А.Б. Раисова

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

Арнайы мақсаттарға арналған ағылшын тілі

Техникалық мамандық студенттеріне арналған оқу құралы

Павлодар

Қазақстан Республикасының Білім және ғылым министрлігі

С. Торайғыров атындағы Павлодар мемлекеттік университеті

А.Б. Раисова

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

Арнайы мақсаттарға арналған ағылшын тілі

Техникалық мамандық студенттеріне арналған оқу құралы

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ПавлодарКереку2009

УДК 811.111.(075.8)ББК 81.2 Англ-923А80

С. Торайғыров атындағы Павлодар мемлекеттік университетінің Ғылыми кеңесімен басуға

ұсынылды

Пікірсарапшылар:К. Н. Булатбаева – педагогика ғылымдарының докторы,

С.Торайғыров атындығы ПМУ орыс филологиясы және кітапханатану кафедрасының профессоры;

А.М. Мубараков – педагогика ғылымдарының докторы, профессор, Инновациялық Еуразия университетінің педагогика академиясының директоры;

К.А. Нурумжанова – педагогика ғылымдарының докторы, профессор, Павлодар мемлекеттік педагогикалық институтының мамандық жетілдіру факультетінің директоры;

Г.Х. Демесинова – филология ғылымдарының кандидаты, С. Торайғыров атындағы ПМУ аударма теориясы және практикасы кафедрасының меңгерушісі.

Раисова А.Б.А80 English for Specific Purposes: техникалық мамандық

студенттеріне арналған оқу құралы / А.Б. Раисова. – Павлодар : Кереку, 2009. – 112 б.

ISBN 9965-573-41-7Нақты оқу құралы техникалық мамандық студенттеріне және

магистранттарына арналған. Оқұ құралына аудиториялық және өзіндік жұмыс кезінде қолданылатын жалпы-ғылыми және техникалық сипаттағы бастапқы мәтіндік материал енген.

УДК

811.111.(075.8)

2

ББК 81.2 Англ-923

ISBN 9965-573-41-7 © Раисова А.Б., 2009

© С. Торайғыров атындағы ПМУ, 2009

Материалдық дурыс болуына, грамматикалық және орфографиялық қателерге авторлар мен құрастырушылар жауапты

Алғы сөз

Нақты құралдың басты мақсаты ұсынылған ғылыми-техникалық тақырыптағы мәтіндік материалға сүйене отырып, профессионалды қарым-қатынас дағдысын дамыту болып табылады. Құралға енген мәтіндердің күрделілік дәрежесі суденттерде қарым-қатынас компетентінің қалыптасқандығының бастапқы білімдік дәрежесі бар екендігін білдіреді, бұл өз кезегінде оқудың алуан түрін қолдануға жол ашады: яғни, ақпараттық – ізденушіліктен бастап ұсынылған тапсырмаларға сай тереңдетілгенге дейін.

Студенттердің профессионалды қарым-қатынастық компетенциясының қажетті дәрежесі арнайы техникалық пәндер дәрістерінде қалыптасады, сондықтан профессионалды маңызды амалдарға сай келетін және шетел тілдері сабақтарында да қолайлы жұмыс түрлерін тапқан жөн. Ұсынылған мәтіндік материал ішінен топтың техникалық пән бағытына сай ұстаз тарапынан таңдау жасалуы әрі сәйкес тақырып бойынша жұмыс жоспарын құрастыру, рефераттар, баяндамалар жазу, «дөңгелек үстелдің» шығармашылық талқылауын өткізу, диспуттар, рөлдік ойындар, негізгі оқу пәндері пареллелді үрде оқытылатын болғандықтан, пәнаралық байланысты ескере отырып, сәйкес мамандықтар бойынша алуан түрлі ақпарат көздерін пайдаланып, шығармашылық тапсырамалар банкі үшін материал жинастыру маңызды болып табылады.

