n e o f A u ra n g z e b ’ s . The la rg e - n u m b e r o f p a i n t i n g s a c c o r d e d to

P a r a i s t e s t im o n y t o h i s r e l a t i v e im p o r ta n c e i n th e e y e s o f S hah

J a h a n . N o t o n ly w as h e t h e e l d e s t s o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e h e i r

a p p a r e n t t o t h e t h r o n e , b u t h e w as a l s o t h e f a v o r i t e c h i l d . I n

one s e n s e , t h e o v e rw h e lm in g a t t e n t i o n t o P a r a i s a c a r r y o v e r o f

t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s e x p r e s s e d i n t n e f r o n t i s p i e c e s , a n d i n

a n o t h e r , i t s e r v e d a s a m eans o f i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e im m ense w e a l th

o f th e c o u r t .

M a r r ia g e a s an i n s t i t u t i o n w as r e g a r d e d f i r s t a n d f o r e -63

m o st a s t h e d u ty o f e v e r y M u slim , a n d t h e M u g h a ls , b e in g o f t h a t

p a r t i c u l a r c r e e d , w ere o b l i g e d t o c a r r y o u t t h i s t a s k . I t w as ,

a s s t a t e d by A b u l p a z l ,

t h e m eans o f p r e s e r v i n g th e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e human r a c e , a n de n s u r i n g th e p r o g r e s s o f t h e w o r l d .64

I n o t h e r w o rd s , i t w as t h e f i r s t s t e p to w a rd s t h e p r o p a g a t io n o f

p ro g e n y , t h e c r e a t i o n o f new g e n e r a t i o n s w h ic h w o u ld f u l f i l l th e

d u ty o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e g o v e rn m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n . T h a t a t t e n t i o n

was o n ly d i r e c t e d to w a r d s t h e m a le c h i l d r e n i s an e v i d e n t f a c t ,

f o r th e y w ere th e h e i r s , an d th e y w ere t h e o n e s who w o u ld c a r r y


98

o n th e nam e o f t h e h o u s e h o ld . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e f e m a le c h i l d r e n

o f t h e e m p e ro r n e v e r m a r r i e d ; t h e y s p e n t t h e i r l i v e s i n t h e w om en 's

q u a r t e r s , s u p e r v i s i n g t h e m anagem en t o f t h e h o u s e an d t e n d i n g to

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s o f t h e i r b r o t h e r s ' c h i l d r e n . ^5 i t w as o n ly

d u r in g t h e r e i g n o f A u ra n g z e b t h a t t h i s p r a c t i c e was a b o l i s h e d .

I n a d d i t i o n to t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s c o n c e p t o f

t h e c r e a t i o n o f f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , t h e s e w e d d in g s c e n e s a l s o

h e l p e d t o e n h a n c e t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n u n d e n i a b le w e a l th i n t h e

M ughal c o u r t . S u m p tu o u s i s p e r h a p s t h e b e s t w ord to d e s c r i b e th e

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e e l a b o r a t e f e s t i v a l s . One i s s t r u c k by th e

p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p e o p le a n d o b j e c t s , a s i g n o f p l e n t y , a t e s t i

mony o f w e a l t h . The f a c t t h a t a l l t h r e e s t a g e s o f th e c e r e m o n ia l

p r o c e s s o f D a r a 's w e d d in g w ere r e p r e s e n t e d s e r v e d n o t o n ly to

f o c u s a t t e n t i o n up o n h i s im p o r ta n c e , a s w e l l a s t o g iv e a g r a p h ic

r e n d i t i o n o f t h e s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s , b u t a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s a

v e h i c l e f o r t h e d i s p l a y o f th e im m ense r i c h e s s t h a t a b o u n d e d .

N e i t h e r S h u ja n o r A u ra n g z e b w ere a c c o r d e d t h i s h o n o r , f o r th e y

w ere l e s s f a v o r e d a n d l e s s p r i v i l e g e d , b o th b e i n g y o u n g e r th a n

D a ra . H o w ev er, t h e i r w e d d in g s s t i l l d e p i c t e d a g r a n d e u r a n d

l a v i s h n e s s w h ic h f u r t h e r h i g h l i g h t e d t h e w e a l t h a n d h e n c e th e

p o w er o f t h e c o u r t o f S h ah J a h a n .

A lth o u g h t h e r e i s q u i t e a s u b s t a n t i a l am oun t o f

d o c u m e n ta t io n on w e d d in g c e r e m o n ie s i n I n d i a , n o t a w h o le l o t i s

t o b e fo u n d on r o y a l w e d d in g s . By s tu d y in g t h e w ed d in g s c e n e s i n

t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B a d s h a h Nama, o n e c a n g e t some i d e a a s t o w hat


99

th e y w ere l i k e . The w ed d in g c e l e b r a t i o n f o r a p r i n c e o f t h e r o y a l

h o u s e h o ld to o k p l a c e o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e . A f t e r t h e c o n f i rm a

t i o n o f t h e b e t r o t h a l , p r e p a r a t i o n s w ere made f o r t h e s a c h a q . The

s a c h a q w as t h e b r i n g i n g o f p r e s e n t s t o t h e h o u s e o f t h e f u t u r e

b r i d e ' s p a r e n t s . F r i e n d s a n d f e m a le r e l a t i v e s o f t h e groom d e l i

v e r e d th e g i f t s o f a s s o r t e d f o o d s t u f f , j e w e l l r y an d v a r i o u s d ry

66g o o d s . F o l i o s 120v a n d 1 2 1 r i l l u s t r a t e t h e sachaq . o f D a r a 's

w e d d in g . A p p a r e n t ly th e s a c h a q was a r a t h e r common c u s to m i n

I n d i a , a n d i n some r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y , t h e groom w o u ld accom -

6 7p an y th e p r o c e s s i o n to h i s f u t u r e b r i d e ' s h o u s e .

A p e r i o d o f a b o u t two m o n th s s e p a r a t e d th e s a c h a q

a n d t h e a c t u a l w ed d in g d a y . D u r in g t h i s p e r i o d a num ber o f r i t e s

68s y m b o lic o f th e c o u p l e 's u n io n w ere p e r f o r m e d . No r e p r e s e n t a

t i o n s o f t h e s e a r e fo u n d i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e r e f o r e one

c a n n o t b e a b s o l u t e l y s u r e i f t h e s e r i t u a l s w ere o b s e r v e d b y t h e

r o y a l f a m i l y . The s h a b g a s h t ( n o c t u r n a l p r o c e s s i o n ) w as t h e f i n a l

f o r m a l i t y b e f o r e th e m a r r i a g e c e r e m o n y .^ H e re t h e b r id e g ro o m

w as f e t c h e d fro m h i s h o u s e by m a le r e l a t i v e s a n d f r i e n d s an d

e s c o r t e d t o t h e c e re m o n y . T hey w ere a c c o m p a n ie d b y a p r o c e s s i o n

o f s e r v a n t s an d m u s i c i a n s . F o l i o s 122v an d 1 2 j r i l l u s t r a t e t h e

s h a b g a s h t o f D a ra S h ik o h , w h i le f o l i o s 126v a n d 1 2 7 r r e p r e s e n t

t h a t o f S hah S h u ja . I n b o th c a s e s t h e r e i s m uch f u s s an d l a v i s h

n e s s w h ic h i s t y p i c a l o f a l l t h e f e s t i v i t i e s a t t h e M ughal c o u r t .

The f i n a l s t a g e i n th e c e l e b r a t i o n s i s t h e a c t u a l

w e d d in g n i g h t . F o l i o 124v a n d 1 2 5 r d e p i c t t h a t o f D a ra , w h i le


100

f o l i o 217v show s t h a t o f A u ra n g z e b . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e s c e n e s p o r

t r a y t h e p e r fo rm a n c e o f th e a c t u a l c e re m o n y , b u t r e p r e s e n t i n s t e a d

S hah J a h a n p r e s e n t i n g g i f t s o f j e w e l l r y t o e a c h o f h i s s o n s .

T h i r t y l a k h s o f r u p e e s w e re e x p e n d e d on D a ra S h ik o h * s w e d d in g , b u t

70n o f i g u r e h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d f o r A u ra n g z e b ‘ s . 1 As b o th o f t h e s e

a r e n i g h t s c e n e s , th e y a r e g r e a t l y a n im a te d b y t h e l i g h t s fro m

th e t o r c h e s w h ic h l e n d a s p a r k l i n g e f f e c t t o th e o v e r a l l p r e s e n

t a t i o n . The e m p h a s is o f t h e s e w e d d in g s c e n e s h a s b e e n on t h e

g i v i n g o f p r e s e n t s r a t h e r th a n on t h e p e r fo rm a n c e o f t h e r i t e s .

T h is may b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t n e f a c t t h a t , Dy sh o w in g th e e x e c u t io n

o f t h e r i t u a l s , t h e women o f t h e r o y a l f a m i ly w o u ld h a v e h a d t o

b e r e p r e s e n t e d , w h ich w o u ld n o t n a v e b e e n p e r m i s s i D l e , c o n s i d e r i n g

t h e i n j u n c t i o n a g a i n s t r o y a l women b e in g s e e n by th e p u b l i c .

T h ro u g h o u t t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e r e a r e n o a c t u a l p o r t r a y a l s

o f t h e q u e e n s o r th e p r i n c e s s e s ; t h e o n ly women e v e r shown a r e t h e

s e r v a n t s an d t h e e n t e r t a i n e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , women p la y e d an

e x c e e d in g ly s e c o n d a ry r o l e i n 1 7 t h c e n t u r y I n d i a , a n a t h e r f o r e

t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n e v e n t h i s ce re m o n y m ig h t n o t h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d

a s e s s e n t i a l . H ow ever, t h e f i x a t i o n w i t h t h e v e r y m a t e r i a l a s p e c t

o f w e d d in g s i s a c l e a r r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e v e r y w e a l t h - o r i e n t e d

a t t i t u d e o f S h ah J a h a n . The d i s p l a y o f p r e s e n t s s e r v e d a s a

m eans o f h i g h l i g h t i n g h i s own p e r s o n a l w e l l - b e i n g , a n d i n e s s e n c e

i s th e th em e o f t h e e n t i r e m a n u s c r i p t . E v e ry s i n g l e p a i n t i n g

s e r v e s to g l o r i f y h im , a n d th e e v e n t s f u n c t i o n o n ly a s th e

v a r i o u s m e th o d s by w h ic h t h i s e f f e c t may be a c h i e v e d .


101

The o t h e r e v e n t w i t h i n th e c a t e g o r y o f f e s t i v a l s an d

c e l e b r a t i o n s i s t h e s o l a r w e ig h m en t o f S hah J a h a n w h ic h to o k p l a c e

i n 1629 (1 0 3 8 H ) . On e a c h b i r t h d a y , a c c o r d in g t o b o th t h e s o l a r

an d l u n a r c a l a n d a r s , o f th e e m p e ro r , a b ig f e a s t w as h e l d w here

h e w as w e ig h e d a g a i n s t v a r i o u s p r e c i o u s o b j e c t s . T he cu s to m o f

w e ig h in g a p e r s o n a g a i n s t o b j e c t s was an o ld H in d u cu s to m w h ich

w as i n t r o d u c e d i n t o th e M ughal c o u r t b y A k b a r .* ^ I t w as r e s e r v e d

o n ly f o r t h e m em bers o f t h e r o y a l f a m i l y ; t h e r e i g n i n g e m p e ro r

b e in g w e ig h e d tw ic e a y e a r , w h i le t h e p r i n c e s w ere w e ig h e d o n ly

o n ce a y e a r . T he o b s e r v a n c e s o f f e s t i v a l s t h a t w ere d e te r m in e d

b y a s t r o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g s show a d e e p s e a t e d s u p e r s t i t i o n on th e

p a r t o f t h e M u g h a ls . S h ah J a h a n i n p a r t i c u l a r w as e x t r e m e ly

i n v o l v e d w i th a c o r r e c t r e a d i n g o f h e a v e n ly b o d i e s , f o r h e r e g a r d e d

h i s b i r t h d a y — h e w as b o r n i n t h e y e a r 1000 o f t h e H j j r i c a le n

d e r — a s a n a u s p i c i o u s s i g n . T h e re a r e d i a g r a m a t i c a l c h a r t s o f

h i s h o r o s c o p e i n m o s t e d i t i o n s o f h i s p e r s o n a l h i s t o r i e s , an d one

a p p e a r s on f o l i o 2 8 r o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t .

On the s o la r b ir th d a y , the emperor was weighed a g a in st

tw elve a r t i c l e s : g o ld , s i l v e r , s i l k , perfum es, copper, r u h - i-

tu t iy a , drugs, ghee, ir o n , r ic e m ilk , seven k inds o f g ra in , and

s a l t . ^ These were l a t e r d is tr ib u te d among th e c o u r t ie r s , p ious

men and b eggars. On th e lu n ar b ir th d a y , th e number of a r t i c l e s

were reduced to seven: s i l v e r , t in , c lo th , le a d , f r u i t s , mustard73o i l , a n d v e g e t a b l e s , a n d l i k e w i s e , th e y w ere a l s o g iv e n aw ay .

The order o f th ese com m odities was determ ined by t h e ir v a lu e .


102

The p r i n c e s w ere n e v e r w e ig h e d a g a i n s t m ore th a n tw e lv e a r t i c l e s ,

a n d on t h e a v e r a g e , t h e i r w e ig h m e n ts c o n s i s t e d o f s e v e n to e i g h t

c o m m o d it ie s . T h i s ce re m o n y s e r v e d a s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r g iv i n g

a lm s , an a c t c o n s id e r e d t o b e a u s p ic io u s * f o r i t p r o t e c t e d th e

r o y a l p e r s o n a g e : f ro m b o d i l y h a r m . 74 j n f o l i o s 70v a n d 7 1 r , one

s e e s t h e w e ig h m en t o f S h a h J a h a n a t t e n d e d by t h e p r i n c e s an d o t h e r

h ig h r a n k in g n o b l e s . I n t h e c o u r t y a r d , m u s ic ia n s a n d d a n c in g g i r l s

p r o v id e an a i r o f f e s t i v i t y a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t . The f a c t t h a t t h i s

cerem o n y c o u ld h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t s e v e r a l t im e s a y e a r , w as

i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e s t a g g e r i n g w e a l t h o f t h e c o u r t w h ic h c o u ld so

e a s i l y a f f o r d t o f r e e l y d i s t r i b u t e t h e s e a r t i c l e s . N e e d le s s t o

s a y , t h e p r e c i o u s m e t a l s a lw a y s fo u n d t h e i r way b a c k t o t h e c o u r t s ,

e i t h e r a s p r e s e n t s t o t h e e m p e ro r o r a s t r i b u t e s .

T h e se i n t e r i o r s c e n e s g iv e some i d e a a s t o how th e

c o u r t lo o k e d a t th e t im e ; n o t o n ly i t s p h y s i c a l make u p , b u t a l s o

t h e m a n n e r i n w h ich l i f e w as c o n d u c te d . C erem ony a n d m uch fo rm a

l i t y w ere th e r u l e s , a n d a m id s t a l l t h i s , S h ah J a h a n * s p r e s e n c e

h e l d an u n d e n ia b le p o s i t i o n . I f n o t p h y s i c a l l y p r e s e n t , t h e

s u r r o u n d in g s — t h e o v e rw h e lm in g r i c h n e s s - - sp o k e f o r h im .

S c e n e s Away Prom C o u r t

The e v e n t s w h ich to o k p l a c e o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f

t h e p a l a c e w a l l s p r o v id e a f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t o t h e c o m p o rt

m en t o f t h e M ughal e m p e r o r s . I n t h e s e p a i n t i n g s one s e e s t h r e e

a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h , a l t h o u g h p h y s i c a l l y rem o v e d fro m th e p a l a c e s ,


103

s t i l l m a in ta in e d , t h e f o r m a l i t y a n d c e re m o n io u s t r a p p i n g s o f

c o u r t l y a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g to s e e t h i s ,

c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r a n d e x t e r i o r s c e n e s w e re r e l a t e d i n

m any w a y s . B a t t l e s , h u n t s a n d v i s i t s t o h o ly men c o m p r is e t h i s

c a t e g o r y o f w o rk s . I n t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s , t h e c o n c e r n w i th t h e

e x p a n s io n o f t h e e m p ir e , n o t a b l e i n m any o f t h e d a r b a r s c e n e s ,

i s t h e p r e v a l e n t th e m e . E n t e r t a i n m e n t , w h ic h was t h e m o t i f o f

t h e f e s t i v a l s a n d c e l e b r a t i o n s , com es o u t i n t h e h u n t s ; a n d f i n a l l y

r e l i g i o u s r e v e r e n c e a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n s , m a n i f e s t e d i n th e f r o n t i s

p i e c e s an d th e w e ig h m en t s c e n e , i s g iv e n f u l l im p a c t i n t h e v i s i t s to

h o ly s h r i n e s . T ak e n a s a c a t e g o r y , t h e s e s c e n e s o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t

co n fo rm to t h e l e i t - m o t i f o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h a t i s , th e y f u n c t i o n

a s a m eans f o r t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f th e im ag e o f S h ah J a h a n . T h is

g l o r i f i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , com es i n an i n d i r e c t m e th o d , f o r i n t h i s

s e t o f p a i n t i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s , t h e f i g u r e o f

S h ah J a h a n i s h a r d l y e v e r p r e s e n t . C o n fo rm in g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e

o f p r e s e n t i n g a f a i r l y a c c u r a t e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e e v e n t s , t h e

e x c l u s i o n o f S h ah J a h a n w as i n e v i t a b l e . As h e w as n o t t h e r e , h e

c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n p o r t r a y e d . H ow ever, t h e v i c t o r i e s sp o k e f o r

h i s g r e a t n e s s .

B a t t l e s

T h e re a r e . t e n p a i n t i n g s i n t h e W in a so r m a n u s c r i p t

w h ic h d e p i c t b a t t l e s , a n d th e y r e p r e s e n t a t o t a l o f s e v e n e n c o u n

t e r s . T h is c a t e g o r y , m ore so th a n t h e o t h e r tw o , w as v e r y m uch

d e te r m in e d a n d d e te r m in e d t h e p o l i c i e s made a t c o u r t . D e c i s io n s


104

t o em bark on m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s w ere f o r m u l a te d d u r in g d a r b a r s ,

a n d w ere s e e n a s m e th o d s o f f o r g i n g new f r o n t i e r s f o r t h e e n l a r g e

m e n t o f t h e e m p i r e , t e r r i t o r i e s g a in e d th r o u g h b a t t l e s e n c o m p a sse d

th e m a k e -u p o f t h e k in g d o m , a n d th e l a r g e r t h e am oun t o f

t e r r i t o r i a l h o l d i n g s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f t h e

l a n d , t h e b a t t l e s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t r e p r e s e n t a r a t h e r

b i a s e d p i c t u r e o f t h e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e t i m e s , f o r o n ly

t h e v i c t o r i e s w e re r e c o r d e d . One i s t h u s g iv e n th e im p r e s s i o n

t h a t t h e M u g h a ls w ere a v e r y p o w e r fu l p e o p l e , w h ic h o f c o u r s e

was i n m any r e s p e c t s v e r y t r u e , b u t th e y h a d m any s h o r t co m in g s

a n d f a i l u r e s w h ic h d i d n o t g e t r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e . S in c e t h e m anu

s c r i p t w as a m eans o f b o l s t e r i n g t h e e l e v a t e d im ag e S h ah J a h a n

h a d o f h i m s e l f , i t w as o n ly f i t t i n g t h a t e v e n t s w h ic h p la c e d him

an d h i s e m p ire i n a f a v o r a b l e l i g h t b e i n c l u d e d .

The b a t t l e s r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t

h a v e an a f f i n i t y w i th t h e c o n c e r n s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e d a r b a r s c e n e s ,

t h a t i s , w i th D e c c a n i a f f a i r s . The r e a s o n s b e h in d th e o b s e s s io n

w i th t h e D eccan h a s a l r e a d y b e e n o u t l i n e d i n t h e s e c t i o n on

d a r b a r s . The n o n -D e c c a n r e l a t e d b a t t l e s w e re t h e s u b m is s io n o f

R a n a Amar S in g h o f M ewar a n d t h e d e f e a t o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e a t

H u g h l i . B o th o f t h e s e , h o w e v e r , h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d in g p a i n t i n g

i n o n e o f t h e d a r b a r s c e n e s . T h is show s j u s t how c l o s e l y r e l a t e d

b a t t l e s w e re t o t h e f u n c t i o n i n g s w i t h i n th e c o u r t . I n f a c t th e y

h a d a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t. The v e r y

b o u n d a r ie s o f I n d i a t h a t w as r u l e d by th e M u g h a ls w ere d e te r m in e d


105

by th e o u tco m e o f t h e v a r i o u s b a t t l e s , w h e th e r t h e y w ere s u c c e s s e s

o r f a i l u r e s .

M uch i n f o r m a t i o n c a n be g a i n e d a b o u t w a r f a r i n g t a c

t i c s o f t h e t im e th r o u g h s tu d y in g t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t . One c a n g e t some i d e a a s t o w h a t cam ps on t h e b a t t l e

s i t e lo o k e d l i k e — a s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f o l i o s 4bv an d 4 7 ^ — a s

w e l l a s t o t h e a r r a y o f c o s tu m e s , a rm s , w eapons an d e q u ip m e n t .

F u r th e rm o re o ne c a n s e e t h e v a r i o u s m e th o d s o f a t t a c k t h a t w ere

u s e d , a n d t h e way t h e enem y w as t r e a t e d u p o n h i s s u r r e n d e r .

F i n a l l y , t h e a t t a c k on t h e P o r tu g u e s e s e t t l e m e n t a t H p g h li o f f e r s

a v ie w o f n a v a l w a r f a r e . R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d o c u m e n ta t io n c a n b e

fo u n d p e r t a i n i n g t o w a r f a r e d u r in g S h ah J a h a n * s r e i g n , a n d t h e r e

f o r e t h e m a n u s c r i p t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e a i d t o a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e

o f t h e s u b j e c t .

Some o f t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t

show th e a c t u a l f i g h t i n g i n p r o g r e s s , w h e re a s th e s u r r e n d e r o f

t h e enem y i s s e e n i n t h e o t h e r s . I n f o l i o s 46v an d 4 7 ^ , th e

s u b m is s io n o f R an a Amar S in g h , t h e r e i s a c o m p le te d e p i c t i o n o f a

M ughal cam p. T h i s d o u b le p a g e p a i n t i n g show s P r in c e K hurram

r e c e i v i n g t h e d e f e a t e d f o e i n a m a k e s h i f t a u d ie n c e h a l l . S in c e

t h e M u g h a ls r e l i s h e d a l o t i n show , i t w as o n ly n a t u r a l t h a t th e y

p a in e d t o b r i n g a lo n g a l l t h e c o u r t p a r a p h e n e l i a f o r a m i l i t a r y

c a m p a ig n . I n t h i s c a s e i t w as n o t e v e n th e e m p e ro r who was i n

c h a r g e , b u t h i s s o n , an d y e t t h e r e i s a s much f o r m a l i t y h e r e a s

t h e r e i s i n a n a u d ie n c e h a l l o f a p a l a c e . The c e n t r a l s t r u c t u r e


106

o f a M ughal camp w as t h e a u d ie n c e h a l l , a n d th e encam pm ents o f

t h e n o b le s a n d cam p f o l l o w e r s s u r r o u n d e d i t on a l l s i d e s . T h e se .

w as s i t u a t e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e p e r s o n 's r a n k a n d s t a n d i n g . ^ An

o r d e r l y s t r u c t u r e a n d g r e a t s t r i c t n e s s w as m a in t a i n e d a t a l l t im e s

i n t h e cam p. I t w as r e n d e r e d s e l f s u f f i c i e n t w i th t h e p r e s e n c e

o f i t s own s h o p s a n d b a z a a r s , a n d i t e n s u r e d t h a t t h e r e w o u ld

v6n e v e r b e a l a c k o f a n y t h i n g . ' S i r Thom as E o e r e c o r d e d a d e s c r ip ~

t i o n o f one s u c h camp i n h i s m e m o irs :

A l l e n c o m p a sse d a s o r d e r l y a s a n y h o u s e , one o f t h e g r e a t e s t r a r i t i e s an d m a g n i f ic e n c e I e v e r s a w . . .T h e v a l e show ed l i k e a b e w i ld e r e d c i t y . 77

The p a i n t i n g s g iv e some i d e a a s t o t h e k in d s o f

w eapons u s e d a t t h e t i m e . C annons a n d m u s k e ts w e re w id e ly i n u s e ,

a s w e re t r a d i t i o n a l a rm s s u c h a s bow s a n d a r r o w s , l a n c e s an d

s p e a r s . H eavy a r t i l l e r y seem ed t o h a v e b e e n t h e m ore im p o r t a n t

an d m ore e f f i c i e n t w eap o n , f o r o n e o f t h e i r f a v o u r i t e a s s a u l t\

m e th o d s was t o bomb a n d b u rn down t h e e n e m y 's f o r t r e s s . T h is i s

b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d b y f o l i o 1 0 2 v , t h e s e i g e a t Q a n d a h a r . O b v io u s ly

t h e M u g h als a l s o p o s s e s s e d a s u b s t a n t i a l k n o w le d g e o f t h e u s e o f

e x p l o s i v e s . T r a d i t i o n a l a rm s a p p a r e n t l y s e r v e d i n h a n d t o h a n d

c o m b a t, a s c a n b e s e e n i n f o l i o 92v b e s e i g i n g th e f o r t o f D h a ru r

an d a l s o f o r d e c o r a t i v e p u r p o s e s .

F o l i o 1 1 7 v , t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e f o r t a t

H u g h l i , o f f e r s a v ie w i n t o n a v a l w a r f a r e . H e re t h e a t t a c k fro m

th e s e a was n o t t h e o n ly a s s a u l t f o r c e , r a t h e r , i t w as a m eans o f

s u r r o u n d in g t h e enem y on a l l s i d e s . From t h e p a i n t i n g one c a n


107

d e d u c e t h a t t h e i r v e s s e l s , a c o m b in a t io n o f a ro w b o a t a n d a s a i l

b o a t , w e re e q u ip p e d w i th f a i r l y p o w e r f u l c a n n o n s , w h i le th e men

on b o a r d w ie ld e d g u n s . A l th o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y d e l i n i a t e d h e r e ,

b o a t s w ere a l s o u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t h e a v y e q u ip m e n t , i n c l u d i n g

e l e p h a n t s , a n d t h e r e 'w e r e a l s o t h o s e w h ic h s e r v e d f o r s e i g e a n d

a t t a c k p u r p o s e s .^ ® Sea. b a t t l e s w ere r a t h e r r a r e f o r t h e M u g h a ls ;

m o s t o f t h e i r e n c o u n t e r s to o k p l a c e on l a n d , a n d b o a t s w ere

u t i l i z e d m a in ly f o r c o m m e rc ia l a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g

t h a t l a n d b a t t l e s w ere m o re n u m ero u s th a n s e a b a t t l e s , f o r i f one

w ere t o c o n s i d e r t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o m p o s i t io n o f th e I n d i a c o n t

r o l l e d b y t h e M u g h a ls , one w o u ld n o t i c e t h a t th e y h a d l i t t l e t o

f e a r f ro m c o a s t a l a t t a c k s , a n d t h a t a l l t h e i r s t r a t e g i c a l p o i n t s

o f c o n t r o l w e re on l a n d .

I n t h o s e p a i n t i n g s w h ic h show t h e s u b m is s io n o f th e

enem y,, one s e e s n o t o n ly su b d u ed a n d v a n q u i s h e d f o e s b e in g b ro u g h t

f o r w a r d t o t h e com m ander i n c h a r g e , b u t o n e a l s o s e e s t h e r a t h e r

g ru e so m e p r a c t i c e o f p r e s e n t i n g th e s e v e r e d h e a d s o f t h e d e f e a t e d

enem y. T h i s l a s t c a s e i s i l l u s t r a t e d on f o l i o s 9 4 v , t h e d e a t h o f

K han J a h a n L o d i a n d 1 7 5 v , t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e h e a d s o f J u j h a r

S in g h a n d h i s s o n . T h is c u s to m w as j u s t one o f th e many w ays t o

k i l l a m an, an d i t was common to u s e t h i s f o r r e b e l s . T h e i r h e a d s

w ere f i r s t p r e s e n t e d t o t h e em p e ro r a s a p r o o f o f t h e i r d e f e a t ,

a n d th e n th e y w e re im p a le d on a s t a k e a n d l e f t i n t h e c i t y s q u a re

t o s e r v e a s a w a rn in g t o o t h e r p o t e n t i a l r e b e l s . ^ M u rd e r , t h e f t ,

a n d t r e a s o n w ere a l s o c r im e s p u n i s h a b l e by d e a t h , an d i t w as


108

i n e v i t a b l e t h a t a v a n q u i s h e d enem y w as fo u n d g u i l t y o f e i t h e r one

o r m ore o f t h e s e c r im e s * I f t h e enem y w ere n o t b e h e a d e d , h e m ig h t

b e l e f t t o t h e m e rc y o f w i ld o r p o is o n o u s b e a s t s .

H o rs e s a n d e l e p h a n t s w e re t h e m o s t, im p o r ta n t a n im a ls

t o b e u s e d i n b a t t l e . H o rs e s w e re th e mode o f t r a n s p o r t f o r t h e

c a v a l r y , w h e re a s e l e p h a n t s s e r v e d n o t o n ly a s a t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t y

f o r b o th men a n d e q u ip m e n t , b u t a l s o a s a t a c t i c a l w eap o n . E le p h

a n t s w ere i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e

80enemy a n d th e v i c t o r y o f t h e e m p e ro r . T h e i r u s e s w e re m a n i f o ld

i n b o th f i g h t i n g an d i n s e i g e w a r f a r e .

I n f i g h t i n g ( t h e y a c t e d ) a s v a n , p r o t e c t i n g f l a n k s , p r e p a r i n g r o a d s an d cam p in g g r o u n d s , c l e a r i n g t h e r o a d s o f t r e e s a n d s h r u b s , c r o s s i n g r i v e r s , an d a s b r e a k i n g t h e c u r r e n t o f s w i f t r i v e r s , s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e l i n e o f b a t t l e ; a c t i n g a s w ooden c a s t l e s o r s u p p ly in g a l o f t y a n d m o b i le o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t t o t h e k in g o r t h e com m ander e n a b l i n g h im t o i s s u e n e c e s s a r y o r d e r s t o c h e e r up h i s a rm y . I n s e i g e w a r f a r e th e y s e r v e d a s b a t t e r i n g ra m s an d a s r a n k b r e a k e r s when i n f u r i a t e d . E l e p h a n t s p r o v id e d w i t h a rm o u r , c a r r y i n g i r o n to w e r s o r a r m o u r - p l a t e d c a n o p ie d s e a t s s u p p l i e d w i th h o l e s , th r o u g h w h ic h s o l d i e r s s h o t a r ro w s a n d n a p t h a b o t t l e s s e r v e d th e p u r p o s e o f m o d e rn t a n k s a n d a r m o u r ie s a n d s e i g e m achinery.® "*

Some o f t h e b a t t l e s c e n e s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t d e p i c t t h e

f u n c t i o n i n g o f th e e l e p h a n t a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . F o l i o s 1 4 7 ^ , t h e

c a p t u r e o f t h e f o r t a t D a u la ta b a d a n d 17 4 ^ , th e c a p t u r e o f t h e

f o r t s o f O rc c h a an d D ham uni, show e l e p h a n t s u s e d a s m o ra le r a i s e r s .

I n b o th p a i n t i n g s t h e b a t t l e s a r e o v e r , an d t h e m u s ic ia n s r i d e th e

e l e p h a n t s a n d so u n d o u t t h e v i c t o r y . I n f o l i o 1 0 2 v , th e s u r r e n d e r

o f Q a n d a h a r , s e v e r a l com m anders l i n i n g t h e r i g h t s i d e o f th e

w ork a r e m o u n ted on e l e p h a n t s , g i v i n g o r d e r s a n d s u r v e t i n g th e

p r o g r e s s o f th e b a t t l e . F i n a l l y , t h e e l e p h a n t a s a m eans o f


109

t r a n s p o r t , i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f f o l i o 1 7 6 v , t h e

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e h e a d s o f J u j h a r S in g h a n d h i s s o n .

The M ughal a r m y 's a p p r o a c h to w a r f a r e w as c lo a k e d i n

a l o t o f c e re m o n io u s t r a p p i n g s a n d e l a b o r a t e f a n f a r e . T hey w en t

t o b a t t l e a c c o m p a n ie d b y a w h o le r e t i n u e o f s t a n d a r d b e a r e r s a n d

m u s ic i a n s . I n a d d i t i o n th e y b r o u g h t a lo n g a l l t h e e q u ip m e n t a n d

s e r v a n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s e t up a n d m a in te n a n c e o f t h e encam p

m e n ts . A l l t h e p r i n c i p a l o f f i c e r s an d t h e i r h o r s e s w ere a d o rn e d

i n f i n e a rm o r a n d b r o c a d e . M ughal s o l d i e r s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d

by E dw ard T e r r y , t h e c h a p l a i n to th e a m b a s s a d o r S i r Thom as R o e ,

" a s th o u g h s u r r o u n d e d b y a r m o u r y " , 82 a n d t h i s i s im m e d ia te ly c l e a r

when one s e e s e x a c t l y how a s o l d i e r w as c l a d .

On t h e i r l e f t s i d e sw o rd h a n g in g on a b e l t , u n d e r them s h e a v e s o f many a r r o w s ; on t h e i r l e f t s h o u ld e r b r o a d b u c k l e r f a s t e n e d a n d u p o n t h e i r b a c k s s m a l l g u n s l i k e c a r b i n e s f i x e d l i k e w i s e ; an d a t t h e i r r i g h t s i d e bows h a n g in g w i th t h e i r c a s e s a n d l a n c e s ( a b o u t 2 y a r d s a n d a h a l f lo n g ) h a n g in g i n l a o p s n e a r s t i r r u p s , when th e y c a r r y them n o t i n t h e i r h a n d s .® 3

A l l t h i s w as u n d o u b te d ly do n e f o r show : t o d i s p l a y t h e i r w e a l th

a n d a l s o t o i n t i m i d a t e t h e enemy w i th n o i s e a n d p a g e a n t r y T h is

v a i n g l o r i o u s te n d e n c y w as a f e a t u r e a t t h e c o u r t o f S hah J a h a n

a n d w as a l s o p r e v a l e n t i n e v e n t s t h a t to o k p l a c e aw ay fro m t h e

c o u r t.

T h is d i s c u s s i o n h a s a l r e a d y shown how t h e ce re m o

n i e s o f th e c o u r t w ere f a c i l i t a t e d by th e w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d c e n t r a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o d y . L ik e w is e , i n o r d e r f o r

l a v i s h d i s p l a y s on th e b a t t l e f i e l d t o be r e a l i z e d , t h e arm y c o r p s


110

had to be r ig id ly org a n ized . The A in -i-A k b ari p r e sen ts one o f the

m ost d e ta ile d accounts o f the com position o f the Mughal army. Like

most arm ies o f the tim e, t h i s one was d iv id ed in to the ca v a lry and

th e in fa n tr y ; th e former b ein g s o ld ie r s w ith h o rses and th e l a t t e r

th o se w ithout any means o f animal tra n sp o r t. The commanding

o f f i c e r s were c a l le d mansabdars, and were d is t in g u ish e d in rank on ly

by th e s i z e o f th e ir commands. In stea d o f a sep a ra te t i t l e fo r

each rank, a s i s the c a se w ith the armed fo r c e s o f the W estern

worLd, th ey were d is t in g u ish e d by a number, f o r example, a mansab

o f 5000* The t i t l e mansabdar comes from th e word mansab, whichQ i

means p o st or o f f i c e . The p r in ce s n a tu r a lly h e ld th e h ig h e st

ranks, and during th e r e ig n o f Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh had the

h ig h e st command o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 . Shah Shuja had a mansab o f 15»000,

Aurangzeb one o f 15*000 and Murad Bakhsh one o f 12,000.® ^ The

oth er o f f i c e r s h e ld mansabs from 7000 a l l the way down to 1 00 ,

w h ile th o se above 1000 were awarded th e a d d it io n a l t i t l e o f amir.

Three typ es o f co n tin g en ts made up th e c a v a lr y '• th e

f i r s t were th o se who served under the mansabdars, the r eg u la r rank

and f i l e who e n l i s t e d in th e army; second were th o se who were

provided by feudatory p r in ces fo r the im p er ia l s e r v ic e ; and th e

th ir d were the ah a d is , an independent corps d ' e l i t e which c o n s t i

tu ted a ro y a l con tin gen t o f tro o p s but owed no a l le g ia n c e to any86s in g le mansabdar or n o b le . The in fa n tr y rem ained apart from

the ca v a lry . They were in the keep o f a mansabdar, e i th e r

permanantly or on c a l l . These men were r e sp o n s ib le


111

f o r th e t r a n s p o r t o f a rm s a n d e q u ip m e n t , i n c l u d i n g th o s e f o r

p a g e a h t r y p u r p o s e s , a n d f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f m e s s a g e s b e tw e e n t h e87

c a p i t a l a n d t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . The B a d sh a h Nama o f L a h a u r i s t a t e s

t h a t t h e arm y o f S h ah J a h a n c o n s i s t e d o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 c a v a l r y an d

4 0 ,0 0 0 i n f a n t r y . T he c a v a l r y w as m ade u p o f 800 0 m a n s a b d a r s ,

7 0 0 0 a h a d i s , a n d 1 8 5 ,0 0 0 men i n t h e c o n t i n g e n t s o f t h e p r i n c e s an d

t h e a m i r s . I n t h e i n f a n t r y t h e r e w e re 1 0 ,0 0 0 who a c c o m p a n ie d th e

e m p e ro r , a n d 3 0 , 0 0 0 who w ere s t a t i o n e d p e r m a n e n t ly i n t h e v a r i o u sQO

f o r t s o f t h e e m p ir e . A l th o u g h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e

M ughal arm y a p p e a r e d q u i t e s o u n d , i t w as som ew hat h a m p e re d by th e

o v e rw h e lm in g d e s i r e f o r show . The com m anders w e re so m e tim e s m ore

c o n c e rn e d w i th t h e i r p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e s a n d a c c o u t r e m e n ts th a n

th e y w e re f o r a p r o p e r d e v o t io n t o t h e i r j o b s . H ow ever, t h a t

d i s c i p l i n e w as m a in t a i n e d a n d t h a t t h e t r o o p s r e c e i v e d a d e q u a te

t r a i n i n g , c a n b e a t t e s t e d t o by th e num ber o f s u c c e s s f u l e n co u n

t e r s , a n d b y th e n e a t a n d o r d e r l y a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e t r o o p s .

H u n ts

The s e c o n d s e t o f s c e n e s away f ro m t h e c o u r t a r e t h e

h u n t s . C o n tr a r y t o t h e b a t t l e s , h u n t s w e re n o t i n s t r u m e n t a l t o

th e p o l i t i c s o f t h e e m p i r e . R a t h e r , t h e y s e r v e d a s a d i v e r t i s e -

m e n t, b e in g one o f t h e m a in fo rm s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t e n jo y e d by th e

M ughal e m p e ro r s . M e th o d s o f h u n t i n g w e re n u m e ro u s , a n d th e y

v a r i e d , n o t o n ly fro m one a n im a l s p e c i e s t o a n o t h e r , b u t a l s o

w i t h i n t h e c h a s e o f a s i n g l e s p e c i e s . E n t i r e t r e a t i s e s w ere


112

w r i t t e n o u t l i n i n g t h e s e a s s o r t e d m e th o d s , a n d a v e r y c o m p re h e n s iv e

d o c u m e n ta t io n c a n b e f o u n d i n th e A i n - i - A k b a r i . The p a s s i o n f o r

t h e h u n t p r o b a b ly d e r i v e d fro m t h e M u g h a ls ' n o m a d ic h e r i t a g e , b u t t h e

d a i l y a c t i v i t y o n c e n e c e s s a r y f o r s u b s i s t e n c e w as now e l e v a t e d to t h e

s t a t u s o f a g l o r i f i e d a r t o f s k i l l . A lth o u g h a c e r t a i n am oun t o f

s k i l l w as r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o h u n t i n t h e M ughal f a s h i o n , t h e o f f i

c i a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e s u p p o s e d b r a v e r y a n d t a l e n t d i s p l a y e d b y t h e

e m p e ro rs a r e g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a te d * T h e i r h u n t s w ere s e t u p and

p r e p a r e d w e l l i n a d v a n c e , w h ic h l e f t h a r d l y a n y c h a l l a n g e t o b e

m e t w i t h . I n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e r e a r e f i v e h u n t s c e n e s .

T h ey show s e v e r a l ty p e s o f w i ld a n im a ls b e in g h u n te d i n a v a r i e t y

o f d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r s , a n d th e y p r o v id e v i v i d i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o th e

f a v o r i t e p a s t im e o f t h e M ughal e m p e ro r s .

The A in - i - A k b a r i t h r o u g h l y d e s c r i b e s a l l th e d i f f e r

e n t m e th o d s a n d a n im a ls o f th e h u n t . I n a d d i t i o n , i t p r e s e n t s

t h e h u n t f ro m a s p i r i t u a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w . A bu l

89F a z l sp o k e o f h u n t i n g a s a m eans o f t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f k n o w le d g e ,

a m ean s by w h ic h t h e e m p e ro r c o u ld s e c r e t l y c h e c k u p o n th e c o n

d i t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e * A lth o u g h on o c c a s i o n s t h e e m p e ro r

may h a v e in d e e d m ade s u c h i n q u i r i e s , o n e may i n t e r p r e t t h a t

t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n w as g iv e n so a s t o e l e v a t e a b a s i c p l e a s u r e i n t o

a n a c t i v i t y t h a t , w hen p r a c t i c e d by th e e m p e ro r s , t r a n s c e n d e d th e

p e d e s t r i a n c o n c e r n s i n l i f e . The h i s t o r i a n s o f S h ah J a h a n 's

r e i g n m ade no s u c h a l l e g a t i o n . H ow ever, th e y l a v i s h e d on t h e i r

p r a i s e s f o r h i s s k i l l a n d d e x t e r i t y . As i s t h e c a s e w i th a l l t h e


113

o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s d e p i c t e d i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t , S hah J a h a n a t th e

h u n t i s shown i n a v e r y f a v o r a b l e l i g h t — a lw a y s c o u r a g e o u s ,

a lw a y s t h e b e s t , a n d a lw a y s p r o m in e n t .

The W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t d e p i c t s t h e h u n t i n g o f e l e p h

a n t s , l i o n s , t i g e r s a n d n i l - g a o * . L io n s a n d n i l g a o s w ere c o n s id e r e d

to b e r o y a l gam e, t h a t i s , o n ly t h e m o n a rc h w as a l lo w e d t o en g ag e

90in the p u rsu it o f th e se anim als* As s ta te d by B erniers

O f a l l t h e d i v e r s i o n s o f t h e f i e l d , t h e h u n t i n g o f t h e l i o n i s n o t o n ly t h e m o s t p e r i l i o u s , b u t i s p e c u l i a r l y r o y a l ; f o r e x c e p t by s p e c i a l p e r m i s s i o n , th e k in « s a n d p r i n c e s a r e t h e o n ly p e r s o n s who e n g a g e i n th e s p o r t .9^

E le p h a n t h u n t i n g , on th e o t h e r h a n d , th o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y

r e s e r v e d a s an a n im a l t o b e h u n te d o n ly by r o y a l t y , c o u ld n o t b e

92s t i m u l a t e d i n t o com bat by a n y o n e , s a v e t h e e m p e ro r . When a

hunting party was organ ized ,

t h e a p p o i n te d o f f i c e r s e x e r t th e m s e lv e s i n c o l l e c t i n g t o g e t h e r fro m th e c i t i e s a n d to w n s some th o u s a n d s o f h i r e d m en, an d h a v in g e n c o m p a sse d a s p a c e o f g ro u n d , a b u n d a n c e o f game co n s i s t i n g o f a n im a ls o f t h e w i ld s an d m o u n ta in s a r e t h u s draw n t o g e t h e r ; t h e c i r c l e i s th e n g r a d u a l l y r e d u c e d , t i l l th e y a r r i v e a t an a p p o i n te d s p o t , w h i th e r h i s M a je s ty an d th e P r i n c e s h a v in g r e p a i r e d , e n jo y t h e s p o r t i n t h e h i g h e s t p e r f e c t i o n ; a f t e r w h ic h h i s M a je s ty g i v e s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t h e d i v e r s i o n t o b e g e n e r a l .9 3

T h is d e s c r i p t i o n d e m o n s t r a te s t h a t h u n t i n g a lw a y s to o k p l a c e i n an

en c lo sed a rea , in to which the anim als were le d . T his method

e n s u r e d t h a t th e e m p e ro r w o u ld a lw a y s m anage t o c a p t u r e some gam e.

P o l i o s 1 3 4 r and. 1 35’v r e p r e s e n t p a r a l l e l i n c i d e n t s ,

w n ic h a l th o u g h n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d , s e r v e d t o c o n t r a s t t h e

b r a v e r y o f A u ra n g z e b i n an e l e p h a n t h u n t w i th t h a t o f S hah J a h a n

i n a t i g e r h u n t d u r in g h i s p r in c e h o o d . The d e v ic e o f i n c l u d i n g


114

e v e n t s f ro m th e d a y s o f P r i n c e K hurram h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s e e n i n

th e d a r b a r a n d b a t t l e s c e n e s . I n a l l c a s e s t h e y s e r v e d t o h ig h

l i g h t th e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f S h ah J a h a n . A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f o l i o

135'W, A u ra n g z e b d i s p l a y e d e x e m p la ry c o u ra g e w hen a t t a c k e d by an

e n ra g e d e l e p h a n t by. f e n d i n g i t o f f a n d g e t t i n g - i t b a c k i n t o com -

9 Ab a t . H P r in c e K h u rram , h o w e v e r , shown i n f o l i o 1 3 4 r , s a v e d th e

l i f e o f a s e r v a n t who w as i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g m a u le d t o d e a t h by

a t i g e r . As p r e c e d i n g . p a r a l l e l i n c i d e n t s h a v e a l r e a d y d e m o n s tr a

t e d , t h e v i r t u e s o f S h ah J a h a n f a r e x c e l l e d t h o s e o f an y o n e e l s e 1s .

I n t h i s i n c i d e n t , t h e t i g e r ju m p ed o u t a n d la u n c h e d a s u r p r i s e

a t t a c k , b u t w as s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c e d u n d e r c o n t r o l a n d th e n c u t

a p a r t .

F o l io 220v i l l u s t r a t e s a l i o n h u n t i n t h e M ongol

f a s h i o n ( j i r g e h ) , ^ t h a t i s , w h e re a c i r c u l a r e n c l o s u r e i s co n

s t r u c t e d i n t o w h ic h h e a t e r s d r i v e a n d e n t r a p th e gam e. The h u n t

i n g th e n t a k e s p l a c e i n t h i s c o n f in e d s p a c e . I n t h i s p a i n t i n g a

n u m b er o f l i o n s a r e t r a p p e d i n s i d e t h e e n c l o s u r e , w h i le S hah

J a h a n s i t s on to p o f a n e l e p h a n t a n d u s e s a m a tc h lo c k a s h i s

w eap o n . J u s t a s f i r e a r m s to d a y a r e u s e d f o r b o th w a r f a r e a n d f o r

h u n t in g p l e a s u r e s , s o w as i t to o d u r i n g th e d a y s o f t h e M u g h a ls .

Other combat weapons, such as bows and arrows or sp ea rs , were96

a l s o em p lo y ed a s h u n t i n g g e a r . A n o th e r i n s t a n c e w h e re t h e

m a tc h lo c k i s u s e d c a n b e s e e n i n f o l i o l 6 4 r , t h e h u n t i n g o f

n i l g a o , a s p e c i e s o f a n t e l o p e . I n th e M ughal p e r i o d , th e

w i ld s p e c i e s w ere h u n te d th r o u g h th e i n t e r m e d i a r y o f t h e t r a i n e d


115

o n es . The tr a in e d ones a c ted a s b a it th a t lu red th e w ild ones in to

th e v i c in i t y o f th e emperor, whereupon th ey cou ld e i t h e r be caught

o r sh o t . The n ex t hunt scen e in the m anuscrip t, f o l i o 166 v , shows

th e co n c lu sio n o f a hunt where th e h u n tin g p arty i s re tu rn in g home

w ith t h e ir ca tch ~ a baby ch eetsh - - w hich i s b e in g tran sp orted on

a wagon. I t i s p o s s ib le th a t t h is p a in t in g , i n which Shah Jahan

i s n o t d e p ic te d , b e lo n g s w ith th e proceed ing on e, f o l i o l 6 ^r, as

p a rt o f an in ten d ed double-page com p osition .

From th e h u n tin g scen es i t has been n oted th a t the

most dangerous p rep a ra tio n s were done by th e se r v a n ts , and th a t th e

emperor o n ly had to d is p la y h is s k i l l w ith e ith e r a firearm or a

more co n ven tion a l weapon. L ike a l l o th er a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Mughal

c o u r t, hunts were a lso surrounded by as much la v is h pomp and trap

p in g s . I t was a com p licated m atter having to tra n sp o rt a whole

r e t in u e o f serv a n ts and o th er p arap h an elia , but i t was part o f th e

ceremony th a t d is t in g u ish e d a ro y a l hunt from j u s t any ord inary one,

and i t was a ls o in k eep in g w ith th e m e n ta lity and b eh avior o f

cou rt s o c ie ty .

V i s i t s to Holy Shrines

The f in a l ca teg o ry in th e scen es away from th e p a lace

i s th e v i s i t s to h o ly s h r in e s . This a c t i v i t y d id n o t p la y a very

s ig n i f ic a n t r o le in th e day to day l i f e o f Shah Jahan, but was con

s id e r e d im portant enough to warrant in c lu s io n in th e Windsor manu

s c r ip t . The f a c t th a t th ere i s o n ly one double-page com p osition in

t h i s ca tegory in d ic a te s i t s secondary s ig n i f ic a n c e . The h o ly sh r in e


116

in q u estio n here were th o se a s so c ia te d w ith famous s u f i s a in t s o f

the p er io d . Sufism i s th e branch o f Islam which concerns i t s e l f

w i th m y s t i c i s m . S u f i s w e re h i g h l y v e n e r a t e d by A k b a r, J a h a n g i r ,

a n d S h ah J a h a n . To d a t e t h e r e seem s t o be no e v id e n c e o f e i t h e r

B a b u r o r Humayun e v e r h a v in g h a d much d e a l i n g w i th s u f i s a i n t s ,

a n d i t a p p e a r s t h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s w i th s u f i s b e g a n o n ly u n d e r

9 7A k b a r .J 1 The s u f i s whom t h e M u g h a ls h a d th e m o s t c o n t a c t w i th

b e lo n g e d t o t h e C h i s t i a n d Q adLiri s c h o o l s .

S h ah J a h a n was p e r s o n a l l y q u i t e a n o r th o d o x M u slim ,

a n d th o u g h n o t v e r y t o l e r e n t o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n c e r n s c£ o t h e r

s e c t s an d b e l i e f s , he w as m uch m ore so th a n w as h i s so n a n d s u c

c e s s o r A u ra n g z e b . D u r in g S h ah J a h a n 's r e i g n , t h e r e a l im p e tu s

f o r an i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n came fro m D a ra S h ik o h , h i s e l d e s t s o n ,

who s p e n t much o f h i s t im e s tu d y in g th e t e n e t s o f a l l o t h e r r e l i -

g o n s , v e r y much i n t h e m an n er o f h i s g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r A k b a r.

P r o b a b ly , en o u g h o f D a r a 's i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n s ru b b e d o f f on

S h ah J a h a n t o make him e x e r c i s e a c e r t a i n am oun t o f t o l e r e n c e .

As a r e s u l t , S h ah J a h a n a l s o d i d h i s s h a r e o f p a y in g r e s p e c t t o

t h e s e v a r i o u s h o ly m en, b u t d i d so o n ly on a m o d e ra te s c a l e . P a r t

o f t h e a t t r a c t i o n i n v i s i t i n g h o ly men w as a l s o p r o b a b ly d e r iv e d

fro m h i s s u p e r s t i t i o u s t e n d e n c i e s . As a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a te d i n

e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r , S h ah J a h a n 1s s u p e r s t i t i o n s

w ere l i n k e d m a in ly to h i s s t r o n g b e l i e f i n a s t r o l o g y an d h o r o

s c o p e , i n o t h e r w o rd s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e by

r e l a t i v e l y t a n g i b l e m e a n s . L ik e w is e , t h e s e s u f i m y s t i c s a l s o


117

p r e s e n t e d a v i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e w o r ld .

I n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t t h e r e i s o n ly one i n s t a n c e

o f S h ah J a h a n v i s i t i n g a s u f i s h r i n e , a n d t h i s o c c u r s , i n t h e d o u b le

p a g e c o m p o s i t io n on f o l i o s 205v a n d 2 0 6 r , t h e v i s i t t o t h e s h r i n e

o f K hw aja M u * in a l - d in C h i s h t i . A l th o u g h t h i s e v e n t t o o k p l a c e i n

th e 1 0 th y e a r o f h i s r e i g n , i t w as t h e f i r s t t im e s i n c e h i s a c c e s -

9 8s i o n t h a t S hah J a h a n m ade th e p i l g r i m a g e , a s u r e s ig n t h a t h e

r e a l l y w as n o t t h a t d e d i c a t e d a n a d h e r e n t . . He i s shown b e i n g m e t

o u t s i d e th e g a t e s o f A jm ir by a S u f i f i g u r e . H ow ever, no i n d i c a

t i o n i s g iv e n a s t o t h e i d e n t i t y o f th e S u f i , b u t i t h a s b e e n

h y p o th e s i z e d t h a t h e m ig h t b e K hw aja M u » in a l - d in C h i s h t i h i m s e l f ,

somehow m i r a c u l o u s l y a p p e a r in g b e f o r e S h ah J a h a n . A c o m b in a t io n

o f f a c t a n d f i c t i o n , a b e n d in g o f t h e t r u t h , a l l w i th th e aim o f

g l o r i f y i n g th e im ag e o f S hah J a h a n .

