Research Methods

Student handbook

200 Psychology

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Psychologists do more than just speculate about the behaviour of humans, instead of simply guessing, they conduct research to find out why people act, think and feel the way that they do.

There are 5 main methods of carrying out research in order to gain the information Psychologists hope will answer their questions and meet their aims.These are divided into 2 main categories.Non-experimental – observations, surveys & questionnaires, case studies and correlation research.Experimental – researcher controlled experiments.

All experiments in Psychology follow the SCIENTIFIC METHOD, in order to ensure theories can be tested, they can be repeated, avoid bias and to ensure there is some value to the research.

When you carry out your research you will follow this process.1. identify the problem2. Establish a hypothesis and/or an aim3. Choose a research method that best suits4. gather data5. analyse the data6. state conclusions7. relate findings to original hypothesis or theory

Task: In groups choose a piece of research we have already looked at through the course and identify their scientific process.Milgram Zimbardo Harlow Ash WatsonPavlov Skinner Piaget

Throughout this topic there are a few key terms that you will need to know.

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Variables

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Extraneous variable

Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data

Sample

Target population

Reliability

ValidityEco-validityConfounding variables

Demand characteristics

One thing all researchers need to consider before embarking on any method of research are the ETHICAL ISSUES that may be raised by their research.

Can you remember the common guidelines?

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D

R

I

P

C

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ExperimentsThe typical experiment is a highly controlled method of research that is easy to replicate and

generates mostly quantitative data.

There are three main types of experiments

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CONTROLLED experiments – also called laboratory experiments (although they do not have to take place in a lab). The IV is deliberately manipulated and DV is measured to establish whether a causal relationship is present. The conditions are carefully controlled in order to get an accurate measurement.

Examples: Milgram,* Marshmallow test, *Stroop test

FIELD experiments – take place in a real-world setting, rather than under lab conditions so participants who may or may not know they are part of the experiment will act more naturally. The IV is manipulated as in a controlled experiment. * can be carry out in field too, Jump Test, Piaget tests, the robbers cave.

NATURAL experiments – also called quasi-experiments where the hypothesis is made and the conditions are determined by nature. A naturally occurring IV is taken advantage of. Natural experiments are useful in situations where manipulating the IV would be unethical or impractical, such as when working with children. Eg. Are girl’s more talkative than boys? Does getting repeated head injuries affect cognitive abilities.

Advantages Disadvantages

Observations

The observational method is the controlled observing and recording of behaviour. It is about making sense of what we see.It is a systematic process of observing how different variables might impact on behaviour. Psychologists make records and then look for patterns.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION.

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Naturalistic

controlled

Non-participant

Participant

Structured and unstructured observationsA structured observation is when researchers use a CODING scheme to record behaviour – this provide quantitative data.Let’s have a go!!

Advantages Disadvantages

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SURVEYS

Surveys – one of the most commonly used research tools! They allow large amounts of qualitative and quantitative data to be collected.

They can be written questionnaires or verbal interviews

The kinds of questions that we ask in this method can provide different answers Types of Closed Question – these provide limited choice.

Straightforward response Are you female or male? M F What is your age in years? ____ years Do you smoke? Yes No

Checklist What is the highest academic qualification you hold?

NCEA Level 1 NCEA Level 2 NCEA Level 3 Other……………..

Checklists

Does your anxiety affect your ability to do the following things?

Not at all A Bit Very muchGo to schoolMeet friendsGo shopping

Likert scales Psychology is the most interesting subject

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly

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agree Disagree

Ranking scale Rank the following activities according to how much time you

spend on them each day

(1 = most time, 4 = least time) Talking face to face Talking on the telephone Text messaging Other (e.g. MSN, IRC chat)

Check out the advantages and disadvantages of the Likert scale P146.

Ad

Dis

Questionnaire Design Avoid leading ……………… Ask for one piece of information at a time Allow for ‘don’t know’ where appropriate Be sensitive, and make sure you apply ……………….. considerations Remember to include ALL possibilities

E.g., Not at all, Other Your sample needs to be reliable (enough people = ………..) and representative (asking the ………. people)

Let’s try some –

Advantages Disadvantages

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CASE STUDIES

Case studies allow for in-depth examination and produces lots of rich data of any person, specific group, or event.Data for a case study is normally gathered from a number of sources and by using a combination of different methods. Often the focus of a case study in psychology is someone, group, event that is rare or unique. They give the psychologist an opportunity to study behaviour that has occurred naturally or that may never be seen again. The hope is that information gained may be generalised to other cases.

Let’s have a look at some!

