what is PISCO · 2017. 6. 1. · (UCSC), Jane Lubchenco (OSU), Steve Gaines (UCSB), Mark Denny...

The Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans is a long-term program of scientifi c research and training dedicated to advancing the understanding of marine ecosystems along the U.S. West Coast. PISCO is pioneering an integrated approach to studying these complex, poorly known, exceedingly rich, and economically important environments.

PISCO is distinguished by its interdisciplinary approach, large geographic extent, and decades-long time frame. PISCO conducts monitoring and experiments along more than 1,200 miles (2,000 km) of coastline, as well as laboratory and theoretical studies. The research incorporates oceanography, ecology, chemistry, physiology, molecular biology, genetics, and mathematical modeling to gain novel insights into systems ranging from individual animals and plants to whole ecosystems.

PISCO’s fi ndings apply to conservation and resource management issues. PISCO scientists participate in local, regional, national, and international initiatives in marine environmental planning. Through its university courses, PISCO helps to train the next generation of scientists in interdisciplinary approaches to marine research.

Established in 1999 with funding from The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, PISCO is led by scientists from Oregon State University (OSU), Stanford University’s Hopkins Marine Station, University of California at Santa Cruz (UCSC), and University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB). Additional funding from diverse public and private-sector sources makes this unique partnership possible.

what is PISCO?

PISCO Coastal Connections • Volume 3

1 View from the Wave Crest

2 Patterns of ChangeSurveying Biodiversity from Mexico to Alaska

6 Oceanographic FrontiersGuided by Moonlight?

10 Ecological LinkagesMapping Genetic Patterns

14 Interdisciplinary Training & Research

16 Sharing the Science

PISCO has succeeded in establishing a powerful, well-equipped, and fruit-ful research program capable of wide-ranging monitoring and cutting-edge research. We also are using new technologies to image, track, and analyze information at formerly inaccessible scales. We have added several new Principal Investigators to our team to enhance our acquisition and use of new data. Oceanographers Jack Barth (OSU), Margaret McManus (UCSC), and Libe Washburn (UCSB) will contribute as we intensify our efforts to link physical dynamics of the coastal ocean with ecological patterns. Scien-tists Steve Palumbi (Stanford) and Gretchen Hofmann (UCSB) will help PISCO apply molecular genetic and physiological approaches to fundamental questions about connectivity among marine populations and the responses of animals and plants to environmental stressors.

With new funding from The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, PISCO anticipates building on our solid foundation of research, training, and policy-relevant outreach to move forward in important and novel directions.

We hope that you enjoy this issue of PISCO Coastal Connections and the excit-ing advances described on the following pages.

View from the Wave Crest

PISCO Coastal Connections Coordinators:Lydia Bergen & Renee Davis-Born, in collabora-tion with Satie Airamé & Carolyn Sotka

PISCOCoastal ConnectionsVolume 3

Table of Contents

PISCO Coastal Connections is a publication of the Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO). Contents © 2004.For more information about PISCO or to join the mailing list for future publications, please contact the consortium at the addresses listed on the back cover.

We welcome you to the third issue of PISCO Coastal Connections. PISCO was created as a new model for discovering the dynamics of the coastal portions of large marine ecosystems. Our approach provides a framework for conducting creative, large-scale, long-term, interdisciplinary research focused on understanding the inner-shelf of the California Current System, a highly productive marine ecosystem.

Cover photo: Urticina lofotensis sea anemone, Carmel Bay, California © 2004 Jared Figurski

Editor & Writer: Peter H. TaylorCreative Director: Jeff JonesSenior Designer: Monica PessinoIllustrator: Linda D. Nelson

PISCO Principal Investigators (left to right): Jack Barth (OSU), Libe Washburn (UCSB), Margaret McManus (UCSC), Steve Palumbi (Stanford), Pete Raimondi (UCSC), George Somero (Stanford), Gretchen Hofmann (UCSB), Mark Carr (UCSC), Jane Lubchenco (OSU), Steve Gaines (UCSB), Mark Denny (Stanford), Bruce Menge (OSU), and Robert Warner (UCSB).


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OFpatterns change

PISCO’s research has revealed distinct biogeographic provinces along the U.S. West Coast as represented by the colors on this map. The province from Monterey Bay to San Francisco Bay (orange area) has not been previously identifi ed. The research also has found a sharp biogeographic break in the Channel Islands (purple area). The inset map shows the different biogeographic provinces on the east (light purple) and west (dark purple) sides of the island group. The break aligns with a boundary between warm currents from the southeast and cool currents from the northwest. Inset map courtesy of Institute for Computational Earth System Science (ICESS), UCSB.


esearchers funded jointly through PISCO and the Minerals Management Service (U.S. Department of the Interior) are conducting an unprecedented survey of biodi-versity of rocky shorelines along the entire western coastline of temperate North America. The study

sites range from Punta Eugenia, Mexico, to Glacier Bay, Alaska. The goal is to characterize the ecology of the intertidal zone, determine the geographic ranges of species, and create detailed ecological maps of each site (see PISCO Coastal Connections, Volume 2). Previous large-scale studies of biodiversity have relied on information gathered with varying methodologies, time frames, and observer expertise. All of these differences can contribute to error in identify-ing geographic patterns. To reduce these sources of error, PISCO conducts its surveys over a short time period, using a single team of experts and identical methods at all 92 sites.