T h e se e x t e r i o r s c e n e s r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r d im e n s io n

i n t o t h e d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e e m p e ro r , a n d a t th e sam e t im e ,

p a r a l l e l some o f t h e f u n c t i o n s a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r

s c e n e s . They s e r v e to b ro a d e n th e v i s u a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f i d e a s

a l r e a d y d e n o te d , a n d a l s o l e n d a v a r i e t y t o t h e m a n u s c r i p t . W h ile

t h e i n t e r i o r s c e n e s show ed t h e m o n a rc h y a n d th e c o u r t i n t h e i r

m i l e u , t h e s e show t h e I n d i a n c o u n t r y s i d e , th e e x t e r i o r s o f f o r t s

a n d c i t i e s , a n d a l s o p r o v id e a n o c c a s s i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e

d a i l y l i f e o f t h e p e o p le n o t a f f i l i a t e d w i th th e c o u r t .

To su m m a rize t h e a b o v e th e m a t i c a n a l y s i s , we h a v e

s e e n t h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s f a l l i n t o tw o m a jo r d i v i s i o n s


118

r ep resen tin g f iv e su b je c t c a te g o r ie s — namely darbars, c e le b r a t io n s

and f e s t i v a l s , b a t t l e s , h u n ts , and v i s i t s to h o ly s h r in e s . These

ep itom ize th e f iv e p r in c ip a l a c t i v i t i e s o f Shah Jahan*s p u b lic l i f e .

The frequency w ith which an a c t iv i t y i s shown im p lie s i t s r e la t iv e

im portance, and by e x te n s io n , th e s ig n if ic a n c e i t had fo r Shah

Jahan* Thus the darbar sce n es , which are th e most numerous,

d escr ib e the a d m in istra tio n o f th e empire and p ortray Shah Jahan as

i t s a b le and a l l - w is e r u le r . Second comes the c e le b r a t io n s and

f e s t i v a l s which show th e m arriages o f th e p r in ce s and th e ce leb ra

t io n s o f t r a d it io n a l f e s t i v a l s . Emphasis on m arriage dem onstrates

the concern w ith l in e a g e and su c c e ss io n , a to p ic a lread y d iscu ssed

in Chapter I I I . In a d d it io n , th e g rea t fa n fa r e s allow ed fo r an

e x h ib it io n o f the w ea lth o f th e emperor. B a t t le s rank th ir d in

l i n e , and as on ly the v i c t o r i e s were p a in ted , they su ggested an

a ll-p o w e r fu l empire th a t was c o n t in u a lly expanding. In th e hunts

one s e e s Shah Jahan as a courageous and brave person as he fa c e s

an assortm en t o f w ild and dangerous b e a s ts , and a lso as a s k i l l e d

marksman as he dem onstrates h is a b i l i t i e s w ith v a r io u s firea rm s.

I ln a l ly in the v i s i t s to h o ly sh r in e s , Shah Jahan i s portrayed as

a d evotee o f the r e l ig io n and a b a stio n o f th e f a i t h .


119

■Notes to Chapter IV

^William G. Archer, Indian M iniatures (Greenwich!New York Graphic S o c ie ty , i 960) , p i . 28.

2Douglas B a r r e tt and B a s il Gray, P a in tin g o f Ind ia

(Geneva: E d it io n s d 'A rt A lb ert S k ira , 1963 ) , PP* 112—114-

^Stuart Cary Welch, The Art o f Mughal In d ia P a in tin g and P reciou s Ob.lects (New York: The A sia S o c ie ty , I n c . , 1963 ) , p. 175.

4ib id .

^Stuart Cary Welch, Ind ian Drawings and Painted Sketches l 6 th_through 1 9 th C en tu ries (New York* The A sia S o c ie ty , I n c . , 1976), p . 50.

6Edwin Binney, Ind ian M iniature P a in tin g from th e

C o lle c t io n o f Edwin Binney 3rd (P ortlan d : P ortland Art Museum,1974), p . 79.

7M ilo C leveland Beach, The Grand Mogul Im perial

P a in tin g in In d ia 1600-1660 (W illiam stow n: S te r l in g and Francine Clark Art I n s t i t u t e , 1978)* P» 184*

^ ib id , p. 78.

9 ib id .10Lord Teignmouth, d escr ip tio n o f Persian m anuscripts,

dated June 1799*11 Memo from Lord Teignmouth to George I I I , dated June

1799.

^ S tu a r t Cary Welch, Im perial Mughal P a in tin g (New York* George B r a z i l le r , I n c . , 1 9 78), p i . 30*

^ B ea ch , co v er .

Pinder-W ilson, MThree I l lu s tr a te d Manuscripts o f the Mughal Period," Ars O r ie n ta lis I I (1957)* 146.

15As f i r s t noted by E llen Smart, a l l o f the Windsor p a in tin g s , and a lso some o f the d ispersed pages, appear to have been a t one time stacked togeth er , s in ce each has a s in g le t in y worm h o le in approximately the same lo c a t io n .

16Wayne Begley, personal l e t t e r , dated 30 March 1981.


120

17'Abul F a z l, A in -i-A k b a r i. tr a n s . H. Biochmann . (C a lcu tta : A s ia t ic S o c ie ty o f B engal, 1927), P» 52 n o te 2 ,

18 ib id , p . 5 2 .

19'W elch, Im peria l Mughal P a in t in g , p . 9 8 .

20Yedda A . G odard, "Un Album d e P o r t r a i t s d e s P r in c e s T im u r id e s de l ' I n d e , " A th a r e I r a n 2 (1 9 3 7 )* 1 8 5 -1 8 9 . For i l l u s t r a t i o n s , p le a s e r e f e r .

21W elch , I n d ia n D ra w in g s , p i . 4 8 . A ls o r e f e r

S i r Thomas W. A r n o ld , The L ib r a r y o f A. C h e s te r B e a t t y A C atalo g u e o f t h e I n d ia n M in ia t u r e s , r e v i s e d and e d i t i e d by J .V .S . W ilk in so n , (B loom sbury* Emery W alk er , L t d . , 1 9 3 6 ) , I* P*33«

2% r e d e r ik R o b e r t M a r tin , The M in ia tu r e P a in t ix \g and P a in t e r s o f P e r s i a , I n d ia and T urkey from th e 8 th to th e 1 8 th C en tury (L ondon: H o lla n d P r e ss” 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 214* F or i l l u s t r a t i o n , p le a s e r e f e r .

23C a ta lo g u e o f H ig h ly Im p o r ta n t O r ie n t a l M a n u sc r ip ts

and M in ia tu r e s The K ev o rk ia n F o u n d a tio n ( S o th eb y and C o .,M onday, 1 s t D ecem ber, 19&9) * P*73» l o t 1 5 2 . F or i l l u s t r a t i o n , p le a s e r e f e r .

S .A .A . R i z v i , "The M ughal E l i t e i n th e 1 6 th and 1 7 th C entury,'* A b r-N a h ra in XI ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 71*

^R am P ra sa d K h o s la , M ughal K in g sh ip and N o b i l i t y ( D e lh i : I d a r a h - i A d a b iy a t - i D e lh i , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 3*

T im ur, M u lfu z a t Tim ury (M em oirs o f . T im u r), t r a n s . b y M ajor C h a r le s S te w a r t (L a h o r e : S a n g -e -M e e l P u b ., 1 9 7 5 ) , p p .6 - 7 .

^ A . B iochm ann, " B io g r a p h ic a l N o t i c e s o f th e G randees o f th e M ughal C o u r t," I n d ia n A n tiq u a r y I (1 8 7 2 ): 260.

PAA bul F a z l , p . 2 .

^Mohammad S a l i h Kambu, 'A m a l- i - S a l ih ( B i b l i o t h e c a I n d ic a , n . d . ) , I , p . 1 3 7 , q u o te d i n B a n a r s i P ra sa d S a k sen a H is to r y o f Shah Jahan o f D i l h i (A lla h a b a d : C e n tr a l Book D ep o t, 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 35 .

^ L a w r e n c e B in y o n , A P e r s ia n P a in t in g o f th e 1 6 th C entury Em perors and P r in c e s o f th e H ouse o f Timur (L ondon: l ‘ne B r i t i s n Museum,

^ ib id .


121

3 2 S te p h e n M e re d y th E dw ards a n d H .L .O . G a r r e t t ,M ughal R u le i n I n d i a ( D e l h i : S . Chand & C o. L t d . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 7 9 .

^ S a k s e n a , p . 2 1 0 .

^ K h o s l a , p . 74*

35J a d u n a th S a r k a r , M ughal A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( C a l c u t t a , M .C . S a r k a r & S o n s , 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 1 3 2 .

36 .F r a n c i s G la d w in , The P e r s i a n M oonshee ( C a l c u t t a :

C h r o n ic le P r e s s , 179 5 )» p . 4 6 .

37 'A b a a l Ham id L a h a u r i , B a d sh a h Namah ( C a l c u t t a : B i b l i o t h e c a I n d i c a , 1 8 6 6 -1 8 7 2 ) , I , p p . 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 * q u o te d i n I b n H asan , The C e n t r a l S t r u c t u r e o f t h e M ughal E m p ire , 2 n d e d . (hew D e lh i ; M unsh iram M a n o h a r la l P u b l i s h e r s L t d . , 19 3 ^ )* P*69»

70R .C . M aju m d ar, g e n . e d . , The H i s t o r y an d C u l tu r e

o f t h e I n q j a n P e o p le , v o l . 7* The M ughal E m p ire (B om bay: B h a r a t i y a V id y a B h av an , 1974)* p .5 2 5 *

^ G l a d w i n , p . 4 6 .

4 ° i b i d , p p . 1 7 -1 8 .

41 I b n H a sa n , p . 75*

4 ^ G la d w in , p . 4 8 .

43 I b n H a s a n , p . 8 0 .

44G 1adw in , p p . 52 -54*

4 ^ K h o s la , p . 5 2 .

46 F r a n c o i s B e r n i e r , T r a v e l s i n th e M ogul E m p ire 1 6 5 6 -1 6 6 8 , t r a n s . by I r v i n g B ro c k (L o n d o n : A r c h ib a l C o n s ta b le & C o ., 1 8 9 1 ) , p . 2 6 5 .

47A b u l F a z l , p . 1 6 5 .

48K h o s la , p . 55*

49G 1adw in , p . 4 8 .

50Muhammad A z h a r A n s a r i , S o c i a l L i f e o f th e M ughal E m p ero rs (1 5 2 6 -1 7 0 7 ) ( A l la h a b a d : S h a n t i P r a k a s h a n , 1974)* P» 9 6 .


122

91 Abul F a z l, p . 167 .

• ^ i b i d .

53A n s a r i , S o c i a l L i f e , p . 9 9 .

54M aju m d ar, p . 2 1 2 .

55 S i r H.M. E l l i o t an d J o h n D ow son, The H i s t o r y o f I n d i a a s T o ld by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , v o l . 33s S h ah J a h a n (L o n d o n , 1 8 6 6 -1 8 6 7 ; r e p r i n t e d . , C a l c u t t a ; S u s i l G u p ta P r i v a t e L t d . , 1 9 6 3 ) , P . 1 5 2 .

56M aju m d ar, p . 5 2 8 .

^ I b n H a sa n , p . 1 1 1 .

58L a h a u r i , I , p . 114 , q u o te d i n I b n H a sa n , p . 134*

59 J a h u n a t h S a r k a r , p p . 2 3 0 -2 3 1 .

60I b n H a sa n , p p . 2 3 0 -2 3 1 .

61i b i d , p . 2 3 5 *

62i b i d , p . 2 5 7 .

63 J a l f a r S h a r i f , I s la m i n I n d i a o r Q a n u n - i - I s l a m , t r a n s . by G .A . H e r k l o t s , r e v i s e d a n d e d . by W il l ia m C ro o k e (O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 2 1 ; r e p r i n t e d . , L ondons C ru zo n P r e s s L t d . , 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 5 8 .

64A bul P a z l , p . 2 8 7 .

65P ra n H a th C h o p ra , L i f e a n d L e t t e r s U nder t h e M u g h a ls (New D e lh i ; A s h a ja n a k P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 17 9 -

^ i b i d , p . 1 8 3 .

^ S h a r i f , p p . 6 3 - 6 4 .

68i b i d , p . 7 2 .

6 9 i b i d .

70B e g le y , p e r s o n a l l e t t e r .

^ A b u l F a z l , p . 2 7 7 » n o te 2 .


123

72i b i d , p. 277 .

7 5 i b i d .

7 4 i b i d .

7 ^ i b i d , p p . 4 9 - 5O.

76Mohammad A z h a r A n s a r i , E u ro p e a n T r a v e l l e r s U nder

t h e M u g h a ls (1 5 8 0 -1 6 2 7 ) ( D e l h i : I d a r a h - i A d a b i y a t - i D e lh i , 1975)» P . 7 2 .

77' S i r Thom as H o e , T he E m bassy o f S i r Thom as Hoe to I n d i a 1 6 1 5 -1 6 1 9 , e d . by W. F o s t e r (L o n d o n : M a c m illa n & C o ., 1 8 8 9 ) ,p . 3 2 6 .

78A b u l F a z l , p . 2 6 9 .

79A n s a r i , E u ro p e a n T r a v e l l e r s , p . 4 1 •

SOJ a g a d i s h H a ra y a n S a r k a r , "Men a n d B e a s t i n M e d ie v a l

I n d i a n W a rfa re , '* J o u r n a l o f I n d i a n H i s t o r y G o ld e n J u b i l e e Volume (1 9 7 3 )* 4 7 5 -4 7 6 .

81i b i d , 4 7 8 .

8 2 ,E dw ard T e r r y , A V oyage t o E a s t I n d i a (L o n d o n :

M a c m illa n & C o . , 1 7 7 7 ) , P* 1 5 2 , q u o te d i n A n s a r i , E u ro p e a n T ra v e l l e r s , p . 8 3 .

8 5 i b i d .

8 A b u l F a z l , p . 2 4 7 .

^ L a h a u r i , I I , p . 717» q u o te d i n A bul F a z l , p . 2 4 9 -2 5 0 .

86M aju m d ar, p . 534*

8 7 J a g a d i s h N a ra y a n S a k a r , 4 6 4 .

88L a h a u r i , I I , p . 715» q u o te d i n A bul F a z l , p . 2 5 4 .

8 ^A b u l F a z l , p . 2 9 2 .

• ^ G la d w in , p . 7 4 -

“ B e r n i e r , p . 3 7 8 .

9 2S a k s e n a , p . 1 4 0 .


124

^G ladw in , p. 74*

■ ^Ib n H a sa n , p . 7 0 .

95M orah M. T i t l e y , S p o rx s a n a P a s t im e s S c e n e s fro m T u r k i s h , P e r s i a n an d M ughal P a i n t i n g s (L o n d o n : B r i t i s h Museum, 1 9 7 9 ) , P . 7*

96 . .i b i a .

97 M aju m d ar, pp . 6 6 7 - 6 6 8 .

96Wayne E . B e g le y , e d . , " C h r o n ic l e o f t h e K in g o f t h e

W o rld : The S hah J a h a n Nama o f ' I n a y a t K han, t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u s c r ip t t r a n s l a t i o n o f A .R . F u l l e r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e B r i t i s n L i b r a r y (A da. 3 0 ,7 7 7 ) " ( T y p e s c r i p t , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 2 8 6 .


125

CHAPTER V

ARTISTS 03? THE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT

This s e c t io n o f th e d is s e r t a t io n w i l l d is c u s s th e

p a in tin g s in r e la t io n to the a r t i s t s who worked on them. From the

in s c r ip t io n s on tw enty-one o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , one f in d s the

names o f ten a r t i s t s . Each o f th e se ten a r t i s t s w i l l he tr e a te d

s e p a r a te ly , and th e ir p a in tin g s in the Windsor m anuscript w i l l then

he d iscu ssed w ith in th e co n tex t o f t h e ir known works. The o th er

tw en ty -th ree p a in tin g s are u n in scr ih ed , and th e se w i l l he a ssig n ed

to c a te g o r ie s hased upon t h e ir r e s p e c t iv e a r t i s t i c q u a l i ty .

The Windsor C a stle Badshah Namaf h ein g a ro y a l commis

s io n , was produced in th e im p er ia l p a in tin g a t e l i e r . The e s ta h l is h -

mdht o f a p a in tin g s tu d io as p art o f th e make-up o f th e Mughal

cou rt came ahout a f t e r Humayun's retu rn from P e r s ia in 1554* U nder

Akbar, th e s tu d io in c r e a se d g r e a t ly in s i z e , a s i t was h is d e s ir e

to se e a f lo u r is h in g p rod u ction o f m an u scrip ts. Brown e s ta b lish e d1

th e number o f a r t i s t s then to have been around one hundred.

Jah an gir , b ein g more in te r e s t e d in th e a e s t h e t ic s o f p a in tin g than

in having huge q u a n t it ie s o f p a in tin g s and m anuscripts produced,

reorgan ized the p a in tin g a t e l i e r and reduced th e number o f p a in te r s ,2

but th e ex ten t to which he d id so i s n o t known. When Shah Jahan

came to th e throne he d ecreased even fu r th e r the number o f p a in te r s

i n h is employ, because he was l e s s in te r e s t e d in th e a r t o f


126

p a i n t i n g th a n w e re h i s tw o p r e d e c e s s o r s , T he e x i s t i n g c o r p u s o f

S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g w h ic h b e a r i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d a s c r i p t i o n s h a s

r e v e a l e d th e nam es o f t w e n t y - f i v e a r t i s t s whom a r e know n t o h av e

b e e n p a r t o f t h e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r . H ow ever, t h e e x a c t s i z e o f t h i s

d e p a r tm e n t c a n n o t b e d e t e r m in e d , f o r t h e r e i s s t i l l a s i g n i f i c a n t

q u a n t i t y o f u n i n s c r i b e d w o rk s .

T he p a i n t i n g p ro d u c e d u n d e r t h e r e i g n o f S h ah J a h a n

c a n b e im m e d ia te ly r e c o g n i z e d b y a c e r t a i n s e t o f s h a r e d c h a r a c t e r

i s t i c s . T he m a jo r f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e a c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o s m a l l

d e t a i l , t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f j e w e l - l i k e c o l o r s , a n d a f i x a t i o n w i th

t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t e c h n i c a l p e r f e c t i o n . B e c a u se o f t h e s e common

q u a l i t i e s , p a i n t i n g s o f t h i s p e r i o d h a v e so m e tim e s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d

f o r t h e i r s a m e n e s s , f o r h a v in g no i n d i v i d u a l i t y , a n d f o r b e in g

d e v o id o f an y p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . A lth o u g h o n e c a n n o t deny

t h e o v e rw h e lm in g s i m i l a r i t y b e tw e e n th e w o rk s o f t h i s t im e , i t i s

u n f a i r t o c l a s s i f y them a l l a s i d e n t i c a l . C lo s e r s tu d y r e v e a l s

r e m a r k a b le d i f f e r e n c e s f ro m th e h a n d o f one a r t i s t to a n o t h e r , an d

a t t im e s — when t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t d a t a — i t i s p o s s i b l e t o e v en

t r a c e a n e v o l u t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a i n t e r . S t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i

t i e s w e re d u e n o t t o t h e p e r s o n a l c h o ic e o f t h e a r t i s t s , b u t t o

t h e d i c t a t e s o f t h e i r p a t r o n . I n h i s d e s i r e t o c r e a t e p e r f e c t i o n

o n e a r t h , S h ah J a h a n h a d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h i s p r i n c i p l e w as p r a c

t i s e d i n a s w ide a d o m ain a s p o s s i b l e . N a t u r a l l y t h i s i n c lu d e d

t h e p l a s t i c a r t s , a n d i n p a i n t i n g t h i s w as m a n i f e s t e d i n a d ev o

t i o n t o t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l e x e c u t io n a t th e e x p e n s e o f

R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

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e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . F u r th e r m o r e , i n t h e p r e s e n t ex am p le o f t h e

W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , w h ic h i s a w ork m e a n t t o be s e e n a s an e n t i t y

i n i t s e l f , t h e c o n f o r m i ty t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o u r t s t y l e i s ev en

m ore p r o n o u n c e d . A t f i r s t g l a n c e o n e c o u ld v e r y e a s i l y b e d e c e i

v e d i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g s r e p r e s e n t t h e w ork o f o n ly

t h r e e t o f o u r a r t i s t s . H o w ev er, a s a r t i s o n e o f t h o s e s u b j e c t i v e

d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t c a n n o t b e r e a d i l y s u b m it i t s e l f t o a s e t o f s t r i n

g e n t _ g u i d e - l i n e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f e a c h a r t i s t e v e n t u a l l y

becom es a p p a r e n t . I t i s p r o b a b ly t h i s c o m b in a t io n o f su b d u e d

p e r s o n a l m a n n e r ism s a n d a d h e s io n to a s e t s t y l e t h a t g i v e s t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r m a n u s c r i p t s u c h b e a u ty a n d c h a rm .

d o c u m e n ta t io n on a r t i s t s o f t h e S h ah J a h a n i e r a i s

q u i t e s c a n t y , a s i t a l s o i s f o r t h e w ho le o f t h e M ughal p e r i o d .

U n lik e E u ro p e a n a r t i s t s o f t h e same p e r i o d , t h e I n d i a n o n e s p la c e d

l e s s e m p h a s is o n e x e r t i n g a p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y . F u r th e r m o re ,

e x c e p t f o r p o e t s , t h e i r l i v e s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t w ere n o t d o cu m en ted

b y c r i t i c s o r h i s t o r i a n s o f th e p e r i o d . C o n s id e r in g th e s t a t u s

o f th e a r t i s t s a s a r t i s a n s r a t h e r th a n a s e l e v a t e d f i g u r e s o f a

p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r e , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t l e s s im p o r ta n c e

w as a c c o r d e d t o them i n r e s p e c t t o a r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r l i v e s . As

a l r e a d y m e n t io n e d , th e a r t i s t s w ere e x p e c te d t o c o n fo rm t h e i r

s t y l e t o t h e whim s o f t h e i r p a t r o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e i t w as im p o s s i

b l e f o r tnem t o d e v e lo p c o n s i d e r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l i t y . T hey p ro d u c e d

w hat th e y w e re i n s t r u c t e d t o , n o t w h a t th e y w a n te d . A lth o u g h th e y

w ere n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s t y l i s t i c


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p r e c e p t s o f t h e p e r i o d , th e y d i d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e v a r i e t y fo u n d

i n t h e u n i t y .

I n s c r i b e d W orks

As a l r e a d y m e n t io n e d a b o v e , t h e i n s c r i b e d p a i n t i n g s

come t o a t o t a l o f tw e n ty - o n e , a n d th e y r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk s o f

t e n a r t i s t s : A D id, B a le h a n d , B i c h i t r , B o la , P a u la , L a lc h a n d , M urad ,

P a y a g , Ram p a s , a n d T i r B u s t , some o f t h e s e a r t i s t s , s u c h a s A b id ,

B a lc h a n d , B i c h i t r , M u rad , a n d P a y a g , a r e nam es w h ic h h a v e a l r e a d y

b e e n c o n n e c te d w i t h a n um ber o f e s t a b l i s h e d w o rk s o f t h e S h ah

J a h a n i p e r i o d . O th e r s l i k e L a lc h a n d an d Ram P a s Eire i e s s w e l l

know n, a n d h a v e h a d o n ly o n e o r tw o w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d t o th e m .

F i n a l l y t h e nam es o f B o la , P a u la a n d T i r B u s t w e re p r e v i o u s l y

unknow n, a n d a r e a r t i s t s whom t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t h a s i n t r o

d u c e d . I n t h e e n s u in g p a g e s , e a c h o f t h e s e a r t i s t s w i l l b e

i n d i v i d u a l l y d i s c u s s e d , u s i n g th e p a i n t i n g s i n t h e W in d so r manu

s c r i p t a s a f o c a l p o i n t f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r s t y l e s . F o r

th o s e a r t i s t s who a l r e a d y h a v e a num ber o f w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d t o

th e m , a b r i e f t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i r c a r e e r s w i l l b e i n c l u d e d . I n

t h e s e c a s e s i t s h o u ld b e p o s s i b l e t o s i t u a t e t h e i r p a i n t i n g s i n

t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t i n t o t h e f ra m e w o rk o f t h e i r a r t i s t i c d e v e

lo p m e n ts . A l i s t i n g o f t h e known w o rk s o f t h e s e a r t i s t s c a n be

f o u n d i n A p p en d ix B.

A b id

As an a r t i s t o f t h e S h a h J a h a n i p e r i o d , A b id h a s


129

s e v e n w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d t o h im . Two o f t h e s e a r e i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t : f o l i o 94v t h e d e a t h o f Khan J a h a n L o d i a n d f o l i o 192v

t h e c o n f e r r a l o f th e t i t l e S h ah K hurram , w h i le t h e o t h e r s a r e

a u d ie n c e s c e n e s . I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h i s b a c k g ro u n d h a s b e e n

r e v e a l e d th r o u g h a n i n s c r i p t i o n on th e p a i n t i n g Shah J a h a n i n

d a r b a r w i th M ah ab a t K han a n d a S h e ik h ( p l a t e L X I l ) , w h ic h i n d i c a t e s3

t h a t h e w as t h e b r o t h e r o f A bu l H a sa n , N a d i r a l Zam an, a n d on th e

p a i n t i n g S h ah J a h a n o n t h e P e a c o c k T h ro n e ( p l a t e L X I I l ) , w h e re he4

s ig n e d h i m s e l f a s th e s o n o f A qa R iz a . B o th h i s b r o t h e r a n d

f a t h e r w e re m em bers o f t h e M ughal r o y a l a t e l i e r , an d i t was q u i t e

common t o f i n d m em bers o f t h e sam e f a m i ly w o rk in g i n t h e same

s t u d i o . A b i d 's o u tp u t i s much s m a l l e r th a n t h a t o f h i s b e t t e r

known b r o t h e r , a n d i s a l s o o f a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s t y l e . A b id was

o b v io u s ly t h e y o u n g e r o f th e tw o a s h e w ork ed u n d e r S h ah J a h a n

w h i le A bu l H asan a l r e a d y h a d a f l o u r i s h i n g c a r e e r u n d e r J a h a n g i r .

A b id p r o b a b ly b e g a n w o rk in g d u r in g th e h e i g h t o f h i s b r o t h e r ' s

c a r e e r , a ro u n d 1615* a n d h a d a l r e a d y • a t t a i n e d , t h e l e v e l o f a

m a s t e r a r t i s t when h e e x e c u te d t h e p a g e s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t .

H is s t y l e , l i k e th e o t h e r p a i n t e r s o f t h e p e r i o d ,

s t a y e d w i t h i n th e c o n f i n e s o f t h e fo rm e d c o u r t l y mode o f sym m etry

a n d b a l a n c e . The d a r b a r s c e n e i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , f o l i o

1 9 2 v , m o s t c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a te s h i s a d h e re n c e t o t h i s p r i n c i p l e .

I t i s p e r f e c t l y s y m m e tr ic a l , w h ic h im m e d ia te ly g i v e s a c e r t a i n

s e n s e o f o r d e r a n a r i g i d i t y . Y e t , h o w ev e r n e a t an d p r e c i s e h i s

w o rk s may b e , one d o e s n o t g e t t n e s e n s e o f q u i e t an d r e g a l i t y


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t h a t c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e w o rk s o f some o f t h e o t h e r a r t i s t s , f o r

ex am p le M u rad . T h is i s d u e t o th e a n im a t io n i n j e c t e d i n t o th e

f a c e s o f t h e f i g u r e s ; t h e y s m i l e , g r im a c e an d e s t a b l i s h e y e c o n

t a c t w i th e a c h o t h e r . A b id w as am ong t h e v e r y few a r t i s t s o f th e

p e r i o d who w e re a b l e to c r e a t e s u c h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , t o g iv e h i s

p e o p le p e r s o n a l i t y , a n d t o l i b e r a t e them fro m t h e i r m a n n e q u in

s t a t u s . T he sam e c a n a l s o b e s a i d o f h i s o t h e r p a i n t i n g f o l i o

9 4 v , w h ere one i s im m e d ia te ly s t r u c k by t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y i n

f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s . A n o th e r d e v ic e w h ic h h e u s e d t o b r i n g h i s

s u b j e c t s c l o s e r t o th e v ie w e r w as by co m p o sin g fro m a v e r y low

p e r s p e c t i v e . H is f i g u r e s w e re th e n p u s h e d r i g h t t o t h e edge o f

t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e , a n d by c r o p p in g th e m , h e b r o u g h t them i n t o th e

v i e w e r 's s p a c e . T h is d e v i c e h a s a n e s p e c i a l l y s t a r t l i n g e f f e c t

i n t h e b a t t l e s c e n e , w h ic h i s t h e o n ly one o f t h i s s u b j e c t s e e n

fro m a lo w v a n ta g e p o i n t ; a l l t h e o t h e r b a t t l e s i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r ip t a r e v ie w e d fro m a b i r d ' s - e y e v ie w . By b e in g p h y s i c a l l y

i n p r o x im i ty , A b id 's f i g u r e s h a v e a g r e a t e r im m ed iacy t h a t a c c o r d s

v e r y w e l l w i th t h e i r a n im a te d f e a t u r e s .

N ot o n ly w as A b id a m a s t e r a t p r o d u c in g v a r i e d f a c i a l

e x p r e s s i o n s , b u t h e w as a l s o a n a c u t e o b s e r v e r o f s m a l l i n t r i c a t e

d e t a i l s . A l l o b j e c t s , b o th n a t u r a l a n d i n n a t e w e re d e p i c t e d w i th

t h e u tm o s t p r e c i s i o n . T h is w as done i n a v e r y h a r d m an n er o f

h a n d l in g w h ic h u s e d v e r y t h i n b r u s h s t r o k e s a n d c l e a r l y d e f i n e d

o u t l i n e s . B o th o f h i s p a i n t i n g s i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t a r e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e u s e o f a v e r y r i c h t u r q u o i s e g r e e n , w h ic h


131

c a n b e s e e n on th e lo w e r w a l l s o f th e d a r b a r s c e n e s a n d i n th e

h i l l s o f th e b a t t l e s c e n e , ' f h i s v e r y s p e c i a l g r e e n i s a l s o

e v i d e n t i n h i a o t h e r a t t r i b u t i o n s . I t s v i v i d n e s s c o n t r a s t s w i th

e v e r y t h i n g e l s e a ro u n d i t , a n d i n a c e r t a i n r e s p e c t , p r o d u c e s a

r a t h e r f a n t a s y l i k e q u a l i t y . D e s p i t e a l l h i s r e a l i s m , h i s w o rk s

a p p e a r r a t h e r im a g in a r y on a c c o u n t o f t h i s c o l o r i s t i c e f f e c t .

Of h i s o t h e r a t t r i b u t e d w o rk s , o n ly f o u r o f th em h a v e

b e e n d a t e d , a n d t h e y r a n g e b e tw e e n 1628 (1 0 3 7 H) to 1659 (1 0 4 8 H ).

P l a t e LXII i s a t th e e a r l y l i m i t w h i le P l a t e LXIII i s a t t h e l a t e r

l i m i t . B o th t h e s e e x h i b i t c e r t a i n o f t h e f e a t u r e s fo u n d i n t h e

W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t p a i n t i n g s , s u c h a s t h e u s e o f t h e t u r q u o i s e

g r e e n , a n d th e p r e c i s i o n i n d e t a i l s . H ow ever, much o f th e r e f i n e

m e n t a n d e le g a n c e o f h i s W in d so r p a i n t i n g s a r e n o t e v i d e n t i n t h e s e

w o rk s . F o r e x a m p le , h i s f i g u r e s do n o t d i s p l a y th e w id e r a n g e o f

e m o tio n s o r f a c i a l f e a t u r e s ; th e y a r e v e r y s t a i d an d do n o t a p p e a r

v e r y n a t u r a l . H is c o m p o s i t io n a l s t r u c t u r e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o

t h i s l a c k o f s p o n t a n e i t y . I n P l a t e LXII t h e h ig h v a n ta g e p o i n t

s e t s t h e w h o le s c e n e r a t h e r d e e p b a c k i n t o s p a c e , w h ic h c r e a t e s

a n im m e d ia te s e p e r a t i o n b e tw e e n th e e v e n t a n d t h e v i e w e r . H ow ever,

i n P l a t e LXIII one n o t i c e s t h a t t h e c o m p o s i t io n h a s b e e n p u s h e d

c l o s e r t o t h e p i c t u r e p la n e a n d t h e v a n ta g e p o i n t h a s b een lo w e r e d .

I t i s a p p r o a c h in g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p a i n t i n g s o f t h e

W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t . T h e s e c o m p a r is o n s show t h a t A b i d 's w o rk s i n

t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t w e re o f a l a t e r d a t e th a n t h e s e a t t r i b u t i o n s

a n d i m p l i e s h i s e v o l u t i o n fro m an a r t i s t who b e g a n i n an


132

u n i n s p i r e d c o u r t l y t r a d i t i o n t o f l o u r i s h i n t o a v e r y p e r s o n a l fo rm

o f e x p r e s s i o n w h ic h h e w as a b l e t o w ork i n u n is o n w i th t h e d i c t a t e s

o f th e c o u r t s t y l e .

B a lc h a n d

B a lc h a n d w as q u i t e a p r o d u c t i v e a r t i s t w i th a lo n g

c a r e e r w h ic h s p a n n e d fro m tn e en d o f A k b a r1s r e i g n a n d w e l l i n t o

t h e S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d . N o t much i s know n a b o u t h i s b e g i n n in g s ,

e x c e p t t h a t he w as p a r t o f t h e A k b a r i ' 'p r o d u c t i o n l i n e 1 o f a r t i s t s

who t u r n e d o u t l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f m a n u s c r i p t s . U nder J a h a n g i r

h e m oved aw ay fro m m a n u s c r i p t s t o p o r t r a i t s a n d g ro u p s t u d i e s ,

a n d c o n t in u e d t o f l o u r i s h i n t h i s t r e n d u n d e r S h ah J a h a n . T h a t

h e was r e t a i n e d a s p a r t o f th e e l i t e a r t i s t i c c o r p s o f S hah J a h a n * s

a t e l i e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e w as c o n s id e r e d t o be a g r e a t t a l e n t .

L ik e A b id , B a lc h a n d a l s o came fro m a f a m i ly o f a r t i s x s , f o r h i s

b r o t h e r , P a y a g , w as a l s o a c o n te m p o ra ry p a i n t e r a t t h e c o u r t o f

S h ah J a h a n . H is m o s t p r o l i f i c p e r i o d w as i n t h e 1 6 3 0 s , t o w h ich

t h e m a j o r i t y o f h i s t w e n t y - t h r e e a t t r i b u t i o n s a r e d a t e d . T h re e

o f t h e s e a r e w o rk s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t : f o l i o 4 3 v , t h e r e c e p

t i o n o f P r in c e K hurram u p o n h i s d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e M ewar ca m p a ig n ,

f o l i o 7 2 v f th e c e l e b r a t i o n o f th e f e s t i v a l o f t h e N a u ro z a t A g ra ,

a n d f o l i o 1 3 5 v ,P r i n c e K hurram K i l l i n g a T i g e r . Two

o f t h e s e a r e d a r b a r s c e n e s w h i le th e t h i r d i s an o u td o o r h u n t .

I n t h e s e a n d i n h i s o t h e r a t t r i b u t i o n s , h e show s a

r e m a r k a b le a b i l i t y a n d v e r s a t i l i t y . H is w o rk s a r e m a rk e d by an

e s p e c i a l l y h a r d and p r e c i s e d r a u g h ts m a n s n ip , w h ic h g i v e s a n e f f e c t


133

o f t h i n g s b e i n g c l e a r c u t a n d m a rk e d o u t , a lm o s t a s i f th e y w ere

t o s t a n d o u t i n r e l i e f . One s e e s i n h i s p a i n t i n g s t h e a b i l i t y to

w ork te c h n iq u e u p t o a p o i n t o f n e a r p e r f e c t i o n ; e v e r y t h i n g i s i n

o r d e r , t r u e , l i k e n e s s i s s t r i v e d f o r , a n d i n a l l t h i s p e r s i s t s

e le g a n c e * f o r m a l i t y a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . Y e t a l l i s n o t l i f e l e s s

a n d w ooden ; B a lc h a n d w as n o t m e re ly a t a l e n t e d c r a f t s m a n , h e a l s o

e x c e l le d * i n h i s a b i l i t y t o b r i n g o u t a c e r t a i n i n t e n s i t y o f t h e

f i g u r e s h e c h a r a c t e r i z e d .

I n h i s tw o d a r b a r s c e n e s o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t ,

t h e f a c e s o f t h e f i g u r e s seem f o r t h e m o s t p a r t d e v o id o f a n y

p a r t i c u l a r s e n t i m e n t s , a n d g a z e s t o n i l y a b o u t th e m . The a b s e n c e

o f e x p r e s s i o n s a c c o r d s w i th t h e s o le m n i ty o f th e o c c a s i o n , a s w e l l

a s w i th t h e s t r i c t d eco ru m t h a t w as e x p e c te d t o b e m a in ta i n e d a t

s u c h f u n c t i o n s . H o w e v e r ,a d m id s t t h i s m a ss o f z o m b ie - l i k e f a c e s ,

o n e c a t c h e s a g l im p s e o f l i f e — a c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n th e

f i g u r e s e s t a b l i s h e d by e y e c o n t a c t a n d g e s t u r e s . F o r e x a m p le , i n

f o l i o 4 3 v , o n e c a n s e n s e a k in d o f a n x i e t y i n t h e f a c e o f J a h a n g i r ,

he i s c o n c e rn e d an d w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e ou tcom e o f t h i s m i s s io n . On

t h e c o n t r a r y , P r in c e K hurram show s a n a r r o g a n c e a n d c o c k s u r e n e s s

w h ic h w as v e r y m uch h i s p e r s o n a l i t y ; h e d i s p l a y s a n im p a t i e n c e

t o g e t m o v ing t o a c c o m p li s h a f e a t w h ic h he b e l i e v e s w i l l en d

s u c c e s s f u l l y . The t h i r d w ork i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t a t t r i b u

t e d to B a lc h a n d i s f o l i o 1 3 4 r , a h u n t i n g s c e n e . H e re o u t s i d e

t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e p a l a c e s , t h e deco rum i s som ew hat s l a c k e n e d .

The a c t i v i t y o f th e h u n t a l lo w s f o r m uch e x c i te m e n t an d m ovem ent,


134

b u t t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e h e r e . The f i g u r e s k i l l t h e b e a s t i n a

m e c h a n ic a l a n d u n i n s p i r e d f a s h i o n . L ik e t h o s e i n h i s d a r b a r

s c e n e s , t h e s e f i g u r e s d i s p l a y no e m o t io n s , b u t t h e r e s t i l l r e m a in s

a c e r t a i n c o n t a c t b e tw e e n them t h a t i s m ore e v i d e n t i n t h e b a c k

g ro u n d f i g u r e s th a n , i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d o n e s . The g r e a t e s t b e a u ty

h e r e i s i n t h e t r a n q u i l i t y a n d g r a c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g w h ic h i s

c r e a t e d by t h e s u b t l e b le n d in g o f lo w k e y e d c o l o r s t h a t a r e e v e n e d

o f f t o a sm o o th f i n i s h .

B a l c h a n d 's w o rk s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t seem t o

r e p r e s e n t t h e m a tu r e s t a g e o f h i s d e v e lo p m e n t , w h ic h was a ro u n d

16J5» He w as a t t h e p e a k o f h i s c a r e e r when c o m m iss io n e d to do

t h e B a d sh a h Mama i l l u s t r a t i o n s . H is e a r l i e r w o rk s l a c k th e

s t r e n g t h a n d f i r m n e s s o f l i n e s , a n d t h e d e x t e r i t y o f f i n i s h w h ich

a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s l a t e r w o rk s . F o r e x a m p le , i n S hah J a h a n

w i th a c h i l d ( p l a t e L X IV ), a p a i n t i n g d a t e d to 1 6 2 1 ,^ h i s f i g u r e s

show e i t h e r to o m uch e m o tio n o r e l s e n o n e a t a l l . T hey h a d n o t

y e t a r r i v e d a t t h e p o i n t w h ere e x p r e s s io n w as r e l e g a t e d t o a

s im p le g e s t u r e o r r e g a r d . T he s e r v a n t o n t h e r i g h t e f f u s e s w i th

h u m i l i t y w h i le S h ah J a h a n r e m a in s t o t a l l y p l a c i d . T h e re i s a l s o

t h e u s e o f v e r y h a r d a n d p r e c i s e o u t l i n e s w h ic h o n ly d e f i n e b u t

do n o t d e s c r i b e t h e s h a p e s . The c o l o r sch em e , th o u g h , a l r e a d y

d i s p l a y e d t h e sm o o th s u b t l e b le n d o f s o f t c o l o r s w h ic h r e m a in e d

one o f t h e h a l lm a r k s o f h i s o e u v r e .

B i c h i t r

B i c h i t r i s to d a y p e r h a p s o n e o f th e b e s t known a r t i s t s


135

o f t h i s p e r i o d . H is o u t p u t i s q u i t e l a r g e , t h e r e b e in g tw e n ty -

e i g h t w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d to h im , an d t h e s e show h im t o h a v e b e e n

o n e - o f th e m o s t b r i l l i a n t p a i n t e r s o f t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y . H ow ever,

l i t t l e i s known a b o u t h i s c a r e e r , e x c e p t t h a t i t r a n g e d fro m a b o u t

1620 t o 1 6 6 0 , a n d t h a t h e w as a H in d u . M o re o v e r , d e s p i t e h i s

o b v io u s t a l e n t , o n ly o n e p a i n t i n g i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t was

e x e c u te d by h im , t h i s w as f o l i o 50v t h e a r r i v a l o f A s a f K han a n d

t h e p r i n c e s f ro m L a h o r e . One i s h a r d p r e s s e d t o come up w i th a

s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n , a s one w ou ld e x p e c t

t h a t a w ork o f t h i s m a g n itu d e an d g r a n d e u r w o u ld h a v e b e e n e n t r u s t e d

t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e v e r y b e s t m en.

F o l i o 50v show s him t o h a v e b e e n a s e n s i t i v e an d

a c c u r a t e o b s e r v e r o f t h e p e o p le a n d o b j e c t s a ro u n d h im , w h ic h h e

r e n d e r e d w i th a t o t a l f i d e l i t y t o n a t u r e . N o t o n ly d i d h e g e t

s u r f a c e d e t a i l s t o t a l l y c o r r e c t , b u t h e m anaged t o endow h i s

c h a r a c t e r s w i th a m a j e s t i c s o l i d i t y . The d e p i c t i o n o f t h e i r f a c e s

i s c o l d a n d e x p r e s s i o n l e s s . T hey s t a r e b l a n k l y i n d e a d s i l e n c e .

N obody lo o k s a t an y b o d y e l s e , r a t h e r t h e y lo o k p a s t e a c h o t h e r a n d

i n t o some d i s t a n t s p a c e . The s o l i d m o d e l l in g a n d a l o o f n e s s r e n

d e r e d t r u l y m o n u m en ta l f i g u r e s . L ik e h i s c o n te m p o r a r i e s , h i s

c o m p o s i t io n a l s t r u c t u r e w as b a s e d on a h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l

o r i e n t a t i o n , w h ic h c r e a t e d an o r d e r e d s t a b i l i t y . T h is h e i g h te n s

t h e s c e n e e v e n f u r t h e r . Y e t f o r m a l a n d m a j e s t i c th o u g h h i s w o rk s

may b e , th e y do n o t p o s s e s s t h e r e g a l i t y o f a n a r t i s t l i k e M urad .

T h is i s due m a in ly t o B i c h i t r ' s u s e o f g e n t l e o u t l i n e s w h ic h


1 3 6

c r e a t e s a v e r y s o f t and. q u i e t f e e l i n g . I n a d d i t i o n h i s p a l e t t e

o f p a l e , a l m o s t p a s t e l c o l o r s h e l p s t o to n e down t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e

a n d th e c o l d n e s s i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s one

may s a y t h a t w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e d f ra m e w o rk , a m id s t t h e r i g i d i t y

an d s e a o f e x p r e s s i o n l e s s f a c e s , t h e r e i s h o w ev e r a hum anism

t h a t p r e v a i l s w h ic h show s t h a t B i c i t r w as a n e x t r e m e ly s e n s i t i v e

a n d som ew hat r o m a n t i c a r t i s t .

As t h e r e i s a s u f f i c i e n t am ount o f d a t e d w o rk s f o r

B i c h i t r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a r r i v e a t some g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s a s

t o h i s s t y l i s t i c d e v e lo p m e n t . F u r th e r m o r e , i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e

t o a s s i g n a n a p p r o x im a te d a t e t o h i s p a i n t i n g i n t h e W in d so r manu

s c r i p t . H is e a r l i e s t known w o rk , J a h a n g i r on an H o u r g la s s T h ro n en

( p i £."t e LXV), h a s b e e n d a t e d t o a ro u n d 1620 a n d i t a l r e a d y show s

a p r e c i s e a n d d e te r m in e d a p p r o a c h t o p a i n t i n g . U n lik e B a l c h a n d 's

f a i r l y u n d e v e lo p e d e a r l y s t y l e , B i c h i t r ' s w as q u i t e a d v a n c e d i n

m a t u r i t y . T h is may i n d i c a t e t h a t he w as a l r e a d y an e x p e r i e n c e d

a r t i s t b y t h e t im e he e n t e r e d t h e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r , p o s s i b l y

h a v in g r e c e i v e d h i s t r a i n i n g w h i le i n t h e s e r v i c e o f a c o u r t i e r ,

o r t h a t h e w as j u s t a n e x c e p t i o n a l l y g i f t e d p a i n t e r . B i c h i t r 1s

f i g u r e s w ere s o l i d l y m o d e l le d a n d r e n d e r e d i n a m a n n e r w h ic h

show ed a c l o s e s tu d y o f t h e s u b j e c t . H ow ever t h e r e w as s t i l l some

u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t s u g g e s t s e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . W orks o f t h i s p e r i o d

a r e l e s s r i g i d a n d m o re hum ane; th e y h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s h i sQ

s o f t e r m ore . ro m a n tic a n d o p e n ly i n n o v a t i v e s t y l e . i n w o rk s o f

t h e 1 6 3 0 s , p r i n c i p a l l y f ro m a ro u n d 1635 o n w a rd s , t h e r e i s a


137

g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f f o r c e f u l n e s s i n t h e e x e c u t i o n t h a t d i s p l a y s a

m a s te r y o f t n e t e c h n i q u e . H ow ever, b y t h i s t im e h e w as t o t a l l y

u n d e r t h e sw ay o f t h e dem ands o f S h ah J a h a n 's a r t i s t i c p r e f e r e n c e s ,

a n d t h u s t h e e m o t io n a l a n d r o m a n t ic f e a t u r e s o f h i s e a r l y p e r i o d

g a v e way t o a t i g h t e n i n g o f f o rm s a n d a n e l i m i n a t i o n o f m uch o f

t h e e m o t io n a l i s m f o r t h e s a k e o f a n im m a c u la te a n d t e c h n i c a l l y

p e r f e c t p r e s e n t a t i o n .

H is c a r e e r seem s t o h a v e t e r m i n a t e d a ro u n d 1 6 6 0 , w hen

h e o n ce a g a i n r e t u r n e d , b u t t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , to h i s a tm o s p h e r ic ,

s o f t e r , a n d m ore h u m a n i s t i c s t y l e . T h i s c a n b e s t b e s e e n i n t h e

p a i n t i n g e n t i t l e d E p is o d e i n a B a z a a r ( P l a t e L X V l). When co m p ared

w i th h i s e a r l y w o rk , P l a t e LXV, o n e n o t i c e s g r e a t s i m i l a r i t i e s i n

t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e f i g u r e s . I n b o th c a s e s

t h e f i g u r e s r e v e a l t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s , u n l i k e f o l i o 50v i n t h e

W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t w h e re th e y a r e c o l d l i f e l e s s m o d e ls . ' H ow ever,

E p is o d e i n a B a z a a r i n e v i t a b l y r e t a i n s some o f th e f r i g i d i t y ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e b a c k g ro u n d s e t t i n g . T h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f

B i c h i t r ’ s t o t a l m a s te r y a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e

p a i n t i n g s t y l e . As f o l i o 50v d i s p l a y s a s u p e r b ly h a n d le d an d

f i n i s h e d s t y l e , b u t a l s o c o ld a n d d i s t a n t a t t h e same t im e , one

c o u ld s u r m is e t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g came fro m B i c h i t r ' s

m id d le p e r i o d , a n d i t may b e d a t e d t o a ro u n d t h e e a r l y 1 b 4 0 s .

S o la

To d a t e , t h e r e h a s o n ly b e e n o n e w ork a s c r i b e d t o th e

a r t i s t B o la , a n d t h i s i s f o l i o 7 1 r i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , th e


138

s o l a r w e ig h m en t o f S hah J a h a n . J u d g in g fro m t h i s p a i n t i n g , B o la

a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a h i g h l y c o m p e te n t a r t i s t who a d h e r e d t o th et

t e n e t s o f t h e o r g a n iz e d c o u r t l y s t y l e . U n l ik e some o f h i s c o l

l e a g u e s h i s p a i n t i n g d o e s n o t c o n v e y a s e n s e o f pomp a n d m a g n i f i

c e n c e . To b e g in w i th , h i s c o m p o s i t io n a v o i d s , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t ,

t h e s t r i c t h o r i z o n t a l - v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n . T h i s i s n o t t o s a y

t h a t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s u n b a la n c e d , b u t r a t h e r t h a t i t f o l l o w s an

a s s y m e t r i c a l a l ig n m e n t , w h ic h c a n b e s t b e d e m o n s t r a te d b y t h e l i n e

up o f t h e f i g u r e s i n t h e c o u r t y a r d . A lth o u g h t h e r e g a l i t y i s

som ew hat d im in is h e d , h i s c o m p o s i t io n a l lo w s t h e v ie w e r t o f o c u s

a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e f i g u r e o f S h ah J a h a n . The p i c t u r e p l a n e i s

c l o s e d up by t h e e s t a b l i s n m e n t o f a f i r m h o r i z o n t a l a t b o th t h e

to p an d t h e b o t to m . The t o p h o r i z o n t a l i s c r e a t e d by t h e p a v i l i o n

an d th e b o tto m one b y t h e row o f c o u r t i e r s who a r e n o t o n ly r i g h t

on th e ed g e b u t a r e a l s o s e v e r l y c ro p p e d ; a d e v ic e w h ich p ro d u c e s

a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f im m e d ia c y . The r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t i s one o f a

t r i a n g l e w i th t h e a p e x p o i n t i n g to S hah J a h a n . Im m ed iacy i s

f u r t h e r h e i g h te n e d b y t h e l o o s e b r u s h s t r o k e s . B o l a 's p a i n t i n g

t e c h n iq u e h a d a n a lm o s t f r e e h a n d , v e r y p a i n t e r l y m a n n e r w h ic h

h e lp e d t o r e n d e r a g r e a t e r i n f o r m a l i t y . Y e t h e m anaged t o m a in

t a i n a c h e c k upon h i s f lo w in g b r u s h s t r o k e s by e n c a r d in g a l l th e

f i g u r e s a n d o b j e c t s i n a l i g h t b u t c a r e f u l l y d e l i n i a t e d o u t l i n e .

I t i s v e r y p o s s i b l e t h a t o t h e r w o rk s by B o la e x i s t , an d by m ak in g

c o m p a r is io n s w i th t h i s p a i n t i n g , one may b e l i k e l y t o a t t r i b u t e

some p r e s e n t l y u n i n s c r i b e d w o rk s to h im .


139

H au l a

F o l i o 204v o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e c a p t u r e o f

F o r t U < ig ir ,h a s a s i g n a t u r e w h ic h may b e r e a d a s e i t h e r D a u la t o r

P a u l a . B a se d on B e a c h 's s tu d y , w h ic h i n d i c a t e d s u f f i c i e n t d i f f e r

e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e - s t y l e o f t h e known p a i n t e r D a u la t a n d t h e one

o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g , i t h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d b e s t t o assu m e9

t h a t t h e r e a r e tw o s e p a r a t e a r t i s t s i n v o l v e d . Ab a p a i n t e r ,

n e x t to n o t h i n g i s known a b o u t D a u la , th o u g h i t i s th o u g h t t h a t

h e may h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r two o t h e r w o r k s . ^ The p a i n t i n g

i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t show s h im t o h a v e b e e n a s k i l l e d an d

p r o b a b ly a n e s t a b l i s h e d a r t i s t a t t h e t i m e .