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Advantages Disadvantages

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Correlational StudiesThe Purpose of Correlational Studies:Correlational studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00.

Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation. Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation. No Correlation: Indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation.

Limitations of Correlational Studies:While correlational studies can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, they cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another variable. In other words, correlation does not equal causation. For example, a correlational study might suggest that there is a relationship between academic success and self-esteem, but it cannot show if academic success increases or decreases self-esteem. Other variables might play a role, including social relationships, cognitive abilities, personality, socio-economic status, and a myriad of other factors.

Now it is your turn to do some research. Our class will be carrying out research into issues surrounding adolescent sleeping patterns.

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By now you should all have your baseline sleeping patterns.

Before we get started we need to do a little research into why adolescent sleeping patterns is an issue in the first place.The first questions we need to ask are what is sleep? and why do humans need it?

SLEEP

What is sleep? How do you know if you have a sleep

disorder? What has this got to do with experimental

research methods?

Sleep Disorders and Sleeping ProblemsInsomnia: The most common type of sleep disorderOther common types of sleep disorders

Sleep disorder 1: Sleep apnea

Sleep disorder 2: Restless legs syndrome (RLS)

Sleep disorder 3: NarcolepsyCircadian rhythm sleep disorders

Jet lag sleeping problems

Shift work sleeping problems

Delayed sleep phase disorder

In Sleep Disorders and Sleeping Problems, By Melinda Smith, M.A., Lawrence Robinson,  and Robert Segal, http://www.helpguide.org/life/sleep_disorders.htm

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Stages of sleep: REM sleep and non-REM sleep stagesAll sleep is not created equal. Sleep unfolds in a series of recurring sleep stages that are very different from one another in terms of what’s happening beneath the surface. From deep sleep to dreaming sleep, they are all vital for your body and mind. Each stage of sleep plays a different part in preparing you for the day ahead.

There are two main types of sleep: Non-REM (NREM) sleep consists of four stages of sleep, each deeper

than the last. REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is when you do most active

dreaming. Your eyes actually move back and forth during this stage, which is why it is called Rapid Eye Movement sleep.

The Stages of Sleep

Non-REM sleep

Stage N1 (Transition to sleep) – This stage lasts about five minutes. Eyes move slowly under the eyelids, muscle activity slows down, and you are easily awakened.

Stage N2 (Light sleep) – This is the first stage of true sleep, lasting from 10 to 25 minutes. Eye movement stops, heart rate slows, and body temperature decreases.

Stage N3 (Deep sleep) – You’re difficult to awaken, and if you are awakened, you do not adjust immediately and often feel groggy and disoriented for several minutes. In this deepest stage of sleep, brain waves are extremely slow. Blood flow is directed away from the brain and towards the muscles, restoring physical energy.

REM sleep

REM sleep (Dream sleep) – About 70 to 90 minutes after falling asleep, you enter REM sleep, where dreaming occurs. Eyes move rapidly. Breathing is shallow. Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Arm and leg muscles are paralyzed.

The sleep cycle: Understanding the architecture of sleepYou may think that once you go to bed, you soon fall into a deep sleep that lasts for most of the night, progressing back into light sleep in the morning when it’s time to wake up. In reality, the sleep cycle is a lot more complicated.

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When you chart the sleep stages over the course of the night, the result looks like a city skyline—which is why it is called "sleep architecture"

During the night, your sleep follows a predictable pattern, moving back and forth between deep restorative sleep (deep sleep) and more alert stages and dreaming (REM sleep). Together, the stages of REM and non-REM sleep form a complete sleep cycle. Each cycle typically lasts about 90 minutes and repeats four to six times over the course of a night.The amount of time you spend in each stage of sleep changes as the night progresses. For example, most deep sleep occurs in the first half of the night. Later in the night, your REM sleep stages become longer, alternating with light Stage 2 sleep. This is why if you are sensitive to waking up in the middle of the night, it is probably in the early morning hours, not immediately after going to bed

Then what do we need to know about adolescent sleep??

Adolescent Sleep, by Gary Hopkins, Things to Know About your Kids’ Sleep Habits, http://www.positivechoices.com/blog/2010/05/things-you-might-want-know-about-your-

kids-sleep-habits

They Need More Sleep

Sometime in late puberty, the body secretes the sleep-related hormone melatonin at a different time than it normally does. This changes the circadian rhythms that guide a person's sleep-wake cycle. For instance, if you are told to go to bed at 10 p.m., you may end up staring at the ceiling until 1 or 2 a.m. waiting to fall asleep. At about 7:30 p.m. you feel wide awake and fully alert, unlike an adult who is starting to "wind down" and feel sleepier as the evening progresses so that at 10 p.m. the adult is ready to go to bed. The teen-agers "wind down" time takes place much later.