The initial findings for biodiversity patterns between Mexico and Canada are striking (opposite). The survey revealed six major biogeographic provinces, or areas characterized by distinct groups of animal and plant species. In some cases, the results clarify previously known biogeographic features, such as the sudden transition in species at Point Conception. But two findings were unexpected. First, a small but distinct biogeographic province from Santa Cruz to San Francisco was noted for the first time. The distinctiveness of this province appears to relate to local geomorphologic characteristics. This stretch of coast, unlike areas north and south, is dominated by sedimentary rock that is relatively soft and smooth, and consequently subject to considerable erosion, which influences the success of plant and animal species. Second, the survey revealed a clear biogeographic break midway through the Channel Islands. This bound-ary may relate to patterns of ocean circulation. A cool current typically bathes the western half of the island group, but warmer water bathes the eastern portion.

This rigorous, standardized, large-scale survey is revealing important—and in some cases unexpected—biogeographic patterns. PISCO plans to continue and expand these surveys in future years.

Biogeography of Sea Star Predation

Previous PISCO research revealed that intensity of predation by sea stars on mussels ranged from high to low between Oregon and Point Conception, California, and was consistently low south of Point Conception. To find out how the absence of this predator affects the dynamics of mussel populations, PISCO scientists have set up field experiments at numerous sites along the coast, where they are excluding sea stars from small plots. Results so far are variable. Following removal of stars, mussels increased in both Oregon and central California, but not in southern California. Where increases occurred, they resulted from the settlement of new mussels, rather than from adult mussels creeping down the shore. The biggest increases happened in plots previously covered by turf-forming algae that are more prevalent in California than in Oregon. For that reason, the greatest increases have occurred in central California, even though rates of mussel population replenishment are vastly higher in Oregon. As in PISCO’s earlier findings, study sites in southern California changed little, suggesting different dynamics of mussel beds there. While these preliminary results are intriguing, the long-term effects of regional variation in sea-star predation will become clear through PISCO’s ongoing, multi-year experiments.

Surveying Biodiversityfrom Mexico to Alaska

A sea star feeds on mussels outside a PISCO study plot. The yellow object inside the plot is a device for collecting newly settled, young mussels.

PISCO crews conduct detailed ecological surveys and mapping at sites along the West Coast. Rugged topography (right) tends to increase biodiversity.

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Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans

Dramatic Local Changes in Kelp In 1999, PISCO initiated an intensive program to monitor kelp forests along the West Coast. Initially the effort was concentrated in California (Monterey Bay and Santa Barbara). After establishing reliable protocols, PISCO expanded the large-scale, long-term monitoring program to the Channel Islands, Big Sur, and Oregon. Previous issues of PISCO Coastal Connections highlighted the program’s fi ndings about fi shes living in the kelp forests. Now PISCO scientists are generating new insights into the population dynamics of the kelp that form these rich habitats.

Kelp forest surveys from 1999 to 2002 showed regional changes in kelp abun-dance, as well as strong differences between nearby sites. Historically, scientists have been well aware of fl uctuations through time. For example, kelp tends to decline along the coast during El Niño and increase during La Niña. However, PISCO’s intensive sampling has revealed dramatic local variability, even when large-scale climatic shifts are not a factor. Even between sites separated by only a few kilometers, such as along the Monterey Peninsula, trends in kelp abun-dance can differ markedly.

PISCO is investigating why this variability occurs and how it differs along the entire West Coast. Over the next fi ve years, the monitoring program will grow to include more studies of the ecological processes that shape the trends in kelp abundance. Ultimately, PISCO seeks to identify the consequences of these kelp dynamics for invertebrate and fi sh populations, many of which are eco-logically, economically, and recreationally important.

Kelp forests are not all alike. This fi gure shows the average abundance of seaweed species at six sites over four years. The percentages of bull kelp (Nereocystis) and giant kelp (Macrocys-tis) in the kelp-forest canopy are represented by the line drawings. On a regional scale, bull kelp becomes less predominant from north to south, and giant kelp increases. The colored bars indicate the relative abundances of understory seaweed species, which vary within and among regions. Sea spatula (Pleurophycus), for example, was recorded only in Oregon, and its abundance varies markedly (50% to 4% cover) between sites separated by only a few kilometers. Illustrations by Diana Steller.

Northern palm kelp (Pterygophora californica) is a common understory kelp along the West Coast.


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patterns of change

Baby Boom in the Pacifi c NorthwestImagine if human birth rates in Oregon were a hundred times higher than in California. Nearly every aspect of the social, governmental, and environmen-tal fabric of these neighboring states would be altered dramatically. In reality, human birth rates never differ that much, varying at most twofold between U.S. states.