The s c e n e d e p i c t s t h e p r i s o n e r s , a f t e r h a v in g come

o u t o f t h e f o r t i n s m a l l g r o u p s o f f o u r t o f i v e m en, b e i n g p r e s e n

t e d t o th e com m ander i n c h i e f . A p p a r e n t ly t h i s a r t i s t was q u i t e

fo n d o f g r o u p in g f i g u r e s i n t o s m a l l u n i t s a s a m eans o f c o n s t r u c t

i n g an o r d e r l y p r e s e n t a t i o n . T he m a in b u lk o f t h e f i g u r e s l i n e

t h e b o tto m a n d r i g h t e d g e o f t h e p a i n t i n g , a n d t h i s h e l p s c r e a t e

c o n t r o l a s w e l l a s l e a d s t h e v i e w e r ’ s a t t e n t i o n to w a rd s t h e f o c u s

o f t h e p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n . A lth o u g h D a u la u s e d a t h i c k o u t l i n e , h i s

f i g u r e s r e t a i n a s u p p le n e s s a n d e a s e i n t h e i r m o v em en ts . T h is i s

f u r t h e r h e i g h te n e d b y t h e v a r i e t y o f f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s fo u n d i n

n i s c h a r a c t e r s . P e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t aw k w ard n ess com es i n h i s

d e p i c t i o n o f h a n d s — th e y a r e o f t e n n o t n a t u r a l l y p o s i t i o n e d ,

a n d g e s t i c u l a t e i n a n u n c o m f o r ta b le m a n n e r . H ow ever t h i s m in o r

i n c o n s i s t e n c y i s m ade up f o r by th e s o f t a n d l u s h o v e r a l l q u a l i t y ,


140

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a n d s c a p e , w h ic h i s a c h i e v e d th r o u g h t h e u s e o f

a v e ry t h i c k p a i n t a n d h e a v y b r u s h s t r o k e s .

L a lc h a n d

V ery l i t t l e i s known a b o u t t h i s a r t i s t who p a i n t e d

f o l i o 46 v i n th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , P r in c e K hurram r e c e i v i n g th e

su b d u e d R an a Amar S in g h . O n ly tw o o t h e r w o rk s h a v e p r e s e n t l y b e e n

a t t r i b u t e d to h im , a n d o f t h e s e o n ly one h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d .

L a l c h a n d 's s t y l e d i s p l a y s t h e n e a t f o r m a l i t y w h ic h i s t h e b a s i s o f

S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , a n d a l s o show s t h e a b i l i t y t o r e n d e r , w i th

p e r f e c t f i d e l i t y , many s m a l l a n d m in u te d e t a i l s . T h is seem s to

be th e r e s u l t o f a k e e n e y e f o r o b s e r v a t i o n r a t h e r th a n o f an

a d h e r e n c e t o s e t p r i n c i p l e s . L a lc h a n d w as n o t r e a l l y a m a s te r o f

th e human b o d y , f o r h i s f i g u r e s h a v e an aw kw ard a t t e n u a t i o n ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e d o m ain o f t h e i r h a n d s . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y

e v i d e n t i n t h e o n ly p u b l i s h e d p a i n t i n g by h im , t h e p o r t r a i t o f

R a j a B i k r a m a j i t ( P l a t e L X V Il) , who s t a n d s i n a p a i n f u l l y u n n a t u r a l

p o s e w i th h i s a rm s s u s p e n d e d a t h i s w a i s t . H e re , a s i n th e W in d so r

p a i n t i n g , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t h e m u s t h a v e l a b o r e d o v e r t h e d e t a i l

i n g o f s p e c i f i c o b j e c t s .A l t h o u g h h i s c o l o r schem e i s l u s c i o u s an d

r i c h , h i s w ork d o e s n o t h a v e t h e s p a r k l e an d t h e l u s t r o u s r e f i n e

m e n t w h ic h i s a p p a r e n t i n some o f t h e o t h e r p a i n t i n g s i n t h e

m a n u s c r i p t . T h is i s d u e t o h i s c o m p o s i t i o n 's l a c k o f t h a t c o ld

an d r i g i d t i g h t n e s s t h a t a l lo w s f o r a b r i l l i a n t a n d s c i n t i l l a t i n g

f i n i s h . I n - c o m p a r i s o n w i t h some o f t h e o t h e r p a i n t e r s who w o rk ed

on t h e m a n u s c r i p t , i t a p p e a r s t h a t L a lc h a n d was n o t among th e


141

l e a d i n g t a l e n t s o f t h e a t e l i e r . H is w o rk s a r e s t y l i s t i c a l l y c o n s

c i e n t i o u s o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , b u t t h e l e v e l

i s o n ly a v e r a g e .

M urad

M urad w as t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c a r t i s t i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t , t h e r e b e in g s i x w o rk s a t t r i b u t e d t o h im . A l l b u t one

o f t h e s e a r e c o u r t s c e n e s . F o l i o s 4 9 r . J a h a n g i r r e c e i v i n g P r in c e

K hurram a f t e r h i s s u c c e s s f u l cam p a ig n a g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f M ew ar.

I 4 7 v , t h e d e p a r t u r e o f S h ah S hu .ia f o r t h e D e c c a n : 1 9 4 v , th e C o n f e r a l

o f t h e t i t l e o f S h ah J a h a n ; a n d 2 1 7 v , th e R e tu rn o f A u ra n g z e b fro m

t h e D eccan a r e a c t u a l d a r b a r s , w h ile f o l i o 122v i s a s c e n e fro m

th e w ed d in g o f D a ra S h ik o h . The e x c e p t io n i s f o l i o 1 4 4 ^ , th e

C a p tu re o f F o r t P a u la t a P a d , a b a t t l e s c e n e , w h ic h i s s l i g h t l y

d i f f e r e n t fro m th e o t h e r s i n s t y l e an d c o m p o s i t io n , an d w i l l t h e r e

f o r e n a v e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y . W hat i s im m e d ia te ly s t r i k

i n g i n t h e c o u r t s c e n e s i s t h e o v e rw h e lm in g s e n s e o f r e g a l i t y an d

m a g n i f ic e n c e . H is p a i n t i n g s ex u d e a c e r t a i n s p l e n d o r t h a t i s

u n e q u a le d an y w h ere e l s e i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t , a n d i t w as p r o b a b ly f o r

t h i s r e a s o n t h a t h e w as c h o s e n to e x e c u te t h e s e many p a i n t i n g s .

A l l h i s w o rk s show him t o h a v e b e e n a m a s t e r p a i n t e r o f t h e f i n e s t

o r d e r .

T h e re i s v e r y l i t t l e d o cu m en ted e v id e n c e a b o u t t h i s

a r t i s t , a n d o n ly f o u r o t h e r w orks h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o h im .

T h e se c o n s i s t o f t h r e e p o r t r a i t s , a l l d a t e a t o a ro u n a 1 6 3 0 , an d

a d o u b le p ag e d a r b a r s c e n e d a t e d to a b o u t 1640» T he o n ly p i e c e


1 4 2

o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h i s b a c k g ro u n d com es fro m an i n s c r i p t i o n

11w h ic h s t a t e s t h a t h e w as t h e p u p i l o f A bul H a s a n . S t y l i s t i c a l l y -

s p e a k in g , t h e r e i s n o t m uch i n M u r a d 's o e u v r e t h a t i n d i c a t e s h e

was t r a i n e d by th e N a d i r a l Zam an, e x c e p t p e r h a p s h i s s u p e rb

t e c h n i c a l e x e c u t i o n . I t m u s t b e rem e m b ered t h a t t e a c h e r a n d p u p i l

w o rk ed f o r tw o d i f f e r e n t p a t r o n s , a n d t h a t i t was t h e p a t r o n who

w as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w h a t t h e p a i n t i n g s w e re t o l o o k l i k e . As an

a r t i s t w o rk in g u n d e r J a h a n g i r , A b u l H a sa n w as a l lo w e d a g r e a t e r

f re e d o m o f e x p r e s s i o n , a n d c o u ld t h u s g iv e v e n t t o m uch i n d i v i d u a

l i t y , w h e re a s M urad h a d t o c o n fo rm t o th e r u l 'e s s e t by S h ah J a h a n

a n d h a d t o co m p ro m ise h i s c r e a t i v i t y w i t h i n t h i s s e t f ra m e w o rk .

As a l r e a d y m e n t io n e d , M u ra d 's c o u r t p a i n t i n g s a r e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r r e g a l i t y a n d m a g n i f i c e n c e , a f e a t u r e w h ic h

was a c h ie v e d l a r g e l y th r o u g h h i s h a n d l i n g o f c o l o r s . T hey a r e

b r i g h t s o l i d t o n e s m ix e d w i th a l i b e r a l u s e o f g o ld , w h ic h r e n d e r

a b r i l l i a n t j e w e l - l i k e e f f e c t . I n a d d i t i o n , h i s c o m p o s i t io n a l

s t r u c t u r e w as b u i l t on a h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l f ra m e w o rk , w h ich

c o n t r i b u t e d to w a rd s t h e c r e a t i o n o f an e q u i l i b r i u m a n d s t a b i l i t y .

When th e c o m p o s i t io n i s s t a b l e , i t p ro d u c e s a s e n s e o f b a la n c e

a n d o r d e r , o f e v e r y f i g u r e a n d o b j e c t b e i n g w h ere i t s h o u ld b e .

The j e w e l - l i k e e f f e c t w as r e n d e r e d e v e n m ore s t u n n in g b y h i s u s e

o f e x t r e m e ly h a r d an d w e l l d e f i n e d o u t l i n e s , a n d i t a l s o h e i g h t e n

ed th e o r d e r l y i m p r e s s i o n . T h e s e f e a t u r e s show him t o h a v e b e e n

a t r u e m a s t e r o f t h e r e f i n e d a n d e l e g a n t s t y l e t h a t p r e v a i l e d a t

t h e c o u r t o f s h a h J a h a n . One s e e s t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s i l l u s t r a t e d


143

f o r ex am p le i n f o l i o 2 1 7v , a d a r b a r s c e n e i n t h e t r u e s e n s e o f th e

w o rd . F o r m a l i t y a b o u n d s i n t h e p la c e m e n t o f t h e f i g u r e s : S hah

J a h a n i s s e t d e a d c e n t e r a n d e l e v a t e d upo n h i s th r o n e w e l l ab o v e

t h e o t h e r p e o p l e . On e i t h e r s i d e s t a n d tw o c o u r t i e r s . The su p

p o r t s o f t h e t h r o n e h e l p t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e l i n e a r i t y . H is c o l o r

c o n t r a s t o f g o ld a n d w h i te f o r t h e u p p e r w a l l s a n d a g r e e n i s h

b l a c k f o r t h e lo w e r c r e a t e s a n i n t e n s i t y w h ic h m akes t h e a l r e a d y

b r i g h t c o l o r s jum p o u t a t th e v i e w e r .

A d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t i s e n c o u n te r e d i n f o l i o 1 4 4 ^ , th e

c a p t u r e o f f o r t D a u la ta b a d . B e in g th e o n ly o u td o o r b a t t l e s c e n e

i n M u ra d 's o e u v r e , t h i s p a i n t i n g i s s l i g h t l y p r o b l e m a t i c . A l l t h e

o t h e r p a i n t i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o h im h a v e b e e n w o rk s w h ic h f o c u s e d on

p o r t r a i t s , an d f o r t h i s r e a s o n f o l i o 144* i s n o t t y p i c a l . I n

b a t t l e s c e n e s t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e human f i g u r e d o e s n o t p la y

s u c h an im p o r ta n t r o l e ; i t i s th e o v e r a l l v ie w o f t h e s e t t i n g w h ic h

i s im p o r t a n t , a n d i t i s o u t o f k e e p in g w i th h i s u s u a l w o rk s . The

c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s p a i n t i n g was by M urad i s t h e a s c r i p

t i o n w h ic h b e a r s h i s n am e. S t y l i s t i c a l l y t h i s p a i n t i n g h a s v e r y

l i t t l e i n common w i th h i s o t h e r w o rk s , a n d e v e n th e e f f e c t i s

n o t o f t h e same h ig h c a l i b r e . P e rh a p s t h i s w as b e c a u s e h e s p e c i a

l i z e d o n ly i n i n t e r i o r s c e n e s , a n d was t n e r e f o r e u n a b le t o r e p r o

d u c e th e e f f e c t s o f r e g a l i t y i n t h i s a l i e n c o n t e x t . A h i g h p o i n t

o f v ie w i s t a k e n , an d t h i s a l lo w s f o r a p a n o ra m ic sw eep o f th e

w h o le e v e n t . By t r y i n g t o a d h e r e t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p r o p o r t i o n s

a s to s p a t i a l r e c e s s i o n , h i s f i g u r e s h a v e u n f o r t u n a t e l y b e e n


144

r e d u c e d to w h ere th e y c a n n o t b e f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e d . The v i r t u e s o f

t h i s p a i n t i n g l i e i n i t s e x tre m e n e a t n e s s , o f a l l th e e le m e n ts

b e in g e n c a s e d i n s t r o n g s o l i d o u t l i n e s . T h e s e o u t l i n e s h o w ev e r

c r e a t e a c e r t a i n u n n a t u r a l n e s s , i n t h a t t h e f i g u r e s a n d t h e a n im a ls

t a k e 'o n a s t y l i z e d c h a r a c t e r , w h ic h i s f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d b y t h e

g o ld t r im m in g s i n t h e o r n a m e n ta t io n . The c o l o r a t i o n i s e x t r e m e ly

d a r k a n d s o m b re , an d s e r v e s o n ly to p ro d u c e a n o t e o f g lo o m . T h is

p a i n t i n g may b e a n e x a m p le o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h S hah J a h a n i

a r t i s t s n o l o n g e r s p e c i a l i z e d t h e way A kD ari o n e s d i d , e a c h h a d

h i s own a r e a i n w h ic h h e e x c e l l e d , an d when h e moved to a n o t h e r

s u b j e c t , h e p ro v e d to b e l e s s s u c c e s s f u l .

In th e above p a in t in g s , a s w e ll as in th e o th ers in

the m anuscript, i t i s c le a r th a t Murad was a f in e p o r t r a i t i s t . In

f a c t , a l l th e o th er works a t tr ib u te d to him, th e human f ig u r e i s

predom inant. He p a in ted fa c e s w ith a g r e a t r e a lism , n ever f a i l i n g

to in c lu d e a l l th e m inute physiognom ical d e t a i l s . T his can be

seen in th e fa c e s o f a l l h is f ig u r e s in the Windsor m anuscrip t,

but i s l e s s n o t ic a b le in f o l i o 144r» and in th e o th er works by

him. One such example i s Shah Jahan Honoring th e R e lig io u s

Orthodoxy ( H a t e LXVTIl). Yet a l l Murad's f ig u r e s la c k l i f e . They

are n ot animated in any way or g iv en any p e r s o n a lity . T heir f a c ia l

ex p r e ss io n s r e v e a l n o th in g , and they lo o k l i k e mannequins. I t

appears th a t Murad, in h is attem pt to c r e a te an im p re ss iv e and

m a je s tic t o t a l appearance, s a c r i f ic e d in d iv id u a l i t y and human

em otions io r th e o v e r a ll e f f e c t . S u rp r is in g ly as i t may seem,


145

a n d d e s p i t e a l l h i s v i r t u e s , M urad w as n o t a b l e to d raw h a n d s i n a

c o n v in c in g a n d r e a l i s t i c m a n n e r . H is h a n d s d o n ' t h o ld a n y t h in g ,

n o r do th e y h a v e a n y v o lu m e . T hey h a v e a c e r t a i n a t t e n u a t i o n

w h ic h , a l th o u g h f a r f ro m n o r m a l , l e n d s a c e r t a i n e l e g a n c e . T h i s

i s t h e sam e k in d o f s t y l i z e d e l e g a n c e fo u n d i n t h e b a t t l e s c e n e ,

a n d i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e may h a v e b e e n a d e l i b e r a t e

c h o i c e a s a m eans o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .

As i t i s n o t v e r y v i a b l e t o s t y l i s t i c a l l y com pare

i n d i v i d u a l p o r t r a i t s a n d l a r g e - s c a l e c o m p o s i t io n s , i t i s r a t h e r

d i f f i c u l t t o a s s i g n a d a t e to M u ra d 's p a i n t i n g s i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t . H ow ever a s P l a t e L X V III i s a l s o a n a u d ie n c e s c e n e ,

a n d h a s b e e n d a t e d , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o make some t e n t a t i v e c o m p a r i

s o n s . As a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a te d , t h i s p a i n t i n g i s s t y l i s t i c a l l y

v e r y s i m i l a r t o th e d a r b a r s c e n e s i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t , an d o n e may

t h e r e f o r e a ssu m e t h a t t h e y w e re e x e c u te d a t a b o u t r o u g h ly th e

sam e t im e , t h a t i s a ro u n d 1 6 4 0 .

P ay ag

P a y a g w as , a f t e r M u rad , th e n e x t m o s t p r o l i f i c a r t i s t

o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h e r e b e in g f o u r p a i n t i n g s a t t r i b u t e d

t o h im . T h e s e a r e f o l i o s 1 0 2 v , th e S e ig e o f f ta n d a h a r ; 1 7 6 v , th e

P r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e h e a d s o f J u . jh a r S in g h a n d h i s so n J a g r a . j S in g h .

1 9 5 r , t h e P i n a l e n c o u n te r b e tw e e n J a h a n g i r a n d P r in c e K hurram . a n d

2 1 4 v , th e D e p a r tu r e o f A u ra n g z e b f o r t h e D e c c a n . U n lik e M urad ,

P a y a g h a s a much l a r g e r know n o e u v r e , w h ic h am o u n ts t o a b o u t

tw e n ty o t h e r w o rk s . He b e g a n h i s c a r e e r i n t h e l a t e A k b a r i p e r i o d ,


146

b u t p r a c t i c a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d fro m s i g h t d u r i n g th e r e i g n o f J a h a n -

12g i r , a n d came b a c k o n to t h e s c e n e u n d e r S h ah J a h a n . H is e a r l y

s t y l e w as a p p a r e n t l y n e i t h e r v e r y b r i l l i a n t n o r o u t s t a n d i n g , f o r

th e y w e re i l l u s t r a t i o n s t o m in o r m a n u s c r i p t s . U n d o u b te d ly h e w as

p a r t o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n l i n e o f A k b a r* s p a i n t i n g a t e l i e r . H ow ever,

h e p ro v e d h im s e l f t o b e a v e r s a t i l e a n d t a l e n t e d a r t i s t d u r in g th e

S h ah J a h a n i p e r i o d . From a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n e l e a r n s t h a t h e w as

1 3t h e b r o t h e r o f B a lc h a n d , x a n d p o s s i b l y a n o l d e r o n e , f o r t h e

d a t e s g iv e n to t h e i r w orks show t h a t P a y a g 's c a r e e r b e g a n e a r l i e r .

B o th b r o t h e r s ' s t y l e s r e s e m b le e a c h o t h e r i n some r e s p e c t s , e s p e

c i a l l y i n t h e m a n n e r o f e x e c u t i o n , b u t a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n

p e r s o n a l i t y .

P a y a g 's w o rk s come a c r o s s a s f la m b o y a n t a n d im p r e s

s i v e ; th e y h a v e a v e r y g r a n d i o s e e f f e c t , a n d one i s im m e d ia te ly

s t r u c k by t h e i r m a g n i f i c e n c e . H ow ever, th e y a r e n o t r e g a l l i k e

t h o s e o f M u r a d 's . One d o e s n o t g e t t h e f e e l i n g o f a n im p o s in g

o r d e r a n d a d e a t h l y q u i e t n e s s , b u t r a t h e r one f e e l s a to u c h i n t i

m id a te d a s i f one w ere f a c i n g a f o r m i d a b le a n d p o w e r fu l p e r s o n a

l i t y . T h is pow er i s c o n v e y e d m a in ly th r o u g h t h e f o r c e f u l b r u s h

s t r o k e s . T hey a r e e x t r e m e l y e v i d e n t a n d come a c r o s s a s t h i n

s t r i a t i o n s . The p a c k a g in g o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s t r o k e s w i th i n

c l e a r l y d e f i n e d o u t l i n e s h e i g h t e n s t h e im p a c t e v en f u r t h e r .

H is f o u r p a i n t i n g s i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t c o n s i s t

o f tw o d a r b a r s a n d two b a t t l e s . F o l i o s 1 9 5 r a n d 214v a r e th e

d a r b a r s c e n e s a n d show tw o d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s a n d m oods. F o l i o


147

214v i a a t y p i c a l ex am p le o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c S h ah J a h a n i s t y l e ,

t h a t i s , t h e s y m m e tr ic a l n e a t a n d o r d e r l y s t r u c t u r e w h e re e v e ry

o b j e c t a n d p e r s o n o c c u p i e s h i s a n d i t s own d e s i g n a t e d s p o t . T ech

n i c a l e x e c u t io n w as p u s h e d t o n e a r p e r f e c t i o n t o c r e a t e a m a c h in e

m ade f i n i s h , P a y a g u t i l i z e d a som bre p a l e t t e w i th a s t r o n g em pha

s i s on e a r t h t o n e s , s t i l l r e t a i n i n g t h e b r i g h t e r s h a d e s , b u t c a s t

in g a d u l l s h e e n o n to th e m . E ven h i s g o l d s do n o t s p a r k l e , T h is

g i v e s a so lem n i m p r e s s i o n w h ic h a u g m e n ts t h e f o r m a l i t y c r e a t e d by

t h e r i g i d i t y o f th e s t r u c t u r e . H ow ever, i t i s n o t o v e r b e a r in g

b e c a u s e h i s f i g u r e s a r e a n im a te d i n t h e i r f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s . The

v a r i e t y i s q u i t e w id e s p r e a d , th o u g h n o t a s p l e n t i f u l a s t h a t fo u n d

i n A b i d 's w o rk s , b u t i t d e t r a c t s f ro m a c o l d n e s s t h a t w o u ld h a v e

o th e r w i s e r e s u l t e d .

P o l i o 1 9 5 r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , p r o d u c e s a t o t a l l y

d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t . I t i s r e l a x e d , l e s s o r g a n iz e d , a n d a lm o s t

n o i s y . The s y m m e tr ic a l s t r u c t u r e i s r e t a i n e d , b u t o n ly l o o s e l y

a d h e r e d t o , t h a t i s , o n ly t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s e t t i n g r e m a in s s t a b l e

w h i le t h e p e o p le a r e l e s s r i g i d l y o r g a n iz e d ; th e y n e i t h e r s t a n d i n

ro w s n o r f a c e th e c e n t e r . T h e re i s much m ore m ovem ent, a n d th e

f i g u r e s h e r e a r e e v e n m o re a n im a te d t h a n i n t h e o t h e r d a r b a r

s c e n e . I t seem s t h a t th e c o n c e r n h e r e w a s t h e s tu d y o f p e r s o n

a l i t i e s r a t h e r th a n a n e x e r c i s e i n c o m p o s i t io n . One i s s t r u c k

by e a c h i n d i v i d u a l f i g u r e by th e v e r y f a c t t h a t th e y a r e i s o l a t e d

fro m e a c h o t h e r . T hey a r e t o b e s e e n a s i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o t a s a

c o h e s iv e g r o u p . T h a t P a y a g w as a m a s t e r o f c h a r a c t e r s t u d i e s w as


148

p r o b a b ly th e r e s u l t o f h i s h a v in g done n u m e ro u s p o r t r a i t s a n d

m a rg in f i g u r e s . U n lik e th e p r e v io u s d a r b a r s c e n e , t h i s one h e r e

h a s a b r i g h t e r a n d g a y e r c o l o r schem e w h ic h g le a m s a n d s p a r k l e s

w i t h t h a t j e w e l - l i k e q u a l i t y one a s s o c i a t e s w i th B i c h i t r ' s p a i n t

i n g s .

H is b a t t l e s c e n e s , h o w e v e r , a r e m o re i n th e s t y l e o f

t h e f i r s t d a r b a r s c e n e s , i n t h a t th e y a r e s t r u c t u a l l y o r g a n i z e d .

I n b o th p a i n t i n g s , t h e f i g u r e s a r e g ro u p e d i n s m a l l c l u s t e r s an d

a r e n e a t l y a r r a n g e d i n t h e b a c k g ro u n d l a n d s c a p e . The f i g u r e s i n

th e f o r e g r o u n d a r e n a t u r a l l y t h e m ore im p o r t a n t o n e s , a n d h e r e

th e y a r e n o t a s t i g h t l y g a t h e r e d . As s u c h , one i s a b l e to d i s c e r n

t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a t a s i n g l e g l a n c e . T h o se i n t h e b a c k g ro u n d

h o w e v e r do n o t come a c r o s s a s anonym ous b e i n g s . One a l s o s e e s a

v a r i e t y o f e x p r e s s i o n s a n d g r im a c e s . E s p e c i a l l y i n f o l i o 10 2 v ,

o n e n o t i c e s P a y a g 's s u p e r b pow er o f o b s e r v a t i o n , n o t o n ly i n h i s

p o r t r a y a l o f human p e r s o n a l i t i e s , b u t a l s o i n a l l t h e s m a l l

d e t a i l s , i n t h e t r im m in g s o f th e c o s tu m e s , th e h o r s e s a n d t h e

l a n d s c a p e . T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t e l l i n g i n h i s d e p i c t i o n o f t h e

two r a b b i t s i n th e g r a s s i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d . T h e i r g e n t l e n e s s

p r e s e n t s a v e r y m a rk e d c o n t r a s t to t h e r a g i n g b a t t l e . I t i s i n

t h e s e b a t t l e s t h a t one i s o v e rw h e lm ed b y t h e f o r m i d a b le p r e s e n t a

t i o n . The n a t u r e o f th e s u b j e c t i s a l r e a d y q u i t e aw esom e, b u t

c o u p le d w i th h i s d a r k a n d som bre p a l e t t e , t h e e f f e c t i s d o u b ly

s t a r t l i n g . P ay ag w as t h e o n ly a r t i s t i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t

who w as a b l e t o make s u c h a p ro fo u n d i n i t i a l im p a c t .


149

P a y a g h a d a r a t h e r lo n g c a r e e r t h a t r a n g e d fro m a ro u n d

1598 t o 1655» H is o e u v re c o n s i s t e d m a in ly o f p o r t r a i t s an d o u t

d o o r g ro u p s c e n e s * As a l r e a d y m e n t io n e d , h i s e a r l y c a r e e r was n o t

v e r y s p e c t a c u l a r , an d h e r e a c h e d h i s p e a k b e tw e e n 1 6 4 0 t o 1 6 5 0 .

I t i s t o t h i s p e r i o d t h a t o n e c o u l d . d a t e h i s W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t

p a i n t i n g s . I n t h e e a r l i e r p a r t o f t h e 1 6 4 0 s , h i s w o rk s d e m o n s tr a

t e d a m ore s e v e r e a p p r o a c h t o a s y m m e tr ic a l o r d e r l i n e s s . T h i s c a n

be s e e n i n h i s w ork e n t i t l e d A P e r s i a n E m bassy ( P l a t e L i ) . H ere

one s e e s t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i g u r e s i n n e a t g ro u p s w i t h i n a

h o r i z o n t a l - v e r t i c a l g r i d s t r u c t u r e . T h e re i s a l s o a g r e a t d e a l o f

dynam ism a n d p o w er i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n , w h e re h i s f i g u r e s a r e

f o r c e f u l b u t s t e m p e r s o n a l i t i e s , a n d w h e re t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l

s e t t i n g I s h e a v y a n d m a s s iv e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n a l a t e r w o rk ,

I z z a t Khan w i th o f f i c e r s a n d w is e men ( P l a t e L X IX ), w h ic h h a s b e e n. 1 4

d a t e d t o a r o u n a 1 6 5 5 » t h e c o m p o s i t io n b ecom es m uch m ore r e l a x e d .

Gone i s t h e s t r i c t r i g i d i t y fo u n d i n P l a t e L I . T h e re a r e no

e n f r a m in g h o r i z o n t a l s a n d v e r t i c a l s t o d i v i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e ;

i n s t e a d th e f i g u r e s a r e s p r e a d o u t a c r o s s th e p a g e , an d one i s

a b l e t o f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e t h e im m ense v a r i e t y o f f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s

a n d p o s e s . H is f i g u r e s a r e l e s s im p o s in g a n d t h i s i s due t o a

g e n e r a l s o f t e n i n g i n e x e c u t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , h e h a s i n c o r p o r a t e d

a E u ro p e a n c h i a r o s c u r o e f f e c t , e s p e c i a l l y n o t a b l e i n th e b a c k

g ro u n d , w h ich h e l p s t o c r e a t e t h i s g e n t l e r o v e r a l l e f f e c t . T h is

b r i e f c o m p a r is o n a l lo w s o n e t o a s s i g n f o l i o 214v o f t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r ip t t o h i s e a r l i e r p e r i o d o f a ro u n d 1 6 4 0 , a n d th e o t h e r


150

t h r e e p a i n t i n g s , f o l i o s 1 9 5 ^ , 102v a n d 1 7 ^ v , t o a l a t e r d a t e o f

a ro u n d 16 5 0 .

Ram D as

T he W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t h a s tw o p a i n t i n g s a t t r i b u t e d

t o t h i s l i t t l e known a r t i s t , Ram D as . He e x e c u te d f o l i o s 51x f t he

c o u r t y a r d p o r t i o n o f t h e R e tu r n o f A a a f Khan a n d t h e p r i n c e s fro m

L a h o r e , a n d 4 8 v .J a h a n g i r r e c e i v i n g p r i n c e K hurram a f t e r t h e cam p

a i g n a g a i n s t t h e R an a o f M ew ar. A s id e f ro m t h e s e tw o p a i n t i n g s ,

t o d a t e o n ly o n e o t h e r p a i n t i n g h a s b e e n g iv e n t o h im . T h i s i s a

p o r t r a i t o f S h ahnaw aa K han , p r e s e n t l y i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f E dw in

15B in n e y I I I . I n b o th t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t w o rk s , Ram D a s ’ nam e

i s w r i t t e n i n t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t . C o u p lin g t h i s f a c t w i th h i s

n am e, one c a n e a s i l y c o n c lu d e t h a t h e was a H in d u . T h e se tw o

p a i n t i n g s show him t o h a v e b e e n am ong t h e m o s t t a l e n t e d o f S h ah

J a h a n 1s a t e l i e r , f o r th e y a r e h ig h i n t e c h n i c a l e x c e l l e n c e . How

e v e r , t h e y d i f f e r som ew hat i n p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e may

r e p r e s e n t e i t h e r tw o s t a g e s o f h i s d e v e lo p m e n t , o r i n d i c a t e t h a t

h e was an e c l e c t i c p a i n t e r .

P o l i o i s t h e m o s t a n im a te d s c e n e i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

N o t o n ly do t h e f i g u r e s d i s p l a y a w id e v a r i e t y o f f a c i a l e x p r e s

s i o n s , b u t th e y a r e t r u l y l i v e l y . T h e i r e y e s a c t u a l l y s p a r k l e

a n d g low w i th l i f e , b r i n g i n g a b o u t a s e n s e o f g a i e t y n o t fo u n d

a n y w h ere e l s e i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e an im a t i o n i n

t h e e y e s , t h e l i v l i n e s s o f t h e p a i n t i n g s i s a u g m e n te d by t h e r a n g e

o f c o l o r s a n d t h e i r c o n t r a s t s . He u s e d b r i l l i a n t p u r e t o n a l s h a d e s


151

a n d d rew o u t t h e i r r i c h n e s s by p l a y i n g c o m p le m e n ta ry h u e s o f f

a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r , a n d by e n v e lo p in g t h e s e h u e s i n h a r d a n d f i r m

o u t l i n e s . H ow ever l i v e l y th o u g h h i s w orks may b e , a n o r d e r i s

s t i l l r e t a i n e d , th o u g h n o t one o f g r e a t r i g i d i t y s u c h a s t h e one

e s t a b l i s h e d by B i c h i t r i n t h e p r o c e e d in g p a g e . The c o m p o s i t io n

i s s t r u c t u r e d on t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , a n d t h e r e i s a m ark ed

a b s e n c e o f v e r t i c a l s t o c o n t a i n t h e s c e n e . I n s t e a d t h e p a i n t i n g

l e a d s i n t o t h e p r e c e e d i n g p a g e w i th w h ic h i t fo rm s a s i n g l e e v e n t .

F o l i o 4 8 v , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s m uch m ore s e v e r e . I t

i s an e x t r e m e ly r e f i n e d p i e c e o f w ork d o n e i n s t r o n g p r e c i s e o u t

l i n e s a n d v e r y b r i l l i a n t c o l o r s . The t o t a l a r r a n g e m e n t g i v e s an

im p r e s s i o n o f o r d e r a n d c a lm , o f s t a b i l i t y a n d o f g r e a t e l e g a n c e ,

i n o t h e r w o rd s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e f i n e d S hah J a h a n i c o u r t

p a i n t i n g . O v e r a l l t h e r e i s a v e r y c o l d f e e l i n g , a s i f t h e f i g u r e s

w ere m ere m a n n e q u in s a n d n o t r e a l l i v e p e o p l e , a s i f t h e p o r t r a y a l

o f hum an e m o tio n s h a d b e e n s a c r i f i c e d f o r t h e s a k e o f t e c h n i c a l

p e r f e c t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y w i th o n ly o n e o t h e r a t t r i b u t i o n t o

h im ,t h e r e i s n o t en o u g h t a n g i b l e m a t e r i a l t o s tu d y th e d e v e lo p

m e n t o f Ram p a s ' c a r e e r , a n d t h e r e f o r e f o r t h e p r e s e n t m om ent, i t

i s n o t r e a l l y p o s s i b l e t o g i v e a s o l i d e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e v a r i a

t i o n s fo u n d i n h i s s t y l e .

T i r D u st

The nam e o f T i r D u s t h a s , u n t i l now , n e v e r b e e n

r e c o r d e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e on M ughal a r t i s t s . H is s i g n a t u r e i s

fo u n d on o n ly one p a i n t i n g i n t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , f o l i o 174^


152

t h e c a p t u r e o f f o r t s O rc h h a e n d Pham u n i . I n t h e p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a

t u r e on th e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , t h i s a r t i s t ' s nam e h a s b e e n r e a d

A 16a s M ir D u s t . H ow ever, a c c o r d in g t o R o b e r t S k e l t o n , t o whom t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r i n s c r i p t i o n w as show n, t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g s h o u ld b e

T i r D u s t . I n e i t h e r c a s e t h i s a r t i s t i s a n unknown o n e . The one

p a i n t i n g a t t r i b u t e d to h im show s h im n o t t o h a v e b e e n one o f t h e

to p m a s t e r a r t i s t s , b u t r a t h e r o n e o f a s e c o n d o r d e r . I t i s p o s

s i b l e t h a t h e w a s , a t t h i s t im e , a y o u n g p a i n t e r who w as o n ly a t

t h e l e a r n i n g s t a g e , an d w as s t i l l s t r u g g l i n g t o r e s o l v e t e c h n i c a l

p r o b le m s . H is l a t e r w o rk s may r e v e a l a command o v e r th e t e c h n i c a l

a s p e c t s o f t h e a r t , b u t i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t he w o u ld h a v e g r a c e d

t h e r a n k s o f t h e t a l e n t e d fe w .

T h a t h e w o rk ed i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e i m p e r i a l a t e

l i e r o f S hah J a h a n i s i n d i c a t e d by h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n e a t l y

c o n t a in e d a n d o r d e r l y t a b l e a u . He c r e a t e d a c e n t r a l s p a c e by

e n c l o s i n g t h e p i c t u r e o n t h e tw o s i d e s a n d t h e b o tto m w i th ro w s o f

p e o p l e , a n d on t h e to p w i th a row o f b u i l d i n g s . W ith in t h i s c e n

t r a l s p a c e h e p l a c e d t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l f i g u r e s — t h e com m anders

o f t h e c a m p a ig n . T hey s t a n d o u t a s b e in g im p o r ta n t b e c a u s e o f

t h i s v e r y s im p le d e v i c e . I n g e n e r a l , h e h a n d le d t h e hum an body

w e l l , v e r y r e a l i s t i c a l l y a n d w i th a s e n s e o f a t h r e e d im e n s io n a l

m a ss . B u t h i s p e o p le a r e d e v o id o f e x p r e s s i o n , t h e i r f a c e s r e m a in

q u i t e b la n k , w h ic h i s i n k e e p in g w i th t h e c o ld a n d f o r m a l a tm o s

p h e r e o f c o u r t l y p a i n t i n g . N a tu r a l i s m i s c o u n te r e d b y a d e f i c i e n c y

i n th e t r e a t m e n t o f s p a c e . He w as u n a b le t o c r e a t e a c o n v in c in g


153

r e c e s s io n back in to sp a ce . F a r away b u ild in g s and f ig u r e s ju s t

d im in ish in s c a le and are s ta ck ed on top o f one an other, and

th e r e fo r e , remain on th e same s p a t ia l p la n e . T his p a in tin g i s a

document which adds a new name to th e p a in te r s o f th e Shah

Jahani p e r io d , and i t i s p o s s ib le th a t some p r e se n tly u h in scr ib ed

works are a t tr ib u ta b le to him*

U n in s c r ib e d W orks

The r e m a in in g t w e n t y - t n r e e p a i n t i n g s n o t y e t d i s c u s s e d

i n t h i s c h a p t e r h a v e n e i t h e r i n s c r i p t i o n s n o r a t t r i b u t i o n s t o any

a r t i s t . T hey r a n g e b o th i n s t y l e a n d i n l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l e x c e l

l e n c e . Some o f t h e s e p a i n t i n g s may v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n d o n e by

one o f t h e t e n a r t i s t s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r o n ; w h i le o t h e r s may h a v e

b e e n by t n e h a n d s o f o t h e r known Shah J a h a n i a r t i s t s , an d o t h e r s

may y e t r e p r e s e n t t h e w ork o f unknow n p a i n t e r s . T h e se p a i n t i n g s

w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n c a t e g o r i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a c c o r d

i n g t o t h e p a i n t i n g s ' d e g r e e o f t e c h n i c a l e x c e l l e n c e . T h re e

l e v e l s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d , an d i n o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y t h e c a t e g o

r i c a l t i t l e s , t h e y h a v e b e e n l a b e l e d a s c a t e g o r i e s 1 , 2 , an d 3*

The f i r s t b ein g th a t o f the h ig h e s t o rd er . A ttr ib u tio n has not

been attem pted , fo r t h is i s n o t the o b je c t iv e o f t h i s stu d y . This

d is s e r t a t io n i s c h ie f ly concerned w ith th e nature o f h i s t o r ic a l

p a in tin g under Shah Jahan as ex em p lif ie d by th e Windsor C a stle

Badshah Naina. The a r t i s t s are d iscu sse d because th ey p a r t ic ip a te d

in th e cr e a t io n o f the m an uscrip t, but p r e c is e a t tr ib u t io n i s

beyond th e scope o f t h i s stu d y .


154

C a te g o ry One

i n C a te g o ry One t h e r e a r e s i x p a i n t i n g s w h ic h r e p r e

s e n t t h e w o rk s o f v e r y c o m p e te n t a r t i s t s who c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d

t o h a v e b e e n m a s t e r p a i n t e r s . T e c h n ic a l e x c e l l e n c e i s t h e common

d e n o m in a to r o f a l l t h e s e p a i n t i n g s , th o u g h th e i n d i v i d u a l m e r i t s

a r e m a n i f e s t e d i n d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r s . T he f i r s t w o rk s t o b e con

s i d e r e d a r e t h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s , t h e p o r t r a i t s o f T im u r a n d S h ah

J a h a n . S t y l l i s t i c a l l y t h e s e two p a i n t i n g s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r an d

a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n done by t h e same h a n d . The s t y l e o f t h i s

a r t i s t c a n b e s a i d t o h a v e b e e n t r u l y i n t h e c o u r t l y m ode. I t i s

im p e c c a b ly n e a t , w i th u n if o r m s h a d e s o f c o l o r s p la c e d w i t h i n

c l e a r d e l i n a t e d o u t l i n e s . G r e a t a t t e n t i o n w as g iv e n t o a l l t h e

s m a l l d e t a i l s , s u c h a s t h e d e s ig n s on th e t h r o n e s an d th e r o b e s ,

an d e m p h a s is w as p l a c e d on a c o m p le te a c c u r a c y f o r a l l t h e a c c o u t r e

m e n ts . P e r f e c t i o n w as t h e g o a l h e s t r i v e d f o r , a n d i t w as

a t t a i n e d i n t h e fo rm o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e . H ow ever, t h e s e

p a i n t i n g s a r e c o l d i n t h a t t h e hum an e m o tio n s do n o t come th r o u g h

a t a l l . N e i t h e r f i g u r e r e v e a l s a n y e x p r e s s i o n s , a n d a l t h o u g h th e y

a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e c o m m u n ic a tin g w i th e a c h o t h e r , t h e r e i s no eye

c o n t a c t , no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n them a t a l l . T hey s t a r e p a s t

e a c h o t h e r i n t o em p ty a i r , an d t h e i r h a n d g e s t u r e s do n o t h a v e

much r a p p o r t w i th t h e m e ssa g e th e y a r e s u p p o s e d to be g e t t i n g

a c r o s s . T h i s a r t i s t i s c o m p a ra b le t o M urad i n h i s c o l d an d

fo rm a l p r e c i s i o n , b u t t h e f o r m e r h a d a much m ore r i g i d an d l e s s

s u p p le m a n n e r o f h a n d l i n g .


155

The s e c o n d w ork i n t h i s c a t e g o r y i s f o l i o 1 1 6 v , t h e

a r r i v a l o f t h e P o r tu g u e s e w i th t r i b u t e o f f e r i n g s * L ik e

t h e two f r o n t i s p i e c e s , t h i s i s a l s o a n ex am p le o f t h e h i g h l y

f o r m a l i z e d a n d r i g i d c o u r t s t y l e . I t i s a n o r d e r l y c o m p o s i t io n ,

s y m m e tr ic a l ly b a l a n c e d on a h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t ,

an d n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i t i s c o l d i n i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n . N o t o n ly

do t h e f i g u r e s b e t r a y n o e m o tio n s , b u t t h e m u te d p a l e s h a d e s o f

c o l o r s h e lp t o i n t e n s i f y t h i s e f f e c t . L ik e a l l t h e o t h e r w o rk s

o f t h i s c a l i b r e , h e r e t h e d e t a i l s o f c l o t h i n g , a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d

o rn a m e n ts a r e d e p i c t e d w i th t h e u tm o s t f i d e l i t y t o t h e i r t r u e

f o r m s , a n d a l s o w i th g r e a t c a r e . T h i s a r t i s t * s w ork i s m uch

s t a r k e r th a n th o s e o f t h e o t h e r a r t i s t s i n t h e m a n u s c r i p t . T h e re

i s o n ly a minimum o f p e o p le a n d o b j e c t s . T h i s b a r e n e s s a l s o

c o n t r i b u t e s t o th e c o l d a n d v e r y d i s t a n t im p r e s s i o n . H is c o l o r

schem e i s c o m p a ra b le t o B i c h i t r ' s , b u t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d d e v e

lo p m e n t o f s p a c e i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t .

F o l i o 1 2 4 v , Shah J a h a n p l a c i n g p e a r l s on D a ra S h ik o h ,

i s a g r e a t c o n t r a s t t o t h e w o rk s m e n tio n e d a b o v e . I t i s gay* an d

t h i s may b e due t o t h e o c c a s i o n r e p r e s e n t e d , b u t i t i s a l s o due

t o t h e a r t i s t ' s m a n n e r o f h a n d l i n g . U n lik e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e

a r t i s t s i n t h i s f i r s t c a t e g o r y , t h i s o n e 's c o m p o s i t io n i s n o t a s

r i g i d . I t i s o n ly h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d w i th n e g l i g i b l e v e r t i

c a l s , a l i t t l e r e m i n i s c e n t o f Ram D a s ' c o u r t y a r d s c e n e . The

f i g u r e s a r e r e l a x e d i n t h e i r p o s t u r e s a n d g e s t u r e s , b u t a r e im p a s

s i v e i n t h e i r f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s . The v i g o r o f t h i s p a i n t i n g


156

i s b e s t s e e n i n t h e n i g h t s k y , w h ic h w as c r e a t e d w i th v a r i o u s

s h a d e s o f d a r k n e s s , a n d m ade a l i v e b y t h e r o l l i n g c l o u d s . I n con

t r a s t t o t h e d a r k s a r e t h e b r i g h t w a l l s a n d l i g h t s o f t h e f e s t i

v i t i e s . i n a d d i t i o n t h e a r t i s t u s e d a l o t o f g o l d s , n o t w i th t h e

i n t e n t i o n t o d a z z l e , b u t t o c r e a t e h i g h l i g h t s . The f u n c t i o n o f

t h e g o ld s h e r e i s u n l i k e t h a t fo u n d i n a p a i n t i n g b y M u rad , w h ere

r e g a l i t y i s c r e a t e d . H e re t h e g o ld s a r e l i k e l i t t l e w h is p s o f

l i g h t t h a t make t h e c o m p o s i t io n s p a r k l e . T he b o d ie s o f t h e d a n c -

g i r l s bend a n d move w i th a l l t h e s u p p le n e s s a n d g r a c e t h a t i s

r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e c l a s s i c a l G u p ta s t y l e . The g a i e t y p ro d u c e d by

t h i s a r t i s t i s h o w e v e r q u i t e re m o v e d , a s h e h i m s e l f to o k a

d i s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t c o m p le te ly rem o v e d him fro m t h e e v e n t .

I t i s a g r e a t c o n t r a s t t o A b i d 's p a i n t i n g s w h ic h b r i n g t h e v ie w e r

r i g h t i n t o t h e s c e n e .

I n f o l i o I 6 5 r , s h a h J a h a n h u n t i n g n i . l g a o , o ne r e c o g

n i z e s t h e s k i l l s o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t a s a c o l o r i s t . T he

e f f e c t s a n d im p a c ts p r o d u c e d th r o u g h h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d h a n d l in g

o f c o l o r s a r e q u i t e r e m a r k a b le a n d v e r y b e a u t i f u l . W o rk in g i n t h e

t r a d i t i o n o f t h e c o u r t l y s t y l e , h e p l a c e d m uch a t t e n t i o n on th e

a c c u r a c y a n d r e a l i s m i n h a n d l i n g f i g u r e s , a n im a ls a n d o b j e c t s , a s

w e l l i n s m a l l an d m in u te d e t a i l s s u c h a s i n t h e d e s i g n s o f v e s t

m e n ts . H is w o rk h a s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l n e a t n e s s , w i th e a c h f i g u r e

o r o b j e c t c a r e f u l l y e n f ra m e d w i t h i n s h a r p o u t l i n e s . As i s t r u e

w i th m any c o u r t p a i n t i n g s o f t h i s p e r i o d , th e o r d e r a n d f o r m a l

q u a l i t i e s t e n d to d o m in a te a t t h e e x p e n s e o f h u m a n i s t i c v a l u e s .


157

.A lth o u g h p e r f e c t i o n w as s t r i v e d f o r a n d w as a c h i e v e d i n .in d i v i d u a l

f i g u r e s a n d o b j e c t s , i t w as n o t r e a l i z e d i n t h e o v e r a l l p r e s e n t a

t i o n . p e r s p e c t i v e a n d r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s w e re n o t a d h e re d t o ,

w h ic h i s r a t h e r d i s t u r b i n g a t t i m e s . T h a t t h e f i g u r e s a r e to o

“b ig f o r t h e s e t t i n g may h a v e b e e n a n i n t e n t i o n a l d e v ic e t o r e n d e r

a g r e a t e r im p o r ta n c e t o S h a h J a h a n . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s a r t i s t

w as t a l e n t e d i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f s i n g l e f i g u r e s a n d o b j e c t s o r

g ro u p s t h e r e o f i n a n e u t r a l s e t t i n g , s u c h a s i n b o r d e r s t o manu

s c r i p t s a n d a lb u m s , b u t w as i n c a p a b l e o f p u t t i n g t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l

m o t i f s t o g e t h e r i n a h a rm o n io u s f a s h i o n , a n d th u s a r r i v e d a t a

r a t h e r d i s j o i n t e d c o m p o s i t io n . H ow ever, t h i s i s m ore th a n com pen

s a t e d f o r by h i s s u p e r b h a n d l in g o f th e c o l o r s i n t h e s k y . The

m u l t i - c o l o r e d g lo w i s h e i g h te n e d by t h e g o ld e n a u r a o f th e s u n ,

a n d p r e s e n t s a m a g n i f i c e n t c o n t r a s t t o th e g r e e n s an d b row ns t h a t

d o m in a te t h e f o r e g r o u n d . T h i s l u m i n o s i t y h e l p s t o c o m p lim e n t

th e a u r a o f l i g h t s u r r o u n d in g s h a h j a h a n , who i s m ade t o s t a n d o u t

fro m th e som bre b a c k g ro u n d .

The f i n a l a r t i s t i n t h e m a s t e r c a t e g o r y

p a i n t e d f o l i o 218 v , t h e w ed d in g o f A u ra n g z e b . L ik e f o l i o 1 2 4 v ,

t h i s one i s a l s o a n i g h t s c e n e , b u t i s much l e s s a n im a te d . The

g a i e t y a n d m u s ic o f t h e e v e n t do n o t q u i t e p e rm e a te th r o u g h t o

th e f i g u r e s . T hey do n o t a p p e a r t o be e n jo y in g th e m s e lv e s . I t

i s a n e x t r e m e ly w e l l e x e c u te d w ork w h ic h c a r e f u l l y d e p i c t s e v e n a l l

t h e s m a l l a n d m in u te i t e m s . T h is t h e a r t i s t a c h i e v e d b y u s in g

a n o r d e r l y s t r i a t i o n - l i k e b r u s h s t r o k e . Sym m etry i s th e m a in


158

s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t o f t h e p a i n t i n g , w h ic h d i v i d e d i t i n t o two

e q u a l h a l v e s . S h ah J a h a n o c c u p i e s t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . T h is

p a i n t i n g i s a t y p i c a l ex a m p le o f t h e c o u r t l y s t y l e a s e x e c u te d by

an a r t i s t who w as i n f u l l c o n t r o l o f t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f h i s

m e t i e r .

C a te g o ry Two

The s e c o n d c a t e g o r y o f p a i n t e r s show s a l e s s e r a d e p t

n e s s a t c o n fo rm in g to t h e c o u r t l y s t y l e . O f te n t im e s t h e i r w o rk s

a r e n e i t h e r v e r y n e a t n o r c a r e f u l l y com p o sed , a n d q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y

t h e p a i n t i n g s do n o t come a c r o s s a s a u n i f i e d w h o le . M o st o f t h e

p ro b le m s seem t o s te m fro m t h e a r t i s t s ' i n a b i l i t i e s t o h a n d le a

p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l , l i k e a h a n d g e s t u r e f o r e x a m p le . T hough l e s s

p e r f e c t th a n t h e C a te g o ry One p a i n t i n g s , t h e s e w o rk s s t i l l m a in

t a i n t h e b e a u ty a n d e l e g a n c e w h ic h i s one o f th e u n i f y i n g f a c t o r s

o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t . T h e re a r e a t o t a l o f t e n w o rk s i n t h i s c a t e

g o r y , a n d c a n b e g iv e n t o n i n e d i f f e r e n t h a n d s . The f i r s t w ork t o

b e d i s c u s s e d i s f o l i o 47*» t h e c o u r t y a r d p o r t i o n o f t h e su b m is

s i o n o f R a n a Amar S in g h . T h is p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t h a d a n a i v e

s t y l e w h ic h i s e s p e c i a l l y m a rk e d i n t h e w id e - e y e d g a z e s o f t h e

f i g u r e s a n d t h e s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d n a t u r a l i s m . He h a d n o t a t t a i n e d

th e s t r i k i n g r e a l i s t i c f o r m u la w h ic h many o f t h e o t h e r a r t i s t s

h a d , b u t h e p ro d u c e d m ore b e l i e v a b l e f i g u r e s . L ik e A b id 's w o rk s ,

h i s a r e a n im a te d ; n o t i n t h e f a c i a l a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e f i g u r e s ,

b u t i n t h e i r m a n n e r is m s a n d g e s t u r e s . I n p r e s e n t a t i o n i s i s

u n l i k e t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d w o rk s e n c o u n te r e d i n C a te g o ry O ne, an d


159

i s a r e f r e s h i n g c h a n g e f ro m t h e a r t i f i c e g e n e r a t e d by t h e fo rm a

l i t y s o p r e v a l e n t i n m any o f t h e o t h e r p a i n t i n g s .

The c o u r t y a r d p o r t i o n o f f o l i o 7 0 v , t h e w e ig h m en t o f

S h ah J a h a n , i s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e w h ere g a i e t y a n d l i v l i n e s s dom i

n a t e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a r i g i d s t r u c t u r e . T he d a n c in g g i r l s *

b o d ie s t w i s t a n d tu r n . in . a n u n d u l a t i n g f a s h i o n , w h i le t h e i r arm

m ovem ents p ro d u c e v e r y g r a c e f u l e f f e c t s . The p r e s e n t a t i o n h e r e

i s m uch m ore e l e g a n t t h a n i n t h e p r e v io u s p a i n t i n g , b e c a u s e i t i s

n o t a s d i r e c t a s t a t e m e n t . The f i g u r e s do n o t a f f r o n t t h e v ie w e r ,

a n d t h e c o l o r s a r e l e s s b r i g h t a n d f o r t h r i g h t . The e l e g a n c e an d

g r a c e h e r e i s som ew hat m a r r e d b y th e r a t h e r c lu m sy h a n d l in g o f

t h e h a n d s a n d t h e u n b a la n c e d a r c h i t e c t u r a l s e t t i n g . F o l i o 9 8 v ,

t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e P e r s i a n a m b a s s a d o r , i s a p a i n t i n g w h ic h h a s

m o s t o f t h e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e r e f i n e d c o u r t s t y l e . I n a d d i t i o n ,

i t i s s u p e r b i n i t s s t r i k i n g c o l o r i s t i c e f f e c t s . The c o m p o s i t io n ,

th o u g h s y m m e tr ic a l , i s v e r y c ro w d e d , a n d i t d e t r a c t s fro m th e

o r d e r l i n e s s t h a t i s t h e u s u a l norm o f c o u r t p a i n t i n g . M o re o v e r

t h e d e t a i l s w e re n o t p a i n s t a k i n g l y r e f i n e d , a n d t h i s f a c t o r

m in im iz e s th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a n e l e g a n t a n d m a j e s t i c p r e s e n t a

t i o n . The n e x t a r t i s t w o rk ed on f o l i o 9 2 v , t h e b e s e i g i n g o f

f o r t D h a ru r . H is m e r i t s l i e n o t i n h i s s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o s i t io n ,

b u t i n h i s c o l o r i s t i c e f f e c t s . He u s e d b a s i c a l l y e a r t h t o n e s ,

a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d h e a v i l y on t h e v a r i o u s s h a d e s o f b ro w n s . He

w o rk ed th e d i f f e r e n t g r a d a t i o n s t o g e t h e r t o o b t a i n a m o s t d i v e r

s i f i e d a n d b le n d e d h u e i n th e l a n d s c a p e . B e in g a b a t t l e s c e n e ,


160

t h e s e b ro w n s f u n c t i o n w e l l i n c o n v e y in g t h e som bre mood a n d a tm o s

p h e re o f t h e s e t t i n g . T h i s a r t i s t a l s o f o c u s e d a l o t o f a t t e n t i o n

on a n a c c u r a t e r e n d i t i o n o f s m a l l m in u te d e t a i l s * n o t a b l y i n t h e

c r e a s e s a n d f o l d s o f t h e g a r m e n ts . The same c a r e c a n a l s o be

n o te d i n t h e tr im m in g s o f t h e h o r s e s a n d i n t h e v e g e t a t i o n . How

e v e r h i s w ork d o e s n o t come a c r o s s a s a c o h e s iv e u n i t , f o r a l th o u g h

t h e l a n d s c a p e i s r e f i n e d , t h e c o l o r a t i o n o f t h e s k y i s r o u g h , and

t h e r e f o r e a j a r r i n g im p a c t r e s u l t s .