Changes Are Taking Place

Studies show that the changes taking place in teens bodies requires more sleep and they may be physically challenged to

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getting up early in the morning. Their internal biological clock may slow down in adolescence. That can account for not their being sleepy until 2 a.m.

How Much Sleep Do You Need?

Adolescents need 9 hours and 15 minutes of sleep. Children need 10 hours and adults need 8 1/4 hours. They rarely get that much due to early school start time, inability to fall asleep until late at night, work, social life and homework. Most teens are chronically sleep deprived and try to "catch up" on their sleep by sleeping in on the weekends. Ultimately they should go to bed and wake up at the same time.

How Does Sleep Deprivation Affect the Teen-ager?

Sleep deprivation can impair memory and inhibit creativity making it difficult for sleep deprived students to learn. Teens struggle to learn to deal with stress and control emotion -- sleep deprivation makes it even more difficult. Irritability, lack of self-confidence and mood swings are often common in a teen, but sleep deprivation makes it worse. Depression can result from chronic sleep deprivation.

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Over the next 14 days, you are going to experiment on yourself and other teenagers.

We are going to take some of the findings from the Adolescent Sleep Needs and Patterns Research Report (2000) and apply them to assess if they can improve the quality of your sleep patterns.

Caffeine after noon

Exercise

Extra sleep of half an hour/recommended sleep in report. Best to have 8-9 hours

Light in room dark at night and bright in morning.

No computer before bed

No TV in bedroom

Dark room at night, bright in the morning

Having a bath before bed

Listening to soft music

Wake up at the same time during the week and the weekend

You are going to record your sleep patterns using your smartphone if you have one, or records in a diary. Download Sleep as Android.

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Conduct an Experiment in Sleep

Level 2: Inquiry (US 27691) Psychology

Sleep Research

27691, Conduct, analyse and report on a psychological research activity.

Credit: 6

Student Instructions SheetDuring your Psychology programme in class, your teacher will work with you on a variety of written, oral and visual texts. You will do a wide range of activities in class which will help you to source additional information and read for meaning e.g. for journal articles.

Assessment guide

For achieved For merit For excellenceConduct, analyse and report on a psychological research activity according to the research steps associated with the scientific method used in psychological research.

The analysis and report include a clear presentation of the research findings with valid conclusions derived from data analysis, and a discussion of key strengths and/or limitations of the research activity

The analysis and report include a comprehensive presentation of the research findings with suggestions for two or more relevant improvements to the research activity with reference to elements such as validity and reliability. Reference may be made to previous research design in a related topic

TaskYou will be given one psychological research article by your teacher to understand the methodology. You will be required to conduct a similar piece of research on subjects. You will use research steps from the Scientific method and present your findings.

Carskadon (1990) conducted research into teenagers and sleep. Study the research article and present the findings in the introduction of your lab report. It is suggested you use an APA style of referencing.

Task instructions

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Conduct an investigation to observe the conforming behaviour of students in a group situation. Your presentation must include; Title : one sentence outlining your research.

Step 1: Hypothesis: a statement of the hypothesis for your experiment.

Step 2: Introduction: You must describe sleep and sleep patterns. You need to summarise at least one well known experiment on sleep. You need to state the purpose of your experiment. Your language should be formal and in the third person.

Step 3: Method: Include the following (enough to be replicable)o The participants – how many and whom?o How you will brief themo How you will debrief themo Ethical considerations/procedures.

Step 4: Results: include your data collection sheets. Create a table of your results and a mean. A brief summary of your results in a sentence.

Step 5 Conclusion: Comment on the following:o Does the data gathered support the hypothesis? o Reliability o Validity o Strengths of the research procedure o Weaknesses of the research procedure o Any suggestions for improvements, with reasonso Are there any ethical implications to the study?

References: Include one or more references using APA style formatting.

Your presentation must be typed and handed to your teacher within the due date.

For achieved you must:o Describe at least one previous study which describes sleep cycles and

sleep patterns on teenagers. o You must outline the steps of your methodology,o You must present your data clearly and draw conclusions.

For merit you must also: Draw valid conclusions from the data analysis, Discuss the key strengths and/or limitations of the study.

For excellence you must also: Include a comprehensive presentation of the research findings, with reference to

elements such as reliability and validity. These findings may relate to other previous research,

Suggest, with reasons, at least two improvements to the research design,

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As part of the comprehensive presentation of the research findings you may discuss the wider implications of your findings and how they contribute to the wider world of Psychology.

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