But PISCO’s regional studies have uncovered a staggering and persistent “baby boom” of barnacles, mussels, and other creatures. The young of many invertebrates are far more abundant in the Pacifi c Northwest—in many cases a hundred times more abundant—than farther south in California. The transition is abrupt, with the number of young sharply decreasing south of Cape Blanco in southern Oregon. Since most marine invertebrates release young as larvae that drift in the ocean, the baby boom may refl ect the success of larvae at completing their free-fl oating phase and returning to the shore.

An equally sharp transition in ocean circulation off southern Oregon provides clues to the underlying cause. As seen in the sea surface temperature image (left), cool waters hug the coastlines of Washington and Oregon. South of Cape Blanco, these cool waters switch to a meandering fl ow, and surface waters are frequently transported far offshore in certain wind conditions. Several studies by PISCO and other researchers show that larvae have a far more diffi cult time returning to the shore in the strong meandering fl ows off California.

These fi ndings have broad ecological and environmental management impli-cations, particularly for commercially harvested fi shes and invertebrates, by defi ning distinct ecological regions. The same management strategy applied in each region could have dramatically different success, depending on the input of new individuals.

PISCO’s best estimate to date for rates of input of new individuals coming into invertebrate populations reveals that far more individuals settle in Oregon than in central and southern California. The pattern shown here for mussels and barnacles appears to be consistent for several marine species that PISCO monitors.

This image of sea surface temperatures suggests a possible reason for the baby boom. North of Cape Blanco, cool, coastal waters stay near shore, enabling larvae to return to their coastal habitats. South of Cape Blanco, however, the meandering, offshore fl ows could carry larvae away, prevent-ing them from joining the adult populations along the coast.Map courtesy of Jack Barth and Ted Strub, College of Oce-anic and Atmospheric Sciences, OSU.


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oceanographicfrontiers

Strength of onshore currents and tidal range correlate closely with barnacle settlement (left; data collected from Oregon, central California, and southern California), but lunar illumination has the strongest relationship (below; data collected from central California).

As illustrated in this diagram, bar-nacle larvae may be attracted to the ocean’s surface by the moon’s bright-ness and then carried to shore by currents that occur during upwelling relaxation. Some of the highest tides of the month occur during the full moon and help the larvae to reach their favored habitat near the top of the intertidal zone. Settlement in suitable habitat is essential soon after larvae reach the non-feeding cyprid stage, or they will die.


Predicting El Niño’s Effectson Kelp Forests

PISCO/UCSB graduate student Brian Kinlan is developing models to understand and predict impacts of El Niño on kelp forests. During El Niño, changes in the tropical Pacific cause southern California to be bathed in warm, nutrient-poor water. Marine plants, including phytoplankton that grow in surface waters and giant kelp that carpet rocky reefs, decline. In addition, strong winter storms tend to hit more frequently during El Niño, pounding reefs and removing large swaths of kelp forest. Previous research by numerous scientists has documented these changes in south-ern California kelp forests. Now Kinlan is using aerial observations of kelp forest distribution and biomass compiled over 35 years by ISP Alginates Inc. and South-ern California Edison to develop statisti-cal models of the changes caused by El Niño. The models will enable scientists to forecast fluctuations in the biomass, area, and fragmentation of kelp forests—which form important habitats for many spe-cies—under different El Niño conditions.

PISCO is developing tools to forecast the decline of kelp forests during El Niño.

Guided by Moonlight?

A major goal of PISCO is to determine the oceanographic mecha-nisms that deliver larvae of invertebrates and fish to their coastal habitats. In 2002, PISCO scientists at OSU, UCSC, and UCSB initi-ated detailed studies of population replenishment

and oceanographic factors along the U.S. West Coast. The goal was to investigate if population replenishment is synchronous along the coast. The scientists counted young barnacles (Chthamalus spp.) arriving at sites daily for approximately two months (at OSU and UCSB) to over a year (at UCSC). Simulta-neous measurements of water temperatures and currents at each site provided the oceanographic context.

Results show that the dynamics of population replenishment vary considerably among regions (see figure below). Rates were high at Oregon and central Cali-fornia sites but low in southern California. Peaks of population replenishment did not occur synchronously, possibly because oceanographic processes varied along the coast. Additional analysis suggests that strength of onshore currents and tidal range correlate with the timing and intensity of population replenish-ment (see figures opposite). Peaks for Chthamalus barnacles correspond unam-biguously with the current reversals that accompany upwelling relaxation. In addition, Chthamalus larvae tend to arrive during the highest tides, perhaps because they settle onto the uppermost reaches of the rocky shoreline, which are bathed in seawater only at those times.