The n e x t p a i n t i n g i n C a te g o ry Two i s t h e l e f t p o r t i o n

o f th e e s c o r t i n g o f D a ra S h ik o h to h i s w e d d in g c e re m o n y , f o l i o

1 2 3 r . L ik e f o l i o 9 8 v , t h i s o n e l a c k s t h a t f i n a l p o l i s h w h ic h

m akes f o r t h e s u m p tu o u s n e s s a n d e le g a n c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g s i n

C a te g o ry O ne. W hat t h i s a r t i s t s u c c e s s f u l l y b r o u g h t o u t w as t h e

s e n s e o f a c t i v i t y a n d m o v em en t. He a c h ie v e d t h i s th r o u g h th e

l i v e l y e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e f i g u r e s a n d t h e b o ld s p l a s h e s o f b r i g h t

c o l o r s a n d a r e a s o f g o ld th r o u g h o u t t h i s p r e d o m in a te ly d a r k s e t

t i n g . H ow ever, t h e r e i s a r e s t r a i n i n g f o r c e t h a t t o n e s down t h e

a n im a t io n ; o n e d o e s n o t g e t t h e im p r e s s i o n o f s o u n d , a l l i s q u i e t

i n s p i t e o f t h e e x c i t e m e n t . T h i s p e r h a p s i s t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t

e x p r e s s i v e f a c t o r w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h e s S b ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g fro m

th o s e o f t h e p r e v io u s p e r io d s * t h e c o o l d e t a t c h e d r e s t r a i n t . The

f o l l o w i n g p a i n t i n g a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a s t a g e i n t h e w e d d in g o f L a ra

S h ik o h , t h e l e f t p o r t i o n o f S h ah J a h a n p l a c i n g p e a r l s on L a r a ,

f o l i o 1 2 5 r . T h is p a i n t i n g seem s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e w ork o f an

o rn a m e n ta l a r t i s t , f o r i t i s t h e d e t a i l s — t h e d e s ig n on t h e


161

c a r p e t , t h e g r i l l w o r k o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e — t h a t a r e t r u l y o u t

s t a n d i n g . T h e se d e t a i l s t e l l o f a p a i n s t a k i n g b u t l a b o r i o u s c a r e

on t h e p a r t o f t h e a r t i s t i n m a k in g e x a c t r e p l i c a s o f t h e s e f i n e

a r t o b j e c t s . A lth o u g h t h e c o l o r s a r e v i v i d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e

c o n t r a s t o f t h e w h i te w a l l s t o t h e d a r k a k y , t h e r e i s to o m uch

n e a t n e s s , t o o m uch f o r m a l i t y , t o p e r m i t t h e j o y o f t h e o c c a s s io n

t o come t h r o u g h . As t h e f i g u r e s a r e v e r y im p a s s iv e a n d s e r i o u s ,

t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e x p e r i e n c i n g a f e s t i v e a tm o s p h e re i s f u r t h e r

d im in i s h e d .

T he n e x t tw o p a i n t i n g s , f o l i o 126v a n d 1 2 7 r , th e

w ed d in g o f S h ah s h u j a , a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n d o n e by t h e sam e a r t i s t .

B o th t h e s e w o rk s show a v e r y l a b o r e d a t t e n t i o n g iv e n t o t h e f i n i s h

i n g t o c r e a t e a n e a t a n d t i d y a p p e a r a n c e . The a r t i s t u s e d c a r e

f u l l y m e a s u re d o u t l i n e s t o p ro d u c e a n im p e c c a b le o r d e r i n t h e

a r c h i t e c t u r a l f e a t u r e s a s w e l l a s i n t h e f i g u r e s a n d a n i m a ls .

H ow ever, h e w as n o t t h a t s k i l l e d i n r e a l i s t i c a l l y r e n d e r i n g t h e

hum an b o d y . The f i g u r e s a r e n e i t h e r s i t u a t e d n o r move c o m fo r t

a b l y i n t h e i r s p a c e s . F o r e x a m p le , n o n e o f t h e r i d e r s r e a l l y s i t

on t h e i r a n i m a l s , r a t h e r th e y seem t o b e m e re ly p e r c h e d on t o p ,

a n d t h o s e f i g u r e s who a r e t u r n i n g a r o u n d , h a v e t h e i r h e a d s com p le

t e l y p l a c e d b a c k w a rd s i n a m o s t u n r e a l i s t i c f a s h i o n . A l th o u g h

m u te d c o l o r s p r e d o m in a te , th e t h i c k p a i n t a p p l i c a t i o n an d t h e

l i b e r a l s c a t t e r i n g o f g o ld s g iv e t h i s c o m p o s i t io n a c e r t a i n r e g a

l i t y , a l lo w in g t h e n o t i o n o f ce rem o n y to come th r o u g h q u i t e

s t r o n g l y . T h is a r t i s t w as o b v io u s ly q u i t e t a l e n t e d i n t h e g e n e r a l


162

e x e c u t io n o f t h e S hah J a h a n i c o u r t l y s t y l e , b u t l a c k e d th e e x p e r

t i s e i n th e r e n d i t i o n o f t h e human f i g u r e .

p o l i o 1 3 4 ^ , A u ra n g z e b c o n f r o n t i n g a n e n ra g e d e l e p h a n t ,

show s g r e a t m ovem ent a n d a c t i v i t y t h a t i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n an

o r d e r a n d f o r m a l i t y . T he e l e p h a n t s s to rm f o r w a r d a s t h e s u r r o u n d

i n g s e r v a n t s r u s h t o c o u n t e r t h e i r a d v a n c e s . T h is s e n s e o f

e x c i te m e n t i s r e s t r a i n e d b y t h e c o o l ca lm o f A u ran g zeb a n d th e

i m p a s s i v i t y o f S h ah J a h a n a n d t h e o n lo o k e r s o n th e l e f t ed g e o f

t h e p a i n t i n g . T h is w ork i s s t r u c t u r e d on c o n t r a s t s w h ic h ad d

v a r i e t y an d a t t h e sam e t im e b a l a n c e s th e c o m p o s i t io n . T h e re i s

a w id e r a n g e o f f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s r a n g in g fro m th o s e o f t h e

f r i g h t e n e d r e c o i l i n g s e r v a n t s i n t h e l e f t f o r e g r o u n d t o t h e a n g ry

a n d im p a s s io n e d o n e s who c h a r g e a t th e e l e p n a n t . T h is a r t i s t u s e d

c o l o r c o n t r a s t t o s t a b i l i z e t h e c o m p o s i t io n , w h i l e the . d a r k m a ss e s

o f th e e l e p h a n t s on t h e r i g h t o f f s e t th e w h i te a n d g o ld o f t h e

h o r s e s a n d t h e g a rm e n ts on t h e l e f t . I n a d d i t i o n th e e l e g a n t l i n e s

o f t h e h o r s e s g r e a t l y c o n t r a s t w i th t h e h e a v y m a s s iv e e l e p h a n t s .

The f i n a l p a i n t i n g i n t h i s c a t e g o r y i s f o l i o 2 2 0 v , S h ah J a h a n

h u n t i n g l i o n s a t B a r i . T he m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s h e r e a r e t h e

v e g e t a t i o n a n d t h e f e n c e s , w h ic h a r e r e n d e r e d v e r y r e a l i s t i c a l l y

an d e x e c u te d i n s o f t b le n d s o f c o l o r s . T h is show s t h e a r t i s t

h a d a k e e n eye f o r d e t a i l . O th e r s i g n s o f h i s h a v in g do n e much

c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n c a n b e s e e n i n t h e v a r i e t y fo u n d i n th e ty p e s

o f p e o p l e , t h e i r g e s t u r e s an d t h e i r f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s . T h is i s

e s p e c i a l l y e v i d e n t i n t h e g ro u p o f s e r v a n t s i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d .


163

O th e r t h a n t h a t , t h e c o l o r a t i o n a n d h a n d l in g o f p r o p o r t i o n s a r e

o n ly a v e r a g e .

C a te g o ry T h re e

The t h i r d c a t e g o r y r e p r e s e n t s w o rk s b y th o s e a r t i s t s

who d i d n o t seem t o b e i n c o m p le te m a s te r y o f t h e t e c h n iq u e , a n d

h a d p ro b le m s w i th b o th i n d i v i d u a l m o t i f s a n d t h e t o t a l c o m p o s i t io n .

T h e se w o rk s a r e t h e r e f o r e one s t e p f u r t h e r aw ay fro m th e p e r f e c t i o n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i n e s t S h ah J a h a n i c o u r t p a i n t i n g s . T hey do

n o t h a v e a b o ld m a j e s t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d a r e m uch l e s s s t r i k i n g .

I t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e s e w o rk s a r e n o t b e a u t i f u l , o r t h a t th e y

m a r t h e s p l e n d o r o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t , b u t j u s t t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t

t h e w o rk s o f l e s s s k i l l e d a r t i s t s who, i n s p i t e o f t h i s , were

c o n s id e r e d a s t e p a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e a s th e y w e re c h o s e n t o b e p a r t

o f th e r o y a l p a i n t i n g a t e l i e r . A t f i r s t g l a n c e t h e s e w o rk s d i s

p la y a l l t h e q u a l i t i e s a n d e l e g a n c e t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e

p a i n t i n g s t y l e o f t h e p e r i o d . I t i s o n ly u p o n c l o s e r e x a m in a t io n

t h a t one i s a b l e t o d i s c e r n d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e l e v e l s o f c r a f t

m a n s h ip .

T h e re a r e s i x p a i n t i n g s i n t h e c a t e g o r y , a n d th e y

r e p r e s e n t t h e w o rk s o f f i v e d i f f e r e n t a r t i s t s . The f i r s t one i s

f o l i o 1 1 7 v , t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e P o r tu g u e s e a t H u g h l i . T h is

p a i n t i n g ’ s m o s t r e m a r k a b le f e a t u r e i s i t s p r e v a i l i n g c a lm n e s s and

s e n s e o f c o m p o su re , w h ic h i s a l i t t l e o u t o f k e e p in g w i th t h e

e v e n t . As a r e s u l t , t h e f u l l im p a c t o f th e b a t t l e d o e s n o t come

a c r o s s a s f o r c e f u l l y a s i t c o u ld . As a d ra u g h ts m a n t h i s a r t i s t


164

was n ot very ta le n te d , fo r he was unable to c o r r e c t ly proportion

a l l th e f ig u r e s and o b je c ts in r e la t io n w ith one an other. More

o v er , he kept the whole com p osition on a more or l e s s tw o-dim ensional

p la n e , and combined s e v e r a l d is jo in te d p o in ts o f v iew . For example,

th e d e p le t io n o f th e cannons from a s id e view w h ile th e even t i s to

be view ed from above. H is p eop le seem to be c o p ie s o f ty p e s ,

probably taken from an e s ta b lis h e d book o f m odels, and th ey show

n e ith e r ex p ress io n nor em otion.

Another a r t i s t worked on f o l i o s 120v and I2 1 r , th e

sen d in g o f p re se n ts to th e house o f Dara Shikoh1s fu tu r e in - la w s .

This a r t i s t may have had a p r o v in c ia l t r a in in g , fo r th ere i s a

c e r ta in p r im it iv e q u a lity about h i s b r ig h t and alm ost gaudy c o lo r s

th a t lea p out a t the v iew er w ith f u l l fo r c e . U nlike th e c o l o r i s t i c

im pact seen in Ram Das’ courtyard scene (P la te X l) , which comes

a cro ss w ith a s o p h is t ic a t io n th a t r e v e a ls an in t e l l e c t u a l p ro cess ,

th e e f f e c t here i s one o f random ch o ice which s t a r t l e s r a th e r than

a t t r a c t s . T h is , to g e th e r w ith th e l i v e l y f a c ia l ex p r e ss io n s r e s u lt s

i n a d iscord an t e f f e c t . However, a l l t h i s i s co n fin ed w ith in th e

decorum o f th e Shah Jahani p er io d . His approach was a lso two-

d im en sion a l, in th a t h i s f ig u r e s are n o t r e a l ly s o l id m asses th a t

co n v in c in g ly occupy t h e ir sp a c e s . This i s most ev id en t in the

eq u estr ia n f ig u r e s who do n o t s i t but m erely perch upon th e ir h o rse s .

In the n ex t p a in t in g , f o l i o 166v , retu rn from a hunt,

the a r t i s t appears to have had a p r o v in c ia l t r a in in g , fo r i t d isp la y s

a c e r ta in n a iv e te and d ir e c tn e s s in i t s p r e s e n ta t io n . There i s a


165

g r ea t d ea l o f e x p r e ss iv e n e ss and v a r ie ty in th e f a c ia l f e a tu r e s .

■While most o f th e c o lo r s are t y p ic a l , th e a r t i s t used some excep

t io n a l ly unusual shades o f green s th a t prove to he more u n s e t t l in g

than harm onious. On th e whole he was n o t v ery su c c e s s fu l a t

e s ta b l is h in g r e c e s s io n in t o space w ith d im in ish in g s iz e s , and in

a d d itio n , h i s r e n d it io n o f th e human b od ies was n o t alw ays propor

t io n a l and n a t u r a lis t ic * On th e oth er hand, h i s h and ling o f

p o r tr a it s i s more com petent, and su g g e sts th a t p o r tr a itu r e may have

been h i s area o f s p e c ia l iz a t io n w ith in th e a t e l i e r . He p a in ted

w ith a f a i r l y load ed brush th a t l e f t th ic k ly d e fin ed b ru sh stro k es.

The e f f e c t i s rough, and makes th e p a in tin g appear l e s s s o p h is t i

ca ted than th e o th er works in th e m anuscript — th e in tr u s io n o f

a s l i g h t ly p r o v in c ia l s t y l e in to an o th erw ise e le g a n t c o u r t ly work.

The next p a in tin g i s f o l io 205v, v i s i t in g the shrine

a t Ajmir. This work has a s t i f f and rath er wooden p resen ta tion .

The la c k o f f r e e and easy n a t u r a l i s t i c movement comes from a lab ored

e f f o r t to c r e a te o rd er . T his a r t i s t o u t lin e d h i s forms and l e f t

very c le a r -c u t s tr o k e s , an e f f e c t which d e tr a c ts from sm oothness.

However, h i s o u t lin e s a ch iev e a c e r ta in s t y l i z a t io n , e s p e c ia l ly in

th e h o rses which a r e , in some r e s p e c ts , e le g a n t and so p h is t ic a te d

m o tif s . The s t i f f n e s s h e lp s to c o n c r e t iz e the so lem n ity o f th e

o c ca s io n , e s p e c ia l ly in the f ig u r e o f Shah Jahan who i s rendered

even more immobile by th e aura o f g o ld around him. Some attem pt

was made to draw th e v iew er in t o th e scen e , but w ithout too much

su c c e ss . The d ev ice o f cropping, both a t the bottom and s id e s

attem pt to a ch iev e t h i s end.


166

The f in a l p a in t in g in Category Three i s th e corre

sponding page to th e one j u s t d iscu ssed ahove, f o l i o 206r; and l i k e

th e f o m e r , one cannot h elp but n o t ic e the s t i f f n e s s o f th e f ig u r e s

and th e an im als. Many o f th e same te c h n ic a l d e v ic e s were used ,

such as a heavy o u t l in in g and c le a r b ru sh strok es to c r e a te e le g a n t

s t y l i z a t io n . However, th e se works were n ot done by th e same hand,

fo r d e sp ite s im i la r i t i e s in some d e t a i l s , the com p osition a l

s tr u c tu r e s are very d i f f e r e n t . Here th e a r t i s t adopted a d is ta n t

and h igh vantage p o in t , whereas th e p receed in g one used a low and

near p o in t o f v iew . While th e one composed in c lu s t e r s and groups,

th e o th er tended to see th e p ic tu r e as a u n it . In a d d it io n , t h is

a r t i s t did n ot pout as much energy in to r e f in in g landscape d e t a i l s

as d id the oth er one. In s te a d he l e f t ju s t a ra th er g e n e ra liz ed

v iew .


167

Notes to Chapter V1

Percy Brown, Indian P a in t in g Under th e M ughala (Oxford* The Clarendon P r e ss , 1924)» P« 109*

oAsok Kumar Das, Mughal P a in tin g During Jahangir* g

Time (C a lcu tta : The A s ia t ic S o c ie ty , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 79«3'George Marteau and Henri V ever, M in iatu res PersaneR

(P a r is* B ib lio th eq u e d*Art e t A rch eo lo g ie , 1913)> P* 229.4

Edwin B inney, Ind ian M in iature P a in tin g s from the C o lle c t io n o f Edwin Bjnnev 3rd (Portland* P ortlan d Art Museum, 1 9 7 4 ), P. 8 3 .

^ l o C leveland Beach, The Grand Mogul Im perial P a in tin g in In d ia 1600-1660 (W illiam stown* S te r l in g and Prancine Clarke Art I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 98.

8S ir L eigh A shton, e d . , The Art o f In d ia and P ak istan (London* Paber and Paber L td ., 1950), P* 136.

7Beach, p . 105.

8 ib id , p. 1 0 2 .

9ib id , p. 114 .

1° ib id , p. 1 85 .11 S tu a rt Cary Welch, Im peria l Mughal P a in tin g (New

York* George B r a z i l le r , I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 101.

1 2Beach, p . 151 •

15ib id .

^^Binney, p . 87 .

15ib id , p . 8 7 .1 6 Beach, p . 184; and S tu art Cary W elch, The Art o f

Mughal In d ia P a in tin g and P rec io u s O bjects (New York* The A sia S o c ie ty I n c . , 1963 ) , P« 1 7 5 * P l e a s e r e f e r f o r v a r ia n t read in gs o f th e name.


168

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION.

The s tu d y c a x r i e d o u t i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s

s e r v e d tw o p r i n c i p a l p u r p o s e s . I t h a s f i r s t l y p r e s e n t e d d e t a i l e d

c o v e ra g e o f a v e r y i m p o r t a n t d o cu m en t o f t h e S hah J a h a n i p e r i o d ,

n a m e ly , t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh a h Nama; a n d s e c o n d ly , i t h a s , by

u s in g t h i s m a n u s c r ip t a s a p i v o t a l w o rk , d raw n up a n o v e r a l l

p e r s p e c t i v e of th e n a t u r e o f p a i n t i n g u n d e r S n ah J a h a n . T h is

p e r i o d o f a r t i s t i c d e v e lo p m e n t h a s r e c e i v e d v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n

fro m s c h o l a r s i n t h e f i e l d , and a s i t i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e

h i s t o r i c e v o l u t i o n o f M ugnal p a i n t i n g , i t c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d .

The back g ro u n d , in f o r m a t io n on M ughal p a i n t i n g

p r e s e n te d , a s u r v e y o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a t u r e o f th e p e r i o d

a n d a summary o f i t s s t y l i s t i c s o u r c e s a n d a s p e c t s . T h is s e r v e d

t o s i t u a t e S hah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g an d t o r e d e f i n e i t a s th e s t a g e

i n M ughal p a i n t i n g w h e re e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i th t h e s t y l e w as no

l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y . T h is f o r m u l a t i o n o f th e s t y l e w as a l r e a d y s e t

up d u r in g th e r e i g n o f J a h a n g i r ; t h e e le m e n ts f ro m I n d i a n , P e r s i a n

a n d E u ro p e a n p a i n t i n g h a d a l r e a d y b e e n a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o a c o h e s iv e

an d u n iq u e s t y l e , t a i n t i n g u n d e r S hah J a h a n e x p e r i e n c e d a r e f i n e

m e n t and p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o c e s s w i th o u t c h a n g in g t h e

b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s t y l e . I t w as t h e l o g i c a l


169

c o n c l u s i o n t o a mode o f p a i n t i n g t h a t c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e d e v e l o p e d

an y f u r t h e r a l o n g i t s l i n e s o f o r i g i n s . By t h i s t i m e a r t i s t s h a d

a l r e a d y s o l v e d t h e p ro b le m o f h a r m o n i o u s ly c o m b in in g t h e t h r e e

d i s p a r a t e e l e m e n t s i n t o a l o g i c a l e n t i t y , a n d s o , a l l t h a t w as l e f t

f o r them t o do w as t o r e f i n e a n d p o l i s h t h e m e c h a n i c a l s i d e o f t h e

a r t . I n t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g t h i s t e c h n i c a l p e r f e c t i o n , f e a t u r e s

w h ic h d e t r a c t e d f ro m t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h i s w ere e l i m i n a t e d . M ost

n o t a b l e o f c o u r s e w are t h e im m ed iacy a n d v i t a l i t y o f t h e e a r l i e r

p e r i o d s w h ic h h a a t o b e s a c r i f i c e d i n o r d e r f o r t h e a r t t o r e a c h

t h a t l e v e l o f e l e g a n c e a n d e x c e l l e n c e w h ic h was t h e h a l l m a r k o f

S h a h J a h a n i p a i n t i n g .

The d i s c u s s i o n on h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g r e v e a l e d t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f a f u n d a m e n ta l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n h i s t o r i c a l a n d a lbum

p a i n t i n g . C o m p o s i t i o n a l l y , h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g e n c o m p a s s e s a

m u l t i t u d e o f f i g u r e s i n a n i n t r i c a t e s e t t i n g , w h e re a s a lb u m p a i n t

i n g o n l y d e p i c t s a s i n g l e f i g u r e o r a s m a l l g r o u p o f f i g u r e s i n

a n e u t r a l o r s im p l e b a c k g r o u n d . As s u c h , h i s t o r i c a l p a i n t i n g

a l l o w s f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n n i n g o f t n e c o m p o s i t i o n a l a b i l i t i e s

o f t h e a r t i s t s o f t h e p e r i o d , an d a l l o w s f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

t h i s f e a t u r e t o b e , t r a c e d . I t w as s e e n how t h e c l u t t e r e d a n d

v i v a c i o u s A k b a r i s t y l e s l o w l y o r g a n i z e d i t s e l f u n d e r J a h a n g i r ' s

r e i g n u n t i l i t r e a c h e d t h e s y m m e t r i c a l l y b a l a n c e d s t a t e o f a l m o s t

t o t a l f o r m a l o r d e r u n d e r S h ah J a h a n .

A ls o d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n on n i s t o r i c a l

p a i n t i n g was t h e i m p o r t a n c e a n d v a l u e o f h i s t o r y — g e n e a lo g y i n


170

p a r t i c u l a r — n o t o n l y t o S d ah J a h a n , b u t a l s o t o h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s .

T h i s c a n be s e e n i n t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e i r l i v e s a n d d e e d s w h ich t h e y

l e f t f o r p o s t e r i t y , a n d a l s o o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e a c c o r d e d t o t h e i r

a n c e s t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y T im u r f ro m whom t h e M ughal l i n e was s a i d t o

h a v e d e s c e n d e d . The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n ts r e f l e c t s

t h e a e s i r e t o b e re m e m b e re d , a s t h e y re m e m b e re d t h e i r a n c e s t o r s ,

b u t a l s o i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d t h e m s e l v e s t o h a v e b e e n

o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e i r t i m e . S h ah J a h a n , m o r e so t h a n a n y

o t h e r M ugha l e m p e ro r b e f o r e h im , t h o u g h t v e r y h i g n l y o f h i m s e l f , a s

t h e q u a n t i t y a n d d im e n s io n s o f h i s h i s t o r i c a l d o cu m en ts f a r e x c e e d

t h o s e o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h i s p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t o f S h ah J a h a n i n

e f f e c t d e t e r m i n e d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a i n t i n g p r o d u c e d d u r i n g h i s

r e i g n . As he b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o b e t h e p i v o t a l f i g u r e o f t h e

e p o c h , n i s p a i n t i n g s d e p i c t e d n im i n a c o n s p i c u o u s , u s u a l l y c e n t r a l ,

p o s i t i o n , w h ere s i l l a t t e n t i o n c o u l d be f o c u s e d on h im . The s t y l i s

t i c d e v e lo p m e n t s t h a t M ughal p a i n t i n g was t o t a k e w e re c r y s t a l l i z e d

by S h a h J a h a n 1s d e s i r e t o be p o r t r a y e d a s t h e p e r f e c t m o n a rc h .

The o r d e r e d an d s t r u c t u r a l l y b a l a n c e d c o m p o s i t i o n p l a c e d him i n

a p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n , w h i l e t h e p e r f e c t e d t e c h n i c a l e x e c u t i o n

c r e a t e d a n e l e g a n c e t h a t w as a t t h e same t i m e b e d a z z l i n g an d

i n t i m i d a t i n g .

The b a c k g r o u n d t o Shah j a h a n i p a i n t i n g h a v i n g b e e n

e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e W in d so r C a s t l e B a d sh a h Mama w as t h e n t r e a t e d i n

d e t a i l . B e in g t h e f i r s t tim e t h a t t h i s m a n u s c r i p t was s t u u i e d i n

d e t a i l , i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o f i r s t p r o v i d e a f a c t u a l an d p h y s i c a l


171

d e s c r i p t i o n . C o n tr a ry t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n s f ro m som e o f t h e p r e v io u s

t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e r e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d h e r e p ro v e d

t h a t th e W in d so r m a n u s c r ip t w as c o n c e iv e d a s a n e n t i t y b u t t h a t

i t w as n e v e r c o m p le te ly f i n i s h e d . The m a in body o f t h e w o rk , t h a t

i s t h e t e x t a n d t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , w as c o m p le te d a ro u n d 1 6 5 8 , b u t

w i th c e r t a i n d e t a i l s l e f t u n d o n e , f o r ex a m p le , t h e sh am sas w ere

l e f t u n i n s c r i b e d . I t seem s f a i r l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e f i n a l a s s e m b ly

o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t w as n o t a c c o m p lis h e d d u r in g t h e r e i g n

o f S hah J a h a n . And i n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e e x a c t d a t e

i s n o t know n, i t h a s to h a v e b e e n so m etim e b e f o r e 17 7 6 , th e d a t e

o n th e s e a l fo u n d on e v e r y r e c t o f o l i o o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t . W h e th e r

o r n o t t h e m a n u s c r ip t w as to u c h e d up a f t e r t h i s d a t e i s a m a t t e r

o f s p e c u l a t i o n , b u t i t h a s n o t b e e n ta m p e re d w i th s i n c e J u n e 17 9 9 ,

t h e y e a r i t w as s e n t to E n g la n d t o b e p a r t o f t h e R o y a l L i b r a r y

a t W in d so r C a s t l e .

The i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t w ere t n e n a n a ly

z e d fro m a t h e m a t i c p o i n t o f v ie w . T h is show ed t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i

t i e s o f S h ah J a h a n b o th i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t , an d fro m th e

num ber o f t im e s a c e r t a i n a c t i v i t y w as p r e s e n t e d , one c o u ld s e e

t h e r e l a t i v e im p o r ta n c e i t p la y e d i n t h e l i f e o f S h ah J a h a n . Of

t h e f i v e th e m e s , t h e d a r b a r w as t n e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , f o l lo w e d by

s c e n e s o f c e l e b r a t i o n s a n d f e s t i v a l s i n s i d e tn e c o u r t . N ex t came

t h e b a t t l e s , f o l lo w e d by h u n t s , a n d f i n a l l y w as t h e v i s i t t o a r e l i -

g o u s s h r i n e . T h ro u g h o u t a l l t h e s e d e p i c i t o n s , a s w e l l a s i n t h e tw o

f r o n t i s p i e c e s , o n e c o u ld s e e t h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t i f w as t h a t o f


172

g lo r i f i c a t io n o f Shah Jahan. He was alw ays rep resen ted as the

p e r fe c t monarch from whom no wrong could emanate. To enhance t h i s

image e la b o ra te p ro to co l and cou rt cerem onies enveloped every one

o f h is a c t i v i t i e s , ranging from the govern ing o f s ta t e to th e

h u n tin g o f l i o n s . These c o u r t ly r i t u a l s fu n c tio n ed as a s h ie ld

behind which a l l th e f la w s o f th e emperor and h i s r e ig n cou ld be

hidden, but more im p o rta n tly , th ey were a d e fen se mechanism which

Shah Jahan used to in t im id a te and co n tro l h i s s u b je c ts . This

them atic a n a ly s is a llow ed fo r th e a t tr ib u t io n o f se v e r a l d isp ersed

p a in tin g s to h i s t o r ic a l m anuscrip ts; some perhaps fo r volum es I I

and I I I o f the Badshah Nama. and o th ers perhaps f o r y e t another

i l lu s t r a t e d e d it io n o f th e same m anuscript. These d isp ersed

p a in tin g s are l i s t e d in Appendix A.

The d isc u s s io n on th e a r t i s t s dem onstrated th a t in

s p it e o f the o v e r a ll u n ity in the p r e se n ta t io n , th ere was a ls o much

v a r ie ty in s t y le th a t was due to in d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f each

a r t i s t . The names o f te n a r t i s t s were r ev ea le d through th e

in s c r ip t io n s on the p a in t in g s , and each o f th e se a r t i s t s were

d isc u sse d in d iv id u a lly . By comparing th e ir p a in tin g s in th e

Windsor m anuscript w ith o th e r s o f th e ir s ign ed works, an approxi

mate date was e s ta b lis h e d fo r each p a in t in g in the m anuscript.

Appendix B l i s t s a l l the known a t tr ib u t io n s to th e se a r t i s t s , th a t

have been made in th e p u b lish ed l i t e r a t u r e , e ith e r on th e b a s is o f

in s c r ip t io n s or co n n o isseu rsh ip . The p a in tin g w ithout in s c r ip t io n s

were c l a s s i f i e d accord in g to th e ir a r t i s t i c e x c e l le n c e . This


173

a g a in show ed th e v a s t r a n g e o f s t y l e s w i t h i n t h e i m p e r i a l a t e l i e r ,

a n d m ade a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n m a s t e r p a i n t e r s a n d l e s s

a d e p t o n e s . H ow ever v a r i e d t h e s t y l e s an d e x e c u t io n s may h av e

b e e n , t h e y a l l c o n fo rm e d t o t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f S h ah J a h a n i

p a i n t i n g — i t s f o r m a l o r d e r , i t s i n s i s t e n c e o n t e c h n i c a l

p e r f e c t i o n , a n d i t s e l e g a n c e .

The C atalogue to the p a in t in g s p ro v id es th e most

com plete docum entation o f t h i s so r t to d a te . F ir s t o f a l l , id e n t i

f i c a t io n s o f th e su b je c ts o f the p a in t in g s were made on th e b a s is

o f th e in s e r te d 18th century ca p tio n s h e e ts found in th e m anuscript,

tr a n s la te d e x tr a c ts o f th e Badshah Nama. and th e tr a n s la te d

Mulakhkhas. To a r r iv e a t a d e f in i t iv e id e n t i f i c a t io n o f the

p a in t in g s , fu r th er resea rch i s needed on the P ersian t e x t o f the

Windsor m anuscript i t s e l f , which u n fo r tu n a te ly was beyond the

scope o f t h i s stu d y . However, the p resen t C atalogue in d ic a te s th a t

th e p a in tin g s were a c c u r a te ly lo c a te d in r e la t io n to each o th er ,

th a t i s , they seem to fo llo w a lo g i c a l c h ro n o lo g ica l sequence fo r

which a te x tu a l r e fe r e n c e can be found. The ev en ts r e la t in g to th e

princehood o f Shah Jahan found in the m iddle o f th e m anuscript

correspond to th e t e x tu a l sewuence o f L ah au ri's Badshah Mama, and

are th e r e fo r e n o t m isp laced as was p r e v io u s ly b e lie v e d . This

ca ta lo g u e and th e d is s e r t a t io n as a whole i s by no means a d e f in i

t i v e study on e ith e r th e Windsor C astle Badshah Mama or Shah Jahani

p a in tin g ; i t i s m erely an elem entary e x p lo ra tio n in to a v ery r ic h

but r e l a t i v e l y unresearched f i e l d .


174

CATALOGUE OF THE PAINTINGS

This C atalogue o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s in th e Windsor

C a stle Badshah Nam a. o f f e r s a b r ie f d e sc r ip t io n o f th e ev en ts rep re

sen ted by each p a in tin g . The sequence o f th e p a in tin g s e x a c t ly

fo llo w s th e sequence o f L ah au ri's t e x t , though t h i s does n o t n eces

s a r i ly correspond to th e a c tu a l chronology o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts .

For example, th ere are se v e r a l in te r sp e r se d scene which r e f e r to

th e princehood o f Shah Jahan, and o b v io u sly th e se took p la ce b efo re

he ascended th e th ron e. As f i r s t observed by Wayne B eg ley , th ese

in c id e n ts were in trod u ced by Lahauri fo r d id a c t ic purposes in order

to h ig h lig h t a p resen t in c id e n t and to g lo r i f y Shah Jahan by

em phasizing h is p a st ach ievem ents. Some o f th e p a in tin g s show

d isc r e p a n c ie s between Shah Jahan's appearance and h is a c tu a l age

a t the tim e o f th e ev en t. One p o s s ib le ex p la n a tio n i s th a t th e se

p a in tin g s are l a t e r c o p ie s th a t were made to r e p la ce th e o r ig in a ls

which were found damaged when th e m anuscript was ready to be

mounted. The a r t iB t may have d ep ic ted Shah Jahan, not a s he

appeared in th e o r ig in a l works, but as he was a t th e tim e th e

p a in tin g was execu ted .

In th e C atalogue, a l l fo r ty - fo u r p a in tin g s are

numbered s e r i a l l y , fo llo w in g the ex a ct order o f th e m anuscript.

The f o l i a t i o n numbers used in th e C atalogue, and throughout th e

e n t ir e stu d y , corresponds to the new p a g in a tio n e s ta b lish e d in the


175

m anuscript by th e l ib r a r ia n s o f th e Royal L ibrary in December 1980 .

Each ca ta lo g u e en try in c lu d e s th e a r t i s t ' s name, where known, the

dim ensions o f the work, th e d ate o f th e ev en t, and a b r ie f d escr ip

t io n o f th e ev en t. Where double-page com p osition s form a s in g le

p ic t o r ia l s u b je c t , theBe are l i s t e d to g e th er under one t i t l e , but

fa c tu a l in form ation and s t y l i s t i c assessm en ts are g iven se p a r a te ly

fo r each p a in t in g . For each scen e , th ere i s a q u o ta tio n from the

o r ig in a l P ersia n so u r c e s , e ith e r L ah au ri's Badshah Nama (tr a n s la te d

e x tr a c ts taken from E l l i o t and Dowson's The H isto ry o f India, as

Told by i t s Own H is to r ia n s ): or a l t e r n a t iv e ly , Inayat Khan's

Mulakhkha.a (A .R. F u l l e r ' s unpublished t r a n s la t io n e d ite d by Wayne

B e g le y ) . For the ev en ts r e la t in g to Shah Jah an 's princehood, the

tr a n s la te d e x tr a c ts are from the T u zu k -i-J a h a n g ir iT tr a n s la te d by

Rogers and B everidge.


176

1 P o r tr a it o f Timur

f o l i o 2v

dim ensions* 10 . 3” x 6"

a r t is t * unknown

P la te I I I

T his i s th e r ig h t h a l f o f a double-page com p osition . Timur i s

sea ted on a m assive square throne supported by fo u r carved l e g s ,

w ith a r o s e t t e shaped back and h e a d -r e s t . A sm all p a ra so l crowns

th e whole s tr u c tu r e . The throne i s o f g o ld and has many je w e lle d

in la y s ; th e se red sto n es are probably r u b ie s . He i s d ressed in a

dark green robe, embroidered w ith w h ite f lo w e r s , and he i s wearing

a s c a r le t undergarment w ith g o ld l e a f p a ttern ed em broidery. His

turban i s w h ite w ith bands o f g o ld , and i s topped w ith a s c a r le t

p ie c e . I t i s t i e d in th e bulbous P ersia n fa sh io n . He i s s i t t in g

cro ssed le g g e d , h o ld in g a w hite handkerch ief in h is l e f t hand, and

a crown sup p ortin g a b la ck fe a th e r in h i s r ig h t . The throne stan d s

on a b lack ca rp et w ith red and pink f l o r a l d es ig n s and i s p la ced

a g a in st a p a le tu rq u o ise ground. There are no v i s i b l e in s c r ip t io n s

on the p a in tin g i t s e l f which may a t tr ib u te i t to any p a r t ic u la r

a r t i s t . T his p o r tr a it i s to be seen in con ju n ction w ith th e

fa c in g one o f Shah Jahan, and to g e th er th ey make up th e f r o n t i s

p ie c e o f the m anuscript.

Unpublished


177

2 P o r tr a it o f Shah Jahan

f o l i o Jr

dim ensions: 5 - 5 M x 3«15"f

a r t i s t : unknown

H a te IV

This i s th e l e f t h a l f o f a double-page f r o n t is p ie c e . Shah Jahan i s

sea ted on an i n t r i c a t e l y carved g o ld jew el-stu d d ed th ro n e , square in

shape, th a t stan d s on fo u r l e g s . I t has a low back which i s alm ost

t o t a l l y con cea led by a g o ld c lo th cushion em broidered w ith green

f lo r a l d e s ig n s . A g o ld p a ra so l decorated w ith s c a r le t f lo w ers

r i s e s from th e back. In fr o n t o f th e throne i s a fo o t s to o l covered

w ith red embroidered m a te r ia l, and to i t s l e f t i s a sm all low

round ta b le . The throne stan d s on a b lu e ca rp et which i s decorated

w ith v ery f in e s t y l i z e d f lo r a l p a tte r n s . Shah Jahan i s s i t t in g

fa c in g r ig h t w ith h is l e g s tucked under him, and h is r ig h t hand i s

h e ld up in a g estu re o f b e in g ready to r e c e iv e th e crown h e ld out

by Timur on th e fa c in g page. In th e p a in tin g Shah Jahan has a lread y

a w hite beard, and appears to be about f i f t y - f i v e y ea rs o ld . I t i s

p o s s ib le th a t t h i s may have been a p o r tr a it from l i f e . The back

ground i s done in a p a le tu rq u o ise green and i s h ig h lig h te d by the

c re a tio n o f an a tm o sp h er ica lly rendered sky a t the top . Above th e

p a in tin g in th e d ecorated border i s a c a s u a lly w r it te n , probably

l a t e r , in s c r ip t io n g iv in g th e name o f Shah Jahan.

Unpublished


178

3 R eception o f P rince Khurram Upon H is Departure fo r th e Mewa-r Campaign

d ate o f ev en t: 25 December 1613

f o l i o 43v

dim ensions: 12 . 7 5 " x 8 . 5 "

a r t i s t : Balchand s ig n a tu r e : bottom l e f t corner onbook

P la te Y

T he M ewar cam p a ig n o f 1 6 1 3 -1 8 1 4 was th e f i r s t m a jo r m i l i t a r y u n d e r

t a k i n g e n t r u s t e d t o t h e command o f P r i n c e K h u rram . The p ro b le m w i th

t h e s t a t e o f M ew ar, th e n c o n t r o l l e d by h a n a A n a r S in g h , was t h a t

i t h a d f i e r c e l y r e s i s t e d M ughal d o m in a t io n . A t te m p ts by A k b ar an d

t h e o t h e r o f f i c e r s d i s p a t a c h e d by J a h a n g i r h a d m e t w i th v e r y l i t t l e

s u c c e s s . A f t e r r e p e a t e d f a i l u r e s by v a r i o u s co m m anders, J a h a n g i r

e n t e r t a i n e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n to s e n d P r in c e K h u rra m . K hurram w as1

a s s i g n e d a c o n t i n g e n t o f .1 2 ,0 0 0 m en. The s c e n e t a k e s p l a c e a t

th e a u d ie n c e h a l l i n A jm ir , w h e re J a h a n g i r h a d t e m p o r a r i l y

m oved i n th e au tu m n o f 1 6 1 3 . As w as t h e c u s to m , t h e h a l l w as d i v i d e d

i n t o tw o l e v e l s — t h e r a i s e d b a lc o n y w h ere t h e em p e ro r s a t a n d th e

h a l l i t s e l f w h e re s to o d t h e c o u r t i e r s . P r i n c e K hurram i s b e in g

p e r s o n a l l y r e c e i v e d on t h i s r a i s e d b a lc o n y , a m ark o f t h e h ig h

e s te e m i n w h ic h h e w as r e g a r d e d . He i s b o w in g t o t h e s e a t e d

J a h a n g i r , a n d th e y a r e a t t e n d e d to by t h r e e s e r v a n t s . The v a r i o u s

n o b le s a n d a m ir s s t a n d a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r r a n k a n d s o c i a l s t a t u s ,

o n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e h a l l . C o m p o s i t io n a l ly t h e w ork h a s a

s y m m e tr ic a l b a l a n c e , w h ic h i s f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d by th e s t r o n g


179

h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l e l e m e n t s . B r i g h t j e w e l - l i k e

c o l o r s i n f u s e d w i th a l i b e r a l s p r i n k i n g o f g o ld d o m in a te t h e lo w e r

p o r t i o n o f t h e p a i n t i n g . T h is c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o l o r s i s o f f s e t

by t h e i n t e n s e w h i te o f t h e m a rb le s t r u c t u r e . I n s c r i p t i o n s on t h e

f i g u r e s i d e n t i f y t h e nam es o f many o f t h e c o u r t i e r s .

A c c o u n t i n th e T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i (R o g e rs a n d B e v e r id g e , I , p . 2 7 6 -2 7 7 )

To p u t a s t o p t o t h e a f f a i r , o f t h e r e b e l R a n a . . . o n t h i s a c c o u n t I d e te r m in e d t o r e m a in m y s e l f a t A jm ir a n d s e n d on B aba K h u rram , my f o r t u n a t e s o n . T h is i d e a w as a v e r y g o o d o n e , a n d o n t h i s a c c o u n t , on t h e b th o f D ay, a t t h e h o u r f i x e d u p o n , I d e s p a t c h e d h im w i th h a p p i n e s s a n d t r iu m p h . I p r e s e n t e d h im w i th a q a b a ( o u t e r c o a t ) o f g o ld b ro c a d e w i t h j e w e l l e d f l o w e r s an d p e a r l s , a g o ld woven s a s h w i th c h a i n s o f p e a r l s , one o f my p r i v a t e e l e p h a n t s c a l l e d F a th G a j w i th t r a p p i n g s , a s p e c i a l h o r s e , a j e w e l l e d s w o rd , a n d a j e w e l l e d t ih a p w a w i th a p h u l k a t a r a . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e men f i r s t a p p o i n t e a t o t h i s d u ty u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f Khan Azam, I s e n t 1 2 ,0 0 0 m ore h o r s e s w i th my s o n , a n d h o n o u re d t h e i r l e a d e r s , e a c h a c c o r d in g to h i s c o n d i t i o n , w i th s p e c i a l h o r s e s a n d e l e p h a n t s an d r o b e s o f h o n o u r an d d i s m i s s e d th em . F i a a i K han was n o m in a te d to t h e p a y m a s te r - s h ip o f t h e a rm y .

P u b lish ed : L osty , Jerem iah P. The Art o f th e Book in In d ia .London: The B r it is h L ibrary, 1982. P la te XXXII.


180

4 - 5 P r in ce Khurram R eceiv in g the Subdued Rana Amar Singh

date o f even t: 15 February 1614

f o l i o 46v

d im e n s io n s : 1 3 *5 ” x 9 ”

a r t i s t : L a lc h a n d . s i g n a t u r e : b o t to m r i g h t e d g e

P l a t e VI

P r i n c e K h u rram 1s b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e R an a o f M ewar p r o v e d t o b e a

s u c c e s s * By u t i l i z i n g u n c o n v e n t io n a l m e th o d s a n d d i s p l a y i n g a n

i n c r e d i b l e show o f c o u r a g e , h e m anaged t o w h i t t l e down t h e s t r e n g t h

a n d n u m b e rs o f t h e S a n a 's a r m ie s u n t i l t h e l a t t e r w as o b l i g e d to

su e f o r p e a c e . As a r e s u l t o f th e n e g o t i a t i o n s , R an a Amar S in g h

a g r e e d to s u r r e n d e r h i s in d e p e n d e n c e a n d to p e r s o n a l l y s u b m it

h im s e l f t o P r i n c e K h u rram . As h e was g e t t i n g on i n y e a r s , t h e R ana

a s k e d t o b e e x c u s e d fro m th e c o u r t , b u t w o u ld b e r e p r e s e n t e d by h i s

so n Karam i n s t e a d . F u r th e r m o re h e p ro m is e d n e v e r a g a in t o f o r t i f y

2t h e f o r t o f C h i t o r . a p e a c e t r e a t y w as d raw n u p a n d w as r a t i f i e d

by J a h a n g i r . As a to k e n o f s u b m is s io n , t h e R a n a p r e s e n t e d h im s e l f

t o K h u rram . T h is s c e n e t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e o f M ew ar,

a n d show s a s e t t i n g w h ic h w as m ade t o s im u l a t e an a u d ie n c e h a l l .

A t h r o n e i s s e t u p o n a p l a t f o r m , a n d a ro u n d K hurram s t a n d t h e

d i f f e r e n t o f f i c e r s a n d n o b l e s who a c c o m p a n ie d h im on t h i s m i s s i o n .

R an a .Amar s in g h bows b e f o r e P r i n c e K h u rram , a m ark o f h i s s u b ju g a

t i o n , a n d i s b e in g g r a c i o u s l y r e c e i v e d . T h i s w ork i s c o n s t r u c t e d

on a h o r i z o n t a l - v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , w i th f i g u r e s d i s t r i b u t e d t o

t h e r i g h t an d l e f t o f a c e n t r a l p o i n t . The o v e r a l l c o l o r schem e


181

i s q u ite dark, where d u lle r shades and a more reserv ed a p p lic a tio n

o f g o ld was used.

Unpublished

f o l i o 47^

dim ensions* 13*3U x 9»3"

a r t i s t s unknown

P la te VII

T his p a in tin g i s p art o f a double-page com p osition and i s to be

view ed in con ju n ction w ith f o l i o 4 6 r . While th e o th er s id e d e p ic ts

th e a c tu a l r e c e p tio n o f th e Rana, t h is one shows th e p er ip h era l

areas o f th e m a k e-sh ift audience h a l l . Servants and a tten d a n ts o f

both Shah Jahan and th e Rana are p ortrayed , a s are the m u sic ian s

and troop s wnich form p a rt o f th e co r teg e o f a m il i t a r y campaign.

The f ig u r e s in th e foreground are th e a tten d a n ts o f the Rana, w h ile

th o se a lo n g th e o u ts tr e tc h e d screen are the l e s s e r Mughal o f f i c e r s .

In th e background one s e e s a p a v il io n o f m u sic ia n s w h ile rows o f

p eo p le , p o s s ib ly troop s and o n lo o k ers, l i n e th e e x tr e m it ie s o f th e

camp. The c o lo r scheme i s a lso ra th er dark, but the pigm ents are

very in te n s e , thus producing a v ery v iv id e f f e c t . A lthough n ot

composed around a c e n tr a l a x is , th e p ic tu r e e s ta b lish e d a sense

o f order through th e o r g a n iza tio n a lon g p a r a l le l and p erp en d icu lar

rows.

Unpubli shed


182

A c c o u n t i n T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i (R o g e rs a n d B e v e r id g e , I p . 2 7 4 -2 7 6 )

B e in g w i th o u t rem ed y h e c h o s e o b e d ie n c e a n d l o y a l t y , a n d s e n t t omy f o r t u n a t e so n h i s m a te r n a l u n c l e . . . a n a p e t i t i o n e d t h a t i ft h a t f o r t u n a t e so n w o u ld a s k f o r g i v e n e s s . . . h e w o u ld h im s e l f come an d w a i t on my so n a n d w o u ld s e n d h i s so n a n d s u c c e s s o r to c o u r t • . . h e a l s o b e g g e d t h a t h e h i m s e l f m ig h t b e e x c u s e d fro m com ing t o c o u r t on a c c o u n t o f h i s o ld a g e . . . A t t h e r e q u e s t o f my so n I f o r g a v e t h e R a n a 's o f f e n c e s . . . I a l s o w ro te a fa rm a n o f k in d n e s s to my s o n . . . a n d i t w as s e t t l e d t h a t on S u n d a y , t h e 2 6 th o f t h e m o n th o f Bahm an, h e a n d h i s s o n s s h o u ld come a n d p ay t h e i r r e s p e c t s to my s o n . On S u n d a y , t h e R an a p a i d h i s r e s p e c t s to my f o r t u n a t e so n w i t h t h e p o l i t e n e s s an d r i t u a l t h a t s e r v a n t s p ay t h e i r r e s p e c t s , a n d p ro d u c e d a s o f f e r i n g s a fam ous l a r g e r u b y t h a t w as i n h i s h o u s e , w i th some d e c o r a t i v e a r t i c l e s an dse v e n e l e p h a n t s . My so n a l s o b e h a v e d t o h im w i th p e r f e c t k in d n e s s . When t h e R a n a e l a p s e d h i s f e e t a n d a s k e d f o r g i v e n e s s f o r h i s f a u l t s , h e to o k h i s h e a d a n d p la c e d i t on h i s b r e a s t , an d c o n s o le d him i n s u c h a m an n er a s t o c o m fo r t h im . He p r e s e n t e d him w i th a s u p e rb d r e s s o f h o n o u r , a j e w e l l e d sw o rd , a h o r s e w i th a j e w e l l e d s a d d l e , a n d a p r i v a t e e l e p h a n t w i th s i l v e r h o u s i n g s . . .


183

6 - 7 Jahangir R ece iv in g P rince Khurram A fter His S u ccessfu l Campaign A gain st th e Rana o f Mewar

d ate o f event* 1 March 1614

f o l i o 48v

d im aisions* 1 2 . 7 5 ” x 8 . 7 5 ”

a r t i s t : Ram Das sign atu re* bottom l e f t c o m e r ontr id e n t

P la te VIII

T his p a in tin g i s th e r ig h t h a l f o f a double page com p osition , and

r ep re se n ts th e courtyard scene o f th e audience h a l l a t Ajmir.

Here one s e e s n ob les o f l e s s e r ranks stan d in g in o rd er ly rows,

each accord in g to h is s ta t io n . A l i n e o f h o r se s , each covered

w ith a sumptuous red brocade, form a v is u a l w atershed between the

l i g h t e r c o lo r e d ly c la d n o b les in th e fr o n t and the more b r ig h t ly

d ressed ones a t the back. At th e top o f the w a ll upon th e entrance

gateway i s a g a lle r y f i l l e d w ith m u sic ia n s.

Unpublished

f o l i o 49*

dim ensions* 1 2 .4 5 ” x 8 .8 5 ”

a r t i s t s Murad sign atu re* on s te p , and bottomr ig h t c o m er on book

P la te IX

This p a ir o f p a in t in g s r e p r e se n ts th e g lo r io u s cu lm in ation of

P rince Khurram's Mewar campaign. Having ob ta in ed peace and the

sub ju gation o f Mewar to th e c o n fin es o f the Mughal em pire, t h is

p a in tin g shows th e r e c e p t io n and co n g ra u la tio n s o f Khurram on


184

h is su ccess* A ccording to Saksena, when the P r in ce a rr iv ed near

Ajmir,

a l l cou rt amirs were ordered to go out to meet him, and o f f e r v a lu a b le p r e se n ts . When th e p r in ce appeared b efo re h i s fa th e r , th e l a t t e r was overcomed by h is f e e l in g s o f a f fe c t io n and jo y . He embraced him, k is s e d h is head a n d ,fa c e , and favored him w ith s p e c ia l k in d n ess and g re e tin g s*

On the throne b a lcon y , Jahangir has stood up to p e r so n a lly r e c e iv e

Khurram. There i s o n ly one in s ta n c e where th e Tuzuk-i-Jahangi-ri

m entions Jahangir s ta n d in g up to g r e e t Khurram, and th a t was when

Jahangir granted h is son th e t i t l e o f Shah Jahan. S in ce t h is

in c id e n t i s d ep ic ted on f o l i o 197v , and th a t p a in t in g shows a

sea ted Jahangir, one may gu ess th a t th e se two p a in tin g s were mixed

up during th e assem bly o f th e m anuscript. Below in the courtyard ,

th e grandees are l in e d up on e i t h e r s id e o f th e throne accord ing to

th e ir r e s p e c t iv e ranks and p o s i t io n s . The assortm ent o f g i f t s fo r

Khurram, which in c lu d ed j e w e llr y , ornamented weapons and o th er

p rec io u s o b je c ts , are b e in g h e ld up fo r d isp la y by a number o f th e

n o b les in th e foreground. The e n t ir e p a in tin g i s rendered in f in e

hard o u t l in e s and b r i l l i a n t s o l id to n e s , which coupled w ith th e

blank e x p r e s s io n le s s f a c e s , g iv e s a sen se o f g r e a t so lem n ity and

fo r m a lity . This f e e l i n g i s fu r th er enhanced by the sym m etrically

balanced com position and th e n ea t o rd er ly p r e se n ta t io n .

P u b lish ed : Archer, W illiam G. Ind ian M in ia tu res. Greenwich: NewYork Graphic S o c ie ty , 1960. P la te 28.

Preparatory S k etch es: B inney, Edwin. Indian M iniature P a in tin g sfrom th e C o lle c t io n o f Edwin Binnev 3rd . P o rtla n d : P ortland Art Museum, 1974.Page 79*


185

Brown, Percy. Indian P a in tin g Under the Mughal s . Oxfords The Clarendon P r ess , 1924. P la te LV III.

Welch, S tuart Cary. Ind ian Drawings and P ain ted Sketches 16th Through 19th Centuries . New I n c . , 1976.P a g e 49*

Account i n T u z u k - i - j a h a n g i r i (R o g e rs a n a B e v e r id g e , I p . 2 7 6 -2 7 7 )

An o r d e r was g iv e n t h a t a l l t h e A m irs s n o u la go to m e e t h im , an d t h a t e a c h s h o u ld p r e s e n t an o f f e r i n g a c c o r d in g t o h i s s t a n d i n g a n d c o n d i t i o n , a n a on th e n e x t d a y , S unday t h e 1 1 th , h e s h o u la h a v e th e g o o d f o r t u n e to w a i t on m e. The n e x t day th e p r i n c e , w i th g r e a t m a g n i f ic e n c e , w i th a l l v i c t o r i o u s f o r c e s t h a t h a d b e e n a p p o in te d t o accom pany him on t h a t s e r v i c e , e n t e r e d t h e p u b l i c p l a c e . The h o u r f o r h im t o w a i t on me was tw o w a tc h e s a n a two g h a r i s o f th e day h ad p a s s e d , a n a he h a d th e good f o r t u n e t o p ay h i s r e s p e c t s a n d p e r fo rm e d h i s p r o s t r a t i o n an d s a l u t a t i o n s . He p r e s e n t e a 1000 a s h r a f i s a n d 1000 r u p e e s by way o f o f f e r i n g , 1000 m u h rs an d 1000 r u p e e s by way o f c h a r i t y . I c a l l e d t h a t son fo r w a r d a n a em b ra ced h im , and h a v in g k i s s e d h i s h e a d an d f a c e , f a v o u r e a him w i th s p e c i a l k in d n e s s an d g r e e t i n g s . When h e h a d f i n i s h e d t h e a u e s o f s e r v i c e a n d h a d p r e s e n t e d h i s o f f e r i n g s an d c h a r i t i e s , h e p e t i t i o n e d t h a t K aran m ig h t be e x a l t e d w i th th e g o o d f o r t u n e o f p r o s t r a t i n g h i m s e l f an d p a y in g h i s r e s p e c t s .


186

8 - 9 A rr iv a l o f A saf Khan and th e P r in ces from Lahore

d ate o f ev en t: 8 March 1628 (2 Rajab 1 037), 1 s t reg n a l year

f o l i o 50v

d im ensions: 1 2 .5 ” x 8 .8 5 ”

a r t i s t : B ic h itr s ig n a tu re : under throne betweent h e tw o l i o n s

P la te X

T he s c e n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e a r r i v a l o f A s a f K han a n d th e t h r e e o l d e r

s o n s o f S hah J a h a n a t t h e c o u r t o f A g ra s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c o r o n a t i o n

c e r e m o n ie s . D u r in g t h e t r o u b l e d p e r i o d b e tw e e n J a h a n g i r ' s d e a t h on

the 29 th October 1627 (28 S afar 1037) and S h ah J a h a n 1s a c c e ss io n on

t h e 14 th F e b r u a r y 1626 ( 8 Ju m ad a I I 1 0 3 7 )» A sa f Khan a n d I r a d a t

K han , n o t i n g t h e s t r i f e t h a t e n s u e d fro m N ur J a h a n 's d e s i r e to

m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o f th e g o v e rn m e n t b y t r y i n g t o p l a c e S h a h r iy a r on

th e t h r o n e , deem ed i t s a f e r t o rem o v e D a ra S h ik o h , S h ah S h u ja an d

A u ra n g z e b away fro m t h e c u s to d y o f t h e i r g r a n d m o th e r . A t t h a t t im e

S h a h J a h a n w as s t i l l i n t h e D e c c a n , a n d t h e tw o o f th e m , l o y a l

s u p p o r t e r s o f h i s , a c t e d i n h i s i n t e r e s t . Upon t h e i r r e t u r n S h ah

J a h a n o r d e r e d a m a g n i f i c e n t r e c e p t i o n f o r A s a f Khan!

A l l t h e p r e m ie r n o b le s w ere a s k e d to go o u t t o w elcom e h im , a n d t o e s c o r t h im t o c o u r t . He w as l e d t o t h e J h a r o k a w i th t h e p r i n c e s , who o f f e r e d t h e i r n a z r s to th e E m p ero r i n t u r n s . S h ah J a h a n came dow n, h e a r t i l y em b ra ced h i s s o n s , a n d p e r m i t t e d A s a f Khan t o k i s s h i s f e e t , i n i t s e l f a r a r e h o n o u r i n t h o s e d a y s .

S t r u c t u r a l l y t h i s w ork i s s i m i l a r i n f o r m a t to t h e o t h e r s y m m e tr i

c a l l y com posed an d e q u a l l y b a la n c e d w o rk s w h ic h w ere t y p i c a l o f

S h ah J a h a n i p a i n t i n g , h e r e t h e a r t i s t em p lo y ed a g e n e r a l l y p a l e r


187

p a le t t e where tu rq u o ise and w h ite are th e predominant c o lo r s .

Coupled w ith a s o f t atm ospheric hand ling o f th e b ru sh stro k es, t h is

adds a n o te o f g e n t le n e s s and ten d ern ess , which i s exp ressed by

Shah Jahan 's a f f e c t io n towards h is c h ild r e n , to t h i s o th erw ise

very solemn a f f a i r . On th e throne balcon y a sea ted Shah Jahan i s

embracing Dara Shikoh who i s bowing b efo re h is fa th e r . Aurangzeb,

Shah Shuja and A saf Khan stand behind to the l e f t . In th e h a l l

th e n o b les stand to th e r ig h t and l e f t o f th e th ron e. On th e

w all beneath th e throne i s an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f two s u f is stan d in g

on a g lo b e , and between them i s the m o tif o f two l io n s ly in g w ith

a lamb. Most o f the assem bled n o b les are id e n t i f i e d by sm all

P ersian in s c r ip t io n s , which in d ic a te s th e im portant documentary

fu n c tio n served by th e p a in tin g .

P ublisheds G ascoigne, Bamber. The Great Moghuls. New Yorks Harper and How, I n c . , 1.971 • Page 145-

f o l i o 51r

dim ensions: 1 3 .8 5 ” x 9"

a r t i s t : Ram Das s ig n a tu re : m iddle l e f t edge on book

P la te XI

The fa c in g page to the p rev io u s scen e , t h i s shows the l e s s e r

n o b les assem bled in th e courtyard o f th e audience h a l l a t Agra.

J u st above th e en tran ce gatew ay, on the courtyard w a ll , th ere i s

a m usic g a l le r y f i l l e d w ith m u sic ian s and t h e ir v a r io u s in s tr u

m ents. In comparison w ith the p rev iou s page, t h is one has a much

l i v e l i e r a ir , fo r in s te a d o f b e in g stru c tu red upon a s t r i c t


188

h o r izo n ta l and v e r t ic a l g r id p a ttern , i t i s composed along

d ia g o n a ls . These d ia g o n a ls are the two l i n e s o f n o b les which

occupy alm ost the whole com p osition . The c o lo r s are much r ic h e r

in tone and axe accen tu ated a g a in st a s tr ik in g background th a t

c o n tr a s ts a w hite w a ll and a dark gray ground.

Unpublished

A c c o u n t i n B a d s h a h Mama ( E l l i o t a n d Dowson, p . 5 - 6 )

N ur M a h a l , who h a d b o r n t h e c a u s e o f much s t r i f e a n d c o n t e n t i o n , now c l u n g t o t h e v a i n i d e a o f r e t a i n i n g t h e r e i n s o f g o v e rn m e n t i n h e r g r a s p , a s s h e h a d h e l d them d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f t h e l a t e e m p e r o r . . .Y a m in u -d d a u l a A s a f Khan a n d I r a d a t K han , who a lw a y s a c t e d t o g e t h e r d e t e r m i n e d t h a t , a s S h a h J a h a n w as f a r away f ro m A g ra , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e some s t e p s t o p r e v e n t d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e c i t y , a n d t o g e t p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e p r i n c e s Muhammad D a ra S hukoh , Muhammad S h ah S h u ja , a n d Muhammad A u ra n g z e b , who w ere i n t h e f e m a l e a p a r t m e n t s w i t h Mur M a h a l . . . A s t h e y o ung p r i n c e s w ere n o t s a f e w i t h N ur M a h a l , t h e y re m o v e d h e r f ro m t h e r o y a l p a l a c e , a n d t o o k t n e y o ung p r i n c e s u n d e r t h e i r own c h a r g e .

A c c o u n t i n M u la k h k h a s ( B e g l e y , p . 2 8 -2 9 )

On t h e 1 s t o f H a ja b i n t h i s a u s p i c i o u s y e a r (1 0 5 7 )» t h e g r e a t l y e s t e e m e d a n d a u g u s t P r i n c e s , a c c o m p a n ie d by Yamin a l - D a u l a A s a f K han, o t h e r n o b l e s a n d members o f t h e r e t i n u e o f t h e l a t e E m p e ro r , r e a c h e d t h e o u t s k i r t s o f t h e m e t r o p o l i s o f A k b a ra b a d f ro m t h e L a h o r e c a p i t a l . . . O n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . . . a l l t h e s t a t e n o b l e s by i m p e r i a l command w en t t o w elcom e them a n d e s c o r t e d t h e P r i n c e s o f e x a l t e d d e s c e n t a n d a u g u s t g e n e a l o g y , a l o n g w i th Yamin a l - D a u l a a n d o t h e r n o b l e s a n d re n o w n e d c h i e f s , i n t o H is M a j e s t y * s a u g u s t p r e s e n c e . Upon t h e i r a r r i v a l a t t h e p a l a c e , t h e i l l u s t r i o u s P r i n c e s , a l o n g w i t h Yamin a l - D a u l a an d h i s c o m p a n io n s , w e re a l l h o n o u r e d w i t h a r o y a l a u d i e n c e , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r n o b l e s t a t u s . A t t h i s t im e t h e y p r e s e n t e d s u i t a b l e g i f t s a n d r e c e i v e d a l l k i n d s o f r o y a l f a v o u r s and m a rk s o f a f f e c t i o n , a g a i n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r a n k s .On t h i s o c c a s i o n , H is M a j e s t y a s s i g n e d t h e h i g h o f f i c e o f F i r s t L o rd o f t h e H ealm ( W a k i l ) t o Yamin a l - D a u l a a n d h a n d e d o v e r t o him t h e r o y a l s e a l .


189

10 - 11 S o l a r V e jg h m en t o f S h ah J a h a n

d ate o f ev en t: 26 January 1629 (3 Jumada I I 1038),2nd regn a l year

f o l i o 70v

dim ensions: 1 3 *2M x 9*6"


P la te XII

These two pages rep r e sen t th e s o la r weighmeht o f Shah Jahan th a t

marked h is th ir ty - s e v e n th b ir th d a y . T his h a l f o f th e scen e shows

the courtyard o f th e p a la c e a t G w alior, where dancing g i r l s and

m u sician s cr ea te a f e s t i v e atmosphere fo r th e ceremony. The

m u sic ian s are d iv id ed in to two groups: the ones on th e b alcony p lay

p recu ssio n and wind in stru m en ts , w h ile th o se in th e courtyard p lay

s tr in g in stru m en ts . The p a lace w a lls are o f w hite marble and

are decorated w ith i n t r i c a t e l y carved l a t t i c e work. In co n tra st

to th e se w hite w a lls are the c o lo r fu l and alm ost gaudy garments o f .

th e dancers and m u sic ia n s. They l iv e n up and b r ig h ten what would

o th erw ise have been a v ery s t e r i l e p ie c e o f a r c h ite c tu r a l s e t t in g .

The d ir e c t io n fa ced by th e p eop le in th e cou rtyard , to th e l e f t ,

le a d s th e v ie w e r l s eye towards the fa c in g p age, where th e main

a c tio n ta k es p la c e .

TJn p u b lish ed


190

f o l i o 7

dim ensions* 13«1" x 9"

a r t i s t : B ola s ig n a tu res on marble p latform

P la te XEII

The w eigh ing ceremony o f Shah Jahan on the o cca s io n o f h is t h ir t y -

seven th s o la r b irth d ay i s i l l u s t r a t e d on t h i s page. At t h is tim e

he was weighed a g a in s t tw elve d i f f e r e n t com modities which a f te r

wards were d is tr ib u te d among th e p oor. This ceremony was a lso

rep eated a t h is lu n ar b ir th d a y , but th e number o f a r t i c l e s were

reduced to seven . I t was con sid ered an a u sp ic io u s a c t th a t would

p r o te c t him from any c o n c e iv a b le b o d ily harm. On t h i s page Shah

Jahan i s shown sea ted on an e la b o r a te ly decorated p a ir o f s c a le s

which i s in s t a l l e d in a p a v il io n o f th e p a la ce . What e x a c t ly he

i s b ein g weighed a g a in st cannot be p r e c is e ly determ ined, f o r the

item s are in sm all b ags. Around him stand h is fou r sons and h is

w azir A saf Khan, and around them are v a r io u s o th er c o u r t ie r s and

n o b le s . In the background stand the guards, whose p resen ces were

req u ired a t every cou rt fu n c tio n . The arrangement o f the c o u r t ie r s

in a tr ia n g u la r fa sh io n c r e a te s an empty c e n tr a l space d ir e c t ly

in fr o n t o f Shah Jahan. T his a llo w s th e a t te n t io n o f th e view er

to be fo cu sed upon him, and th e r e fo r e e s ta b l is h e s him as th e f ig u r e

o f c e n tr a l im portance. The u se o f g o ld i s q u ite abundant in th is

scn e , and serv es to h ig h lig h t th e r ic h n e ss and w ealth im p lied and

gen erated by t h i s p a r t ic u la r ceremony. As in th e p reced in g scen e,


191

th e w h ite marble p a v il io n i s o f f s e t t e d by th e lu sh ta p e str y and

m u ltic o lo r ed garments o f the p eo p le .

P u b lished: Randhawa, Mohinder Singh and G a lb ra ith , John Kenneth,Ind ian P a in tin g . The S cen es. Themes and Legends. Boston: Houghton M if f l in , 1968 . P la te 6 .

Account in Mulakhkhas (3 e g le y , p . 4 2 )

On th e 3rd o f Jumada I I t h is y ea r , 1038 A .H ., th e a u sp ic io u s c e le b r a t io n o f the s o la r w eighing o f His M ajesty was h e ld a t G w alior, on th e o cc a s io n o f the com pletion o f th e t h ir t y - seventh y ear o f h is e te r n a l age accord in g to th e s o la r ca len d er . As p r e v io u s ly ordained , h i s sacred person was weighed once a g a in s t pure g o ld , once a g a in st s i l v e r , then ten tim es a g a in s t o th er a r t i c l e s .


192

12 C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e F e s t i v a l o f t h e N a u ro z a t A g ra

d a t e o f e v e n t : 19 M arch 1629 (2 4 R a ja b 1 0 3 8 ) , 2nd r e g n a l y e a r

f o l i o 7 2v

d i m e n s i o n s : 1 3 »9 " * 9 » 9 M

a r t i s t : B a lc h a n d s i g n a t u r e : l e f t ed g e on b o o k

P l a t e XIV

Upon t h i s p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n o f th e N a u ro z , t h e m o s t n o t a b l e e v e n t '

was t h e t r a n s f e r o f I r a a a t Khan t o t h e p o s t o f t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e

D eccan , a n d t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f A f z a l Khan t o t h e o f f i c e o f P r im e

M i n i s t e r (D iw an) i n h i s p l a c e . A p a r t f ro m t h a t , t h e r e w e re t h e

u s u a l p r o m o t i o n s a n d c o n f e r r a l o f f a v o r s t h a t m a rk e d c e r e m o n ie s o f

t h i s n a t u r e . The p r e s e n t a t i o n h e r e i s o f a d a r b a r o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

b u t w i t h a l e s s e r d e g r e e o f f o r m a l i t y a n d o r d e r w h ic h was t h e

u s u a l no rm . On t h e b a l c o n y Shah J a h a n i s e n t h r o n e d i n t h e c e n t e r ,

a c c o m p a n ie d by h i s f o u r s o n s a n d a t t e n d e d t o by a s e r v a n t . Below

on t h e f l o o r o f t h e a u d i e n c e h a l l s t a n d t h e v a r i o u s n o b l e s an d

g u a r d s i n a m ore o r l e s s o r d e r l y f a s h i o n . T hey a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d

on t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e p a i n t i n g ; on t h e l e f t s i d e t r a y s an d

c o n t a i n e r s o f p r e c i o u s o b j e c t s a r e d i s p l a y e d . The b e a r d e d man

s t a n d i n g among t h e s e g o o d s b e a r s a s t r o n g r e s e m b l e n c e t o I s l a m

Khan t h e u n d e r B a k s h i , p a r t o f w hose f u n c t i o n w as t o a n n o u n c e and

p r e s e n t t h e v a r i o u s c o u r t i e r s who w ere t o be r e c e i v e d b y S h ah

J a h a n . o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e g a t e s a r e m ore n o b l e s , b u t

t h e y s t a n d a r o u n d i n a r e l a x e d a n d c a s u a l f a s h i o n . The c o m p o s i

t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a l l o w s t n e v i e w e r t o f o c u s u p o n s h a h J a h a n a s

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e i n t h e p a i n t i n g . H is c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n


193

i s p i n p o i n t e d by t h e v e r t i c a l e n c a d r e m e n t o f t h e t h r o n e , an d i s

f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e j a d e g r e e n p i l l a r s o f t h e a u d i e n c e h a l l .

I n a d d i t i o n , a lo w p o i n t o f v ie w i s a d o p t e d , w h ic h p l a c e s t h e

v i e w e r on t h e same l e v e l a s t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e t h e g a t e ,

a n d t h u s f o r c e s h im t o l o o k u p w ard t o Shah J a h a n . V ery b r i g h t

c o l o r s a r e u s e d i n t h e c l o t h i n g o f t h e n o b l e s , a n d t h i s p r e s e n t s

a g r e a t c o n t r a s t t o t h e g o l d o f t h e t r a y s an d c o n t a i n e r s o f p r e c i o u s

o b j e c t s *

A c c o u n t i n M u la k h k h a s ( B e g l e y , p . 4 2 - 4 3 )

T he f e s t i v a l o f t h e N au ro z t h i s y e a r was c e l e b r a t e d on T u e s d a y , t h e 2 4 th o f R a j a b , 1038 AH ( 1 9 ^ M arch 1 b 2 9 ) . On t h i s a u s p i c i o u s d a y , t h e a n n u i t y o f H er M a j e s t y t h e Q ueen was e n h a n c e d by one l a k h o f r u p e e s * Rukn a l - S u l t a n a t , t h e a u t h o r ' s g r a n d f a t h e r , r e c e i v e d r o y a l b e n e v o l e n c e by b e i n g p ro m o te d to a man s a b o f 6 , 0 0 0 z a t an d 6 , 0 0 0 s u w a r , a f t e r a n i n c r e a s e o f1 .0 0 0 i n e a c h c a t e g o r y ; a n d I r a d a t K han , a f t e r c o n f e r m e n t o f t h e r o y a l f a v o u r s , w as a p p o i n t e d a s t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e D e c c a n . Owing t o t h e t r a n s f e r o f I r a d a t K han , t h e o f f i c e o f P r im e M i n i s t e r (D iw an A ' l a ) was now e n t r u s t e d t o 'A l l a m i A f z a l K han ; a n d h i s m a n sab r a n k w as d e s e r v e d l y f i x e d a t5 . 0 0 0 z a t a n a s u w a r .

P u b lish ed : Beach, M ilo C levelan d . The Grand Mogul Im perialP a in tin g in In d ia 1600- 1660 . W illiam stown: S te r lin g and Francine Clark Art I n s t i t u t e , 1978* F igure 6 ( d e t a i l o f f o l i o 7 2 v , m is id e n t if ie d as s e l f p o r tr a it o f the a r t i s t B alchand).


194

13 B e s ie g in g the Fort o f Dharur

date o f even t: February 1630 (23 Jumada I I 1040 ) , 4 th regnal year

f o l i o 92v

dim ensions: 13* 5” x


P la t e XV

The f o r t o f Dharur in th e Deccan was one which had proven to be

extrem ely d i f f i c u l t to b e s ie g e , as i t was sturdy and had a strong

weapon fo r c e . I t was, a t th a t tim e, under th e command o f S id i

Salim Habshi, who had managed to put up a very tough r e s is ta n c e .

However, through th e e f f o r t s o f A'zam Khan, the commanding o f f i c e r

fo r t h i s s ie g e , the f o r t was f i n a l l y captured and another v ic to r y

was gained fo r the Mughal crown. Although no p r e c is e reason has

been g iven fo r th iB a tta c k , i t i s sim ple enough to see i t as part

o f the lo n g la s t in g attem pts to break down th e r e s is ta n c e o f the

va rio u s Deccani areas in order to subjugate th e whole reg io n under

a Mughal command. The p a in tin g was execu ted in sombre earth to n es ,

w ith very l i t t l e u se o f g o ld s . In g e n e ra l, th e p a le t t e can be

sa id to have been d u l l . This g iv e s an e f f e c t o f a gloomy and

heavy atmosphere which accords w e ll w ith th e nature o f th e even t.

In s p it e o f t h i s , one does not g e t a t o t a l im pact o f a f i e r c e

b a t t le scen e , fo r not o n ly i s the a c tio n l im ite d , but what l i t t l e

there i s , i s q u ite s t a t i c . Furthermore, th e event i s taken from a

d is ta n t and h igh p o in t of v iew , and t h is on ly serv es to remove the

view er away from the scen e . The f o r tr e s s o f Dharur l i e s in the top


195

l e f t c o m e r , and around i t i s a p art o f th e Mughal tro o p s. In the

m iddle ground l i e th e b o d ies o f some o f the vanquished f o e s , and

coming in on th e r ig h t corner are th e commanders o f th e Mughal

army.

A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h Nama ( E l l i o t a n d Dowson, p . 2 1 -2 2 )

'Azam K han, h a v i n g a s c e n d e d t h e p a s s o f A n ja n - d u d h encam ped t h r e e k o s f ro m D h a r u r . He t h e n d i r e c t e d M u l t a f i t Khan an d o t h e r s t o make a n a t t a c k u p o n t h e tow n o f D h a ru r a n d i t s p e t t a , w h e re o n c e a w eek p e o p l e f ro m a l l p a r t s , f a r and n e a r , w e re a c c o u s to m e d t o m e e t f o r b u y in g a n d s e l l i n g . The f o r t o f D h a r u r was c e l e b r a t e d t h r o u g n o u t t h e D a k h in f o r i t s s t r e n g t h a n d m u n i t i o n s o f w a r . I t was b u i l t upo n t h e t o p o f a r i d g e , a n d d e e p r i v e r s o f d i f f i c u l t p a s s a g e r a n on two s i d e s o f i t . I t w as so s e c u r e t h a t a n y e f f o r t u p o n i t by t h e r o y a l a rm y was l i k e l y t o p r o v e u n s u c e s s f u l ; so M arham at Khan was d i r e c t e d t o p l u n d e r t h e tow n a n d p e t t a , b u t n o t t o make an y a t t e m p t u p o n t h e f o r t r e s s . . .T h e g a r r i s o n becam e d i s h e a r t e n e d , a n d r e m i s s i n t h e i r d u t y . . . O n t h e 2 3 r d J u m a d a - s s a n i M arham at Khan made h i s way i n w i t h a p a r t y o f m en, a n d o p e n e d t h e w i c k e t . 'Azam Knan t h e n e n t e r e d w i t h a l l h i s o f f i c e r s , a n d n e a r l y two t h o u s a n d men s c a l e d t h e w a l l s a n d g o t i n t o t h e f o r t . A l l t h e v a s t m u n i t i o n s , t h e j e w e l s e t c . became s p o i l s o f w a r .

•

U n p u b l i s h e d


196

14 D e a th o f Khan J a h a n I.nHt

d a t e o f e v e n t : 3 F e b r u a r y 1 6 30 (1 R a j a b 1 0 4 0 ) , 4 t h r e g n a l y e a r

f o l i o 9 4 v

d i m e n s i o n s : 1 3 " x 8 . 5 5 ”

a r t i s t : A b id s i g n a t u r e : b o t to m m i d d le i n g r a s s

P l a t e XVI

Khan J a h a n L o d i was a p o w e r f u l n o b l e o f A fg h an d e s c e n t who h a d Deen

g i v e n i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y c h a r g e s , i n c l u d i n g a command o f t h e

D eccan . B u t b e in g g r e e d y f o r pow er h e a l l i e d h i m s e l f , a t t h e5

b e g i n n i n g o f S h ah J a h a n ' s r e i g n , w i th t h e e n e m ie s o f t h e t h r o n e .

T h ese e n e m ie s w ere t h e N izam S h a h i r u l e r s o f A hm adnagar , a n d t o g e

t h e r w i t h Khan J a h a n L o d i , t h e y c r e a t e d r e b e l l i o n i n t h e s o u t h . I f

s u c c e s s f u l t h e y c o u l d h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a u n io n b e tw e e n t h e s o u t h e r n

k ingdom s a n d u l t i m a t e l y w o u ld h a v e b e e n a b l e t o th ro w o f f Mughal

c o n t r o l . I t t o o k t h e M ughal army o v e r two y e a r s t o f i n a l l y c a t c h

u p t o a n d s u b j u g a t e t h e r e b e l . The u l t i m a t e o u tc o m e was t h a t t h e

M ugha ls e x e r t e d e v e n s t r o n g e r p r e s s u r e i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o g a i n

c o n t r o l o v e r t n e D e c c a n .^ Khan J a h a n ' s d e f e a t h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d

t o h i s f a i l u r e t o p r o p e r l y e s t i m a t e t h e l o y a l t i e s o f t h e m a j o r i t y

o f t h e R a j p u t c h i e f t a i n s f o r t h e M u g h a ls . He t h u s e n c o u n t e r e d

many h o s t i l e r e c e p t i o n s when h e w as f l e e i n g f ro m t h e i m p e r i a l

a r m i e s . When t h e M ughal arm y f i n a l l y c a u g h t up w i t h h im , h e and

h i s f o l l o w e r s w ere s l a u g h t e r e d a n d b e h e a d e d , a n a t h e i r s e v e r e d

h e a d s w e re s e n t t o t h e c o u r t . F o r s u c h a g ru e s o m e e v e n t , t h e p a i n t

i n g i s uncom monly c a lm . The s o l d i e r s i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d v ie w t h e


197

s c e n e w i t n g r e a t n o n c h a l e n c e , a n d a f a n t a s y - l i k e a tm o s p h e r e i s

p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h t h e p e c u l i a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f s h a d e s o f g r e e n * The

c o m p o s i t i o n i s b a s i c a l l y a t r i a n g l e w hose s l o p e s a r e fo rm e d b y t h e

s p e a r s o f t h e two o f f i c e r s n e x t t o t h e h o r s e s , a n d t h e y fo rm an

a p e x w i t h t h e t r e e . A l l t h e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n t h i s t r i a n g l e

w h ic h i s b r o u g h t c l o s e r t o t h e v i e w e r by i t s p o s i t i o n a t t h e b o t to m

o f t h e p a g e , a n d a l s o b y i t s d a r k e r c o l o r a t i o n a s o p p o s e d t o t h e

l i g h t e r s h a d e s i n t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s . I n t h e t r i a n g l e t h e s o l d i e r s

a n d o f f i c e r s a r e d e c a p i t a t i n g a n d b r a n d i s h i n g t h e h e a d s o f t h e

enem y. The s c e n e i s b e i n g o b s e r v e d by a row o f s o l d i e r s who l i n e

t h e t o p ed g e o f t h e p a g e . As t h e y a r e o u t s i d e t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e

t r i a n g l e t h e y do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e a c t i o n , t h e y o n ly w a tc h .

A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h flama ( E l l i o t an d Dowson, p . 2 2 - 2 4 )

The u n h a p p y Khan J a h a n . . . h a v i n g n o h ope e x c e p t i n e v a s i o n , f l e d a n d s o u g h t o b s c u r i t y ; b u t t n e r o y a l f o r c e s p u r s u e d h im c l o s e l y . . . B y g r e a t e x e r t i o n h e t r a v e l l e d tw e n ty x o s t h a t d a y , an d r e a c h e d t h e b o r d e r s o f S a h e n d a w h ere h e w as t o en d h i s m o r t a l l i f e . A b d u l l a Khan B a h a d u r a n d S a i y i d M a z a f f a r Khan p u r s u e d h im c l o s e l y w i t h t h e i r f o r c e s i n a r r a y . Khan J a h a n was much a f f l i c t e d a t t h e l o s s o f h i s s o n s a n d f a i t h f u l f o l l o w e r s . A l l h o p e o f e s c a p e was c u t o f f ; so h e t o l d h i s f o l l o w e r s t h a t h e was w e a ry o f l i f e , t h a t h e h a d r e a c n e d t h e en d o f h i s c a r e e r , a n d t h e r e was no l o n g e r a n y m e an s o f d e l i v e r a n c e f o r h im ; h e d e s i r e d t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e v e r y man s h o u l d make o f f a s b e s t a s h e c o u l d . A few d e t e r m i n e d t o s t a n d by h im t o t h e l a s t , b u t many f l e d . The advanced , f o r c e s o f t h e r o y a l a rm y u n d e r Mandhu S in g h now came u p . Kham J a h a n w i t h h i s s o n 'A z i z , who was t h e d e a r e s t o f a l l , a n d A im a l , a n d t h e A fghan is , who r e m a in e d c o n s t a n t , p l a c e d t h e i r tw o r e m a i n i n g e l e p h a n t s i n f r o n t , a n d a d v a n c e d t o m e e t M u z a f f a r K han . They made t h e i r c h a r g e , aind when Khain J a h a n f o u n d t h a t t h e y w e re d e t e r m i n e d t o t a k e h im , h e a l i g h t e d f ro m h i s h o r s e a n d f o u g h t d e s p e r a t e l y . I n t h e m i d s t o f t h e s t r u g g l e Madhu S in g h p i e r c e d h im w i t h a s p e a r ,


198

a n d b e f o r e M u z a f f a r Khan c o u l d come up t h e b r a v e f e l l o w c u t Khan J a h a n , h i s d e a r s o n 'A z i z a n d A im a l t o p i e c e s . A b o u t a h u n d r e d o f h i s a d h e r e n t s f e l l , a n d t h e i r h e a d s w ere c u t o f f , b u t a p a r t y e s c a p e d . A g r a n d s o n o f S a i y i d M u z a f f a r Khan a n d . t w e n t y s e v e n o t h e r r o y a l i s t s w e re s l a i n . The h e a d s o f Khan J a h a n , 'A z i z a n d A im al w e re s e n t t o t h e I m p e r i a l C o u r t . . . The h e a d s o f t h e r e b e l s w e re p l a c e d o v e r t h e g a t e o f t h e f o r t .

P u b l i s h e d ! W elch , S t u a r t C a ry . The A r t o f M ughal I n d i a P a i n t i n g a n d P r e c i o u s O b j e c t s . New Y o rk ; The A s i a S o c i e t y I n c . , 1 9 b % F i g u r e 4 .


199

15 A u d ie n c e o f t h e P e r s i a n A m bassado r Muhammad A l i Beg a t ■burhan-pur

d a t e o f e v e n t : 26 M arch 1 6 3 0 (2 2 S h ab an 1 0 4 0 ) , 4 t h r e g n a l y e a r

f o l i o 98v

d i m e n s i o n s : 1 2 .7 5 " x Q»75"

a r t i s t : unknovm

P l a t e XVII

The a r r i v a l o f Muhammad A l i Beg c o i n c i d e d w i th t n e f e s t i v a l o f th e

N auroz o f th e y e a r 1040 ( 1 6 3 0 ) . On t n i s o c c a s io n th e am bassador

d e l i v e r e d a l e t t e r o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s f ro m Shah S a f i , k i n g o f

P e r s i a , t o s h a h J a h a n f o r h i s a c c e s i o n t o t n e t h r o n e , an d a few

d a y s l a t e r h e p r e s e n t e d t h e M ugha l e m p e ro r w i t h an a r r a y o f p r e s e n t s

f ro m t h e Shah v a l u e d a t t h r e e l a k h s o f r u p e e s . The m e e t i n g to o k

p l a c e a t B u rh a n p u r i n t h e D eccan w here Shah J a h a n h a d gone t o7

s u p p r e s s t h e r e b e l l i o n o f Khan J a h a n L o d i . Muhammad A l i Beg was

w elcom ed i n t o t h e town by A s a f Khan a n d S a d iq Khan who t h e n

D ro u g h t him i n t o a u d i e n c e w i t h S han J a h a n . T h e re was an e x c h a n g e o f

g i f t s b e tw e e n S h an J a h a n a n d t n e P e r s i a n a m b a s s a d o r , a n d e a c h p a r t y

t r i e d t o o u td o t h e o t h e r i n l a v i s h n e s s a n d v a l u e . The a u d i e n c e

t a k e s p l a c e u n d e r a n o r a n g e t e n t i n f r o n t o f a p i l l a r e d a u d i e n c e

h a l l . S n ah J a n a n i s s e a t e d on a c e n t r a l l y p l a c e d g o l d t h r o n e ,

w i t h f i v e g u a r d s t o t h e r i g h t a n d c o u r t i e r s t o t h e l e f t . Mnhammad

A l i Beg s a l u t e s t h e e m p e ro r f ro m o u t s i d e t h e g a t e . G i f t b e a r e r s

l i n e t h e b o t to m ed g e o f t h e p a i n t i n g . The c o m p o s i t i o n i s v e r y

c ro w d ed w i t h a l l t h e f i g u r e s s t a n d i n g v e r y c l o s e t o e a c h o t h e r .

The g r e a t r a n g e o f c o l o r s a l s o h e l p t o c r e a t e a c ro w d ed f e e l i n g ,


200

A c c o u n t i n M u la k h k h a s ( B e g l e y p . 87)

The f e s t i v a l o f t h e N a u ro z t h i s y e a r f e l l on F r i d a y , t h e 7 t h o f S h a 'b a n 1040 AH, a n d t h e n e x t d a y , t h e a m b a s s a d o r Muhammad ALi B eg , a f t e r b e i n g u s h e r e d i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e , d e l i v e r e d a l e t t e r f ro m S hah S a f i t h e r u l e r o f I r a n , f u l l o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s on H is M a j e s t y ' s a c c e s i o n t o t h e t n r o n e ; a n d r e c e i v e d i n r e t u r n a g o l d e m b r o i d e r e d r o b e o f h o n o u r , a n d a Q i z a l b a s h i t i a r a a n d t u r b a n o r n a m e n t s t u d d e d w i t h g e m s . . . O n t h e 22nd o f t h i s m o n th , Muhammad A l i B eg , b r o u g h t f o r w a r d t h e S h a h ' s c h o i c e p r e s e n t s v a l u e d a t t h r e e l a k h s o f r u p e e s , a n d two o r t h r e e d a y s a f t e r w a r d s , h i s own o f f e r i n g a m o u n t in g t o 6 0 ,0 0 0 r u p e e s .

Unpublished


201

16 The S ieg e o f Qandahar

date o f events May 16 31 (Shawwal 1040), 4"th regn a l year

f o l i o 102v

d im e n s io n s * 13*4 U x 9 » 7 ”

a r t i s t s Payag s ig n a tu res bottom r ig h t corneron s h ie ld

P la te XVIII

The d ir e c t iv e behind th e capture o f Qandahar was part o f th e never

ending s tr u g g le a g a in st th e kingdoms o f the Deccan. The f o r t wasg

then under th e p r o te c tio n o f Sadiq, so n -in -la w o f Yaqut Khudawind.

N a s ir i Khan was put in charge o f t h i s o p er a tio n , and he captured

th e town and d efea ted th e troop s o u ts id e th e f o r t w ithout too much

d i f f i c u l t y . A’ zam Khan was sen t to a s s i s t N a s ir i Khan in b e s ie g in g

th e f o r t , and they bombarded one w a ll w ith two m ines. Once th e

w a ll was p a r t ia l ly d estro y ed , th e Mughal tro o p s rushed forward in

th e hope o f g a in in g an entran ce to th e f o r t . However, th ey were

h e ld o f f by heavy f i r e from the g a rr iso n w ith in , and so continued

t h e ir a tta c k from the tre n ch e s . When th e t id e o f th e b a t t l e was

h e a v ily in fa v o r o f th e Mughal army, the g a rr iso n t r ie d to

n e g o t ia te peace through R aja Bharat Bundela, who was in a tren ch

o p p o s ite th e gateway. A tru ce was f i n a l l y reached , and so ended

th e s ie g e a f t e r a p eriod o f fou r and a h a lf m onths. The p a in tin g

r e p r e se n ts the dynam iting o f the f o r t , which stands in th e top

l e f t corner, and has a v ery sombre and a u stere p r e se n ta t io n which

i s in k eep in g w ith the mood o f th e ev en t. The dominant co lo r

scheme i s dark, w ith an em phasis on g ra y ish brown to n e s . The


202

only areas o f b r ig h te r c o lo r s can befound a t th e bottom r ig h t

co m er where the costum es and standards o f N a s ir i Khan and h is

army stand ou t a g a in st t h i s darkened background. As th e f o r t

b u m s, th e Mughal army, which i s p o s it io n e d in rows on th e r ig h t

s id e o f th e p a in tin g , surveys th e scene from t h e ir tren ch es which

are a t vary in g d is ta n c e s from the f o r t .

A c c o u n t i n M u la k h k h a s ( B e g l e y , p . 9 3 - 9 4 )

N a s i r i Khan p r o s e c u t e d t h e s e i g e w i t h r e d o u b l e d a r d o u r ; a n d o u t o f tw e n ty o n e m in e s i n a l l t h a t h e h a d c o m p le t e d , he c h a r g e d t h r e e w i t h g u n p o w d er a n d h e l d t h r e e o t h e r s i n r e s e r v e w h ic h he c o u l d c h a r g e a n d e x p l o d e a t p l e a s u r e . A t t h i s t i m e , a s A 'zam Khan h a d m a rc h e d t o h i s a s s i s t a n c e a n d a r r i v e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y a t Q a n d a h a r , N a s i r i K han b r o u g h t h im i n t o h i s own t r e n c h e s t o v ie w t h e s p e c t a c l e o f t h e d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e f o r t an d t h e a s s a u l t o f t h e g a l l a n t t r o o p s . The m in e s w e re a c c o r d i n g l y c h a r g e d an d s p r u n g i n h i s p r e s e n c e , one o f w h ic h f a i l e d t o i g n i t e , b u t t h e o t h e r two e x p lo d e d a n d d e m o l i s h e d t h e w a l l o f t h e S h e r h a j i d e f e n c e s a n d h a l f a l a r g e b a s t i o n , t h u s b lo w in g a l l t h e u n f o r t u n a t e b y s t a n d e r s i n t o t h e a i r . N a s i r i Khan w i t h h i s c o m a rd e s t h e n r u s h e d f o r w a r d on f o o t t o f o r c e an e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e f o r t ; a n d f ro m m id d a y t o s u n s e t , t h e f i g h t r a g e d f u r i o u s l y on b o th s i d e s . As t h e e x p l o s i o n h a d n o t d e s t r o y e d t h e w a l l s u f f i c i e n t l y , a n d t h e g a r r i s o n k e p t up a t r e m e n d o u s f i r e , he w as f o i l e d i n h i s a t t e m p t t o e n t e r ; n e v e r t h e l e s s h e a f f e c t e d a lo d g e m e n t on t h e b r e a c h , a n d d u r i n g t h e n i g h t commenced d r i v i n g o t h e r m i n e s . The g a r r i s o n now s e n s e d c l e a r l y t h a t t h e y m u s t s o o n b e o v e r p o w e re d ; a n d s i n c e t h e t r e n c h o p p o s i t e t h e g a t e w a y , w h ic h was u n d e r R a j a B u n d e l a ' s d i r e c t i o n , w as w i t h i n s p e a k i n g d i s t a n c e , t h e y s u e d f o r q u a r t e r t h r o u g h h im . N a s i r i Khan c o n s e n t e d an d s e n t t h e R a j a w i t h t h e r e q u i s i t e p a r d o n t o t h e g a t e w a y . W hereupon t h e g o v e r n o r a n d s e v e n o t h e r s o f t h e g a r r i s o n h a d an i n t e r v i e w w i t h h im a n d o p en ed t h e g a t e .

Unpublished


203

17 A rr iv a l o f th e Portuguese w ith T ribute O ffer in g s

date o f ev en t: June-Septem ber 1632 ( Z ' i l H ijja 1041-Rabi I 1042) 5 th reg n a l year

f o l i o 116v

dim ensions* 13*5" x 9 *9 "


P la te XIX

This p a r t ic u la r in c id e n t , which i s connected w ith th e fo llo w in g one,

grew ou t o f the f a c t th a t the Portuguese had ga in ed too g r e a t a

co n tro l over th e v i c i n i t y o f H ughli, an estu a ry in Bengal from

where th ey e s ta b lis h e d t h e ir tra d in g c e n te r . That th ey had a base

was n o t th e cause o f th e problem, but what became annoying to Shah

Jahan was th e f a c t th a t they had managed to e x e r t a su b s ta n t ia l

amount o f in flu e n c e o ver the n e ig h b o r in g towns and v i l l a g e s . This

in clu d ed con vertin g th e in h a b ita n ts to C h r is t ia n ity and u sin g them

as g a l le y workers on t h e ir s h ip s . In Sha'ban 1041 (March 1631 ) ,

Qasim Khan, then the governor o f B engal, sen t h is son 'In a y a t A lla h ,

th e commander A li Yar Khan, and se v e ra l o th er n o b le s to cap tu re the

f o r t o f H u gh li, Bahadur Kambu was a lso d isp a tch ed under th e p re te x t

o f another m iss io n , but in r e a l i t y he was to team up w ith th e o th ers9

a t th e proper tim e. I t was the duty o f A lla h Yar Khan to b lock

th e estu a ry so as to p reven t the Portuguese fra n e sca p in g when they

bacame aware o f th e imminent a t ta c k . The f i r s t a s s a u lt came on th e

2nd Z ' i l H ijja 1041 (2 0 th June 163 2 ) , and th e s ie g e la s t e d th ree

and a h a lf months. During t h i s tim e, th e P ortuguese made

sev er a l a ttem p ts a t d is c u s s in g peace s e t t le m e n ts , and even o ffe r e d


204

t r i b u t e a s a m eans o f n e g o t i a t i o n s . However t h i s n e v e r p ro v e d t o

be s u c c e s s f u l f o r t h e y w ere l a u n c h i n g a t t a c K s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I t

i s t h i s p e a c e o f f e r i n g o f n e a r l y one l a k h o f r u p e e s t h a t i s r e p r e

s e n t e d i n t h i s p a i n t i n g . The s c e n e i s a d a r b a r h e l d a t A g ra , an d

i s p r e s i d e d o v e r by S h a h J a h a n who s i t s i n a c e n t r a l l y e l e v a t e d

p o s i t i o n . He i s a t t e n d e d , t o by h i s s o n s a n d v a r i o u s n o b l e s o f

t h e c o u r t . The P o r t u g u e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s s t a n d o u t s i d e t h e g a t e

an d t h e y h o l d o f f e r i n g s o f j e w e l s a n d o t h e r p r e c i o u s i t e m s . The

o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a u s t e r e , t y p i c a l o f t h e Shah J a h a n i

c o u r t s t y l e * The c o l o r s a r e m a i n l y p a s t e l s h a d e s t h a t a r e o f f s e t

a g a i n s t a r i c h r e d c a r p e t a n d w h i t e m a r b l e w a l l s .

A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h Hama ( E l l i o t a n d Dowson, p . 36“ 37)

The r o y a l army w as e n g a g e d f o r t h r e e m o n th s an d a h a l f i n t h es e i g e o f t h i s s t r o n g p l a c e . Som etim es t h e i n f i d e l s f o u g h t , s o m e t im e s t h e y made o v e r t u r e s o f p e a c e p r o t r a c t i n g t h e t im e i n h o p e s o f s u c c o r f ro m t h e i r c o u n t ry m e n . W ith b a s e t r e a c h e r y t h e y p r e t e n d e d t o make p r o p o s a l s o f p e a c e , an d s e n t n e a r l y a l a c o f r u p e e s a s t r i b u t e w h i l e a t t n e same t im e t h e y o r d e r e d7 , 0 0 0 m u s k e t e e r s who w e re i n t h e i r s e r v i c e t o open f i r e .

Unpublished


205

18 Capture o f the Portuguese Fort a t Hughji i

date o f even t: 10 O ctober 1632 (14 Rabi I 1042), 5 th regn a l year

f o l i o 1 1 7 r

dim ensions: 1 3 *5" x 9*8”


P la te XX

The s c e n e d e p i c t e d h e r e i s a f o l l o w up t o t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e , an d

r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n c i d e n t w h ic h b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e f i n a l d e f e a t o f t h e

P o r t u g u e s e . E x p l o s i v e m in e s w e re p l a n t e d i n c h a n n e l s a l o n g t h e

c h u r c h w a l l a t H u g h l i» a n d o n t h e 1 4 t h R a b i I 1042 ( 1 0 t h O c to b e r

1 6 3 2 ) t h e M ughal arm y d rew t h e enemy t o t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e c h u r c h ,

o p e n e d h e a v y f i r e , a n d s e t o f f t h e m i n e s . Many o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e

w e re d row ned a n d t h o s e who t r i e d t o e s c a p e t o t h e i r s h i p s w e re c u t

o f f . A t t n i s p o i n t o f t h e b a t t l e t h e P o r t u g u e s e , r e a l i z i n g t h e i r

d e f e a t was im m in e n t , p r e f e r e d t o s a b o t a g e t h e i r own s h i p s a n d

c o m m it s u i c i d e r a t h e r t h a n f a l l p r i s o n e r t o t h e M u g h a ls . I n t h e

p a i n t i n g one s e e s t h e e x p l o s i o n a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e c h u r c h , t h e

a s s a u l t l a u n c h e d by t h e M ughal a rm y , a n d t h e c o u n t e r a t t a c k s an d

a t t e m p t s t o f l e e by t h e P o r t u g u e s e . The p a i n t i n g b r i n g s o u t t h e

t u r b u l e n t a c t i v i t y o f t h e b a t t l e w h ic h i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e

co lum n o f d a r k b l a c k sm oke r i s i n g f ro m t h e e x p l o s i o n i n t h e b a c k

g ro u n d . The M ughal arm y i s p o s i t i o n e d a l o n g t h e l e f t edge an d

b o t to m o f t h e p a i n t i n g , w h i l e t h e P o r t u g u e s e a r e a l o n g t h e c e n t e r

r i g h t e d g e . T h e s e two cam ps a r e d i v i d e d by a s t r i p o f g r a y b l u e

w a t e r w h ic h r u n s d i a g o n a l l y f ro m r i g h t t o l e f t a c r o s s t h e p a i n t i n g .


206

A c c o u n t i n P a d s h a h Mama ( E l l i o t a n d Dowson, p . 57)

By t n e c h u r c h . . . t h e y dug c h a n n e l s an d d re w o f f t h e w a t e r . M in es w ere t h e n d r i v e n on f ro m t h e t r e n c h e s , b u t two o f t h e s e w ere d i s c o v e r e d by t h e enemy an d c o u n t e r a c t e d . The c e n t e r m in e was c a r r i e d u n d e r a n e d i f i c e w h ic h was l o f t i e r a n d s t r o n g e r t h a n a l l t h e o t h e r b u i l d i n g s , a n d w h e re a l a r g e nu m b er o f F i r i n g i s

. w e re s t a t i o n e d . T h i s was c h a r g e d a n d ta m p e d . On t h e 1 4 t h R a b i - u l awwal t h e b e s e i g e r ' s f o r c e s w e re d raw n up i n f r o n t o f t h i s b u i l d i n g , i n o r d e r t o a l l u r e t h e enemy t o t h a t p a r t .When a l a r g e n u m b e r w e re a s s e m b l e d , a h e a v y f i r e w as o p e n e d , a n d t h e m ine was f i r e d . The b u i l d i n g w as b lo w n u p , a n d t h e many i n f i d e l s who h a d c o l l e c t e d a r o u n d i t w e re s e n t f l y i n g i n t o t h e a i r . The w a r r i o r s o f I s l a m r u s h e d t o t h e a s s a u l t .Some o f t h e i n f i d e l s f o u n d t h e i r way t o h e l l by t h e w a t e r , b u t some t h o u s a n d s s u c c e e d e d i n m a k in g t h e i r way t o t h e s h i p s . A t t h i s j u n c t u r e K h w a ja S h e r came up w i t h t h e b o a t s a n d k i l l e dmany o f t h e f u g i t i v e s . T h e s e f o e s o f t h e f a i t h w e re a f r a i dl e s t one l a r g e s h i p , w h ic h h a d n e a r l y tw o th o u s a n d men an d women a n d much p r o p e r t y on b o a r d , s h o u l d f a l l i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e Muhammadans; so t h e y f i r e d t h e m a g a z in e a n d b le w h e r u p . Many o t h e r s who w ere on b o a r d t h e g h a r b s s e t f i r e t o t h e i r v e s s e l s , an d t u r n e d t h e i r f a c e s t o w a r d s h e l l .

P u b l i s h e d : A s h t o n , S i r L e i g h , e d . The A r t o f I n d i a a n d P a k i s t a n .L o n d o n : F a b e r & F a b e r L t d . , 1 9 5 0 - P l a t e 158


207

1 9 - 2 0 D elivery o f the Sachaq to the House o f the Widow o f theLate Prince Parwiz, Jahan Banu Begum. Mother of the D-ridp- to -b e of Para Shikoh

date of event* November*-December 1632 (Jumada I 1042) ,5 t h r e g n a l y e a r

f o l i o 120v

d im e n s io n s * 1 3 »6 rt x 9 » 7 "

a r t i s t * unknown

P l a t e XXI

T h i s p a i n t i n g a n d i t s f a c i n g p a g e , f o l i o I 2 1 r , d e p i c t t h e f i r s t o f

a l o n g s e r i e s o f p r e p a r t o r y r i t e s t h a t p r e c e e d e d t h e w e d d in g c e r e

mony o f a p r i n c e . A f t e r t h e b e t r o t h a l a n d a b o u t two m o n th s b e f o r e

t h e m a r r i a g e , g i f t s w e re t a k e n to t h e h o u s e o f t h e p r i n c e ' s f u t u r e

i n - l a w s . H e re i t was t h e widow o f t h e l a t e p r i n c e P a r w i z , J a h a n

Banu Begum, m o t h e r o f D a ra s h i k o h ' s f u t u r e b r i d e . T h e s e g i f t s

a r e c a l l e d t h e s a c h a q , ' a n d c o n s i s t e d o f m oney, j e w e l l r y , c l o t h i n g

a n d o t h e r v a l u a b l e s . A t o t a l o f tw o l a k h s o f r u p e e s w ere s p e n t

f o r D a ra S h i k o h ' s s a c h a q ; one l a k h b e i n g c a s h , h a l f a l a k h b e i n g

j e w e l l r y , a n d h a l f a l a k h o f o t h e r g o o d s . The p a i n t i n g shows th e

l o n g p r o c e s s i o n o f g i f t b e a r e r s , s e r v a n t s a n d m u s i c i a n s e s c o r t i n g

t h e n o b l e s who w ere t o d e l i v e r t h e s a c h a q i n D a ra S h i k o h ' s nam e.

T h e re i s a s e n s e o f g r e a t s t a t e l i n e s s a n d m a j e s t y i n t h e p r o c e s s i o n

w h ic h m oves f ro m r i g h t t o l e f t a n d o c c u p i e s a l m o s t t h e w ho le l e n g t h

o f t h e p a i n t i n g . The g r o u n d i s a r a t h e r m u te d g r a y i s h b l u e an d

u p o n t h i s a r e im p o se d a m u l t i t u d e o f c o l o r s w h ic h a r e t h e c o s tu m e s ,

g i f t s a n d a c c o u t r e m e n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s i o n . The f o u r p r i n c i p a l


208

nobles are in the cen ter , kept a sm all d istan ce away from the r e s t

o f the crowd, so as to make them more prominent*

Unpubli shed

f o l io 121r

dim ensionss 13*4 M x 9»7"


P la te XXII

This p a in tin g continues the p rocession from the previous page, and

i t i s structured along th e same l in e s , that i s , w ith th ree columns

of people moving frcm r ig h t to l e f t th a t f i l l almost the e n tir e

len g th o f the page. The r ig h t edge column c o n s is ts o f servants

carrying branches o f f lo w ers , w hile in the middle i s a l in e o f

elephants upon which s i t the fem ale r e la t iv e s o f Para Shikoh. I t

was customary fo r the fem ale r e la t iv e s to be part o f the cortege

th a t brought the sachaq. to the house o f the fem ale in -la w s . On

the extreme l e f t , rounding o f f the p rocession , i s a band o f

m usicians. As in the previous page, the atmosphere i s gay and

f e s t iv e , w ith the same gray blue ground animated by a m ultitude

o f c o lo r s .