The time series along the central coast of California was long enough to examine the relationship between tidal range and population replenishment in detail. In particular, the PISCO researchers examined whether population replenishment may be more closely related to lunar illumination than tidal range. Large tidal ranges are caused by full (bright) or new (dark) moons, and any effect of illumination on population replenishment could indicate that larvae respond behaviorally to the light. Indeed, brightness of the moon emerged as the strongest correlate of barnacle population replenishment. Four times as many young barnacles settled during full moons as during new moons. Guided by the moonlight, larvae appear to position themselves toward the water’s surface to facilitate settling high on the rocky shore (see diagram, opposite). This new finding provides substantial evidence that both oceanography and larval behavior drive the upswings and downturns in bar-nacle population replenishment.

Using identical methods at all sites, PISCO scientists counted young barnacles settling each day for one year in central California and approximately two months in Oregon and southern California.


77

In the Santa Barbara Channel, currents bring many young invertebrates to settle at some areas and few to others.

Causes of Rich Coastal WatersUpwelling of nutrient-rich waters along the Oregon and California coasts fuels some of the richest marine ecosystems in the world. This shoreward move-ment of water also creates a critical link between ocean circulation and coastal ecosystems. PISCO is conducting a program of shipboard research and coastal monitoring to understand the connections between oceanography and ecol-ogy along the West Coast. Within two kilometers of the shore, PISCO’s research cruises are revealing important processes at work in this productive band of ocean—a region that is inaccessible to larger research vessels. For example, the levels of dissolved oxygen and phytoplankton can vary dramatically over just a few hundred meters. In addition to vessel-based research, PISCO moni-tors nutrients, phytoplankton, and other organic materials at 36 coastal sites in Oregon and California and has uncovered huge differences in productivity (see above fi gure). These striking geographic patterns arise because water fl ow and contours of the seafl oor at a given site infl uence both the delivery of nutrients and the effi ciency of phytoplankton in using nutrients. Based on this oceanographic and ecological research, PISCO is gaining insights into the fac-tors that infl uence the productivity of coastal waters and is developing models to predict the effects of environmental changes.

The green bars on this graph represent the average concentrations of chlorophyll-a in seawater samples taken by PISCO along the U.S. West Coast. The extremely high levels in Oregon indicate abundant phytoplankton, which form the base of the food web and fuel a rich coastal ecosystem. Along with documenting this regional pattern on an unprecedented scale, PISCO is beginning to identify its causes.

How Do Currents Affect Ecology of Rocky Shores?

For several years, PISCO scientists have monitored the numbers of young bar-nacles, mussels, and other invertebrates settling at study sites around the Santa Barbara Channel. These animals drift with the ocean currents for a period of weeks after they are born, before attaching to rocks and other hard substrates. PISCO/UCSB graduate student Bernardo Broit-man is analyzing these data and satellite images of sea surface temperatures to identify linkages between ecology and oceanography. He has found that the rate of population replenishment tends to decline sharply from east to west in the Channel, corresponding to a simi-lar decrease in water temperature. For example, sites located at the eastern end of Santa Cruz Island, subject to infl uxes of warmer water from the south, receive higher numbers of invertebrate larvae than sites located on the western end of the island. A similar gradient occurs along the mainland, with sites north of Point Conception receiving extremely low numbers of larvae. These fi ndings suggest that invertebrate populations to the south of the Santa Barbara Channel might serve as sources of young, which warm cur-rents transport to the Channel. Broitman plans to expand his research to examine oceanographic infl uences on ecology along the entire West Coast. The standardized monitoring procedures used throughout PISCO will help make this possible.

A PISCO/OSU researcher takes a coastal water sample at Strawberry Hill, along the central coast of Oregon.


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oceanographic frontiers

These graphs show the vertical distribution of zooplankton at a single place in the ocean over a period of 24 hours. An acoustic instrument called a TAPS detected the zooplankton. Continual improvements in TAPS have allowed better and better resolution of the fi ne-scale patterns. In 1999, the resolution reached a critical scale good enough to reveal zooplankton concentrated in thin layers (e.g., orange-yellow-green line between arrows). Acoustic data courtesy of D.V. Holliday, BAE Systems, San Diego.

Because of technological advances in optics and acoustics over the past decade, oceanographers can measure populations of plankton over scales of just centimeters. This makes it possible to discern fi ne-scale patterns that previ-ously went unrecognized. Now PISCO/UCSC principal investigator Margaret McManus is using the new technologies to detect so-called thin plankton layers in coastal waters of California and Oregon. Thin layers are a surprising phenom-enon whose discovery in the past few years was made possible by the fi ne-scale measure-ment technology. Ranging from only a few centimeters to a meter thick, while often hori-zontally spanning many kilometers, thin layers contain densities of zooplankton and phy-toplankton up to three to fi ve times greater than the water above or below. As a result, they could play an important role in the lives of marine creatures—for example, by concen-trating important food sources. McManus’s research seeks to identify the physical causes, prevalence, and biological signifi cance of thin layers along the West Coast.

Explaining Oregon’s Baby Boom?