Unpublished

Account in Mulakhkhas (B egley, p . 128)

A ccordingly, in a chosen moment o f the month of Jumada I o f thepreceeding regnal year , one lakh worth o f goods and another in cash had been sent to the mansion o f Jahan Banu Begum, the widow o f Prince Parwiz, by way o f the customary sachaq g i f t s to the bride; and one h a lf o f the goods co n sisted o f jew e llry , and the remainder o f other va lu ab les and d resses .


209

21 - 22 E scorting Dara Shikoh to Hia Wedding Ceremony

date o f events 12 February 1633 (2 Shaban 1042),6th regnal year

f o l io 122v

dim ensions: 13«9 " x 9«9"

a r t i s t s Murad sign atu res r ig h t o f cen tra l f ig u r e

P la te XXIII

On the day o f the marriage — the ce leb ra tio n s o f the r i t e s took

place a t n igh t — Dara Shikoh's brothers and a few o f the h ig h est

ranking n ob les went to h is house to fe tc h and e sco r t him to the

pu blic audience h a ll fo r h is marriage ceremony. This event i s

c a lle d the shabgasht, the nocturnal procession.^® In th is s e t o f

p a in tin g s , one sees the brothers and the nob les a rr iv in g a t Dara

Shikoh's house. The guard of honor i s mounted on horseback and i s

made up o f e leven peop le . They are dressed in f in e c lo th in g o f a

v a s t array o f c o lo r s , and advance in a .s e m i-c ir c le th a t occupies

th e cen ter to the bottom r ig h t s id e o f the p a in tin g . In fron t o f

them are the servan ts who lead, the way with l ig h te d torch es, w hile

in the background another servant i s sc a tte r in g r ic e on the ground,

a symbol o f good lu ck . The p a in tin g i s composed of three strong

h o r izo n ta ls : the back w a ll, and the two l in e s th a t are th e guard

o f honor. This i s complemented by a v e r t ic a l which i s made up of

the f ig u r es on the l e f t edge o f the p a in tin g . A composed and

balanced stru ctu re i s achieved which enhances the aura o f m ajesty.

Unpublished


210

f o l i o 123r

dimensions: 13* 5" x 10"

a x t is t : unknown

P late XXIV

The procession o f the preceding page i s continued on th is one.

From the courtyard the procession i s en tering the house. I»ike the

previous scene, the procession moves p a r a lle l to the palace w alls

in the background, but the arrangement here i s more crowded and

l e s s m ajestic . M usicians and standard bearers lead the way, on the

l e f t sid e o f the com position, and they are fo llow ed by other

servants who are carrying the necessary item s for the use o f the

groom before the actu al ceremony. Included among th ese are

co lo r in g s for the eyes, b e te l nut and flo w ers , a l l o f which are

d ecorative or used to ward o f f e v i l . The com position i s very

c lo s e ly packed with people and o b je c ts . They are painted in a

m ultitude of co lo rs and th erefore stand out gayly aga in st the

predominant darkness of the elephants and the n igh t sky.

Unpublished

Account in Mulakhkhas (B egley , pp. 129-130)

In conform ity to the ever obeyed mandate, the Prince Muhammad Shah Shuja, Muhammad Aurangzeb, and Murad Bakhsh, attended by Yamin al-D aula Asaf Khan and a l l the grandees o f high rank, proceeded to His Royal Highness* mansion. And in the early part o f the n ig h t, having formed a gorgeous p rocession , in which some o f the nobles were on horseback and o th ers on fo o t according to the heir-apparent with grea t pomp and m agnificence in to the public assembly in the F o rty -P illa red Hall (C hih il Sutun) and introduced him in to the august presence.


211

23 - 24 P resentation of Wedding G ifts to Para Shikoh by Shah J a h a n

date of event: 12 February 1633 (2 Shaban 1042),6th regnal year

f o l io 124v

dimensions: 16" x 9»9 "


P late XXVA f t e r b e i n g e s c o r t e d t o t h e p u b l i c a u d i e n c e h a l l , D a ra S h ik o h was

p r e s e n t e d t o Shah J a h a n who c o n f e r r e d u p o n h im a num ber o f e l a b o

r a t e g i f t s . Among t h e s e w ere r o b e s a n d w eapons o f h o n o r , e l e p h a n t s ,

an d j e w e l l r y , a n d i n t o t a l t h e y a m o u n ted t o f o u r l a k h s o f r u p e e s .

The p a i n t i n g show s Shah J a h a n p l a c i n g a p e a r l v e i l u p o n h i s s o n .

A f a c i a l v e i l was p a r t o f t n e w ed d in g c o s tu m e w orn by t n e groom

11a s a s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t e v i l f o r c e s . B e s to w in g t h e p r e s e n t s came

b e f o r e t h e a c t u a l m a r r i a g e s e r v i c e , a n a t h i s a c c o u n t s f o r t h e

a b s e n c e o f t h e b r i d e . The ce rem ony was h e l d i n t h e c o u r t y a r d o f

t h e p u b l i c a u d i e n c e n a i l a t A g ra , a n d a s i t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e

e v e n i n g , la m p s w ere p l a c e d a r o u n d t h e g a r d e n s , u n d e r t h e b a l c o n y ,

12a n d on t h e b o a t s l i n i n g t n e b an k s o f t h e r i v e r Jummna. M u s ic ,

d a n c in g a n d f i r e w o r k s w ere t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t f o r t h i s

p a r t o f t h e c e re m o n y , a n d d a n c i n g g i r l s c a n be s e e n i n t h i s p o r t i o n

o f t h e p a i n t i n g . T h e s e g i r l s a r e g a i l y c l a d a n d d a n c e b e n e a t h t h e

a u d i e n c e b a l c o n y w here S h ah J a h a n , h is s o n s a n d t h e c o u r t i e r s

s t a n d . I n t h e b a c k g ro u n d f i r e w o r k s l i g h t up t h e n i g h t sky

r e v e a l i n g a v a g u e s i l h o u e t t e o f t h e w a l l s o f t h e f o r t i n t h e

b a c k g r o u n d . The f a ir ly la rg e d i s t a n c e between the audience


212

■balcony and th e dancing g i r l s d iv id ed th e p a in tin g in to two

d i s t in c t s e c t io n s . This e s ta b lis h e d a sep a ra te space in which

th e se two very d if f e r e n t a c t io n s take p la c e . The o rd er ly one on

th e top i s r e in fo r c e d by th e h o r iz o n ta l row o f f ig u r e s , w h ile the

rhythm ic flo w o f the dancers i s ach ieved by t h e ir la ck o f a

s tru c tu red p o s i t io n .

Unpublished

f o l io 125r

dim ensions: 15«7 ” * 10.1"


P la te XXVI

This p a in tin g i s a continu ation o f the preceding page, and d ep ic ts

the firew orks in the upper part of the p a in tin g . The firew orks

a c ts as a background to the audience which stands on the balcony

w itn e ss in g th e scen e ta k in g p la c e on th e o th er page. Below in

th e courtyard a la r g e band o f m u sic ian s p rov id e th e m usical

accompaniment for the dancing g i r l s . In ad d itio n to g i f t s fo r

Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan a lso bestowed favors upon the other nobles13and the e n ter ta in e rs . The whole wedding ceremony togeth er with

a l l the g i f t s presented came to a to ta l o f th ir ty -tw o lakhs o f

r u p e e s .^ As in the preceding page, the f ig u r e s are dressed in

b r ig h tly colored costumes which stand out very handsomely aga in st

the dark sky.

Unpublished


215

A c c o u n t i n M u la k h k h a s ( B e g l e y , p .1 3 0 )

H is M a j e s t y , t h e shadow o f God, t h e n c o n f e r r e d on him a s u p e r b r o b e o f h o n o u r , a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r w i t h i n c i s e d o r n a m e n t ; a sw o rd a n d b e l t s t u d d e d w i t h gem s; a r o s a r y o f p e a r l s , on w h ic h w ere a l s o s t r u n g some r u b i e s ; two f i n e h o r s e s , o n e c a r r y i n g a j e w e l l e d , t h e o t h e r a n e n a m e le d s a d d l e ; a n d a s p l e n d i d e l e p h a n t c a p a r i s o n e d w i t h s i l v e r h o u s i n g s , t o g e t h e r w i t h a f e m a l e o n e — t h e w h o le b e i n g w o r th f o u r l a k h s o f r u p e e s . Gn Yamin a l - D a u l a he b e s to w e d a h an d so m e r o b e o f h o n o u r w i t h v e s t w o rk ed i n g o l d an d a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r w i t h i n c i s e d o rn a m e n t ; an d on t h e o t h e r c h i e f d i g n i t a r i e s , n o b l e s a n d men o f n o t e , t h e r e w ere b e s to w e d c h o i c e d r e s s e s o f h o n o u r a s w e l l a s r o b e s , w i t h g r a t u t i e s b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t o t n e v a r i o u s e n t e r t a i n e r s . By H is M a j e s t y ' s command, t h e g a r d e n s b e n e a t h t h e r o y a l c h a m b e rs a n a t h e g r o u n d s b e lo w t h e a u d i e n c e b a l c o n i e s , a s w e l l a s t h e b o a t s u p o n t h e Jummna, w e re i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h l a m p s ; an d f i r e w o r k s , w h ic h h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d a t h i s p r i v a t e e x p e n s e , w e re d i s p l a y e d on t h e b a n k s o f t h e Jummna a n a s i n g i n g was k e p t up w i t n s p i r i t .


214

25 - 26 Wedding P rocession of Shah Shu.ia

date o f event: 4 March 1655 (22 Shaban 1042),6 th regnal year

f o l io 126v

dim ensions: 13® 6 " x 9®7 ”


P la te JflCVII

This double-page p a in tin g rep resen ts the moment when Shah Shuja

was escorted to h is wedding ceremony. I t i s the same stage of the

wedding as th a t o f f o l io s 122v and 123r. This h a lf o f the p a in tin g

shows Shah Shuja’ s younger brothers, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh,

along with a number of n o b les , e sco r tin g him to the audience h a ll

where the r i t e s were to be ce leb ra ted . The procession moves from

the r ig h t to the l e f t in two v e r t ic a l rows. T his guard o f honor

i s mounted on horses and occupies the cen ter o f the com position.

Accompanying i t are the customary array o f m usicians and servants

who are carrying to rch es . The s e t t in g i s in the courtyard o f the

palace where on the w a lls numerous candles are in s ta l le d . The

atmosphere i s gay and f e s t iv e , and the s e t t in g i s very b r ig h tly

illu m in ated . The f e s t i v i t y i s heightened by the array of bright

colored costum es. Shah Shuja and h is two brothers occupy the

cen ter o f the page, and they make a very noble and e legant p ic tu r e .

Behind them are two nob les and severa l servan ts. A to ta l o f15s ix teen lakhs o f rupees was spent on th is occasion .

Unpublished


215

f o l i o 125r

dim ensions: 13*55" x 10*7”


P la te XXVIII

As the adjo in in g scene to the preceding page, th is p a in tin g shows

the con tin u ation o f the procession lea d in g towards the audience

h a l l . Here one sees on ly servants and m usicians. The bottom and

lower r ig h t edges are l in e d with torch bearers, w hile a t the top

and the l e f t o f the bottom edges are the m usicians. The m usicians

are mounted on elephants and h orses, and p lay drums and trumpets.

In the middle ground are fou rt standard bearers on elephants who

lead the e n tire p rocession . While th is scene i s l e s s b r ig h tly

illu m in ated than the preceding one, i t i s much more a c tiv e and

one g e ts the im pression o f a very n o isy environment. The co lors

used are a lso very gay and b r ig h t, which heightens th is f e s t iv e

atmosphere.

Unpublished

Account in Mulakhkhas (B egley, p. 132)

At the c lo se o f the day, His Majesty took h is sea t a t the balcony (jharoka) o f the F o rty -P illa red H all; and the Princes Muhammad Aurangzeb and Murad Bakhsh, a long with Yamin a l - Daula and a l l the n o b les , proceeded at the august command to His Eoyal H ighness's resid en ce and conducted him along the r iv e r bank in to the royal presence. During h is progress th ith e r , bright lamps and firew orks — the most b ea u tifu l th a t can be conceived — were exh ib ited on a l l s id e s .


216

27 Aurangzeb C onfronting an Enraged. Elephant

date o f events June 1633 ( Z ' i l Qada 1042), 6th regnal year

f o l io 134r

dim ensions: 15»9 " x 10 . 4 ”

a r tiB t: unknown

P la te XXIX

The i n c i d e n t r e l a t e d h e r e t e l l s o f t h e o c c a s i o n w h e re A u r a n g z e b ,

t h e n a g e d f i f t e e n , d e m o n s t r a t e d u n m a tc h e d c o u r a g e i n d e a l i n g w i t h

a n e n r a g e d e l e p h a n t * D u r in g a n e l e p h a n t f i g h t , w h ic h w as w i t n e s s e d

by S h ah J a h a n , A u ra n g z e b a n d S h a h S h u j a , o n e o f t h e e l e p h a n t s

h a p p e n e d t o t u r n u p o n A u ra n g z e b a n d r u s h e d a t h im . The p r i n c e

b r a v e l y w e n t f o r w a r d t o s u b d u e i t , a n d th o u g h h e was th ro w n f ro m

h i s h o r s e , h e c o n t i n u e d t h e a d v a n c e m e n t . He s u c c e e d e d a t h u r l i n g

a s p e a r a t i t s f o r e h e a d . S h u j a who was n e a r b y t r i e d t o h e l p h i s

b r o t h e r , b u t was th ro w n f ro m h i s h o r s e . At t h i s p o i n t S h ah J a h a n

o r d e r e d t h e s e r v a n t s t o a s s i s t i n t h i s a f f a i r w h ic h was f i n a l l y

b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n t r o l when t h e o t h e r e l e p h a n t c h a r g e d a t t h e f i r s t

o n e . T h e r e f o r e t h e f i r s t e l e p h a n t w as o b l i g e d t o f i g h t t h e s e c o n d

o n e o f f , a n d l e f t t h e tw o p r i n c e s a l o n e . The moment d e p i c t e d h e r e

i s when A u ra n g z e b h a d j u s t p i e r c e d t h e e l e p h a n t ’ s f o r e h e a d w i t h

h i s s p e a r . The p r i n c e , on h o r s e b a c k , an d t h e e l e p h a n t a r e i n t h e

center foreground, and the open space created ju s t behind then by

the rows o f servants along the l e f t and back edges o f the pain tin g ,

make the pair the focu s o f the v iew er 's a tte n tio n . In the back

ground i s a fren z ied a c tio n o f servants running to and fr o . They

are p a r t ia lly masked by the cloud of dust r is in g from the musket


217

sh o ts . On th e l e f t are Shah Jahan surrounded by a tte n d a n ts , and

Shah Shuja a l i t t l e low er down. The o th er elep h an t i s in th e top

r ig h t hand corn er. T h is p a in tin g i s th e on ly one in th e m anuscript

done in a h o r iz o n ta l form at. T his s tr u c tu r e a llo w s fo r a g rea ter

panoramic v iew o f the w hole in c id e n t , and l e t s the a c t i v i t i e s be

spaced out fa r enough to avo id any co n g estio n which may d e tr a c t

from th e in t e n s i t y o f the a c t io n .

A cco u n t from M ulakhkhas ( B e g le y , p . 1 3 6 -1 3 7 )

I n th e c o u r se o f th e c o n f l i c t f in d in g th e a n im a ls w ere g e t t i n g o u t o f s i g h t , he (S h a h J a h an ) f o l lo w e d a f t e r them on h o r se b a c k , a t te n d e d by th e P r in c e s Muhammad Shah S h u ja and Muhammad A urangzeb , who r o d e up to th e l e f t o f th e e le p h a n t s to w it n e s s th e e x c i t i n g s c e n e . P r e s e n t ly th e a n im a ls p a u sed and d e p a r te d from e a c h o th e r a l i t t l e , u n t i l a t l e n g t h th e r e was a c o n s id e r a b le i n t e r v a l b e tw een th e tw o . Whereupon one o f them , s e e in g h i s a n t a g o n is t a lo n g way o f f , tu r n e d rou n d and r u sh e d f i e r c e l y upon P r in c e Muhammad A u r a n g z e b ...T h e l i o n - h e a r t e d y o u th w ith g r e a t co u ra g e and i n t r e p i d i t y d ia n o t s t i r from h i s p o s t ; b u t a s so o n a s th e e le p h a n t a p p roach ed he g a l lo p e d a t i t and r o s e up i n h i s s t i r r u p s and h u r le d h i s sp e a r w ith h i s w h o le s t r e n g t h a g a in s t i t s f o r e h e a d . The m o n ste r , sm a r tin g from th e wound, a g a in r u sh ed f u r i o u s l y t o th e a t t a c k ; ana th e s t e e d o f th a t ••bold k n ig h t o f th e l i s t s o f va lou r'* b e in g s t r u c k i n th e f la n k s by th e e le p h a n t ’ s tr u n k r o l l e d o v e r from th e v i o l e n c e o f th e sh o c k . The i n s t a n t t h e P r in c e f e l l from h i s s a d d le t o th e g ro u n d , h e sp ra n g n im b ly u p , and s to o d sw ord i n h an d . S e e in g t h i s P r in c e Muhammad Shah S h u ja g a l lo p e d fo r w a r d , in t e n d in g i n s t a n t l y t o h u r l h i s s p e a r a t th e e l e p h a n t . . .W h i ls t c h a r g in g onw ard, P r in c e Shah S h u ja * s h o r s e su d d e n ly r e a r e d . . . ( h e ) was throw n from h i s s a d d le , and was c o n s e q u e n t ly u n a b le t o o v e r ta k e th e en ra g ed e l e p h a n t . . .M ea n w h ile , th e o th e r e le p h a n t n o t ic e d h i s a n t a g o n is t en g a g ed i n a n o th e r q u a r te r and s e iz e d th e o p p o r tu n ity o f c h a r g in g a lo n e upon h im . B e in g th u s ta k e n a t a d is a d v a n ta g e , th e en ra g ed e l e p h a n t . . . ( l e f t ) th e P r in c e (a n d ) f l e d a w a y .. .T h e i l l u s t r i o u s P r i n c e s , a f t e r b e in g th u s r e s c u e d by D iv in e P r o v id e n c e , r e p a ir e d to H is M a je s ty ’ s p r e s e n c e . A f t e r t e n d e r ly em b racing A u ran gzeb , H is M a jesty d i s t in g u i s h e d him by th e t i t l e o f B ahadur, and warm ly commended Shah S h u ja .

Unpublished


218

28 P rince Khurram K i l l in g a Lton

date of even t: 20 December 1610

f o l i o 135v

d im en sion s: 13 . 8 " x 9*8”

a r t i s t : Balchand s ig n a tu re : bottom r ig h t edge ons h i e l d

P la t e XXX

A lth o u g h t h i s in c i d e n t to o k p la c e d u r in g th e p r in c e h o o d o f Shah

Jah an , i t was in tr o d u c e d h e r e f o r d id a c t ic p u r p o se s . I t s e r v e s

to p a r a l l e l th e b r a v e r y o f A urangzeb d em o n str a ted in f o l i o 1 34r

w ith t h a t o f p r in c e Khurram a t th e a ge o f e ig h t e e n . On a h u n tin g

t r i p in th e company o f J a h a n g ir , ham D as, I t im a d Ray, H ayat Khan

and Anup Ray, P r in c e Khurram 3 a ved Anup Ray from b e in g m auled to

16d e a th Dy a l i o n . The e x p e d it io n fou n d a t one p o in t a h a l f

devou red b u l lo c k in t h e i r p a th , and when Anup Ray w ent to exam ine

th e c a r c a s s , a l i o n sp ra n g o u t a t him from th e b u sh e s . Jahan6i r

f i r e d a t th e b e a s t tw ic e but m is s e d on b o th o c c a s io n s , and was th u s

u n a b le t o s to p th e l i o n from a t t a c k in g th e poor s e r v a n t . At t h i s

moment, p r in c e Khurram urew h i s sword and s t r u c k th e a n im a l, th u s

r e l e a s in g Anup Ray from i t s c l u t c h e s . W ith tn e h e lp o f o th e r

members o f th e h u n tin g p a r ty , th e l i o n was d u ly b rou g h t under

c o n t r o l , 'i'he p a in t in g show s th e l i o n b e in g subdued a f t e r h a v in g

r e c e iv e d th e f a t a l b low from P r in c e Khurram. Anup Ray i s l y i n g

under th e b e a s t , and th ey occu p y th e c e n t r a l ground o f th e compo

s i t i o n . They a r e su rrou n d ed by p r in c e Khurram and two o th e r

members o f th e e x p e d i t i o n . J a h a n g ir s ta n d s o f f to th e r i g h t .


219

In the background serv a n ts and o th er n o b les watch t h is scene from

a d is ta n c e . P ublished tr a n s la t io n s r e la t in g t h i s event s ta te that

a t ig e r a ttack ed Anup Ray, but in th e p a in tin g , i t i s o b v io u sly

a l io n th a t i s d e p ic te d . However t h i s in c o n s is te n c y between th e

te x t and th e p a in tin g does not in any way a l t e r the m essage o f

the p a in tin g i t s e l f . The b a s ic h o r iz o n ta l o r ie n ta t io n s ta b l iz e s

th e com p osition , but u n fo r tu n a te ly e lim in a te s any sense o f

dynamism one would ex p ect from a scene o f t h is k ind.

A ccou n t i n T u z u k - i-J a h a n g ir i (R ogers and B e v e r id g e , I p . 1 8 6 -1 6 7 )

Anup Ray l e t tn e r e s t s l i p o u t o f h i s hand ana tu r n e d tow ard s tn e t i g e r . Tne t i g e r tu rn ed on him and he m a n fu lly f a c e d him ana s t r u c k nim two t im e s w ith Doth hands on th e head w ith th e s t i c k n e had in h i s h an d . The t i g e r , o p e n in g n i s m outh, s e iz e d b o th o f Anup R a y 's arms w itn i t , and b i t them so t h a t h i s t e e t n p a s se d tn ro u g h b o th , .but th e s t i c k and th e b r a c e l e t s on h i s arms w ere h e l p f u l , and a id n o t a llo w h i s arms to be d e s tr o y e d . From tn e a t t a c k and p u sn in g 'tn e t i g e r , Anup Ray f e l l down b etw een tn e t i g e r ' s f o r e f e e t s o t n a t h i s head and fa c e were o p p o s i t e th e t i g e r ' s c h e s t . At t h i s moment Baba Khurram and ham Das came up t o th e a s s i s t a n c e o f Anup R ay.The p r in c e s tru cK tn e t i g e r on tn e l o i n s w ith h i s sw ord, and Ram Das a l s o s t r u c k him two t im e s w itn n i s sw o r a ...A n u p Ray w ith f o r c e a ra g g ed n i s arms o u t o f tn e t i g e r ' s m outh ana s tr u c k him two o r th r e e t im e s on th e c n e e x w ith h i s f i s t , ana r o l l i n g o v e r on n i s s i a e s to o d up Dy tn e f o r c e o f h i s k n e e s .

Unpublished


220

29 Capture o f the Fort o f Daulatabad

date o f even t: 22 December 1632-27 June 1633 (9 Jumada 11-19 Z’i l H ijja 1 0 4 2 ), 6th regn a l y ea r

f o l i o 144^

dim ensions* 12" x 9»S"

a r t is t * Murad sign atu re* bottom m iddle edge onf la g

P la te XXXI

The s i e g e and c a p tu r e o f th e f o r t o f D a u la ta b a d r e s u l t e d i n th e

a b s o r p t io n o f th e kingdom o f Ahmadnagar i n t o th e dom ain o f th e

M ugnal em p ir e , itfot o n ly w as i t an im p o r ta n t v i c t o r y f o r th e M ughal

army, b u t i t w as a l s o an a c co m p lish m en t to w a rd s th e r e s o l u t i o n o f

t n e lo n g s ta n d in g D eccan p r o b le m . Ahmadnagar, b e in g on th e so u th

ern b o r a e r o f t h e M ughal e m p ir e , had en d u red many o n s la u g h t s d u r in g

tn e r e ig n o f J a h a n g ir , b u t u n d er th e le a d e r s h i p o f M a lik Ambar, th e

s t a t e had h e ld f ir m . Upon h i s d e a th th e s t r e n g t h o f th e s t a t e

began to d im in is h , and th e s i t u a t i o n was a g g r a v a te d by i n t e r n a l

t r o u b le s t h a t a r o s e b etw een th e s u l t a n and h i s new m in i s t e r F a th

Khan. The f a c t th a t t h i s s u l t a n , N izam u-1 Mulk had once e n te r e d

i n t o an a l l i a n c e w ith th e r e b e l Khan Jah an L o d i was e x c u s e enough

f o r Shah Jahan t o a t t a c k th e tow n. F a th Khan s o ld th e s u l t a n o u t

t o tn e M ughals i n ex cn a n g e f o r h e lp t o v a n q u ish th e B ija p u r tr o o p s

who w ere th en b e s i e g i n g t n e f o r t a t D a u la ta b a d . A c o n t in g e n t o f

im p e r ia l f o r c e s l e d by M ahabat Khan e v e n t u a l ly s u c c e e d e d i n

r e p e l l i n g th e B ija p u r f o r c e s , b u t p a th Khan th e n ch an ged a l l e g i e n c e


221

1 7and r e f u s e d t o su r r e n d e r th e f o r t to th e M u gh a ls . 1 A lo n g s i e g e

th u s f o l lo w e d , and a t th e end o f ab ou t two m onths when P a th Khan

r e a l i z e d t h a t th e f o r t w ou ld so o n e r o r l a t e r c a p i t u l a t e , h e s t r u c k

up a b a r g a in f o r p e a c e , and handed th e k ey s o f th e f o r t , and1 Q

o f f e r e d t h e s u l t a n a s a h o s ta g e * T hat th e s i e g e l a s t e d f o r su ch

a lo n g t im e was due n o t t o th e w ea k n ess o f th e Mughal t r o o p s b u t

t o th e sh e e r im p r e g n a b i l i t y o f th e f o r t r e s s . The s c e n e h ere

r e p r e s e n t s th e e n tr y o f th e Mughal army i n t o th e f o r t and th e

h a n d in g o v e r o f i t s c o n t r o l by P a th Khan t o K h an -i-K h an an . The

f o r t r e s s s ta n d s i n th e b ack grou n d , o c c u p y in g a good h a l f o f th e

c o m p o s it io n . I n th e fo r e g r o u n d th e n e g o t i a t i o n s ta k e p la c e , w ith

M ahabat Khan i n th e c e n t e r e x te n d in g a hand to w a rd s th e a p p ro a ch in g

F a th Khan. The c o m p o s it io n i s v e r y dark and i s e x e c u te d i n e x t r e

m ely som bre c o l o r s . T h is n e lp s to a c c e n tu a te th e h ea v y gloom o f th e

b a t t l e .

A ccou n t i n P adshah Hama ( E l l i o t and Dowson, p . 3 9 -4 4 )

The B i j a p u r i s w ere d is c o u r a g e d by th e c h a s t is e m e n t th e y had r e c e iv e d from t h e im p e r ia l arm y, so th e y maae o f f e r s o f an arran gem ent t o F a th Ktian. They o f f e r e d t o le a v e th e f o r t r e s s i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n , ' t o g iv e him t h r e e l a c s o f p agod as i n c a sh and t o throw p r o v i s io n s i n t o th e f o r t . T hat i l l - s t a r r e d f o o l i s h f e l l o w , a l l u r e d by t h e s e p r o m is e s , b rok e h i s fo rm er en gag em en t, and e n te r e d i n t o an a l l i a n c e w ith th e m .. .K han-khanan , on b e in g in fo rm ed o f th e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , m arched from Z a fa rn a g a r t o D a u la ta b a d ...H e p la c e d th e a r t i l l e r y and s e i g e m a t e r ia l under th e a o r e c t io n o f ( h i s s o n s ) L u h rasp , and o r d e r e d t h a t a c o n s ta n t f i r e s h o u ld be k ep t u p . . .H e a l s o o r d e r ed Khan-zaman t o b e c o n s t a n t ly on th e a l e r t w ith 5>000 c a v a lr y , and re a d y to r e n d e r a s s i s t a n c e w herever i t m ig n t be r e q u ir e d i n th e t r e n c h e s . Tne im p e r ia l army h a v in g th u s in v e s t e d th e


222

p la c e , and form ed t r e n c h e s , pushed on th e s e i g e , ru n n in g z i g z a g s , fo rm in g m in es and p r e p a r in g s c a l i n g l a d d e r s . . .P a th Khan now work from h i s s l e e p o f h e e d le s s n e s s and s e c u r i t y . He saw th a t D a u la ta b a d c o u ld n o t r e s i s t th e I m p e r ia l arms and th e v ig o u r o f th e I m p e r ia l commander. To s a v e th e h on our o f h i s own and Nizam S h a h 's women, h e s e n t h i s e l d e s t son 'A bdu-r R u su l t o Khan K hanan. He b eg g ed f o r g i v e n e s s and s e n t f o r a w e e k 's d e la y s t o e n a b le him t o rem ove h i s and N izam S h a h 's f a m ily from th e f o r t r e s s * w h ile h i s son rem a in ed a s a h o s ta g e i n K han-khanan' s p ow er. K han-khanan had co m p a ssio n on h i s f a l l e n c o n d i t io n , g r a n te d him s a f e t y and k e p t h i s so n a s a h o s t a g e . . .F a th Khan s e n t th e k e y s to K han-khanan, and s e t a b o u t p r e p a r in g h i s own d e p a r t u r e . . .On th e 1 9 t h Z i-1 h i j j a F a th Khan came o u t o f th e f o r t r e s s and d e l iv e r e d i t u p . . .K han-khanan w ent i n t o th e f o r t r e s s , and had th e k h u tb a r e a d i n th e E m p eror's nam e.

Unpublished


223

30 Departure o f Shah Shuja fo r the Deccan

date o f even t: 28 August 1633 (S afar 1043)» 6th reg n a l yeari

f o l i o 147v

dim ensions: 13*5 ” x 10'*

a r t i s t : Murad s ig n a tu re: on s c r o l l , m iddle o fp a in t ing

P la te XXXII

Soon a f t e r tn e f a l l o f D a u la ta b a d , Khan Khanan r e q u e s te d to be

r e l ie v e d , o f h is command a s b o th h e and h i s tr o o p s w ere worn o u t

a f t e r t n e l o n g s i e g e . Shah J a h a n t h u s d e s i g n a t e d S h ah S h u ja a s

commander o f th e r e l i e f f o r c e s , and th e p r in c e p rep a red to le a v e

in th e month o f S a fa r IO4 3 . Upon r e c e i v i n g th e command, Shah

S h u ja * s ran k was in c r e a s e d to a mansab o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 z a t and 5*000

su w ar, and i n a d d i t io n h e was awarded many f i n e and h o n o r a b le

1 qg i f t s . A number o f n o b le s , in c lu d e d among tnem w ere S a y y id Khan

Janu and R a ja J a i S in g h , w ere a l s o g r a n te d in c r e m e n ts i n t h e i r

ra n k s and were a p p o in te d to accom pany tn e p r in c e . The p a in t in g

h ere snow s Shah Jahan r e c e i v i n g Shan sn u ja a t th e darb ar h e ld in

honor o f h i s d e p a r tu r e . He i s b e in g r e c e iv e d on th e b a lc o n y and

i s bow ing r e v e r e n t ly in f r o n t o f h i s f a t h e r . P r e s e n t a l s o on th e

b a lc o n y a r e A urangzeb and Murad Bakhsh on th e r i g h t and A sa f Khan

on th e l e f t . On tn e f l o o r o f th e a u d ie n c e h a l l , c o u r t ie r s s ta n d

i n o r d e r ly row s and q u i e t l y o b se r v e th e s c e n e . As a t y p i c a l d a rb a r ,

th e p r e s e n t a t io n h e r e i s one o f c o ld f o r m a l i t y w hich i s em p h asized

by th e s t r o n g v e r t i c a l l i n e s t h a t c u t a c r o s s th e p a in t in g . The

s e n se o f n e a t n e s s i s augm ented by th e g r id p a t te r n form ed by th e


224

i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f th e h o r iz o n t a l and v e r t i c a l l i n e s , a d e v ic e w h ich

c o m p a r tm e n ta liz e s tn e f i g u r e s i n t o s m a ll g r o u p s .

A ccou n t i n M ulaknkhas ( .B e g le y , p . 172)

On h i s ta k in g l e a v e , H is R oya l H ig h n e s s , w hose incom e up to t h i s t im e had b een 7 5 0 r u p e e s d a i l y , was c o n fe r r e d a m ansab o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 z a t and 5»000 su w ar. He was a l s o aw arded a handsome ro b e o f h on ou r , w ith t u n ic o f g o ld em b ro id ery and b u t to n s o f em era ld s and p e a r l s ; a j e w e l l e d sw ord and d aggar w ith i n c i s e d o rn a m en ts; two f i n e h o r s e s , one w ith j e w e l l e d , th e o th e r w ith enam eled t r a p p in g s ; a s p le n d id e le p h a n t c o v e r e d w ith s i l v e r h o u s in g s , t o g e t h e r w ith a fe m a le on e; and a d o n a t io n o f s i x la k h s o f r u p e e s . W ith p r o fu se k in d n e s s , H is M a je s ty th e n commanded t h a t th e P r in c e sn o u ld s t a r t o f f from th e p a la c e to th e d i g n i f i e d sound o f drum s.

Unpublished


225

31 Shah Jahan Hunting N jlgao Near Pal am

date o f events February 1634 (Shaban 1 0 43), 7th regn al year

f o l i o l 65r

dim ensions: 1 3 »B" x 9 "

a r t i s t s unknown

P la t e XXXIII

At th e b eginn ing o f the 7 th regnal y ea r , Shah Jahan decided to pay

a v i s i t to h is c a p ita l a t Lahore in the Punjab, to where he had

n o t been s in c e h is a c c e s s io n . The ro y a l co r teg e proceeded from

Agra a t the b eg in n in g o f th e month o f Shaban 1043, and a rr iv ed at

D elhi towards the end o f the month. Here Shah Jahan made a sm all

d iv e r s io n to the roya l hunting grounds o f Pal am, and spent four

days sh o o tin g b lack bucks. He i s sa id to have shot fo u r hundred 20o f them. This p a in tin g i s a b e a u t ifu l sea o f browns and greens

th a t s tr e tc h e s fa r back in to th e h orizon , and c r e a te s a very

r e p o se fu l y e t m a je s tic decor. Shah Jahan and the members o f the

hunting p arty are on the low er l e f t edge o f th e p a in t in g , but

y e t dominate the p a in tin g by the sh eer w eight o f th e ir s iz e s s they

are d isp r o p o r tio n a te ly la r g e fo r th e ir s e t t in g . T his however

h e lp s to emphasize th e im portance o f Shah Jahan, which i s a lread y

ra th er ob v iou s, thanks to h is c e n tr a l p o s i t io n and h i s enframing

h a lo . That Shah Jahan here appears much o ld e r than in the

p reced in g p a in tin g , has caused some sc h o la r s to q u estio n the date

o f t h is work. I t i s p o s s ib le th a t t h is p a in t in g may be a s l i g h t ly

l a t e r copy o f an o r ig in a l work th a t was found to be damaged at


th e tim e o f assem bly. The a r t i s t , n ot having been p resen t a t the

even t, may have d ep ic ted Shah Jahan, not as he appeared in th e 7th

regn al y ea r , but as he was a t the tim e the p a in t in g was execu ted .

Account in Mulakhkhas (B eg ley , p . 176 )

At th e c lo s e o f the above month o f Shab'an (end February 1634 ) , when th e standard o f r o y a lty a rr ived a t the c a p ita l o f D e lh i, His M ajesty went o f f to the p reserv es a t Palam, which i s one o f th e r e g u la r sh o o tin g grounds o f th a t p la c e , and lod ged at the v i l l a s erec te d th ere by h is f a th e r 's and h i s own commands. He th ere amused h im se lf w ith fo u r days o f sp o r t. During th a t tim e, he one day bagged w ith h is own gun 400 bucks, every one o f which he brought down a t th e f i r s t sh o t.

P u b lish ed : B a rr e tt , Douglas and Gray, B a s i l . P a in tin g o f In d ia .Geneva: E d it io n s d 'A rt A lbert S k ira , 1 Fage 113 .


227

32 Onager Hunting In Bhera in the Pun.iab

date o f even t: October 1634 (Jumada I 1 0 4 4 ), 7 th reg n a l year

f o l i o 1 6 6 v

dim ensions: 13*5” x 9*8"


P la te XXXIV

As in f o l i o l6 5 r , t h i s p a in t in g i l lu s t r a t e d Shah Jahan 's pastim es

and the im portance th ey had to th e r e ig n by d in t o f the f a c t they

were done by th e emperor* Here one se e s the co n c lu s io n o f the

hunt when th e prey has been captured . Vftiat was so p a r t ic u la r

about t h is hunt was th a t the onagers were hunted in a new and more

e f f e c t iv e method. B a s ic a l ly th e system was to entrap them at th e

tim e th ey v i s i t e d t h e ir reg u la r w aterin g h o le . A t o t a l o f s ix t y -

th ree onagers were hunted, tw enty having been p e rso n a lly captured

by Shah Jahan, who ordered th a t th e young ones be taken a l i v e . ^

The p ro c ess io n i s moving a long fran th e r ig h t edge o f th e p a in tin g

and appears to be em erging ou t from the background. The r e c e s s io n

o f th e lan d scap e by i t s d im in ish in g s c a le c r e a te s a n o tio n o f an

immense sp ace . A w a lled c i t y stan d s in th e top l e f t hand corn er.

This p a in tin g has o n ly been t e n t a t iv e ly id e n t i f i e d as the onager

hunt in Bhera, on accou n t o f i t s lo c a t io n w ith in the m anuscript.

However, as t h i s o n ly r e p r ese n ts th e p r o c ess io n o f ser v a n ts , and

seems to be on ly a p a rt o f a double-page com p osition , and th a t

th e lan d scap e background c lo s e ly resem bles th a t o f f o l i o l 65r , i t

may be th a t th e two p a in tin g s were meant to have been p laced


228

to g e th er and th a t during the assem bly o f the m anuscript they got

mixed up. Furthermore, ch eetah s were o f te n used in hunts to trap

anim als such as deer or n i lg a o s , and the presen ce o f a cheetah

in t h i s p a in tin g fu r th er corrob orates the assum ption th a t t h is

work was meant to be view ed in con ju n ction w ith th e preced ing one.

Account in Mulakhkhas (B eg ley , p. 206 )

Bhera, one o f the f i n e s t and most a n c ien t parganas o f th e Punjab, i s s itu a te d on the bank o f the Behat, and in i t s v i c i n i t y onagers are extrem ely numerous. However, th ere i s one s p e c i f i c w atering p la ce th a t th ey a l l f r e q u e n t . . . When th e onagers came fo r w ater and th e ir t h i r s t grew overpow ering, they would o f n e c e s s i t y be o b lig e d to go in to a narrow gorge c lo s e by in which th ere was some w ater. A fter g e t t in g the onagers in to t h is p la c e , th ey were to stop up a l l the i n l e t s and o u t le t s so as to entrap them. . .H is M ajesty proceeded in person to enjoy th e sp o rt and caught tw enty onagers h im se lf; w h ile fo r ty - th r e e more were by h is p erm ission hunted down by th e i l l u s t r i o u s P r in ces and noble grandees. The young ones were by h is order captured a l iv e by th e a tten d a n ts; and th e whole sport was a source o f g r e a te s t d e l ig h t to His M ajesty.

Unpublished


229

33 Capture o f th e F o r ts o f Orccha and DhamuJi

date o f even t: 14-28 October 1635 ( 2-16 Jumada I 1045),8 th regn al year

f o l i o 174r

dim ensions: 13*8 " x 9 »8 "

a r t i s t : T ir Dust s ig n a tu re: bottom c e n te r underh o r se 's mouth

P la te XXXV

The f o r t s o f u r c c h a a n d D ham uli i n t h e D eccan w ere u n a e r t h e g o v e r

n o r s h i p o f J u j n a r S in g h B u n d e la . D u r in g t h e 8 t h r e g n a l y e a r , he

l a u n c n e d an a t t a c k on t n e t e r r i t o r y o f C h a u ra g a rh and p u t t h e

z a m in a a r t o d e a t h . A l l t n i s was aone w i t n o u t Shah J a n a n 1s s a n c t i o n .

Upon h e a r i n g t n i s , S h an J a h a n im m e d i a t e l y d i s p a t c h e d i m p e r i a l t r o o p s

u n d e r t h e command o f Khan D uran t o s u p r e s s t n e r e D e l an d t o 9e iz e22t n e D e lo n g in g s an d t h e f o r t s n e l a Dy h im . Tne t r o o p s f i r s t

a r r i v e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f O rc c h a , a n d i n s p i t e o f t h e t n i c k

f o r e s t an d r u g g e d r a o u n ta in e o u s t e r r a i n , th e y m anaged t o p e n e t r a t e

t h r o u g h an d f o r c e an e n t r y i n t o t h e f o r t . When J u j h a r S in g h r e a

l i z e d t n e im m in e n t v i c t o r y o f t h e M ughal a rm y , h e w i t h h i s son

J a g r a j an d a l l h i s r e l a t i v e s r e t r e a t e d t o D h a m u li . u r c c h a c a p i t u -

23l a t e a on th e 2nd Jumada I 1045 ( 1 8 t h O ctob er 163 5 )» A f te r h a v in g

e s t a b l i s h e d tn e m s e lv e s a t o r c c h a , th e tr o o p s th e n p ro cee d e d to

D ham uli, w here a f t e r a s h o r t ou t f i e r c e D a t t l e , tn e y f o r c e d th e

r e b e l s to su r r e n d e r th e f o r t and p le a d f o r p e a c e . T h is o ccu re o on

tn e 1b tn Jumada I 1045 ( 2 8 t h O ctob er 1 6 3 5 ) . T h is p a in t in g shows

th e v i c t o r i o u s e n tr y o f th e im p e r ia l t r o o p s , h ead ed by Khan Dauran,


230

i n t o t n e f o r t o f D h a m u l i . i ’he f o r t o c c u p i e s t n e b a c k g ro u n u o f t n e

p a i n t i n g ; w h i le t h e t r o o p s m a rc h to w a r d s i t f ro m t h e b o t to m edge o f

t h e p i c t u r e p l a n e . I n o r a e r t o c r e a t e a s e m b le n c e o f a n um erous

a rm y, t h e a r t i s t d i s t o r t e d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e an d c o m p re s s e d t h e

s p a c e — t h e r e b y m a k in g t h e army come r o u n d f ro m t h e l e f t s i d e —

a n d e s t a b l i s h e d g r e a t d i s p a r i t i e s Detween tn e s i z i n g o f t h e p e o p l e .

To u n d e r l i n e t h e im p o r t a n c e o f Khan D au ran a n d t h e o t h e r two p r i n

c i p a l com m anders , 'A bd A l l a h Khan an d B a h a d u r F i r o z J a n g , t h e

a r t i s t n o t o n ly p l a c e d tnem i n t n e c e n t e r , b u t a l s o made them

l a r g e r t h a n t h e r e s t .

A ccou n t in M ulaknknas ( B e g le y , pp. 2 2 7 -2 2 8 )

On th e 2nd Jumada I t n i s y e a r ( 1 4 th u cto 'b er 1 6 3 5 )* a s soon a s th e r o y a l i s t l e a d e r s w ere a p p r is e d o f J u j n a r 's r e t r e a t , th e y ad van ced upon th e o u t s k i r t s o f tn e f o r t (u r c c n a ) ; and h a v in g throw n up in tr e n c h m e n ts , th e y commenced g e t t i n g t h e i r s c a l i n g la d d e r s rea d y f o r th e a s s a u l t . Towards th e c l o s e o f th e n ig h t , th e y e s c a la a e d th e w a l l s , w hereupon tn e p a n ic - s t r i c k e n g a r r is o n f l e d i n c o n s t e r n a t io n from tn e o p p o s i t e s i d e . The r o y a l i s t s th en d escen d ed from th e w a l l s in t o tn e i n t e r i o r o f tn e c i t a d e l , and opened th e g a t e . . . A f t e r a d a y 's h a l t , tn e r o y a l i s t s s e t o f f to w a rd s D h a m u li.. .S u m m arily , tn e r o y a l i s t s c u t t h e i r way th ro u g h tn e f o r e s t s and r e a c h e d up to th e f o r t Dham uli in a c o u p le o f d a y s . By p r o s e c u t in g tn e s e ig e w ith v ig o u r , th e y soon c a r r ie d th e a p p ro a ch es up to tn e ed ge o f th e d i t c h , n o tw ith s ta n d in g a neavy f i r e o f arms from tn e r e b e l g a r r i s o n . On th e 1 6 th o f Jumada I (2 8 th O cto b er 1635)> th e b a t t l e r a g e d w ith fu r y on b o th s id e s t i l l m id n ig h t , when th e b e s e ig e d a t l e n g t h became d ism ayed a t th e in d o m ita b le co u ra g e anu s p i r i t o f th e v i c t o r i o u s arm y. They th en saw no r e s o u r c e l e f t ou t to su rr e n d e r th e f o r t , and tn e g o v e r n o r a c c o r d in g ly s e n t a p e r so n t o Khan Dauran to beg f o r q u a r te r .

Unpublished


231

34 P r esen ta tio n o f the Heads o f Jn.ihar Singh and H is SonJagrai Singh

date o f ev en t: 10 January 1636 (1 Shaban 1045) 9 th regn al year

f o l i o 176v

dim ensions: 13*9” * 9 «7 "

a r t i s t : Payag s ig n a tu r e : none, a t tr ib u te d byR obert S k e lto n ^4

P la te XXXVI

A l t h o u g h t h e f o r t s o f O r c c h a a n d Dhamuni h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d , t h e

r e b e l J u j h a r S in g h m an ag ed t o f l e e an d h e a d e d t o w a r d s t h e D eccan ,

b r i n g i n g w i t h h im h i s t r e a s u r y an d h i s h a r e m . A l th o u g h th e y h a d

a h e a d s t a r t , t h e y w e re v e r y much s lo w e d down by t h e w e ig h t t h a t

t h e y w ere c a r r y i n g . As a r e s u l t t h e i m p e r i a l t r o o p s b e g a n t o c l o s e

i n d a n g e r o u s l y on th e m . When J u j h a r S in g h r e a l i z e d t h i s he d i d

away w i t h s e v e r a l o f t h e women w hose h o r s e s w ere r u n down, an d

s e n t t h e a b l e o n e s on t o G o lc o n a a . T hen he a r r a n g e d h i s r e a r t r o o p s

i n b a t t l e f o r m a t i o n t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e o n s l a u g h t o f t h e M ughal a rm y .

H eavy l o s s e s w ere i n c u r r e d by t h e r e b e l s , an d t h e y w e re f o r c e d t o

a b a n d o n p a r t o f t h e i r t r e a s u r y a s t h e y b e a t t h e i r r e t r e a t . How

e v e r , i t was n o t l o n g b e f o r e t h e M ughal a rm y c a u g h t up w i t h them .

J u j h a r S in g h a n a J a g r a j S in g h w e re h i a i n g i n t h e f o r e s t s i n t h e

v i c i n t y o f G o lc o n a a w h e re t h e y w ere b r u t a l l y p u t t o d e a t h by t h e

G onds o f t h e r e g i o n . Khan D a u ra n came a n d s e v e r e d t h e i r h e a d s

w h ic h h e t h e n s e n t b a c k t o t h e c o u r t . The p a i n t i n g show s t h e

v i c t o r i o u s arm y a d v a n c i n g i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n an a t t a c k f o r m a t i o n .


232

T h is s c e n e p r e c e e a s t h e i n c i d e n t in th e fo r e g r o u n d , b u t was i n t e r

g r a te d i n t o th e p a in t in g so a s to in c lu d e a s much d e s c r ip t i v e and

n a r r a t iv e f a c t s a s p o s s i b l e . I n th e fo r e g r o u n d one s e e s th e h ead s

o f J u jh a r S in g h and J a g r a j S in g h b e in g p r e s e n te d t o Khan Dauran

and th e o t h e r commanding o f f i c e r s . The h ead s w ere t o be s e n t to

c o u r t w here th e y w ere t o b e d is p la y e d to s e r v e n o t o n ly a s a s ig n

o f v i c t o r y b u t a l s o a s a w arn ing t o o th e r w ou ld be r e b e l s . A

s e n s e o f a u s t e r i t y i s a r r iv e d a t i n t h e som bre c o l o r s and th e

o r g a n iz e d manner i n w h ich t h e f i g u r e s and la n d s c a p e i s a r r a n g e d .

The o r d e r i s how ever o n ly e v id e n t on th e s id e w here th e Mughal

tr o o p s s ta n d , t h a t i s on th e r i g h t s id e o f th e p a in t in g . On th e

c o n tr a r y , on th e l e f t s i d e , w here s ta n d s th e v a n q u ish e d enem y, i s

a h ap h azard o r g a n iz a t io n . T h is c o n t r a s t b etw een o r d e r and d is o r d e r

e f f e c t i v e l y b r in g s a c r o s s tn e m essa g e o f tn e e v e n t : v i c t o r y and

d e f e a t .

A ccou n t i n M ulakhkhas ( B e g le y , p p . 2 4 0 -2 4 1 )

The r o y a l army th e n b iv o u a c k e d by th e s id e o f a n e ig h b o u r in g ta n k , and a l l th e c o i n , g u n s , g o ld , s i l v e r and j e w e l l e d a r t i c l e s , and i n f a c t th e e n t i r e p r o p e r ty o f th e in s u r g e n t s t h a t had f a l l e n i n t o t h e i r hands was s e c u r e d f o r th e s t a t e e x c h e q u e r . They w ere s t i l l en ca m p ed .. .w hen in fo r m a t io n w as r e c e iv e d t h a t J u jh a r and J a g r a j had b e ta k e n th e m s e lv e s t o a d en se wood i n th e v i c i n i t y , w here th e y w ere h o r r ib ly and ig n o m in io u s ly p u t t o d e a th by tn e Gonds o f t h a t p la c e . Khan Dauran w ent i n p e r so n to th e s p o t; and h a v in g summoned th e m u rd erers and i n v e s t i g a t e d th e m a t te r , he s e v e r e d th e h ead s o f b o th th e t r a i t o r s from t h e i r b o d ie s and fo rw a rd ed them to c o u r t . On th e 1 s t o f S h a 'b a n (1 0 Jan u ary 16 3 6 ) , th e h ead s o f th e r e b e l s J u jh a r S in g h and J a g r a j r e a c h e d th e camp a t Sahur; and by subl im e command, th e y w ere su sp en d ed o v e r th e g a te o f th e s e r a i th e r e a s a w arn in g to a l l b e h o ld e r s .

Unpublished


233

35 C onferral o f th e T i t l e Shah Khurram

date o f events 2 March 1616 (1 Shawwal 1025)

f o l i o 192v

dim ensions* 14" x 10"

a r t is t * Abid s ig n a tu res bottom l e f t co m e r man,on h i s r in g

P la te XXXVII

The f o l l o w i n g t h r e e f o l i o s p r e s e n t i n c i d e n t s w h ic h o c c u r e d d u r i n g

t h e p r i n c e h o o d o f S h a h J a h a n . L ik e f o l i o s 43v, 4&V, 45^ a n d 135v,

t h e y a r e ^ In t ro d u c e d h e r e f o r d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e s t o p a r a l l e l e v e n t s

t h a t w ere t h e n t a k i n g p l a c e w i t n t h o s e o f p r i n c e K h u r ra m 1 s d a y s . ^

T h e s e t h r e e f o l i o s a r e a l l r e l a t e d t o t h e D eccan w a r s w h ic h th o u g h

n o t c o n s t a n t l y r a g i n g , w e re c o n t i n u a l l y i n e x i s t e n c e , p r i n c e

K h u r r a m 's e x p l o i t s a r e i n s e r t e d h e r e t o c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e i r

t e x t u a l l o c a t i o n , a n d a r e l o g i c a l l y p l a c e d b e tw e e n tw o p a i n t i n g s

r e p r e s e n t i n g s t a g e s o f t h e D eccan w a r s . T h i s p a i n t in g - show s t n e

d e p a r t u r e o f K hurram f o r t h e D eccan u p o n h i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o t h e

p o s t o f com mander down t h e r e . He was t o r e p l a c e h i s b r o t h e r

26P a r w iz whom J a h a n g i r h a d re m o v e d on t h e g r o u n d s o f i n c o m p e t e n c y .

A b d u l la h Khan p i r o z J a n g was r e c a l l e d f ro m G u j a r a t t o b e t h e s e c

ond i n command t o K h u rram . A t t h e d a r b a r h e l d i n h o n o r o f K h u r r a m 's

d e p a r t u r e , K hurram p r e s e n t e d h i s su b com m anders a n d w as g r a n t e d an

u n iq u e h o n o r when J a h a n g i r b e s to w e d u p o n him t n e t i t l e o f s h a h .

H e v e r b e f o r e h a d a p r i n c e r e c e i v e d s u c h a t i t l e d u r i n g t h e r e i g n

27o f an e m p e r o r . t h i s p a i n t i n g one s e e s K hurram on t h e

b a l c o n y p a y i n g r e s p e c t s t o h i s f a t h e r , a n d i n t h e h a l l b e h i n d t h e


234

b a r r i e r s t a n d t h e o t h e r co m m an d ers . The s c e n e i s s e e n f rom a low

a n d d i s t a n t p e r s p e c t i v e w h ic h m akes t h e b a l c o n y v e r y rem o v ed f ro m

t h e v i e w e r . T h i s d e v i c e i s u s e d t o i s o l a t e t h e m a in a c t i o n so a s

t o h i g h l i g h t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m a in f i g u r e s . I n a d d i t i o n ,

P r i n c e K hurram a n d J a h a n g i r a r e s e t a g a i n s t a w h i t e b a c k g ro u n d

w h ic h i s i n t o t a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e t u r q u o i s e g r e e n g r o u n d a g a i n s t

w h ic h t h e o t h e r n o b l e s s t a n d . The w h i t e g ro u n d h e l p s t o c r e a t e a n

e v e n g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n t h e v i e w e r a n d t h e b a l c o n y .

A c c o u n t i n T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i (R o g e r s an d B e v e r i d g e , I p - 3 3 8 )

The t im e o f t h e l e a v e - t a k i n g o f B ab a K hurram h a d b e e n f i x e d on F r i d a y , t h e 2 0 th A b an . A t t h e en d o f t h i s d a y he p a r a d e d b e f o r e me t h e p i c k o f h i s men a rm ed a n d r e a d y i n t h e p u b l i c h a l l o f a u d i e n c e . Of t n e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f a v o u r s b e s to w e d on -Che a f o r e s a i d so n one was t n e t i t l e o f S h a h , w n ic h was made p a r t o f h i s nam e. I o r d e r e d t h a t t h e r e a f t e r n e s h o u l d De s t y l e d S h ah S u l t a n K hurram . I p r e s e n t e d h im w i t h a r o b e o f h o n o u r , a j e w e l l e d c h a r q a b , t h e f r i n g e s a n d c o l l a r o f w h ic h w ere d e c o r a t e d w i t h p e a r l s , a n I r a q h o r s e w i t h a j e w e l l e d s a d d l e , a T u r k i h o r s e , a s p e c i a l e l e p h a n t c a l l e d B a n s i b a d a n , a c a r r i a g e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e E n g l i s h f a s h i o n , f o r h im t o s i t a n d t r a v e l a b o u t i n , a j e w e l l e d s w o rd w i t n a s p e c i a l p a n d a l a ( s w o r d b e l t ) t h a t h a d b e e n t a k e n a t t n e c o n q u e s t o f t n e f o r t o f A hm adnagar a n d w as v e r y c e l e b r a t e d , a n d a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r .

Unpublished


235

36 C onferral o f th e Titlr* Shah Jahan

date o f events 12 October 1617 (11 Shawwal 1026)

f o l i o 194v

dim ensions: 13 . 4 5" x 9 . 9 "

a r t i s t s Murad signatvires on w a ll under balcony

P la te XXXVIII

P rin ce Khurram proved to be a very ab le diplom at and managed to

n e g o t ia te peace w ith M alik Ambar and A dil Shah, a l b e i t temporary,

o v e r t h e A hm adnagar t e r r i t o r i e s . A f t e r h a v i n g e s t a b l i s h e d a

semblence o f order he p laced th e a u th o r ity o f the t e r r ito r y in the

hands o f Khan Khanan and Shahnawaz Khan, and went to Mandhu to meet

h is fa th e r . So p lea sed was Jahangir a t th e su ccess a tta in e d by h is

son, th a t ax the darbar Jahangir ro se and greeted Khurram and

o ffe r e d him a s e a t by th e throne. Not on ly was Khurram's rank

in crea sed to an unprecedented number o f 30»000 za t and 20,000

suwar and had numerous g i f t s showered upon him, but he was a lso28granted the t i t l e which was to be h is r u lin g one — Shah Jahan.

A fter a l l th e se honors had been bestowed upon Khurram, th e o f f i c e r s

who had accompanied him p resen ted Jahangir w ith t h e ir o f fe r in g s .

The p a in tin g i s s e t in a ty p ic a l darbar arrangement w ith Jahangir

and Khurram on th e balcony atten d ed by one serv a n t, who stands on

th e l e f t , w h ile in the h a l l are th e c o u r t ie r s stan d in g in rows on

e ith e r s id e o f th e c e n te r . To fo cu s a t te n t io n upon Jahangir and

Khurram, the a r t i s t s e t them a g a in st a w hite background. This

c o n s tr a s ts w ith th e dark ground a g a in st which th e c o u r t ie r s have


2^6

been s e t . There was th e o n ly c it e d event when Jahangir ro se to

p e r so n a lly g r e e t Khurram, and y e t in t h i s p a in tin g Jahangir i s

sh o w s t i l l sea ted on h i s throne w hile r e c e iv in g Khurram. However,

in f o l i o .Jahangir i s shown stan d in g to r e c e iv e h is son , though

th e t e x t does n o t m ention t h i s f a c t . This may in d ic a te th a t th ese

two p a in tin g s were mixed up during th e assem bly o f the m anuscript.

A c c o u n t i n T u z u k - i - J a h a n g i r i ( R o g e r s an d B e v e r i d g e , I p . 3 9 3 -3 9 5 )

On T h u r s d a y , t h e 2 0 t h o f t n e m o n th o f M ih r , i n t h e t w e l f t h y e a r f ro m my a c c e s s i o n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h t h e 1 1 t h Shaw w al, 1026 H i j r a , a f t e r t n r e e w a tc n e s a n a o n e g h a r i h a d p a s s e d , he e n t e r e d t h e f o r t o f M anau a u s p i c i o u s l y a n d j o y f u l l y , a n d h a d t h e h o n o u r o f w a i t i n g on me. The d u r a t i o n o f o u r s e p e r a t i o n w as 11 m o n th s an d 11 d a y s . A f t e r h e h a d p e r f o r m e d t h e d u e s o f s a l u t a t i o n an d k i s s i n g t n e g r o u n d , I c a l l e d h im up i n t o t h e j h a r o k h a , a n d w i t h e x c e e d i n g k i n d n e s s a n d u n c o n t r o l l e d d e l i g h t r o s e f rom my p l a c e a n d h e l d h im i n t h e e m b ra ce o f a f f e c t i o n . I n p r o p o r t i o n a s he s t r o v e t o be hum ble a n d p o l i t e , I i n c r e a s e d my f a v o u r s a n d k i n d n e s s t o h im a n d made h im s i t n e a r m e. He p r e s e n t e d 1 ,0 0 0 a s h - r a f i s an d 1 , 0 0 0 r u p e e s a s n a z a r a n d t h e sam e am ount by way o f a l m s . . .W h e n h e h a d h a s t e n e d t o t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e D eccan h e h a d o b t a i n e d t h e t i t l e o f S h a h , a n a now, i n r e w a r d f o r t h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d s e r v i c e , I g a v e him a m an sab o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n a l an d2 0 ,0 0 0 h o r s e a n d b e s to w e d on him t h e t i t l e o f S h a h J a h a n . An o r d e r w as g i v e n t h a t h e n c e f o r t h t h e y s h o u l d p l a c e a c h a i r i n t h e p a r a d i s e - r e s e m b l i n g a s s e m b l i e s n e a r my t h r o n e f o r my so n t o s i t u p o n . T h i s was a s p e c i a l f a v o u r f o r my s o n , a s i t h a d n e v e r b e e n t h e c u s to m h e r e t o f o r e . A s p e c i a l d r e s s o f h o n o u r w i t h a g o ld - e m b r o i d e r e d c h a rq .a b , w i t h c o l l a r , t h e en d o f t h e s l e e v e s a n d t h e s k i r t d e c o r a t e d w i t h p e a r l s , w o r th 5 0 , 0 0 0 r u p e e s , a j e w e l l e d sw o rd w i t h a j e w e l l e d p a r a a l a ( b e l t ) , a n d a j e w e l l e d d a g g a r w ere b e s to w e d upo n h im . I n h i s h o n o u r I m y s e l f came down f ro m t h e j h a r o k h a a n d p o u r e d o v e r h i s h e a d a s m a l l t r a y o f j e w e l s a n d a t r a y o f g o l d ( c o i n s ) .

Preparatory Sketch* Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. C atalogue o f th eInd ian C o lle c t io n s in th e Museum o f Fine A rts . B oston . V ol. VI: Mughal P a in t in g . Cambridge* Harvard U n iv e rs ity P r e ss , 1930. P la te XXXIII.

Unpublished


237

37 Final Encounter Between Jahangir and P rince Khurram Upon the L a tter1 a Second Departure for the Deccan

date of even t: 26 December 1620

f o l i o 195^

dim ensions: 13«3” x 8 . 5”

a r t i s t : Payag s ig n a tu re: bottom l e f t edge onp a le t te

P la te XXXIX

The t r u c e a t t a i n e d f ro m M a l ik AmDar and A a i l 5 h a h was i n a e e d a

temporary one, fo r as soon as Mughal troop p ressu res were taken o f f

from tne Deccan, botn of them began tr y in g to reg a in th e ir l o s t

t e r r i t o r i e s . A g u e r i l la t a c t i c campaign was launched upon the

Mughal army th ere in th e aim of s ta r v in g and i s o la t in g them. Khan

Khanan, who was the commander of th e Deccani based fo r c e s , r e tr e a te d

to Burhanapur, and from th ere he sen t out numerous ap p eals fo r h elp ,29s ta t in g th a t i t was im p o ssib le to no la out much lo n g e r . P rince

Khurram was chosen to le a d the r e l i e f e x p ed itio n , and he was sent

out on the 2 6 th DecemDer 16 20 . At th e le a v e - ta k in g darbar ne was

g iven a robe of honor, a sword and two e lep h a n ts . His con tin gen t

c o n s is te d of 650 mansabdars, 1 ,000 a h a d is, 1 ,000 m usketeers, a

la r g e a r t i l l e r y and many e le p h a n ts . This was the l a s t encounter

between Jahangir and p rin ce Khurram, and i t marks the ea r ly s ta g es

of court in tr ig u e d ir e c te d by Nur Jahan on th e su b ject o f the

fu tu re emperor o f I n a ia . once again t h is p a in tin g i s s e t out in

the t y p ic a l darbar fa sh io n w ith Jahangir and Khurram on the balcony

and the n o b les and guards in th e h a l l stan d in g accord in g to th e ir


238

ranks. The flow ered back w all in d ic a te s th a t t h is audience took

p la ce in one o f the h a l l s a t Lahore. On the throne balcony

Jahangir i s handing a je w e lle d a ig r e t t e to P rin ce Khurram who

stands r e s p e c t f u l ly b e fo re h is fa th e r . On th e w a ll beneath th e

throne i s a p a in tin g showing two s u f i s behind a g lo b e , and

underneath i s th e m o tif o f the l io n ly in g down w ith an ox. The

d is tr ib u t io n o f th e c o u r t ie r s in the h a l l in a casu a l fa sh io n

co n tra ts w ith th e s t r i c t e r order found on th e th ron e balcony.

This c o n tra st i s rep eated in the c o lo r scheme which d e p ic ts a

w hite marble w a ll decorated w ith sm all f l o r a l d esig n s on the

throne balcony, and a v a r ie ty o f b r ig h t garments o f the c o u r t ie r s

in th e h a l l .

A c c o u n t i n T u z u k - I - J a h a n g i r i (R o g e r s an d B e v e r i d g e , I I p . 1^0)

A c c o r d i n g l y , on F r i d a y t h e 4 t h o f D a i , I d e s p a t c h e d K hurram i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n , b e s t o w i n g on him a d r e s s o f h o n o u r , a sw o rd and a n e l e p h a n t . Nur J a h a n Begum a l s o g a v e him a n e l e p h a n t . I t o l d h im a f t e r h e n a a c o n q u e r e d t n e p r o v i n c e o f t n e B eccan he s h o u l d t a k e a s r e w a r d 2 c o r c e s o f dams f ro m t h e c o n q u e r e d c o u n t r y . b^C m a n s a b d a r s , 1 ,0 0 0 a h a u i s , 1 ,0 0 0 T u r k i s h m u s k e t e e r s a n d 1 , 0 0 0 g u n n e r s on f o o t , i n a d d i t i o n t o t n e 3 1 , 0 0 0 h o r s e s a l r e a d y i n t h a t q u a r t e r , and a l a r g e f o r c e o f a r t i l l e r y , an d many e l e p n a n t s , w ere a p p o i n t e d t o accom pany h im . I a l s o g av e him a c o r e e o f r u p e e s f o r t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s a rm y . Tne s e r v a n t s wno w e re a p p o i n t e d on t h i s d u ty r e c e i v e d e a c h a c c o r d i n g t o h i s s t a n d i n g a s a r e w a r d , h o r s e s , e l e p h a n t s an d d r e s s e s o f h o n o u r .

P u b lish ed 1 beach, M ilo C leveland . The Grand Mogul Inrperip-)P a in tin g in In d ia 1600- 1660 . W illiam stown: S te r lin g and Francine Clark Art I n s t i t u t e , 1978 . F igure 5 ( d e t a i l of f o l i o I 95r , id e n t i f i e d as s e l f p o r tr a it o f the a r t i s t Payag).


239

38 Capture o f Fort Udgir

d ate o f ev en t: 8 October 1636 (8 Jumada I IO4 6 ) ,9 th reg n a l year

f o l i o 204v

dim ensions: 13 . 7 " x 1 0 . 3M

a r t i s t : Daula s ig n a tu r e : bottom l e f t on h orse

P la te XLThe f o r t o f Udgir had form erly been under the t e r r i t o r i a l l im i t s o f

A d il Shah th e nizam o f B ija p u r , and when lie subm itted a l le g ie n c e to

the Mughal crown, Khan Dauran Bahadur was in s tr u c te d to take co n tro l

o f the f o r t . On a r r iv in g in the v ic in t y , he is s u e d warning orders

to S id i M ifta , the commander o f the f o r t , to surrender q u ie t ly or

e l s e be su b jec ted to heavy a t ta c k s . T his order being ig n o red , the

Mughal troop s began reco n a issa n ce work and prepared to a tta c k . When

S id i M ifta saw t n is ne became d ish ea rten ed and agreed to n e g o t ia te ,

but ex e r c ise d such unreasonab le terms th a t Khan Dauran Bahadur

ceased n e g o t ia t io n s and con tin u ed the o f f e n s e s . A b a stio n was

blown up, but th e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s remained untouched, and Khan Dauran

Bahadur r e a l iz e d th a t i t was b e t te r to le a v e them in ta c t r a th er then

to have to expend th e energy to r e b u ild them i f th ey were dem olished.

H is o f f e r s to make peace were e a g e r ly accep ted by S id i M ifta who

w i l l in g ly handed over the keys to tne f o r t . The p a in tin g shows

th e moments j u s t b efo re t h i s very in c id e n t . Khan Dauran Bahadur

i s sea ted on h is horse and i s advancing forward to meet S id i M ifta

and h is r e p r e se n ta x iv e s . Behind th e Khan are the o th er o f f i c e r s

and s o ld ie r s , arranged in n ea t row s. The f o r t l i e s in the


240

background, and from th ere th e handcuffed p r iso n ers come ou t. The

p r iso n er s are in two groups; one i s being p resen ted to Khan Dauran

Bahadur, and th e oth er stan d s a few yards behind. The f a c t th a t

th e p a in tin g i s s tru ctu red on a v e r t ic a l a lignm ent — composed o f

the rows o f s o ld ie r s on th e r ig h t edge and the row o f p r iso n ers

coming out from the f o r t ~ and th a t i t i s taken from a high

vantage p o in t, a llo w s th e v ie w e r 's a t te n t io n to be focu sed on th e

group of Ahan Dauran Bahadur and the group o f p r iso n e r s .

Account i n MulajchKhas ( B e g l e y , p . 284)

As soon a s t n i s p r o p o s a l r e a c h e a n im , t h e b e s e i g e d S i a i M i f t a , wno h a d c o n c l u d e d t h a t c a p t u r e o f t h e f o r t a n a n i s own a e s t r u c - t i o n s w ere i n e v i t a b l e , s t r i c t l y o b e y e a t n e i n j u n c t i o n an d s o u g h t an i n t e r v i e w w i th Khan D a u ra n d u r i n g w h ic h ne d e l i v e r e d o v e r t o h im t h e k e y s o f t h e f o r t , un t h e 8 t h o f t h e a f o r e s a i d m on th o f Jum ada I ( b t h O c to b e r I b j b ) , a f t e r a s e i g e o f t h r e e m o n th s a n d some d a y s , t h e c i t a u e l was s u r r e n d e r e d i n t o t n e h a n d s o f t h e r o y a l i s t s .

Unpublished


241

39 - 40 P ilgrim age to th e Shrine o f Khwa.ia M»«<n *1 Din Cbj

date o f events 6 December 1636 (7 Rajab 1046) ,10th regnal year

f o l i o 205v

dim ensions: 13 . 5 ” x 9 . 5"


P la te XLI

At t n e b e g i n n i n g o f t n e 1 0 t n r e g n a l y e a r , s n a h J a h a n d e c i d e d . t o

make a p ilgrim age to tne shrine o f Khwaja Mu*in a l d in C h ish ti in

Ajmir. Mu'in a l a in C h ish ti was a famous I s la m ic s a in t who came to

I n a i a i n t h e 1 2 th c e n t u r y a n a e s t a D l i s h e a t n e C h i s n t i o r a e r o f t h e

30S u fi s a in t s . At Ajmir, tne f in a l r e s t in g p lace o f t n is s a in t ,

i s a m agn ificen t w hite marbled mausoleum erec ted in h is memory.

The C h ish ti s e c t was h ig h ly re sp e c te a and ven eratea by tne Mughals

beginning from tne tim e o f A^Dar, whose wisn f o r a son was granted

througn prayers d ir e c te d towards t h is s e c t . When Shah Jahan a rr iv ed

a t Ajmir, ne encamped on tne banks o f Lake Anasagar and made h is

way towards the shrine on f o o t . There he performed the customary

r i t e s , r e c i t e d v e r s e s f ro m t n e K oran a n d d i s t r i b u t e e 1 0 ,0 0 0 r u p e e s

31among the poor people who l iv e d a t the sh r in e . This p a in tin g

and the fa c in g one show Shah Jahan on h is way to Ajmir, accompanied

by cou rtier's and se r v a n ts . He i s a ressed in g o ld and i s mounted on

a superb b lack h orse . In fro n t o f him stan as a f ig u r e o f a C h ish ti

sa in t h o ld in g a holy orb . There i s no in d ic a t io n as to who

e x a c t ly t h i s sa in t may be; whether he be one o f the members o f the

s e c t who came out to meex Shah Jahan, or whether tn is be an


242

im aginary scene where Shah Jahan i s p e r so n a lly g reeted by K^vaja

Mu'in a l d in C h ish ti h im se lf* Behind Shah Jahan l i e s the c i t y o f

Ajmir, and in th e background i s th e lu sh green v e g e ta t io n o f the

co u n try sid e . The sh in in g g o ld s o f Shah Jahan 's c lo th in g make Mm

stand out a g a in s t th e darker background. In a d d it io n , th e h igh

van tage p o in t a llo w s the v ie w e r 's a t te n t io n to be fo cu sed on Shah

Jahan. In t h is p a in tin g Shah Jahan appears o ld e r than what he

ought to have been , and i t may be another in s ta n c e where t h i s

p a in tin g i s a c tu a lly a l a t e r copy made to r ep la c e th e o r ig in a l

th a t was found to have been damaged a t the tim e o f th e assem bly

o f th e m anuscript

Unpubli shed

f o l i o 206r

d im ensions: 1 4 . 5" x 10 . 6 "


P la te XLII

T his p o rtio n o f th e double-page p a in tin g shows the r e t in u e o f Shah

Jahan le a d in g th e way. I t c o n s is t s o f a l i n e o f serv a n ts on fo o t ,

fo llo w ed by c o u r t ie r s and s o ld ie r s on horseback , and f i n a l l y by

a row o f e lep h a n ts upon which are th e standard b ea rers and

m u sic ia n s. As in th e p rev io u s page, the background i s made up o f

dark bushy v e g e ta t io n w ith a c i t y w a ll way in th e back. Along

th e m iddle ground one s e e s an assortm ent o f d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s

o f th e common p eop le - - t r a v e l l in g w ith b u llo ck c a r ts and cam els,

and th e p loughing o f th e la n d . The gen era l c o lo r a t io n i s an


243

earthy brown in te r sp e r se d w ith r ic h deep green v e g e ta t io n . L ife

and v a r ie ty are brought about by th e m u lt i-c o lo r e d c lo th in g and

ornaments*

Unpublished

Account in Mulakhkhas (B eg ley , pp. 286-287)

On th e 7"th o f Rajah (6 December 1636 ) , H is M ajesty reached th a t r sv ered c i t y , encamped on the margin o f Anasagar la k e , and towards o f th e c lo s e o f the day s e t out on fo o t from h is p a v il io n to th e sep u lch re o f th e s a in t ly Khwaja (may h is tomb be p u r if ie d ) . A fte r perform ing th e customary r i t e s and r e c i t in g th e opening ch ap ters o f th e Holy Koran, he d is tr ib u te d1 0 ,0 0 0 rupees among th e poor and in d ig e n t who r e s id e d a t the g lo r io u s sh r in e . A fter con clu d in g th e p ilg r im a g e , he paid a v i s i t to the mosque which he had ordered to be b u i l t in th e gardens surrounding th e rad ian t tomb.


244

41 Departure o f Aurangzeb fo r th e Deccan

d ate o f even ts 28 September 1655 C15 Pabi I I 1045)*8 th reg n a l yea r

f o l i o 214v

dim ensions* 13 . 5" x 9»5"

a r t i s t : Payag s ig n a tu re : on step

P la te XLIII

Tnis in c id e n t breaks the c o n t in u ity of th e c h ro n o lo g ica l sequence

o f e v e n ts , as i t goes back to th e end o f tne 8 th regn a l y ea r , a f te r

even ts o f the 9 th and 10th reg n a l years have a lread y been recou n ted .

This was alm ost c e r ta in ly a d e lib e r a te ch o ice so th a t a c o n tin u ity

coula be m aintained between t h is and tn e fo llo w in g ev en t, the

sequel to t h is one. Even though A urangzeb's appointm ent was r e la

ted to the r e b e l l io n o f Jujhar Singh, wnose d e fe a t was encountered

in f o l i o s 174r and 176v , t h i s i s th e only i l l u s t r a t e d in s ta n c e in

which Aurangzeb was g iven a p o s it io n of r e s p o n s ib i l i t y which he

s u c c e s s fu l ly f u l f i l l s (a s i l lu s t r a t e d in f o l i o 217v ) , ana tn ere fo re

l o g i s t i c a l l y b elo n g s here ra th er than e a r l ie r on. As Jujhar Singh

proved to be a tough ad versary , Shah Jahan decided to send an addi

t io n a l co n tin g en t headed by Aurangzeb th a t was to command th e e n t ir e

e x p e d it io n . Aurangzeb as th e commander in c h ie f would e lim in a te

any j e a lo u s ie s between th e o th er commanders, a f a c t th a t would have

been a hinuerance to a tr u ly s u c c e s s fu l campaign. At tne darbar

o f Aurangzeb1s le a v e ta k in g , Shah Jahan p resen ted him w ith a robe

o f honor, a je w e lle d turban ornament, an in c is e d sword and daggar,

two h orses and two e le p h a n ts . In a d d it io n , h is rank was in crea sed


245

to 10,000 za t and 5*000 suwar. S h a y ista Khan, Rustam Khan and

sev era l o th er n o b les were appointed to accompany Aurangzeb, and at52t h is ceremony, th ey were each g iven due acknowledgement. The

p a in tin g shows a c lo s e up v iew o f a ty p ic a l darbar s e t t in g . Shah

Jahan i s sea ted in h is u su a l p la c e , on th e throne in the cen ter o f

th e ba lcon y . Shah Shuja and Murad Bakhsh stand on th e l e f t o f the

b alcony w h ile on the r ig h t are a servan t and a guard. Below Shah

Jahan are two serv a n ts w ith f l y w h isk s, w h ile in th e courtyard are

th e c o u r t ie r s and n o b le s . Aurangzeb stands a t the g a te o f the

audience h a l l and i s shown o f fe r in g s a lu ta t io n s to Shah Jahan.

The p a in tin g i s fo rm a lly composed on a s t r i c t h o r iz o n ta l-v e r t ic a l

alignm ent th a t len d s a so lem n ity to th e o cca s io n .

Account in M u la k n k h a s ( B e g l e y , p . 2 2 4 -2 2 5 )

The e v e r - v i c t o r i o u s P r i n c e Muhammaa A u ra n g z e b B a h a d u r was a p p o i n t e d t o h e a d t h e e x p e d i t i o n . T h i s was o u t o f f e a r t h a t t n e l e a d e r s m i g h t n o t a c t i n c o n c e r t t h r o u g h j e a l o u s y o f one a n o t h e r , a n a t n a t t h e i r b i c k e r i n g s m ig h t p r o a u c e r e s u l t s f a t a l t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l i s s u e o f t h e c a m p a ig n . A c c o r d i n g l y on t h e 1 5 t h o f k a b i i n a c h o s e n moment (2 b S ep tem D er 1655)* H is M a j e s t y a i s p a t c h e d h i s R o y a l H ig h n e s s t h i t h e r a f t e r h a v i n g p r e s e n t e d him w i t h a handsom e r o b e o f h o n o u r ; a j e w e l l e d t u r b a n o rn a m e n t ; a sw o rd an d a a g g a r w i t h i n c i s e d a e s i g n s , b o t h s t u d d e d w i t h gem s; two f i n e n o r s e s , o n e c a p r i s o n e d w i t n e n a m e le d , t h e o t h e r w i t h p l a i n g o l d t r a p p i n g s ; an d a n e l e p h a n t w i t h s i l v e r h o u s i n g s , a c c o m p a n ie d by a f e m a le o n e . H is m ansab a l s o , by a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 ,0 0 0 s u w a r , was a u g m e n te d t o o n e of' 1 0 ,0 0 0 z a t w i t h 5*000 s u w a r . A ls o a p p o i n t e a t o accom pany t h e p r i n c e w ere S h a y i s t a K han, R ustam K han, a n a s e v e r a l o t h e r n o o i e s a n d m a n s a b a a r s , w i t n 1 ,0 0 0 a n a d i a r c h e r s a n d m u s k e t e e r s an a 1 ,0 0 0 c a v a l r y who w ere i n t h e s e r v i c e o f Yamin a l - D a u l a Khan K hanan , t h e Commander i n C h i e f , on t h e i r l e a v e t a k i n g , v a r i o u s m a rk s o f r e g a r d w ere m a n i f e s t e d t o e a c h o f them a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g r a d e s .

Unpublished


246

42 Return o f Aurangzeb from th e Deccan

d ate o f even ts 27 A p ril 1637 0 Z i ' l H ij ja 1046 ) ,10th reg n a l year

f o l i o 217v

dim ensions* 13 . 5” x 10”

a r t is t * Murad s ig n a tu re : on lo w est step

P la te XLIV

This p a in t in g d e p ic ts th e retu rn o f Aurangzeb fra n th e Deccan

where he had su p erv ised s e v e r a l su c c e ss fu l cam paigns, and i t shows

him b ein g warmly r e c e iv e d by h is fa th e r . The scene i s thus th e

l o g ic a l co n c lu sio n to th e p rev io u s one, and th e r e fo r e se r v e s to

e x p la in why th e form er was d e l ib e r a te ly p laced ou t o f sequence.

Around the m iddle o f the 10th regn a l y ea r , Aurangzeb was summoned

back from th e Deccan in order th a t h i s wedding c e le b r a t io n could

be ca r r ie d o u t . As he had won a few v i c t o r i e s , t h i s was an

op p ortu n ity to g iv e him a w e ll-d e se r v e d r e s t . Upon h is a r r iv a l

a t the co u rt, Murad Bakhsh, Khan Khanan, Khan Dauran Bahadur

N asrat Jang, A fza l Khan and a few o th er n o b les were d ir e c te d to

go out and welcome him. Shah Jahan r e c e iv e d Aurangzeb p e rso n a lly

on th e b a lcon y and embraced him. A fter th a t Aurangzeb p resen ted

an o f fe r in g o f 1 ,0 0 0 g o ld mohurs, the booty taken from th e

d efea ted Nizam a l Mulk. In t h i s darbar scene one s e e s Shah

Jahan in th e p ro cess o f embracing h is son who i s bowing down

below him. Khan Khanan, Khan Dauran, A fzal Khan and Asaf Khan

stand in w a it in g on th e b a lcon y . In th e cou rt are th e customary

rows o f c o u r t ie r s and guards who stand to the r ig h t and the l e f t


247

o f the throne. O utside th e r a i l in g are two c o u r t ie r s whose

fu n c tio n was prohahly to in trod u ce th e people in to the audience

h a l l . rfhe com position o f the p a in tin g on two t r ia n g le s p la ced base

to b ase , s t a b l iz e s the work and g iv e s i t a m a je s t ic f e e l in g , which

i s enhanced by th e b r ig h t j e w e l- l ik e c o lo r s .

As th e p r in c e s appear fo u r - f iv e yea rs o ld e r than

they should , t h is may in d ic a te th a t t h is p a in tin g was a c tu a lly

made to rep resen t a l a t e r ev en t, but was a c c id e n ta lly in c lu d ed here

during the assem bly o f th e m anuscript.

Account in Hulaknknas ( B e g l e y , p. 3^3)

On th e 1 s t o f Z i ' l - H i j j a (27 A p r i l 1 6 3 7 ) , P r in c e idurad Baknsh, Yarnin a l - D a u ia , Khan Khanan, Khan Dauran Bahaaur N a sr a t Ja n g , and 'A l la m i A f z a l Khan t h e prim e M i n i s t e r , a lo n g w i th some o t n e r s o f tne g r e a t n o b l e s , were s e n t o u t a t th e a u s p i c io u s s u g g e s t i o n to m eet P r i n c e Muhammad Aurangzeb Banadur, who had r e tu r n e d from D a u la ta b a d to c o u r t i n c o n fo r m ity t o t n e r o y a l summons w itn a v ie w t o tn e c e l e b r a t i o n s o f n i s n u p t i a l s , and nad encamped i n th e e n v ir o n s o f tn e m e t r o p o l i s , t h e y c o n d u cted H is R oyal H ig h n e ss i n t o tn e p r e s e n c e ; and H is M a je s ty , a f t e r em bracing t n a t p e a r l o f tn e crown o f monarchy w i t n tn e warmest a f f e c t i o n , snow erea numerous to k e n s o f h i s l o v e ana t e n a e r r e g a r d on him. For h i s p a r t , th e p r in c e p r e s e n t e d a n a za r o f f e r i n g o f 1 , 0 0 0 g o l d mohurs and a s i m i l a r sum a s n i s a r .

Unpublished


248

43 Wedding o f Aurangzeb

date o f event* 19 May 1637 ( 2 3 2 'H H ijja IO4 6 ) ,10th reg n a l year

f o l i o 218v

dimensions* 13»5” x 10"

a r t is t s unknown

H a te XLV

Aurangzeb was b etro th ed to th e daughter o f Shanawaz Khan in January

o f th e 10th regn a l y ea r . At th a t time he was s t i l l in th e Deccan,

and was summoned back to e f f e c tu a te th e m atrim onial r i t e s which

took p la ce th e th e 23rd Z’i l H ijja 1046 ( 19th Way 1637 ) . Here th e

a c tu a l wedding day i s rep resen ted and shows Aurangzeb in the

p resen ce of Shah Jahan who i s g iv in g him h is wedding g i f t s * This

c o n s is te d o f a robe o f honor, a g o ld in c is e d daggar, a gem studded

sword and b e l t , two h o r se s , two e lep h a n ts and a t i a t a o f p e a r ls

in terw oven w ith ru b ies and em eralds. As was done fo r the wedding

o f Dara Shikoh and Shah Shu;}a, th e P r in c e ss Jahanara Begum was in

charge o f the p rep a ra tio n s and arrangements o f th e f e s t i v a l . A

sum o f 10 la k h s o f ru p ees was spent on t h is o cc a s io n . The ceremony

took p la ce a t n ig h t , and the courtyard i s shown here a l l b r ig h t ly

illu m in a te d w ith s tr in g s o f l i g h t . On the throne balcony a

sea ted Shah Jahan i s p r e se n tin g a jew el to Aurangzeb, w h ile around

them are Aurangzebf s b ro th ers and f i v e o f th e p r in c ip a l n o b le s .

Below th e balcon y stand torch b earin g serv a n ts and a bevy o f

m u sician s and dancing g i r l s . The in te n s e use o f go ld and p a s te l


249

c o l o r s i n th e c o s tu m es o f t h e p e o p le h e lp to a c c e n t u a t e t h i s l i g h t

h e a r t e d and f e s t i v e mood. I t a l s o p r o v i d e s a v e r y s t r i k i n g

c o n t r a s t t o th e d ark n i g h t s k y , and b r i n g s o u t v e r y e f f e c t i v e l y

t h e i d e a o f a l i g h t e d c o u r t y a r d .

A ccount i n M ulakhkhas ( B e g l e y , p . 30b)

The a u s p i c i o u s moment f o r th e m a r r ia g e was f i x e d f o r th e f o l l o w i n g n i g h t , S a tu rd a y t h e 25rd o f Z i ’ l H i j j a 104b A H (1 9 May 1 6 3 7 ) , when t h e r e were f o u r g h a r i s r e m a in in g t i l l m o rn in g . By t n e su b l im e command, th e P r i n c e was c o n d u c te d i n t o t h e a u g u st p r e s e n c e and H is M a je s ty p r e s e n t e d him w i t h a handsome robe o f honour and a g o ld d aggar w i t h i n c i s e d ornam ent; a sword and b e l t b o th s tu d d e d w i t h gems; two s p le n d id I r a q i h o r s e s , one w it h j e w e l l e d , th e o t h e r w ith enam eled t r a p p in g s ; and a superb e l e p h a n t w ith s i l v e r h o u s i n g s , accom panied by a f e m a le o n e .W ith h i s own hand t o o , h e f a s t e n e d a t i a r a o f p e a r l s , v a r i e g a t e d w i t h r u b i e s and em era ld s on th e brow o f t h a t n o b le y o u th .

U n p u b lish ed


250

44 Hunting Li-ons at Bari

date o f event* 2 August 1637 (10 Rabi I 10 4 7 ), 10th regnal year

f o l i o 220v

dimensions* 13»95M x 9»5”

a r tis t* unknown

P late LXVI

The f in a l i l l u s t r a t i o n in th e Windsor m anuscript r e p r e se n ts a

h unting scene in the reg io n o f Bari which was n ot fa r from Agra.

Here Shah Jahan spent e ig h t days h u n tin g l i o n s , n i lg a o s and deer.

Although o f no g rea t p o l i t i c a l im portance, t h i s p a in t in g r e p r e se n ts

th e le i s u r e tim e of Shah Jah an 's d a i ly l i f e , which was eq u a lly as

s ig n i f ic a n t as h is p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l d u t ie s . U nlike th e n ilg a o

hunt ( f o l i o l6 5 r ) , t h i s was ca rr ied out in an en c lo su re , th a t i s

where anim als were trapped w ith in an area and afterw ards th e

hunting p arty cou ld track them down in t h is co n fin ed space. I t

ensured th a t game would be brought back each tim e. The en c lo sed

area occu p ies th r e e -q u a r te r s o f th e t o t a l com p osition . In the

en clo su re are th ree e lep h a n ts upon which Shah Jahan and two o f

h i s sons are sea ted . Shah Jahan i s mounted on the ce n tr a l

elep h an t and i s about to shoot a t a l i o n on th e l e f t o f the

com p osition . O utside th e e n c lo su r e , serv a n ts stand about in an

L-shaped form ation . The e lep h a n ts a t th e two corn ers c lo s e o f f

th e com position .


251

Account in Mulakhkhas (B eg ley , p . 310)

On th e ° f Rabi I ( 26 th J u ly 1637)» His M ajesty s e t out from Akbarabad on a h u n tin g excu rsion to the co u n try sid e a t B a ri, which had become lu s h and green due to th e abundant r a in s . A fter rea ch in g t h i s d e l ig h t f u l p la c e on the 10th (2 A ugust), H is M ajesty occu p ied h im so lf in hunting fo r the n ex t e ig h t days, during which p eriod he brought down w ith h is own gun two l i o n s , tw enty n ilg a o s and s ix t y deer.

P u b lish ed : Randhawa, Mohinder Singh and G a lb ra ith , John Kenneth. Ind ian P a in tin g . The Scene. Themes and Legends. B oston: Houghton M if f l in , 1968 . P la te 15.


252

N o t e s t o th e C a ta lo g u e

1B a n a r s i P r a sa a S a k sen a , H i s t o r y o f shan Jahan o f i ) i I n i (A l la h a b a d : C e n tr a l Hook D ep ot, 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 1 5 - 1 6 .

2i D i a , p . 1 7 .

3ib i c u

4 . . . .i b i a , p . t>5 .5

'i'nomas W il l ia m B e a le , An O r ie n t a l B io g r a p n i c a l D i c t i o n a r y , c o m p ile d Henry G eorge Keene (L ah ore: M. M assoa S in a Sagar Academy, 1 6 9 4 ) , p. 214*

6S te p h e n M ereaytn Eawaras ana h .L .U . G a r r e t t , Mughal

R ule i n I n d i a ^ D e lh i: S . Chand & Go. L t d . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 7 1 .7

S a k se n a , p . 212 .

8Wayne E. B e g le y , e d . , " C h r o n ic le o f th e King o f th e

World: i h e Shan Janan Hama o f ' I n a y a t Khan, th e n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m a n u sc r ip t t r a n s l a t i o n o f A.R. F u l l e r p r e s e r v e a i n th e B r i t i s h L ib r a r y (A da. $ 0 , 7 7 7 ) ” ( T y p e s c r i p t , 1981)» p . 91 .

9S i r H.M. E l l i o t ana John Dowson, The H i s t o r y o f

I n a i a a s T o ld by i t s own H i s t o r i a n s , v o l . 33s Shah Jahan (Lonaon, 1 8 6 6 -1 8 6 7 ; r e p r i n t e d . , C a lc u t t a : S u s i l Gupta P r i v a t e L t a . , 1 9 8 3 )*P . 3 9 -

10J a ' f a r S h a r i f , I s la m i n I n a i a or o a n u n - i - I s l a m ,

t r a n s . by G.A. H e r k lo t s , r e v i s e d and e d . by W il l ia m Crooke (O x fo rd : u x f o r a b n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1921; r e p r i n t e d . , London:Cruzon P r e s s L t a . , 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 7 2 .

1 1 . . .i b i a .

^ B e g l e y , " C h r o n ic le " , p. 130 .

13 .-iD ia .

"*\/ayne B e&l e y , p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , a a t e a 3 8 t h March 1981 .

15 .- . -i b i a .

16S a k se n a , p . 1 2 .

17 Eawards and G a r r e t t , pp . 79“ 80 .


253

1®Begley, "Chronicle", p. 166 .

1 9 i b i d , p . 1 7 2 .

20i b i d , p . 1 7 6 .

21i b i d , p . 2 0 6 .

^ i b i d , p . 2 1 6 .

2 5 i b i d , p . 2 2 7 .

^ B .W . R o b in so n , e d . , I s l a m i c P a i n t i n g and th e A rts o f t h e Book (Londons Faber & F aber L t d . , 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 2<j1 .

25B e g l e y , l e t t e r .

26S a k se n a , p . 1^ .

27i b i a , p . 2 0 .

28i b i d , p . 2 2 .

^ i b i d , p p . 2 5 - 2 6 .30

B e a l e , p . 2 7 6 .

^ B e g l e y , " C h r o n ic le " , pp. 2 8 6 - 2 8 7 .

5 2 i b i a , p . 2 5 5 .

^ i b i d , p . 3 0 3 »


254

APPENDIX A

DISPERSED WORKS FROM HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPTS

Darbara

1 . J a h a n g i r R e c e i v i n g P r i n c e K hurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u l C am paign A g a i n s t t h e K an a o f Mewar

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 s t M a rc h 1614 a r t i s t : R a j a M anohar S in g hi n s c r i p t i o n s : on u p p e r b o r d e r - p i c t u r e o f t h e h a l l o f a u d i e n c e a t

A g ra a n d p o r t r a i t s o f J a h a n g i r t h e P a d s h a h a n d o f S h ah J a h a n , on t n e o c c a s i o n o f S n ah J a n a n ’ s d e p a r t u r e f o r B a lk hon lo w e r b o r d e r - p i c t u r e o f J a n a n g i r a n a S h a h J a h a n , t h e w ork o f R a j a M anohar S in g h

d i m e n s i o n s : 1 1 .6 " x 8"l o c a t i o n : I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y , J o h n s o n C o l l e c t i o n 4 -2 b i b l i o g r a p h y : W e lch , I n d i a n D r a w in g s , p . 4 9 / Brow n, I n d i a n P a i n t i n g ,

p i . L V I I I .

T h i s w ork i s a p r e p a r a t o r y s k e t c h f o r f o l i o 4 9 r o f t h e W in d so r manu

s c r i p t . I t i s an u n f i n i s h e d p a i n t e d d r a w in g , an d c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y

i s s i m i l a r t o t h e f i n i s h e d p a i n t i n g . Some a l t e r a t i o n s n a v e b e e n

made f ro m t n e s k e t c n t o t h e f i n i s h e d w ork .

2 . J a h a n g i r R e c e i v i n g p r i n c e K hurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u l Cam paign A g a i n s t t h e R a n a o f Mewar

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 s t M arch 1614 a r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s : nam es o f some n o b l e s p r o v i d e d d i m e n s i o n s : 9 » 7 <l x 6 .7 '*l o c a t i o n : C o l l e c t i o n o f Edwin B in n e y I I I , L o s A n g e le s b i b l i o g r a p h y : B in n e y , I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e P a i n t i n g , p . 79*

T h i s w ork i s a n o t h e r p r e p a r a t o r y s k e t c h f o r f o l i o 49r i n t h e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t . I t i s a n u n f i n i s h e d d r a w in g , a n d th o u g h i t d e p i c t s

t n e same i n c i d e n t a s t h e a b o v e w o rk , i t i s som ew hat d i f f e r e n t l y


255

o r g a n iz e d . U n d ou b ted ly th e f i n a l p a i n t i n g was d e r i v e d from b o th

t h e s e s k e t c h e s , a s t h e r e a r e e le m e n ts from b o th p r e s e n t .

3* C o n f e r r a l o f t n e T i t l e Shah J a h a n

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 2 th O c t o b e r 1 6 1 7 / 1 1 t h Shawwal 1026 a r t i s t : M an o h ar S in g h ( a t t r i b u t e d by Coomaraswamy) i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d i m e n s i o n s : 1 0 . 1 ” x 7 • ‘I"l o c a t i o n : B o s to n Museum, Ross-C oom arasw am y C o l l e c t i o n 17 . 2 6 9 6 b i b l i o g r a p h y : Coomaraswamy, C a t a l o g u e , p i . XXXIII

A n o th e r p r e p a r a t o r y s k e t c h t o a p a i n t i n g i n ' t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t ,

f o l i o 1 9 4 v . L i k e t n e p r e v i o u s two s k e t c h e s , t h i s i s a l s o an

u n f i n i s h e d d r a w in g , a n d i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e f i n i s h e d p a i n t i n g .

O n ly a few a l t e r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n m ade .

4« C o r o n a t i o n D a r b a r

d a t e o f e v e n t ; 1 4 t h F e b r u a r y 1 6 2 8 / 6 t h Ju m ad a I I 1 0 3 7 / 1 s t r e g n a l y e a r

a r t i s t : A b idi n s c r i p t i o n s : i n c e n t e r - w orx o f A b ia , b r o t n e r o f t h e u n e q u a l e d

i n t h e a g e , M e s c h e a i , f i n i s h e d . . . ( i l l e g i b l e ) d i m e n s i o n s : unKnownl o c a t i o n : C o l l e c t i o n o f H. V e v e r , P a r i s b i b l i o g r a p h y : M a r t e a u a n a V e v e r , I I , p i . CLXI

T h i s w ork i s b e l i e v e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e c o r o n a t i o n o f S h ah J a h a n

u p o n h i s a s c e n s i o n t o t h e t h r o n e . On t h i s o c c a s i o n n u m ero u s r a n k s

w e re i n c r e a s e d , t i t l e s c o n f e r r e d an d g i f t s b e s to w e d . The t r a y s

l a i d o u t on t h e g r o u n a may d e p i c t t h e g i f t s t h a t w ere p r e s e n t e d .

T he p r e s e n c e o f M a h a b a t K han, s e c o n d t o t n e r i g h t o f s h a h J a h a n

who i s t h e o n l y f i g u r e i d e n t i f i e d , f u r t h e r s u s t a i n s t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .

D u r in g t h e p r e v i o u s r e i g n , M a h a b a t Khan s u c c e e d e d t h e l a t e ‘Aba a l Rahim Khan K hanan a s commander i n c n i e f o f t n e a rm y , a n d h a d h e l d t h e same t i t l e o f Khan K hanan u n t i l n e i n c u r r e u t h e a n g e r o f t h e l a t e E m p ero r J a h a n g i r . Now, h o w e v e r , h e w as b e s to w e d


256

tn e same n ig h t i t l e a s b e f o r e , and was a l s o awarded th e mansab ranK o f 7 , 0 0 0 a lo n g w i th a b e q u e s t o f f o u r la k h s o f r u p e e s and v a r i o u s o th e r f a v o r s . ^

F u rth erm ore , o f Shah J a h a n 1 s s o n s , o n ly Murad Bakhsn i s p r e s e n t ,

and i t i s known t h a t a t t h i s t im e th e o t h e r t h r e e so n s were n o t a t

c o u r t . They were m aking t h e i r way from L ahore w ith A sa f Khan —

wno i s a l s o a b s e n t — where th e y were p la c e d f o r s a f e k e e p in g

d u r in g th e f i n a l tu m u ltu o u s d ays o f J a h a n g i r ' s r e i g n .

5 . Second C o r o n a t io n o f Shan Jahan

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 b tn A u g u s t 1 6 2 b / 2nd Z i ' l h i j j a 1 0 3 7 / 1 s t r e g n a l y e a r

a r t i s t : A n u p c n a ta ri n s c r i p t i o n s ; nam es o f m o s t o f t h e f i g u r e s p r o v i d e d d i m e n s i o n s : unknownl o c a t i o n : B r i t i s h Museum 1 > 2 0 - 7 - 1 7 - 0 1 3 ( 2 7 ) ( e x Add 1bb01 f o l . 2 8 ) b i b l i o g r a p h y : B in y o n a n d A r n o ld , p i . x x / M a r t i n , p i . 184

As i n d i c a t e d by W. B e g l e y i n a r e c e n t sym posium on M ughal a r t , t h i s

u n f i n i s h e d s k e t c h may d e p i c t t h e s e c o n d c o r o n a t i o n o f Shah J a h a n w h ic h

was h e ld a t th e s u g g e s t i o n o f A sa f Khan.

A c c o r d in g t o t h e c l e a r s i g h t e d a s t r o l o g e r s , no m ore a u s p i c i o u s h o u r t h a n t h i s e x i s t e d i n t h e c y c l e o f t h e c a l e n d a r . As t h i s h o u r was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t a t w n ic h t h e f i r s t c o r o n a t i o n was h e l d a t t h i s m o s t a u s p i c i o u s moment w o u ld p ro v e t o be o f g r e a t c o n s e q u e n c e . T h e r e f o r e H i s I m p e r i a l M a j e s t y a s c e n d e d t n e t h r o n e o f g o v e rn m e n t an d f o r t u n e w i t h a l l a u s p i c i o u s n e s s f o r t h e s e c o n d t i m e ; an d t h o s e i n a t t e n d a n c e d u r i n g t h i s b l e s s e d a s s e m b ly r e c e i v e d i n n u m b e r a b le r o y a l f a v o r s . 5

The p r e s e n c e o f A s a f Khan a n d a l l o f Shah J a h a n * s s o n s l e a n s

f a v o r a b ly t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s p a i n t i n g t o t h i s e v e n t .

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n an 1 8 th c e n t u r y S h a h J a n a n Mama ( B r i t i s h L i b r a r y

Add 2 0 7 3 4 , f o l i o bbb ) i s a d a r b a r s c e n e d e p i c t i n g t n i s v e r y e v e n t ,

a n d i t a p p e a r s t o n a v e o e e n a co p y maae f ro m t n e f i n i s h e d p a i n t i n g


257

to t h i s s k e t c h . T h is i n c i d e n t i s n o t m e n t io n e d i n L a h a u r i ' s t e x t ,

b u t i s fo u n d i n I n a y a t K han 's M ulakhkhas and Mohammad S a l i h Kambo's

' A m a l - i - S a l i h , w h ich may i n d i c a t e t h a t i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n s o f o t h e r

v e r s i o n s o f Shah J a h a n ' s h i s t o r i e s were a l s o o r d e r e d .

6 . Secon d C o r o n a t io n o f Shah Jahan

d a t e o f e v e n t s 16xh A ugu st 1 6 2 8 / 2nd Z i ' l H i j j a 1 0 3 7 / 1 s t r e g n a l y e a r

a r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s s names o f m ost f i g u r e s p r o v id e d d im e n s io n s : 1 2 . 6 " x 8 . 1 " l o c a t i o n : H erm itage Museum b ib l i o g r a p h y : I v a n o v e t a l , n o . 3 5

T his p a in t in g nas t e n t a t i v e l y been i d e n t i f i e d by W. B eg ley as a ls o

b e in g th e second c o r o n a tio n o f Shah Jahan. Jud ging from th e appea

ran ce o f Shah J a n a n 's fo u r so n s , th ey lo o k to be th e age th ey

were a t th e t im e . As t h i s in c id e n t i s n o t m entioned in L a h a u r i's

Badshah iMama, t h i s p a in t in g in d ic a t e s th a t o th e r h i s t o r i e s o f

Shah Jahan were a ls o i l l u s t r a t e d .

7 . D eparture o f Shah Shuja f o r th e Deccan

d a t e o f e v e n t : 2 8 t h A u g u s t 16 3 3 / S a f a r IO4 3 / 6 t h r e g n a l y e a r a r t i s t : A b idi n s c r i p t i o n s : s i g n e d a n d d a t e d by A b id t o 1 0 4 5 / 1635 d i m e n s i o n s : 12" x 8 . 4 ”l o c a t i o n : B o d e l i a n L i b r a r y , O u s e le y Add 173* n o . 17 b i b l i o g r a p h y : B in y o n a n d A r n o l d , p i . XXI

T h i s r e p r e s e n t s t n e same i n c i d e n t a s f o l i o 147"V i n i b e W in d so r

m a n u s c r i p t , a n d may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e was m ore t h a n one i l l u s t r a

t e d e d i t i o n o f t h e L a h a u r i t e x t . One f e a t u r e common t o b o t h t n e s e

p a i n t i n g s i s s n a h S h u j a p a y i n g h i s r e s p e c t s t o S hah J a h a n f rom

o u t s i d e t h e b a r r i e r w i t n a t a s l i m mode o f s a l u t a t i o n . T h i s


258

p a i n t i n g i s a l m o s t a m i r r o r im age o f t h e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t o n e ,

b u t w i t h some d i f f e r e n c e s i n t n e p la c e m e n t o f f i g u r e s a n d d e t a i l s .

A l th o u g h t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e same e v e n t , d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r b e c a u s e

b o t h p a i n t i n g s w ere done a f t e r t h e f a c t , a n d * th e a r t i s t s p r o b a b l y

w o rk ed i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f e a c h o t h e r .

8 . S hah J a h a n on t n e J e w e l l e d T h ro n e

d a t e o f e v e n t s 1 6 3 8 / 1 0 4 7 / 1 1 th y e a r a r t i s t : A b idi n s c r i p t i o n : a t f o o t o f t h r o n e - ra q a m w a la d i Aqa R e z a A b iu , 25

S h a b a n y e a r 15 o f Shah J a h a n d i m e n s i o n s : 1 4 *5 " x 9»75"l o c a t i o n : C o l l e c t i o n o f Edw in B in n e y I I I , Los A n g e le s b i b l i o g r a p h y : B in n e y , I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e P a i n t i n g , p . 8 5 / B e a c h ,

The G ran d M o g u l , p . 79

A p a i n t i n g o f S h a h J a h a n s e a t e d on t h e j e w e l l e d t h r o n e w n ic h i s

b e t t e r known a s t h e p e a c o c k t h r o n e t h a t was c o m p le te d i n t h e 8 t h

y e a r o f h i s r e i g n . The s c e n e h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d by W. B e g le y a s

t h e d a r b a r im m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g Shan J a h a n ' s s o l a r w e ighm en t o f

t h e 1 1 t n y e a r . T h e re a r e no p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t n e

p e a c o c k t h r o n e t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c t l y w i t h t h e t e x t u a l d e s c r i p

t i o n . A l th o u g h t h e t h r o n e h a d tw e l v e p i l l a r s , t n e a r t i s t o n ly

d e p i c t e d f o u r o f them w h ic h a l l o w e d S h a h J a h a n t o b e s e e n m ore

c l e a r l y . H ow ever , i t i s i d e n t i f i a b l e by t h e two p e a c o c k s t h a t

s u rm o u n t t h e c a n o p y .

9 . R e c e p t io n o f A l i Mardan Khan

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 6 3 7 / 1 0 4 7 / 1 1 t h y e a r a r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n : name o f A l i M ardan Khan p r o v i d e d

d im e n s io n s : 1 3 *5 ” x 9 » 4 ”


259

l o c a t i o n : unknownb i b l i o g r a p h y : M e h ta , p i . 5 8 / S m i th , H i s t o r y , p i . 125

A l th o u g h o n ly t n e l e f t p o r t i o n o f a d o u b le p a g e p a i n t i n g , t h i s

s c e n e h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e r e c e p t i o n o f A l i M ardan K han when

h e r e l i n q u i s h e d h i s l o y a l t i e s t o t h e S h ah o f P e r s i a a n d t o o k r e f u g e

a t t h e M ughal c o u r t * ^ He i s i d e n t i f i a b l e by h i s P e r s i a n g a r m e n ts

a n d t h e i n s c r i p t i o n on h i s p e r s o n . T h i s p a i n t i n g i s a l i t t l e

u n u s u a l when co m p a re d t o o t h e r c o u r t y a r d p o r t i o n s o f d a r b a r s c e n e s .