Scientists previously thought that the off-shore and coastal waters of Oregon mixed freely and currents along the coast linked tightly with the larger offshore circulation. Using data collected by instruments on moorings spanning 60 kilometers of the coast, however, PISCO/OSU oceanogra-phers Anthony Kirincich and Jack Barth have found that the fl ow one kilometer from shore is only one-fi fth as strong as that farther offshore, suggesting only a weak link. When coastal waters become weakly stratifi ed, the disconnect grows even more pronounced, as wind energy drives currents along the shore. Their fi nd-ings have important implications for under-standing the ecology of coastal waters. The alongshore fl ow might retain the drifting young of shallow-water fi sh, crabs, and other animals near the coast, increasing their success in joining the adult popula-tion. Conversely, when coastal waters become strongly stratifi ed, the offshore fl ow moves closer to shore. Under these conditions, the larvae might be swept away from their coastal habitats, interfering with population replenishment. PISCO scientists continue to study this interplay of physics and biology as part of the consortium’s long-term research program.

PISCO/OSU scientists aboard the R/V Elakha retrieve oceanographic equipment to study circulation patterns along the Oregon coast.

Technology Enables Study of Ocean’s Thin Layers

A TAPS instrument in preparation for a month-long deployment in northern Monterey Bay.


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PISCO Coastal Connections • Volume 3linkagesecological

PISCO is analyzing the genetics of invertebrates along the West Coast to understand how populations are linked by dispersal of young. In this fi gure, the pie-chart colors represent different genetic types in a population. Analyses to date for barnacles (in yellow) show three geographic zones, each with characteristic proportions: the two southern sites, the middle site, and the two northern sites. Mussels (in red) showed little or no difference among sites in the proportions of genetic types. Therefore, mussel larvae appear to disperse longer distances than barnacle larvae, causing more consistent mixing of genetic types.

Mussels

Barnacles


Mapping Genetic Patterns

Erik Sotka and Steve Palumbi of Stanford University, in collaboration with col-leagues John Wares and Rick Grosberg at UC Davis, are using DNA sequenc-ing to study barnacles at over a dozen sites. Their research, funded in part by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, indicates that these barnacle populations include at least three major genetic types and that the relative abundances of the types differ from place to place. One possible reason for the limited genetic exchange may be that barnacle larvae along the central coast of California settle surprisingly near their parents (within 10 kilometers). The genetic patterns also suggest, however, that larvae in Oregon and Washington disperse much greater distances than barnacles to the south. These previously unrecognized genetic patterns show that barnacles at sites along the West Coast are in differ-ent genetic pools and do not exchange larvae with one another very often.

In contrast to the findings for barnacles, Grant Pogson’s research at UC Santa Cruz has uncovered no geographic structure in populations of adult mussels along the coast from Baja California, Mexico, to the Pacific Northwest. Pogson, former student Jonna Engel, and current student Brian Ort confirmed this find-ing using DNA sequencing and other molecular methods. While local genetic differences in a few areas—for example, around Monterey Bay—suggest pockets where larvae are retained near their parents, the lack of large-scale geographic variation indicates that most mussel larvae disperse long distances. This dispersal could lead to tremendous gene flow along the coast.

PISCO will continue using ecological genetics to understand why larvae of some species appear to mix freely in the ocean and are transported great distances, while movement of others is more confined. This research is a key to understanding and effectively managing the coastal ocean.

T wo PISCO research teams are working to understand genetic variation of invertebrates along the U.S. West Coast. The findings provide new insights into the ecology of barnacles (Balanus glandula) and sea mussels (Mytilus californianus).

Freed estimated larval dispersal distances of Nucella emarginata (left) and N. ostrina (right).

Undergraduates Compare Dispersal Distances of Snails

Genetic techniques enabled PISCO/Stanford undergraduate students Kather-ine Blazyk and Emily Freed to investigate how differences in reproductive strategies of marine snails relate to their disper-sal. Blazyk studied the black turban snail (Tegula funebralis), which releases its larvae freely into the water, and found only slight genetic differences among West Coast populations—as expected for a species with this reproductive strategy. Conversely, Freed examined two intertidal snails (Nucella emarginata and N. ostrina), which lack free-swimming larvae, and found large genetic differences between nearby populations. As predicted for species with no larval dispersal, the genetic findings indicate that the young remain close to home. The research by Freed and Blazyk demonstrates the value of using genetics to estimate dispersal distance and suggests that management of the ecosystem must consider the diverse reproductive strate-gies of marine animals.

Katherine Blazyk (left) and Emily Freed display two snails that they studied using genetic analysis.

Erik Sotka collects barnacles and establishes transects near Heceta Head, Oregon.

Brian Ort analyzes DNA of sea mussels fromthe West Coast.

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Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans PISCO Coastal Connections • Volume 3

New Tool Reveals Responses of Genes to EnvironmentAt any given time, animals and plants express only a fraction of their 20,000 to 40,000 genes. The active genes, whose information is translated into proteins that carry out the cell’s work, may handle energy conversion, locomotion, growth, or other functions. If scientists could obtain “snapshots” of gene activity, they could greatly enhance understanding of the physi-ological status of animals and plants under different conditions.