U s u a l l y t h e i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e s a r e p l a c e d on t h e same s i d e a s Shah

J a h a n a n d n o t i n t h e c o u r t y a r d a s i s t n e c a s e h e r e .

1 0 . R e c e p t i o n o f Y a d g a r Beg

d a t e o f e v e n t : 16 5 8 / 1 0 4 7 / 1 1 t n y e a r a r t i s t : P ay ag i n s c r i p t i o n s : n one d i m e n s i o n s : 1 5 - 3 " x 9 . 5 "l o c a t i o n : B o d e l i a n L i b r a r y , U u s e le y Add 175* n o * 13 b i b l i o g r a p h y : b ro w n , I n d i a n P a i n t i n g , p i . aX IV / B in y o n an d A r n o ld ,

p i . XXKVI

I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e Mughal s i e g e a t <4an aah ar and t h e i r su b se q u e n t

v i c t o r y , Shan S h a f i , k i n g o f P e r s i a , s e n t a n e n v o y - Y a d g a r Beg -

t o t h e c o u r t o f Shah J a h a n w i t h a l e t t e r e x p r e s s i n g h i s b i t t e r n e s s5

a t t h e l o s s o f t h i s t e r r i t o r y . y a d g a r Beg was r e c e i v e d w i t h a l l

t h e c u s to m a r y h o n o r s a c c o r d e d t o a v i s i t i n g d i g n i t a r y . He r e t u r n e d

t o P e r s i a i n 1659 w i t h a l e t t e r f ro m s h a h j h a n t h a t j u s t i f i e d and

a p o l o g i z e d f o r t n e ^ a n d a h a r a f f a i r , a n d r e q u e s t e d s h a h s n a f i t o £

f o r g e t a b o u t i t . I n t h e p a i n t i n g , Y a d g a r Beg i s r e c o g n i z a b l e by

h i s P e r s i a n s t y l e t u r b a n . L i k e h i s p r e d e c e s s o r Mohammad A l i Beg,

whose r e c e p t io n i s d e p ic te d on f o l i o ^8v o f th e W indsor m a n u scr ip t,


260

he s a lu te s Shah Janan in tn e P e r s ia n fa s h io n w ith tn e neaci r a is e a

r a th e r than bowed, ana i s surrounded by a r e t in u e o f g i f t b e a r e r s .

11 . B e c e p t i o n o f an Envoy i n r.amn

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknowna r t i s t : F a t e n Chandi n s c r i p t i o n : am al i F a t e h Chanad i m e n s i o n s : 1 3 . 6 " x ;? .5 "l o c a t i o n : B h a r a t K a la B h av an , B e n a r e sb i b l i o g r a p h y ; K r i s h n a a a s a , p i . t>

T h is w ork was o r i g i n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e m e e t i n g b e tw e e n l i u r a d

B aknsh a n d B a z a r Mohammad, r u l e r o f B a lk n an d B u k h a ra i n 1645*

H owever, t h i s h a s b e e n show n t o oe a n e r r o r a s t h e f i g u r e i s a e f i -

n a t e l y t h a t o f S h a h J a h a n a n a n o t M uraa B a k h sh . The e x a c t e v e n t

h a s n o t y e t b e e n d e t e r m i n e d , b u t i t d e p i c t s S hah J a h a n r e c e i v i n g7

a n envoy f ro m e i t h e r P e r s i a o r T r a n s o x i a n a . J u d g i n g from th e

a p p e a r a n c e o f Shan J a h a n , one c o u l d p l a c e t h i s p a i n t i n g w i t h i n

t h e f i r s t t w e l v e y e a r s o f S h ah J a h a n 1s r e i g n .

12 . B e c e p t i o n o f A u ra n g z e b

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 6 4 ^ / 1 0 5 9 / 2 $ru y e a r a r t i s t : unknown i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d i m e n s i o n s : 1 2 ” x 8 . 6 "l o c a t i o n : I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y , Add Or 3^53 b i b l i o g r a p h y : S k e l t o n , The I n d i a n H e r i t a g e , p . 45 .

T h i s p a i n t i n g h a s b e e n t e n t a t i v e l y i a e n t i f i e u a s e i t n e r t h e d a r o a r

t o com memorate A u r a n g z e b 's p ro m o t io n i n J a n u a r y 1645 o r h i s v i s i tG

in BOvemDer 1fa4y. Both txiese in c id e n t s took p la c e a t L ahore, and

t h i s i s in d ic a te d in th e p a in t in g by th e f l o r a l p ie t a dura decora

t io n on th e a r c h it e c t u r e . C o m p o sit io n a lly i t i s v e r y much l i k e


261

th e darbar sc e n e s in th e W indsor m an uscrip t in i t s form al and

s tr u c tu r e d moae.

13* D a r b a r o f Shah J a h a n

d a t e o f e v e n t ; unimown a r t i s t ; unknown i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d i m e n s i o n s ; 1 3 »3 " x 10” l o c a t i o n : H e r m i t a g e Museum b i b l i o g r a p h y : I v a n o v e t a l , n o . 34

An i n c i d e n t t h a t t o o k p l a c e w i t h i n t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s o f s h a h

J a h a n ' s r e i g n w h ic h h a s n o t y e t b e e n i d e n t i f i e d . I t shows Shah

J a h a n s e a t e d on h i s j e w e l l e d t h r o n e ( a g a i n w i t h o n ly f o u r p i l l a r s

i n s t e a d o f t w e l v e ) i n t h e D iw a n - i -K h a s a t D e l h i . A p r e p a r a t o r y

s k e t c h ( s e e n e x t e n t r y ) an d a n 1 8 th c e n t u r y c o p y e x i s t f o r t h i s

p a i n t i n g . S e v e r a l c h a n g e s w ere made b e tw e e n t h e s k e t c h a n d t h e

f i n i s h e d p i e c e , a n d t h i s work a n a t h e c o p y . The c o p y , a l s o i n t h e

h e r m i t a g e Museum, i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n G re k , p l a t e 1 9 .

1 4 . D a r b a r o f S h a h J a n a n

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknown a r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s : nam es o f f i v e p e o p l e p r o v i d e d d i m e n s i o n s : 1 4 " x 9«3"l o c a t i o n : C o l l e c t i o n Edw in B in n e y I I I , L os A n g e le s b i b l i o g r a p h y : B in n e y , I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e P a i n t i n g , p . 80

T n i s i s t h e s x e t c h t o t n e p a i n t i n g j u s t p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d .

T u e re a r e f i v e i n s c r i p t i o n s g i v i n g t h e nam es o f ' A l i H a z r a t ,

S u le im a n s n i k o h , h a y a t Khan, B a r a S h iK on , an d Knan D au ran B a n a d u r .

The 1 8 th c e n t u r y c o p y r e p r o d u c e s i n e x a c t d e t a i l t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n

a n d t n e l o w e r l e f t s i d e .


262

1 5 . D a r b a r o f Shah J a h a n

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknowna r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n ed im e n s io n s : 1 3 * 5 ” x 9"l o c a t i o n : B h a r a t K a la B h a v a n , B e n a r e sb i b l i o g r a p h y : K r i s h n a d a s a , p i . 8

QA d a r b a r w h ic h t o o k . p l a c e i n e i t h e r Mandu o r A j m i r , a n d j u d g i n g by

t h e a p p a r e n t a g e o f S n ah J a h a n , so m e t im e w i t n i n t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s

o f h i s r e i g n . The p a i n t i n g h a s n o t y e t b e e n i d e n t i f i e d . C om posi-

t i o n a l l y i t i s r a t h e r u n l i k e t h e u s u a l s y m m e t r i c a l l y a r r a n g e d

d a r b a r s o f t n e W in d so r m a n u s c r i p t , a s i t i s s e t a s s y m m e t r i c a l l y

a n d i s v e r y s p a c e d o u t .

C e l e b r a t i o n s and F e s t i v a l s

1 . A t te n d a n t F i g u r e s

d a x e o f e v e n t : unicnown a r t i s t : unknown i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d i m e n s i o n s : 1 5 . 1 ” x 8 . 7 ”l o c a t i o n : C h ic a g o A r t I n s t i t u t e , K a te S. B uck ingham F u n d 1 ^ 7 5 -5 5 5 b i b l i o g r a p h y : B e a c h , The G ra n d M o g u l , p . 84

The l e f t h a l f o f a d o u b l e p a g e p a i n t i n g sh o w in g t h e c o u r t y a r d .

M u s i c i a n s a n d d a n c i n g g i r l s i n d i c a t e t h a x t h i s was a c e l e b r a t i o n

o r f e s t i v a l s c e n e . H o w ev er , i t c a n n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h o u t t h e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a g e .

2 . A t t e n d a n t F i g u r e s

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknown a r t i s t : unknown i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d i m e n s i o n s : 1 5 ” x 10"


263

l o c a t i o n : I n d i a n Museum, C a l c u t t a , n o . R 4 7 ^ / s 139 b i b l i o g r a p h y : H i h a r r a n j a n R ay , p . XX/ Brow n, I n d i a n P a i n t i n g , p i .

XLVI

The l e f t h a l f o f a d o u b le p ag e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o u r t y a r d . The

s c e n e show s s i n g e r s , m u s i c i a n s a n d o t h e r e n t e r t a i n e r s . Maybe some

i n d i c a t i o n s c o u l d b e n o t e d f ro m t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e boy i n t h e

r i g h t f o r e g r o u n d i n a P e r s i a n s t y l e t u r b a n .

3 . A t t e n d a n t F i g u r e s

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknown a r t i s t : unknown i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d im e n s io n s : 1 5 *4 " x 1 0 . 1 " l o c a t i o n : H e r m i t a g e Museum b i b l i o g r a p h y : I v a n o v e t a l , n o . 35

A n o th e r l e f t h a l f o f a d o u b le p a g e c o m p o s i t i o n w h ic h d e p i c t s t h e

c o u r t y a r d . The e n t e r t a i n e r s a n d m u s i c i a n s a r e i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d ,

w h i l e i n t h e r e s t o f t n e p a i n t i n g a r e v a r i o u s n o b l e s . I n f r o n t o f

t n e g a te w a y s t a n d s a g u a r d o f h o n o r w h ic h seem s t o s i g n i f y t h e

a r r i v a l o f some i m p o r t a n t d i g n i t a r y . T h r e e o f t h e f i g u r e s i n t n e

m i d d le g r o u n d a r e P e r s i a n s , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r t u r b a n s .

B a t t l e s

1 . The S u r r e n d e r o f K a n d a h a r

d a t e o f e v e n t : 2 8 th F e b r u a r y 1 6 3 8 / Shawwal 1 0 4 6 / 1 2 t h r e g n a l y e a ra r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n ed i m e n s i o n s : unknownl o c a t i o n : M usee G u im e t , MA 3318b i b l i o g r a p h y : B l o c h e t , p i . xXXIX

The f o r t o f K a n d a h a r h a d a lw a y s b e e n a d e l i c a t e i s s u e b e tw e e n I n d i a

a n d P e r s i a . B o th c o u n t r i e s c l a i m e d a r i g h t t o i t , and i t s


264

c o n t r o l s h i f t e d b e tw e e n t n e s e two c o u n t r i e s . D u r in g t h e 1 1 th y e a r ,

some M ughal o f f i c e r s w e re s e n t t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h H i M ardan Khan*

t h e P e r s i a n g o v e r n o r o f K a n d a h a r , f o r a p e a c e f u l s u r r e n d e r . Knowing

t h a t A l i M ardan Khan w as b e h in d , i n h i s paym en t o f r e v e n u e t a x e s ,

t h e M u g h a ls u s e d t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r e s s u r e a n d b r i b e t h e g o v e r

n o r t o h a n d o v e r t h e f o r t a n d be o f f e r e d s a n c t i o n a t t h e M ughal

10c o u r t . A l i M ard an K han f i n a l l y s u r r e n d e r e d t h e f o r t i n F e b r u a r y

1 6 3 8 t o 'E w az Khan who t h e n h a d t h e k h u t b a r e a d i n S h ah J a h a n 1s

nam e. T h i s p a i n t i n g show s t h e h a n d i n g o v e r o f t h e k e y s t o t h e

M ughal com m ander. The e x e c u t i o n o f t h i s p a i n t i n g i s r e m i n i s c e n t

o f t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f a r t i s t ' s s t y l e , t h a t i s , o f a l e s s e r

t e c h n i c a l e x c e l l e n c e an d a l o t o f aw kw ard h a n d l i n g o f t h e f o r m s .

2 . The S u r r e n d e r o f K a n d a h a r

d a t e o f e v e n t ; 2 8 t h F e b r u a r y 1 6 3 8 / Shawwal 1 0 4 6 / 1 2 t h r e g n a l y e a r a r t i s t ; unknown i n s c r i p t i o n s ; n o n e d i m e n s i o n s ; unknownl o c a t i o n ; C o l l e c t i o n o f B abu S i t r a m L a ib i b l i o g r a p h y ; Coomaraswamy, "M ughal P o r t r a i t u r e " , p i . I 4

T h i s p a i n t i n g h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a l s o b e i n g t h e s u r r e n d e r o f

K a n d a h a r , t h e same i n c i d e n t a s t h e a b o v e e n t r y . A l i M ardan Khan

i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , b o w in g s l i g h t l y . A ro u n d him

a r e M ughal n o b l e s , w h i l e b e h i n d him a r e P e r s i a n n o b l e s a n d s e r v a n t s

h o l d i n g t r a y s o f g i f t s . As o n ly a p o r t i o n o f t h e p a i n t i n g was

r e p r o d u c e d , a m ore t n r o u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o u l d n o t b e m ade.


265

5* An I n c i d e n t D urin g tn e Kangra Campaign A g a in s t th e hebel J a g a t S ingh

d a t e o f e v e n t : 1 6 4 1 / 1 0 5 1 / y e a ra r t i s t ; P ay agi n s c r i p t i o n s : on b order - th e a s s a u l t on i^anaahar D y ^ n e I n a ia n

army. Barnes o f s i x o f f i c e r s p r o v id e d , d im e n s io n s : 1 3 *6 " x 9 • 4 ” l o c a t i o n : anonymous p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o nb i b l i o g r a p n y : W elch, I m p e r i a l , p i . 3 3 / W elch, F lo w e r , p i . 6 b /

b e a c h , The Grand M ogu l, p. 8 1 / B l o c n e t , p i . XaXV

Some d o u b t h a s s u r r o u n d e d t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t m s p a i n t i n g . The

i n s c r i p t i o n on t h e b o r a e r , w h ich was w r i t t e n i n t n e 1 8 th c e n t u r y ,

i d e n t i f i e s i t a s p a r t o f t h e A a n a a h a r s e i g e , a n d t h i s h a s b een

g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d . H ow ever, a s i n d i c a t e d by W. B e g l e y , t h e v e g e

t a t i o n d e p i c t e d i n t h i s p a i n t i n g i s t o o l u s h t o c o n c e i v a b l y be t h a t

o f t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r i e s . He s u g g e s t e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e

e v e n t , t n e K a n g ra c a m p a ig n , f o r w n ic h t n e t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e c o r r e s

p o n d s c l o s e l y t o t h e p a i n t i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l a n d s c a p e o f

K a n g a ra i s v e r y much l i k e t h a t w h ic h i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p a i n t i n g .

T h is campaign was la u n c h e d wnen J a g a t S in g h , t h e g o v ern o r o f th e«

n u r p u r s t a t e , f o r a num ber o f r e a s o n s , i n c i t e d t n e d i s p l e a s u r e

o f S h ah J a n a n . The M ughal t r o o p s p l a n n e d t o l a u n c h a s i m u l t a n e o u s

a t t a c k on t h e f o r t s o f Mau an d H u r p u r , a n d a l o n g h a r d s i e g e f o l

lo w e d . A f t e r s e v e r a l m o n th s , J a g a t S i n g h ' s r e s i s t e n c e g a v e way

a n d h e was f o r c e d t o s u r r e n d e r i n J a n u a r y 1 6 4 2 . He was s u b s e q u e n -

12t l y f o r g i v e n and e n t e r e d i n t o t h e i m p e r i a l s e r v i c e .

4 . H a t t i e Scene

d a te o f e v e n t ; unknown



266

i n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n e d i m e n s i o n s : 1 3 - 4 ** x 9*2" l o c a t i o n : H e rm i ta g e Museum b i D l i o g r a p h y : I v a n o v e t a l , n o . 43

-A s t i l l u n i d e n t i f i e d b a t t l e s c e n e s h o w in g t h e M ughal arm y f i g h t i n g

a r e t r e a t i n g enemy. I t i s a v e r y d y n am ic w ork t h a t i s com posed

a l o n g a d i a g o n a l p l a n e a n d w h e re t h e f i g u r e s a r e p l a c e d i n s m a l l

g r o u p s . The enemy a p p e a r s t o be a H in d u a rm y . A few i n t e r e s t i n g

d e t a i l s a r e t h e p r e s e n c e o f t n r e e P e r s i a n s a n d a E u ro p e a n among

t h e r a n k s o f t h e M ughal t r o o p s .

5* B a t t l e S cene

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknowna r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n ed i m e n s i o n s : 1 3 *5 " x 9«8"l o c a t i o n : I n d i a n Museum, C a l c u t t ab i b l i o g r a p n y : Brow n, I n d i a n P a i n t i n g , p i . XLV

The p a i n t i n g snow s t h e c a p t u r e o f t n e enemy an d t n e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n

t o t n e com m anding o f f i c e r . As o n ly a p o r t i o n o f t n e w ork was

r e p r o d u c e d , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e a m ore p r e c i s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .

H u n ts

1 . A R o y a l L i o n h u n t

d a t e o f e v e n t : unknowna r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n s : n o n ed i m e n s i o n s : 1 6 .8 " x 1 0 .1 "l o c a t i o n : K e i r C o l l e c t i o n , Londonb i b l i o g r a p h y : H o b in s o n , p i s . 130 & 131

A d e p i c t i o n o f s b a h j a h a n an d h i s f o u r s o n s h u n t i n g in . ro u g h

t e r r a i n . E ach p e r s o n i s s e a t e d on a n e l e p h a n t a n d i s e q u i p p e d w i t h

a m a tc h lo c k . The h u n t i s f o r l i o n s , a n d t h e r e i s one a t t a c k i n g


267

A u r a n g z e b 's l i o n on t n e r i a h t s i u e oi' t n e p a g e , ho p r e c i s e i a e n t i -

f i c a t i o n h a s b e e n f o u n d f o r t h i s w ork .

R e l i g i o u s O c c a s io n s

1 . i \ i ig h t C e l e o r a t i o n o f t h e P r o p h e t ' s B i r t h d a y

d a te o f e v e n t : 1t>tn S ep tem b er 1b33/ 1 2 th Habi I 1 0 4 3 / b th r e g n a l y e a r

a r t i s t : h u r a di n s c r i p t i o n s : n onea im e n s io n s : 1 4 *2 " x y .6 "l o c a t i o n : F r e e r G a l l e r y 4 2 .1 ? A 4 2 .1 BAb ib l i o g r a p h y : W elcn, I m p e r i a l , p i s . 31 & 3 2 / G a s c o ig n e , p . 200

T h is d o u b le page c o m p o s i t io n h a s been r e c e n t l y i u e n t i f i e d by W.

B e g le y a s t n e c e l e o r a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t ' s b i r t n d a y i n t n e b t h y e a r .

p r i o r t o t n i s , i t was s i m p l y r e f e r e a t o a s Shah J a h a n e n t e r t a i n i n g

1 3a g ro u p o f m u l l a s . ^

F o l l o w i n g r e c i t a t i o n o f t n e k o r a n , v a r i o u s s c h o l a r s a n a p i o u s p e r s o n s e x p o u n a e a u p o n t n e g r e a t n e s s a n a n o o l e p e r f e c t i o n s o f t n a t c u l m i n a t i o n o f a l l n u m a n i ty . Ana f o r t n e e n jo y m e n t o f t h e a s s e m b l e d w o r t h i e s , t h e a t m o s p n e r e was p e r f u m e a by i n c e n s e a n a i r a g r a n t e s s e n c e s , a n a th e y w e re s e r v e a t r a y s o f v a r i e a i 'o o a s , a r i e a i r u i t s a n a s w e e t s , u u t o f r e v e r e n c e f o r t h i s h o l y o c c a s i o n , h i s h a j e s t y a e s c e n a e a t o t h e f l o o r o f t n e h a l l an d t o o k h i s s e a t u p o n an o u t s p r e a a c l o t h ; w n e reu p o n g i f t s a n a r e w a r a s w ere a i s t r i o u t e a t o t h e a s s e m b l e d s c h o l a r s a n a r e l i g i o u s a s c e t i c s .

The c a n a l e s i n d i c a t e t h e n i g h t , a n a S hah j a h a n ' s p o s i t i o n on t h e

f l o o r i s e x p l a i n e a by t h e t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e .

2 . Shan Jahan W atching t n e Dance o f D e r v is h e s

d a te o f e v e n t ; Ib^ts/ 1Ubb/ 3 2 nd r e g n a l y e a r a r t i s t : unknowni n s c r i p t i o n : a f a t h e r i n g o f S u f i s h o l a i n g r e c i t a t i o n s i n tn e

g a r d e n o f H a z r a t S h i n a b - u a - a i n S nan J a n a n Bad sna ilG hazi i n t n e h i j r i y e a r 10bb (Ib ^ b ) work o f h i s s l a v e s


268

d i m e n s i o n s : 2 1 .8 " x 1 5 . 6 "l o c a t i o n : I n d i a n Museum, C a l c u t t a , n o . R 3 1 4 / s 142 b i b l i o g r a p h y : R a y , p i . XXIV

Snah J a n a n i s s t a n d i n g w i t h two y o u n g b o y s , p r o b a b l y n i s g r a n d

c h i l d r e n on a f l o r a l c a r p e t e d : t e r r a c e w a tc h i n g two a e r v i s n e s d a n c e .

Some fo rm o f m u s i c a l a c c o m p a n im e n t i s p r o v i d e d , a n a i n t h e b ack

g r o u n d a r e a few a s c e t i c s .


269

N o te s t o A p p en d ix A1

A nanda K. Coomaraswamy, C a t a lo g u e o f t h e I n d i a n C o l l e c t i o n s i n t h e Museum o f F i n e A r t s . B o s to n , V o l . V I : Mughal P a i n t i n g (C a m b r id g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 4 3 .

2Wayne E . B e g le y , e d . , " C h r o n i c l e o f t h e K ing o f t h e

W o r ld : The Shah J a h a n Nama o f ' I n a y a t K han , t h e n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t t r a n s l a t i o n o f A .R . F u l l e r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y (A dd. 5 0 , 7 7 7 ) " ( T y p e s c r i p t , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 26 .

^ i b i d , p . 55 .

^ N a n a l a l Cham ami a l M e h ta , S t u d i e s i n I n d i a n P a i n t i n g (Bombay: D .B . T a r a p o r e v a l a Sons & C o . , 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 93*

5B a n a r s i P r a s a d S a k s e n a , H i s t o r y o f S hah J a h a n o f

D i l h i ( A l l a h a b a d : C e n t r a l Book D e p o t , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 219 .

6i b i d , p . 220 .

^ R o b e r t S k e l t o n , The I n d i a n H e r i t a g e (L0n d o n : V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum, 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 4 6 . .

8 i b i d , p . 4 4 .

^ R a i K r i s h n a d a s a , M ughal M i n i a t u r e s (Hew D e l h i : L a l i t K a la A kadem i, 1 9 5 5 ) , p l» 8 .

18 S a k s e n a , p . 216 .

S k e l t o n , p . 47*

^ S a k s e n a , p . 1 0 2 .

^ S t u a r t C a ry W elch , I m p e r i a l M ughal P a i n t i n g (New Y o rk : G e o rg e B r a z i l l e r , I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 1 0 1 .

1^ B e g le y , p . 172 .


270

APPENDIX B

L IST OP ATTRIBUTIONS TO THE ARTISTS OF THE WINDSOR MANUSCRIPT

A b id

Shah J a n a n ' s S e c o n d C o r o n a t i o n1628 - 1629Y e v e r C o l l e c t i o nr e f ; M a r t e a u an d V e v e r , p i . CLXI

S h a h J a h a n H o ld in g a J e w e l l e d O rnam en t a n d Sw ord d a t e d 1041 ( 1 6 3 1 /1 6 3 2 )V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum I .M . 233—1921

D e p a r t u r e o f S h ah S h u j a f o r t n e D eccan d a t e d IO45 (1 b 3 3 )B o a e l i a n L i b r a r y O u s e l e y A d a . 173 n o . 17 r e f : B in y o n an d A r n o l d , p i . XXI

Shah J a h a n on t h e P e a c o c k T h ro n e d a t e d 1050 (1 6 3 9 )B in n e y C o l l e c t i o nr e f : B in n e y , I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e P a i n t i n g , p . 63/ B e a c h , The G ran d

M o g u l , p . 79

S h a h J a h a n B e n e a th a B a l d a q u i n u n d a t e dF o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a , P a r i s 1 9 7 2 -T .6 3 r e f s F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a n o . 173* p i - 69

B a lc h a n d

F o l i o 3 1 3 a , N a f a h a t - a i - U n B M a n u s c r i p t d a t e d 1603B r i t i s h L i b r a r y O r . 1 3 6 2

F o l i o s 152b & 1 5 3 , A k b a r Nama M a n u s c r i p t d a t ed 1604C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , M s. 3 r e f ; A r n o ld , I I I p i . 24

F o l i o 4 2 r , Diwan o f H a f i z M a n u s c r i p t c . 1610B r i t i s h L i b r a r y O r . 7373


271

r e f : B a r r e t t a n d G ra y , p . 100

F o l i o 1 3 b , B e r l i n Album 1609 - 1618S t a a t s b i b l i o t h e k , B e r l i n r e f : K uhnel a n d G o e tz , p i . 38

S h a h J a h a n w i t h a. C h i l d c . 1621V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum I . S . 9 0 -1 9 8 5 r e f : A s h to n , p i . 136

Shah J a h a n on a G lo b e w i t h H is F o u r S o n s , M in to Albumc . 16 2 8 - 1630C n e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album A, n o . 10

J a h a n g i r , A k b a r a n a S h a h J a h a n , N a s i r a l - D i n Album f o l i o 2 c . 1628G u l i s t a n L i b r a r y , T e h r a n r e f : G o d a rd , f i g . 64

Shah Shuja, Minto Album c . 1630V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum I .M . 1 5 -1 9 2 5

Shah J a n a n H o ld in g a F ly w h i s k c . I 6 3 OV i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum, V a n ta g e B e q u e s t I .M . 112-1921 r e f : C l a r k e , S c h o o l o f J a h a n g i r , p i . 9

S h a n S h u ja , N a s i r a l - D i n Album f o l i o 41 c . 163 0G u l i s t a n L i b r a r y , T e h r a n r e f : G o d a rd , f i g . 91

R o y a l L o v e r s on a T e r r a c e c . 1633P r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o nr e f t W elch , F l o w e r , n o . 6 5 / W elch , I m p e r i a l , p i . 3 5 / , B e a c h , The G ra n d M o g u l , p . 98

T h r e e Y ounger S ons o f S h ah J a h a n , M in to Album 1635 - 1637V ic to r ia and A lb ert Museum I .M . 1 3 -1 9 2 5r e f : Hambly, f i g . 6 2 / S t c n o u k i n e , P e i n t u r e , p i . XL

B a r a S h ik o h c . 1639P r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o nr e f : B eac h , The G ra n d M o g u l, p . 100


272

A s a f Khanc . 1640V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum, W antage B e q u e s t , I .M . 120-1921 r e f ; C l a r k e , S c h o o l o f J a h a n g i r , p i . 1 1 / P a i n t i n g f ro m M uslim

C o u r t , n o . 128

J a n N i s a r K han, K e v o r k i a n Albumc . 1640M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum

B a k i r K han, IM asir a l - D i n Album , f o l i o 19 u n d a t edG u l i s t a n L i b r a r y , T e h r a n r e f ; G o d a rd , f i g . 75

B a q i r Khan u n d a t e dI n d i a O f f i c e L i D r a r y , J o h n s o n C o l l e c t i o n 25 f o l i o 9 r e f ; A r n o ld , ' • Jo h n s o n C o l l e c t i o n "

B i c h i t r

J a h a n g i r P r e f e r i n g a S u f i S h a ik h t o K in g s c . 1620F r e e r G a l l e r y 45* 153-r e f ; E t t i n g h a u s e n , P a i n t i n g s . p i . 14 / E t t i n g h a u s e n , "T he E m p e r o r 's

C h o ic e " , p i . i / W e lch , I m p e r i a l , p i . 2 2 / G a s c o ig n e , c o v e r

I t a b a r Khan c . 1623M usee G u im et 7*1^2r e f ; S t c n o u k i n e , L o u v r e , p . 3°

L a r a S h ik o h on a p i n k E l e p n a n t c . 1 6 2 8 - 163 0 K e v o r k ia n C o l l e c t i o nr e f ; B e a c h , The G ran d M o g u l , p . 1 0 5 / W elch , F l o w e r , p . 106

P r i n c e s w i t n S a g e s i n a G a rd e n , M in to Album 16 2 5 - 1630C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album A, n o . 7 r e f ; W elch , I m p e r i a l , p i . 36

A s a f K han, M in to Album 1b28 - 1630V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum, I .M . 2 6 - 1 9 2 5r e f ; A r c h e r , I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e s , p i . 2 7 / S t c n o u k i n e , p e i n t u r e s ,

p i . X K X V IIl/ H am bly, p . 9 1 / P a i n t i n g f ro m M uslim C o u rt , p . 83


273

S h ah J a h a n , M in to Albumd a t e d 1631V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t Museum, I .M . 1 7 -1 9 2 5 r e f : W elch , A r t , p i . 43

P r i n c e S a l im , M in to Album c . 1 6 3 5V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum, I .M . 2 8 -1 9 2 5 r e f : H am bly , f i g . 47

Munammad R i z a K a s h m i r i , M in to Album c . 1635C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album A, n o . 9 r e f : A r n o l d , p i . 60

S h a h L a u l a t , M in to Album c . 1635C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album A, n o . 14 r e f : A r n o ld , I , f r o n t i s p i e c e / G a s c o ig n e , p . 61

S h a n J a h a n on a G lo o e , M in to Album c . 1635C h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album A, n o . 1b r e f : A r n o ld , I I I , p i . 63

A k b a r , J a n a n g i r a n d S h an J a n a n E n t h r o n e d w i t h t n e i r W a z i r s , M in to Album1 6 3 5 - 1640C n e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l AlDum A, n o . 19 r e f : A r n o ld , I I I , p i . 65

P o r t r a i t o f a Young Man, j l a s i r a l - D i n Aloum , f o l i o 21 c . 1 6 3 5G u l i s t a n L i b r a r y , T e h r a n r e f : G o d a rd , f i g . 17

J a h a n g i r H o ld in g an O rb , M in to Album c . 1635C h e s t e r n e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album A, n o . 5 r e f : A r n o ld , I I I , p i . 57

S h a h S h u j a E n t h r o n e d w ixh M a n a r a j a G aj S in g h o f Mewar c . 1638L os A n g e le s C o un ty Museum, H e e ra m a n e c k C o l l e c t i o n L 6 9 . 2 4 . 246 r e f : W elch , A r t , n o . 4 4 / B e a c h , The G ra n d M o g u l , p . 105

M u s i c i a n , A r c n e r a n a D n o b r , M in to Albumc . 1645V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum, I .M . 2 7 -1 9 2 5 r e f : S t c n o u k i n e , P e i n t u r e , p i . XLIV


H a j j i Muhammad Khan <4udsi d a t e d 1645 P r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o nr e f : M a c a u la y , D. "M ughal A r t . " B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z in e

p i . 11 f i g . C

S h an J a n a n an d a C o u r t e s a n c . 164 5V e v e r C o l l e c t i o nr e f : S t c h o u k i n e , P e i n t u r e , p i . XXXLX

S i x S a g e s i n a L a n d s c a p e1 6 4 0 - 1650.B inney C o l l e c t i o nr e f : B in n e y , I n d i a n M i n i a t u r e P a i n t i n g , p . 85

E p i s o d e i n a B a z z a rc . 1650 - 1b b 0R o t n s c h i l a C o l l e c t i o nr e f : B e a c h , The G ran d M o g u l , p . 105

S h a n J a n a n C h o o s in g a J e w e l u n d a t e de x - A r d e s n i r C o l l e c t i o nr e f : S o tn e b y , 20 / 5/ 1 9 7 5 , l o t 27

R a j a V i k r a m a j i t , K e v o r k i a n Album u n d a t e dM e t r o p o l i t a n Museum

•P r i n c e s an d S a g e s on a T e r r a c e u n n a t ede x - A r a e s h i r C o l l e c t i o nr e f : A r d e s n i r , " S c h o o l o f S n ah J a h a n " , f i g . 10

S h a h J a h a n w i t h S ons an d A s a f Khan u n d a t e dP r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o nr e f ; C h r i s t i e ' s 25 / 6/ 1 5 6 9 , l o t 57

S t a n d i n g Woman, h a s i r a l - D i n Album u n d a t e dG u l i s t a n L i b r a r y , T e h r a n r e f : G o d a rd , f i g . 107

G ro u p o f H o ly Men u n d a t e dC h e s t e r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , R o y a l Album B 7 -2 4 r e f : E t t i n g h a u s e n , "T he E m p e r o r ' s C h o ic e " , f i g . 5


S u f i s an a P o e t s u n aat eaR eeram aneck C o l l e c t i o n , New Yorkr e f : E tx in g h a u se n , "The E m p eror's C h o ice" , f i g . 4

T a r b ia t Khan u n d atede x -A r d e s h ir C o l le c t io nr e f : S o th eb y 1 0 / 7 / 1 9 7 3 l o t 33

Lalchand

Nobleman undat edC hester B eatty L ibrary, R oyal Album B 7-2?

Raja B ikram ajit undatedC leveland Museum o f A xt, no. 45*170r e f : H o ll is , " P o rtra it o f a Raja", in s id e cover

Murad

P o r t r a i t o f a R oya l S e r v a n t c . 1 6 3 0R o t h s c n i la C o l l e c t io n r e f : C o ln a g h i, p . 212

S h a iy a s t a Khan, N a s ir a l - p i n Album f o l i o 58c . 1 6 3 0G u lis ta n L ib r a r y , Tehran r e f : Godard, f i g . 104

Azam Khan, N a s ir a l - D in Album f o l i o 57 c . 1 6 3 0G u lis ta n L ib r a r y , Tehran r e f : G odard, f i g . 103

N ig h t C e le b r a t io n o f th e p r o p h e t 's B ir th d a y c . 1 6 5 0E r e e r G a l le r y , 4 2 .1 7 A & 4 2 .1 t i lr e f : W elch, I m p e r ia l , p i s . 31 & 3 2 / G a s c o ig n e , p. 200

Payag

Razm Rama M anuscript dated 1598


276

naroda S t a t e Museumr e f : W e lle s z , lawny. "Mugnal P a in t in g s a t L u r iin g tu n house" h u r l in -

g to n M agazine ^0 ( 1 5 4 8 ) , f i g . 23

F o l io 334v ±)apur hama M a n u scr ip t u n aat edL r i t i s n L ib r a r y , (Jr. 3714r e f : S u le im a n , h . M in ia tu r e s o f tn e Laour ftiawa, p i . 43

l y a r - i - b a n i s n m a n u sc r ip t , n o . 50 a a te a 1b0bC h e ste r L eatt.v L ib r a r y , Ms. 4

H aja Man S in g h o f jimbar c , 1b 15C h e ste r L e a tty L ib r a r y , Ms. 11a n o . 1 r e f : A rn o ld , I I I p i . 76

Snah Janan on a CloDe c . 1635C n e ste r L e a tty L iD ra ry , H oyal Album L 7 -2 8

F o l io 5iJv, G u lis ta n o f S a 'd i M an u scrip t c . 1 b4 0ex-M arqu ess ae L u te C o l l e c t io n

H e c e p tio n o f Y aagar Leg c . 1b4 0L odelian L ibrary, u u se ley Aaa. 173» n o * 13r e f : Lrown, I n a ia n P a i n t i n g , p i . XXIV/ h in y o n and A rn o lu , p i . XXXVI

I n c id e n t L u rin fe th e K angra Campaign c . 1840P r iv a t e C o l le c t io nr e f : r e a c n , 'i'he u ran a M ogu l, p . 6 1 / W elcn, I m p e r ia l , p i . 3 V W elch,

F lo w e r , no . 6 b / L lo c n e t , p i . 33

A P r in c e V i s i t i n g a h e x m ita g e (M a rg in a l F ig u r e s o n ly ) c . 1b40C le v e la n d Museum o f A r t , H olaen J e n n in g s Fund 71*73 r e f : L eacn , ‘ih e Crana M ogu l, p. 22

A noblem an, L a te Shah Janan Album c . 1 0 4 OM e tr o p o lita n Museum o f A rt

H oly Men, Len in g r a d Album c . 1850H erm itage Museumr e f : Iv a n o v e t a l . , p i . 13


277

A H oly Man, L en in g ra d Album c . 1b50H erm itage Museumr e f : Ivan ov e t a l . , p i . 13

A G a th e r in g o f M y s t ic s 1650 - 1660 K eir C o l le c t io nr e f : R o b in so n , I s la m ic P a i n t i n g , p . 261

I z z a t Khan w ith O f f i c e r s and W ise Men c . 1633.Binney C o l l e c t io nr e f : B each , The Grand M ogu l, p. 1 5 2 / B in n e y , I n d ia n M in ia tu r e

P a i n t i n g , p . 8 4

P r i e s t s in C o u n c il 165 0 - 1635In d ia n Museum, C a lc u t ta n o . 13031 r e f : Brown, I n d ia n P a i n t i n g , p i . LI

Snail Jahan H id ing, Kevorkian Album undatedM e tr o p o lita n Museumr e f : D im and,M aurice. In d ia n M in ia tu r e P a i n t i n g . M ila n , n . d . , c o v e r

' I z z a t Khan w ith A tte n d a n ts u n d atedC n e s te r B e a t ty L ib r a r y , H oyal Album B 7 -2 0 r e f : A rn o ld , I I I p i . 6b

Ham Das

Shanawaz Khan c . 1650B in n ey C o l le c t io nr e f : B in n e y , In d ia n M in ia tu r e P a in t in g , p . 87


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S t c h o u k i n e , I v a n . " P o r t r a i t s M o g h o ls : L a C o l l e c t i o n B a ro n M a u r ic ede R o t h s c h i l d . " R evue d e s A r t s A s i a t i q u e s 9 ( ' • 9 3 5 ) : 1 9 ^ -2 0 8 .

S t o r e y , C h a r l e s A m b ro se . P e r s i a n L i t e r a t u r e ; a B i o - b i o g r a p h i c a l S u r v e y . L o n d o n : R o y a l A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f G r e a t B r i t a i n an d I r e l a n d , 1927 - 1939*

S u t t o n , S .C . A G u id e t o t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y . L o n d o n : H e r M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , 19^7*

T a v e r n i e r , J e a n B a p t i o e . T r a v e l s i n I n d i a . 2 v o l s . T r a n s l a t e d by V. B a l l . L ondon : M a c m i l l a n & C o . , 1 8 8 9 -

T im u r . M u l f u z a t T im u ry (M em oirs o f T i m u r ) . T r a n s l a t e d by M a jo r C h a r l e s S t e w a r t . L a h o r e : S a n g -e -M e e l P u o . , 1975*

T i t l e y , N orah M. M i n i a t u r e s f ro m P e r s i a n M a n u s c r i p t s A C a ta lo g u e a n d S u b j e c t I n d e x o f P a i n t i n g s f ro m P e r s i a , I n d i a an d T u rk e y i n t h e B r i t i j h L i b r a r y a n a t h e B r i t i s h Museum. London : B r i t i s h Museum P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d . , 1 9 7 7 .


289

Titley, Norah M. Sports and Pastimes Scenes from Turkish, Persian and Mughal Paintings. Londons British Library, 1979*

Titley, Norah M. Plants and Gardens in Persian, Mughal and Turkish Art. London: British Library, 1979*

Toy, Sidney. The Fortifications of India* London: Heinemann, 19 5*

Watson, F r a n c is . A C oncise H isto ry o f In d ia . London: Thames and Hudson, 1974*

Welch, S tu art Cary. "Mughal and D eccani P a in tin g s from a P r iv a te C o lle c t io n ." Ars O r ie n ta lis V (1963): 221-234*

Welch, Stuart Cary. The Art of Mughal India Painting and Precious Ob.iects. New York: The Asia Society Inc., 19^3*

Welch, Stuart Cary. Gods. Thrones, and Peacocks Northern Indian Painting from Two Traditions: 15 to 19 Century. New York:The Asia Society Inc., 19&5*

Welch, Stuart Cary. A Flower from Every Meadow: Indian Paintings from American Collections. New York: The Asia Society Inc.,197?*

Welch, Stuart Cary. Indian Drawings and Painted Sketches 16ththrough 19th Centuries. New York: The Asia Society Inc., 1976.

Welch, Stuart Cary. Imperial Mughal Painting. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1978*

Wilkinson, 'J.V.S. Mughal Painting. London: Faber & Faber Co.,1948.

Wilkinson, J.V.S. "Portrait of Shah Daulat by Bichitr." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1950)* 1*

Wilkinson, J.V.S. "An Indian Manuscript of the Golestan of the Shah Jahan Period." Ars Orientalis II (1957)* 423-425*


290

PLATES

A ll th e photographs in t h is d is s e r t a t io n were repro

duced by th e author, e i t h e r from o r ig in a l photographs or from books

th a t are f u l l y c i t e d in th e b ib lio g ra p h y . Acknowledgement to the

fo llo w in g so u rces:

Royal L ibrary , Windsor C a stle : I-XLVI

B r it is h L ibrary: LV

V ic to r ia and A lbert Museum: LIX; LXIV

Brown, Ind ian P a in t in g : XLVII; LI; L III; LXI

Arnold, The L ibrary o f A .C hester B e a tty : XLVIII; LX

Beach, The Grand Mogul: XLIX; LVII; LXLII; LXVI; LXIX

Welch, Im peria l Mughal P a in t in g : L; L II; LVI; LXV

B u ssa g li, Indian M in ia tu res: LIV

Galloway and Spink, I s la m ic Art from I n d ia : LVIII

Marteau and Vever, M in ia tu res P ersa n es: LXII

H o l l i s , " P o rtra it o f a Raja": LXVII

G ascoigne, The G reat M oghuls: LXVIII


P l a t e I

Shamsa, f o l i o 1v, Badshah NamaRoyal L ibrary, Windsor C a stle


P l a t e I I

Sttam sa, f o l i o 2 r , batis-hah mama

R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e


P la te I I I

P o r tr a it of Timur, f o l i o 2v, Baashah NamaRoyal L ib rary , Windsor C a stle


P la te IV

P o r tr a it o f Shah. Jahan, f o l i o Badshah MamaRoyal L ib rary , Windsor C astle


295

P l a t e V

R e c e p t i o n o f P r i n c e K hurram Upon H i s D e p a r t u r e f o r t h e Mewar C am pa ign , f o l i o 4 J v , B a a s h a h Hama



P la te VI

P r i n c e K hurram R e c e i v i n g t h e S ub d u ed R a n a Amar S in g h , f o l i o 46v , B a d sh a h Mama

Royal L ibrary, Windsor C astle


P la te VII

P r i n c e K hurram R e c e i v i n g t h e Subdued. R a n a Amar S in g h , f o l i o 4 7 r , B a d s h a h Rama

R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d s o r C a s t l e


P la te VIII

Jahangir R ece iv in g P rin ce Khurram A lte r H is S u ccessfu lCampaign A g a in st the Rana of Mewar, f o l i o 48v,

Badshah NamaRoyal L ib rary , W in d s o r C a stle


P la te IX

J a h a n g i r R e c e i v i n g P r i n c e K nurram A f t e r H is S u c c e s s f u lC am paign A g a i n s t t h e R ana o f M ewar, f o l i o 4b^»

Badshah NamaRoyal L ib rary , Windsor C a stle


P l a t e X

A r r i v a l o f A s a f Khan a n d t n e P r i n c e s f ro m L a h o r e , f o l i o B ad sh ah Nama

Royal L ib rary , Windsor C a stle


P la te XI

A r r i v a l o f A s a f Xhan a n a t n e P r i n c e s f ro m L a h o r e , f o l i o 51 r , B ad sh ah Nama



302

.v.

P l a t e X I I

S o l a r W eignm ent o f Stiah J a n a n , f o l i o 7 0 v , B a d sh a h Mama



ff(F3j£3

P l a t e X I I I

S o l a r W eighment o f S h ah J a h a n , f o l i o 71^* B a d s h a h Nama



P la te XIV

C e l e b r a t i o n o f tn e N a u ro z F e s t i v a l a t A g ra , f o l i o 72v> B a d sh a h Nama



P l a t e XVB e s ie g in g t h e P o r t o f D h a r u r , f o l i o y 2 v , B ad sh ah Nama



P la te XVI

Death of Khan Jahan L odi, f o l i o 94v, Badshan MamaRoyal L ibrary, Windsor C a stle


P la te XVII

R eception o f th e P ersia n Ambassador Muhammad A li Bega t Burhanpur, f o l i o 9Qv» Badshah RamaRoyal L ibrary, Windsor C a stle


308

P l a t e X V III

P h e S ie g e o f K a n d a h a r , f o l i o 1 0 2 v , B a d sh a h Nama



P la te XIX

A rr iv a l o f th e Portuguese w ith T ributeO ffer in g s , f o l i o 1 1 6 v , BadshaJh NamaRoyal L ib rary , Windsor C a stle


P la te XX

Capture o f th e Portuguese Port a t H ughli,f o l i o 117r, Badshah Mama



P la te XXI

D e l i v e r y off t h e Sachaq. t o t h e H ouse o f t h e Widow o f •che L a t e P r in c e P a r w iz , J a h a n Banu Begum, M o th e r o f t h e B r i d e - t o - b e o f B a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 0 r , B ad sh ah Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e


312

P l a t e XXII

D e l iv e r y o f t h e S a c h a q t o t h e H ouse o f t h e Widow o f t h e L a te P r i n c e P a r w iz , J a h a n B anu Begum, M o th e r o f t h e B r i d e - t o - b e o f D a ra S h ik o h , f o l i o 1 2 1 r , B ad sh ah Nam a. R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e


P la te XXIII

E sco rtin g Dara Shikoh to H is Wedaing Ceremony,f o l i o 122v, Badshah Mama

Royal L ib rary , Windsor C astle


P la te XXIV

E sco rtin g Dara Sdikoh to H is Wedding Ceremony,f o l i o 123r, Badshan Hama

Royal L ibrary, Windsor C astle


P la te XXV

Shah Jahan P r esen tin g Wedding G if t s to Dara Shikoh,f o l i o 124v, Badshah Mama

Royal L ibrary, Windsor C a stle


P l a t e XXVIS h ah J a h a n P r e s e n t i n g W edding G i f t s t o D a ra S h ik o h ,

f o l i o 1 2 5 r , B a d sh a h MamaRoyal L ibrary , Windsor C astle


P la te XXVII

Wedding o f Shah Shuja, f o l i o 126v, Badshah Mama



P la te XXVIII

Wedding o f Shah. Shuja, f o l i o 127r, Badshah MamaRoyal L ibrary, Windsor C astle


P la te XXIX

Aurangzeb C o n fro n tin g an. Enraged E lephan t f o l i o 134r, Badshah Kama


R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

P la te XXX

P r i n c e K hurram K i l l i n g a L io n , f o l i o 1 35v , B a d sh ah Nama R o y a l L i b r a r y , W in d so r C a s t l e


P la te XXXI

C a p tu r e o f t h e P o r t o f D au la tab acL , f o l i o 144^* B ad sh ah mama



P la te XXXII

D e p a r tu r e o f Shah S h u ja f o r t h e D e c c a n , f o l i o 147v , B ad sh ah Mama



323

P l a t e XXXIII

Shah J a n a n H u n tin g N ilg a o N e a r P a la m , f o l i o 1 b 5 r , B ad sd ah Nama



324

P l a t e XXXIV

O n a g e r H u n tin g i n B H era i n t h e P u n ja b , f o l i o 166v , BacLsnah Mama



P la te XXXV

Capture o f th e F o rts o f Orccha and Dhamuli,f o l i o 174^, Badshah Nam a



P la te XXXVI

P r ese n ta tio n o f tn e Heads o f Jujhar Singh and H is SonJagraj S ingh , f o l i o 176v, Badshah NamaRoyal L ib rary , Windsor C a stle


P la te XXXVII

C on fera l o f th e T i t l e Shah Khurram.f o l i o 1 9 2 v , Badshah Kama



P la te XXXVIII

C o n f e r a l o f t h e T i t l e S h ah J a h a n , f o l i o 19 4 v , B ad sh ah Nama

Royal L ib rary , Windsor C astle


P la te XXXIX

P i n a l E n c o u n te r B e tw een J a h a n g i r and p r i n c e K hurram , f o l i o 1 ^ 5 ^ , B ad sh ah Nama



P la te XL

Capture o f F ort Udgir, f o l i o 204v, Badshan Mama



P la te XLI

P i lg r im a g e t o t n e b h r i n e o f K hw aja M u 'in a l p i n C h i s h t i , f o l i o 2 0 5 v , B ad sh ah Nama



P la te XLII

P i lg r im a g e to tn e S h r in e o f K hw aja M u 'in a l D in C h i s h t i , f o l i o 20far, B ad sh ah Nama



P la te XLIII

Departure of Aurangzeb fo r th e Deccan,f o l i o 214v , Badshah Mama

Koyal L ib rary , Windsor C a stle


P la te XLIV

Return o f Aurangzeb from the Beccan,f o l i o 217v, Badshah tiama



P la te XLV

Wedding o f Aurangzeb, f o l i o 21bv, Padshah NamaRoyal L ib rary , Windsor C astle


P la te XLVI

Hunting L ions a t B a r i, f o l i o 220v, BadsLah NamaRoyal L ibrary, Windsor C a stle


P la te XLVII

D e a th o f I n a y a t K hanB od le ian L ibrary, Oxford MS. O useley Add 171b


P la te XLVIII

A rrest o f Shah Abu'l M a 'a li, f o l i o 7> Akbar Nam a C hester B eatty L ibrary, Dublin


P la te XLIX

J a h a n g i r E n t e r t a i n i n g S h e ik h s , J a h a n g i r Nama C o l l e c t i o n E dw in B in n e y


P la te L

J a h a n g i r i n B a r b a r , J a h a n g i r ham a

B oston . Museum o f P in e A r t s , 1 4 . 6 5 4


P la te LI

S b an J a h a n R e c e iv in g a P e r s i a n E m bassy ( R e c e p t io n o f Y a a g a r B eg)

B od leian L ib rary , Oxford, MS. O useley Add 173


P la te LI I

AKbar H u n tin g i n a n E n c l o s u r e , f o l i o 5 6 , A kbar Hama V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum, L ondon


P la te L III

C e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e F e s t i v a l o f A b p a s i , J a h a n g i r Nama Ram pur S t a t e L i b r a r y


P la te LIV

A kbar G iv in g A u d ie n c e t o A b d -u r -k a h m in , A kbar Mama

V i c t o r i a an d A l b e r t Museum, London


345

F r o £ -To

mmmmsm

P l a t e LV

D a rb a r o f Shah. J a h a n , f o l i o 433> Shah J a h a n Nama B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , L o n d o n , MS. O r 2157


P la te LVI

Shamsa

M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum o f A r t , New Y o rk , 5 5 * 1 2 1 .1 0 .3 9


P la te LVII

Sham sa P r i v a t e C o l l e c t io n .


P la te LVIII

S nam sa, L iw a n - i A n v a r i S o ld a t S p in k & S o n , L on d o n , 24 A p r i l - 10 May 1980


P la te LIX

F r o n t i s p i e c e , M in to Album V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t M useum, L o n d o n , I.M * 8 -1 9 2 5


350

m m jM

P l a t e LX.

F r o n t isp ie c e , Minto Album

C h e s te r B e a t t y L i b r a r y , D u b l in , 7 -1 9


351

P l a t e LXI

P r i n c e s o f t h e H ouse o f T im ur

B r i t i s h M useum, L ondon


352

i w > ,»«s._^ • ~ n j u t ^ * ^ i * a . . '^ag ivaw * »»i r s y - * * , -TI^ t A \ 5^ 36ySj 5 j5 8 2l9 S2eC22e2i3 2? 2vi8 8 *

ta t BmmAtiga-

P l a t e L X II

S h ah J a n a n i n D a rb a r ( C o r o n a t io n D a rb a r )

C o l l e c t i o n H e n r i V e v e r , P a r i s


P la te LXIII

Shah Jahan on the Peacock Throne C o lle c t io n Edwin Binney


P la te LXIV

S h a h J a h a n w i th a C h i ld V i c t o r i a & A l b e r t Museum, L o n d o n , I . S . 90-1965


P la te LXV

J a h a n g i r p r e f e r i n g a S u f i S h a ik h t o K in g s F r e e r G a l l e r y o f A r t , W a s h in g to n D .C . , 4 5 » 1 5 a


356

P l a t e LXVI

E p is o d e i n a B a z a a r R o t h s c h i l d C o l l e c t i o n


u .

P l a t e LXVII

R a ja B i k r a m a j i t

C le v e la n d Museum o f A r t , 45*^70


asst

558

P l a t e L X Y III

Shah Jahan Honoring th e R e lig io u s Orthodoxy (N ignt C eleb ration o f th e P ro p h et's B irthday)

F r e e r G a l l e r y o f A r t , W a sh in g to n D .C „ , 4 2 .1 7 A & 4 2 .18A


P la te LXIX

I z z a t Khan w itn O ff ic e r s ana Wise Men C o lle c t io n Edwin Binney


Windsor Castle Badshahnama

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Transcript of Windsor Castle Badshahnama