DNA microarrays, or gene chips, offer such potential. PISCO scientists Andrew Gracey and George Somero at Stanford University’s Hopkins Marine Station are devel-oping these tools for several marine fi shes and inverte-brates. It is the fi rst time that researchers have applied gene-chip technology to marine species.

To build a gene chip, the researchers attach several thousand different DNA molecules, representing an equivalent number of different genes, to a small glass slide. Then they isolate molecules called messenger RNA (mRNA), which are transcribed from genes. The mRNA serve as indicators of gene activity in an animal or plant exposed to different conditions—for instance, oxygen availability, temperature, salinity, or food avail-ability. The scientists chemically modify these molecules to make them easy to detect with fl uorescence and then add them to the gene chips.

The fl uorescence signals generated at the thousands of different sites on the gene chip indicate which genes are being used actively at a given time and what their relative level of use is under different conditions. These snapshots of gene activity will allow PISCO to study how genes in different species respond to changes in environmental conditions.

Linking Ecology and Physiology

How do animals and plants survive where they do? This question has dominated the fi elds of ecology and environmental biol-ogy for decades. Research by PISCO/UCSB principal investigator Gretchen Hofmann is helping to provide answers. Hofmann studies heat-shock proteins—which protect other proteins from high tempera-tures and other physical stressors—and their effect on survival. By studying how genes respond to different environmental conditions, Hofmann and her students are revealing linkages between the environ-ment, physiology, and ecology of marine animals and plants. Using this technique former graduate student Cascade Sorte has found that snails (Nucella spp.) along the Oregon-California coast suffer more physiological stress at the boundaries of their geographic range than in the center. PISCO/UCSB graduate student Chris Osovitz is studying gene expression on a local to biogeographic regional scale in sea urchins using Northern blot analysis and real-time PCR, and eventually hopes to develop a DNA microarray for these stud-ies. Two new students, Jessie Dutton and Sarah Henkel, will investigate the ecophysi-ology of mussels and kelp. Hofmann also is collaborating with PISCO/Stanford princi-pal investigator George Somero to make a gene chip for mussels (Mytilus californianus) in order to study gene expression on a microhabitat to latitudinal scale.

Gretchen Hofmann (right) and two of her students prepare samples for analysis of heat-shock proteins.

This image of computer-analyzed gene-chip data shows how genes change expression over time in response to low oxygen levels. Each horizontal band represents a single gene’s activity. Bright red indicates strong expression; bright green, a strong reduction in expression.

PISCO researchers use gene chips (left) to investi-gate the physiological responses of marine animals to environmental stresses.

Time

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Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans PISCO Coastal Connections • Volume 3

ecological linkages

Sources of Salmon

Fall-run chinook salmon from California’s Central Valley make up some 90 percent of the state’s ocean salmon harvest, result-ing in $60 million in income. Ocean yields have remained remarkably stable over the last decade, but it is unclear if the fi shery depends increasingly on hatchery-reared versus wild salmon. PISCO/UCSC graduate student and NOAA Fisheries researcher Rachel Barnett-Johnson is using natu-ral population markers to fi nd out. Her approach takes advantage of the fact that California’s rivers differ naturally in their strontium-87 and strontium-86 isotope ratios, depending on the age and composi-tion of surrounding rocks (see map above). These strontium signatures are incorpo-rated into the ear bones, called otoliths, of young salmon. Barnett-Johnson is analyzing the otoliths of salmon caught in the ocean to determine their birthplaces, the relative numbers of salmon contributed by differ-ent rivers, how much of the population comes from hatcheries, and where salmon coming from different rivers are found in the ocean. Her research is funded in part by NOAA Fisheries and the University of California Marine Council.

Fish Movement in a Kelp ForestLittle is known about the underwater travels of California’s economically and ecologically important reef fi shes. For example, do they often swim between reefs, or do they stay at one reef for most of their lives? Do they travel among different habitat types? Does an increase in fi sh numbers in an area encourage some fi shes to leave in search of a less crowded home? A better understand-ing of fi shes’ movements could aid fi sheries management efforts, including the design and implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs).

PISCO/UCSC research fellow Craig Syms is conducting a study along the cen-tral coast of California that will shed light on the travels of kelp rockfi shes, blue rockfi shes, and kelp greenlings. By implanting visual and sonic tags, Syms can track the fi shes in real time, using an array of buoys that triangulate positions every two to three minutes and report the positions to a shore-based com-puter. His initial results suggest that, during the summer, kelp rockfi shes occupy a range of approximately 20 by 20 meters, while kelp greenlings occupy a home range from 20 by 20 meters to 40 by 40 meters, depending on habitat quality. In contrast, blue rockfi shes may move hundreds of meters, occasionally traveling more than 400 meters.

Syms maps the fi shes’ routes onto detailed multibeam sonar images, which show seafl oor habitats. Using the fi sh data, he plans to create a model for assessing the effectiveness of existing marine protected areas and developing design guidelines for future MPAs.

Acoustic tags implanted in kelp rockfi sh (brown squares), blue rockfi sh (blue squares), and kelp greenling (green squares) transmit signals to receiver buoys located at the corners of the triangle. The signals are relayed to a base sta-tion, where a computer calculates the fi shes’ positions and projects them onto a multibeam-sonar map of the seafl oor.

In California, volcanic rock (orange) dominates the Cascade Mountain range to the north, while older granitic rock (yellow) is widespread along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The north-to-south gradient in rock type and age produces a trend of low strontium isotopic ratios in the north to high values in the south. The watersheds of the major salmon-spawning rivers drain across these different geologic formations, transferring the natural isotopic markers to the fi sh in the rivers. Map provided by NOAA Fisheries researcher Aditya Agrawal.

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interdisciplinaryresearchtraining&

very two years, PISCO offers a course in Biomechanics and Ecological Physiology of the Rocky Intertidal at Stanford University’s Hopkins Marine Station in Pacific Grove, California. Taught by PISCO/Stanford principal investigators George Somero and Mark Denny, it is one example of the interdisciplinary training made possible through PISCO. Graduate students, postdoctoral

fellows, and established researchers come from around the world to learn the newest techniques in biomechanics, physiology, and genetics. By making these methods accessible to ecologists, oceanographers, engineers, and conservation biologists, the course facilitates cross-fertilization and scientific advances. In one half of the course, students learn enzyme analyses and heat-shock-protein assays to investigate the responses of marine intertidal organisms to physiological stresses. They also get hands-on experience using the latest DNA methods to distinguish similar species. In the other half of the course, participants study effects of the physical environment on marine organisms. They have created mathematical models of body-heat changes in gastropods in response to the environment, measured the strength of algae, and characterized ocean waves to predict survival of algae and animals. The course gives students the skills to study ecosystems at all levels from the genome to physiological functioning to whole-organism interactions with other species and the environment. This unique training enables scientists to think beyond traditional academic boundaries to pursue a greater understanding of coastal oceans.

ETraining Course Expands Research Horizons


Pairing Genetics and Chemistry to Track FishTwo PISCO graduate students have joined forces for an inter-disciplinary study of fi shes along the central coast of California. Martha Burford (UC Santa Cruz) and Julie Standish (UC Santa Barbara) are collaborating to learn how rockfi sh populations are linked by the open-water travels of their young. The students collect two rockfi sh species—blue rockfi sh (Sebastes mysti-nus) and kelp rockfi sh (S. atrovirens)—at several sites and share the samples for their individual research. Burford performs genetic analysis to determine the degree of interchange among populations of each species. Standish works to identify the fi shes’ birthplaces and dispersal path-ways by analyzing the chemical compo-nents of their ear bones, called otoliths. Because they use different tools—genet-ics and microchemistry—Burford and Standish can address complementary questions about the connectivity among populations of these coastal fi shes. Once they complete their research, the pair hopes to publish several papers together. Their fi ndings may aid effective management and conservation of rockfi sh populations.

interdisciplinary training & research

Oceanography Infl uences Tidepool Fish EcologySeveral species of fi shes called sculpins inhabit tidepools and rocky shores of the West Coast. However, their numbers vary greatly from place to place. PISCO/UCSC graduate student Amy Ritter and PISCO/OSU sci-ence coordinator Michael Webster are conducting complementary studies on a regional scale to fi nd out the underlying reasons. Working in the Monterey Bay area, Ritter has found that the number of sculpins at any given site relates to the amount of upwelling of cold, deep water. Upwelling affects the number of young sculpins arriving at different sites, but each species is affected differently. Conversely, Webster has discovered that upwelling does not play a direct role in determining the distribution of sculpins in Oregon, where comparable numbers of young sculpins arrive at each site. Instead, adult numbers depend on dif-ferences between sites in habitat charac-teristics and survival rates. The research by Ritter and Webster demonstrates that the explanations for ecological patterns in a given species may differ on a regional scale.

Martha Burford conducts genetic analysis of rockfi shes.

A mosshead sculpin in Michael Webster’s study is marked with an identifi cation tag and released.

Amy Ritter collects sculpins in a tidepool.

A fi sh’s otolith (magnifi ed), or ear bone, can provide clues to where the animal has traveled.

Kelp rockfi sh.

Amy Ritter tags a fl uffy sculpin with a color-coded elastomer.

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PISCO Coastal Connections • Volume 3sharing scienceTH

EISCO is working closely with the California Department of Fish and Game, National Marine Sanctuaries, and other organizations to develop a statewide monitoring network for commercially and recreationally important species that live in kelp forests, such as rockfi shes, cabezon, urchins, and

abalone. These monitoring sites will be essential for the evaluation of pre-existing, new, and future marine protected areas along the entire California coast. Together, the partners have developed Cooperative Research and Assessment of Nearshore Ecosystems (CRANE) to inform the State’s Marine Life Management Act and Marine Life Protection Act. This legislation aims to protect coastal waters as an ecosystem rather than focusing on individual species or fi sheries. PISCO’s expertise in coastal monitoring is directly transferable to CRANE and has provided a huge benefi t to the State’s efforts in science-based management. In 2003, PISCO:

• conducted training programs at both UCSC and UCSB for CRANE survey divers,

• took the lead in sampling the new CRANE sites along the Big Sur coast, and

• surveyed the new marine reserves and adjacent unprotected sites at the Channel Islands.

PISCO is committed to continuing its contribution to the development of coastwide monitoring programs and evaluation of marine reserves.

PPartners in Monitoring Kelp Forests

sharing scienceTHE


sharing the science

Last year, PISCO organized two symposia at major scientifi c meetings. At the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advance-ment of Science (AAAS), more than a hundred people attended “Opening the Black Box: Understanding Ecosystem Dynamics in the Coastal Ocean.” The symposium garnered media attention and resulted in articles in major news outlets, including the Los Angeles Times, San Francisco Chronicle, and Port-land’s Oregonian. At the annual meeting of the Ecological Society of America, PISCO scientists Pete Raimondi and Bruce Menge organized a symposium called “Expanding Scales, Expanding Perspectives: New Insights into Marine Ecosystem Dynamics.” The session highlighted PISCO’s fi ndings along the U.S. West Coast and related research around the world.

Creating Learning Forums

In 2003, two PISCO campuses offered unique courses on the interface between science, policy, and conservation. At Oregon State University, Jane Lubchenco, David Festa (policy director for the U.S. Department of Commerce during the Clinton administration), PISCO/OSU policy coordinator Renee Davis-Born, and other teachers introduced 25 graduate students to environmental decision-making at national and state levels. Students put their knowledge into action in mock brief-ings to governors, Congress, and federal agencies. At Stanford University’s Hopkins Marine Station, former PISCO interdisci-plinary science educator Joanna Nelson taught a course called “Pathways from Research to Conservation” to Stanford undergraduates, Monterey Institute of International Studies students, and adults from the Monterey Peninsula community. The course used multiple approaches to convey how science is translated into local policy and action. Students in both courses benefi ted from PISCO’s relationships with policymakers, resource managers, and staff from non-governmental organizations, who participated as guest lecturers.

A recent 10-minute segment of Oregon Public Broad-casting’s weekly television program “Oregon Field Guide” featured PISCO principal investigator Jane Lubchenco and other PISCO scientists studying the ecology of rocky shores (above left). PISCO also participated in the daylong 2003 SeaFest at Oregon State University’s Hatfi eld Marine Science Center, which drew some 4,000 people (left). More than one million middle-school students watched as PISCO/UCSB science coordinator Jenn Caselle explored the ecology of the Channel Islands as part of the video curriculum from the JASON Project, which broadcasts live to schools around the country (above right).

sharing the scienceCommunity Outreach

Sharing Our Techniques

For the past three years, PISCO has partnered with federal, state, and local government agencies, universities, and volunteer groups in organizing workshops for the Multi-Agency Rocky Intertidal Network (MARINe).

PISCO scientists from UCSC and UCSB have trained divers from the California Department of Fish and Game, National Marine Sanctuaries, and other aca-demic institutions in PISCO’s protocols for monitoring kelp forests.

Building Bridges Among Scientists

Jane Lubchenco and David Festa (both standing) lead a graduate-level class on environmental policy.

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Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO)

For more information:Web site: www.piscoweb.orgE-mail: [email protected]

PISCOOregon State UniversityDepartment of Zoology3029 Cordley HallCorvallis, OR 97331

PISCOUniversity of California, Santa CruzLong Marine Laboratory100 Shaffer RoadSanta Cruz, CA 95060

PISCOUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraMarine Science InstituteSanta Barbara, CA 93106-6150

PISCOStanford UniversityHopkins Marine StationOceanview BoulevardPacific Grove, CA 93950

Image Credits: Satie Airamé (p. 1), Tara Anderson (13), Lydia Bergen (cover, 1, 11, 15), Carol Blanchette (17), Xavier Capet (8), Alexis Chaine (15), Renee Davis-Born (cover, 17), Sheri Etchemendy (10), Sarah Fangman (17), Jared Figurski (inside cover, 15, 16, back cover), Emily Freed (11), Jan Freiwald (cover, 16,17, back cover), Maya George (inside cover, back cover), Andrew Gracey (12), Anne Guerry (back cover), Patti Halpin (10), Hilary Hayford (inside cover, back cover), Dawn Jech (3), Alison Kendall (3), Dave Lohse (back cover), Jane Lubchenco (8), Christine McConnell (7), Margaret McManus (9), Bruce Menge (9), Luke Miller (14), Stephen Palumbi (11), Sean Place (12), Dan Reed (4), Amy Ritter (15), George Somero (12), Julie Standish (15), Michael Webster (15, 17, back cover), Ali Whitmer (back cover), Megan Williams (3).

Paper stock contains 50% recycled content, 15% post-consumer content. Printed with linseed oil-based inks.

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