Сонымен, бөлек топтар үшін бастапқы компетенциялардың қалыптасу дәрежесін еске ала отырып, “What is Engineering” тақырыптық бөлігінің мәтіндері оқытушының көзқарасына сай таңдалуы мүмкін, мысалы: “What is Engineering”, “Modern Engineering Trends”, “Fields of Engineering” мәтіндерін әрі “Electronics” немесе “Computers” мамандықтарының бағытына сай келетін мәтіндерді оқу және талқылау. Нақты жағдайда аудиториядағы топтық, жұптық және жеке жұмыстардың барлық түрлері мен формаларын пайдалана отырып, және қосымша үй тапсырамаларын орындау: баяндама жасау,

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рефераттар мен қосымша ақпарлар жазу арқылы мамандық бойынша мәтінді тереңдетіп талқылауды жоспарлауға болады.

Оқу құралына газет, журнал беттерінен, Интернет желісінен алынған өзгертілмеген мәтіндік материалдар енген. Мәтіндердің жалпығылыми тақырыбы студенттердің профессионалды қызығушылықтарын танытады. Оқу құралындағы мәтіндердің мазмұны професиионалды компетенция қалыптастыру үрдісінде студенттердің шетел тілдік әрекетін белсендіру мақсатын көздейді.

Құрал алты бөлімнен және қосымшадан тұрады. Бірінші бөлімде келесі тақырыптағы мәтіндер берілген: “What is Engineering” мәтіндер бөлігі, “Automation” мәселесі бойынша екі мәтін және “Computers” тақырыбы бойынша мәтіндер. Нақты мәтіндер 2 семестрде талқылау үшін ұсынылған. Екінші бөліміндегі мәтіндік материал “What is Internet?” мәселесі төңірегінде таңдалып алынған. Үшінші бөлімде студенттердің аудиториядағы қосымша талқылауы үшін немесе топтың қарым-қатынастық компетенциясының қалыптасу дәрежесіне байланысты оқытушының көзқарасына орай өзіндік жұмысқа арналған мәтіндер берілген.

“Fields of Engineering”, “Computers”, “Internet” тақырыптық бөліктерінің мәтіндері оқытушы тарапынан аудиторияда оқу мен талқылау үшін және талқыланылатын мәселе бойынша ауызекі хабарлама, баяндама, «дөңгелек үстел» диспуттарын дайындау мақсатында студенттерге ұсыну үшін пайдаланылуы мүмкін.

Алғашқы екі бөліктің әрбір тақырыптық мәтіндік бөлімі мәтіннен, мәтін соңындағы сөздіктен, оқылған мәтін бойынша түсінгендігін тексеретін сұрақтар, мәтін алдындағы және мәтін соңындағы қарым-қатынастық бағыттағы тапсырмалардан тұрады. Үшінші бөлімдегі мәтіндерден соң түсіндермелер мен ағылшын тіліндегі дефинициялар берілген.

“Supplementary Reading Section” төртінші бөлімінде жалпығылыми тақырыптық мәтіндермен жасалатын жұмыс дағдыларын жетілдіру мақсатында келесі тақырыптарды қамтитын қосымша оқуға арналған мәтіндер ұсынылған : “How to Read in English”, “Preparation for a Group Discussion”, “Argument”, “Formulas for Scientific Communication” және т.б..

«Phrases for Scientific Communication» бесінші бөлімде және «Supplementary Terminology Section» алтыншы бөлімде студенттер назарына арнайы терминология ұсынылған: ағылшын тіліндегі кафедра, мамандықтар, техникалық жоғарғы оқу орындарының бөлімшелерінің атаулары берілген әрі ғылыми және оқу

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жұмыстарымен байланысты ұғымдар мен қысқартулардың түсіндірмесі келтірілген.

Алтыншы бөлімде мәтінмен танысқаннан кейін бастапқыда сұрақтарға жауап беру арқылы оқылғанның түсінілуін бақылау, одан кейін мәтіннің негізгі идеясын жазбаша түрде немесе ауызша жеткізу, шығарма жазу, талқынылатын мәселе бойынша өз ойын білдіру, хабарлама жасау, көлемі жағынан үлкен емес баяндама дайындау ұсынылады.

Өзіндік жұмыс үшін студенттерге қосымшадан (Appendix) алыныған тапсырмалар ұсынылады.

Студенттердің мотивациясын арттыруға фондық білімге сүйене отырып мәселе бойынша студентке өз ойын білдіруге мүмкіншілік беретін, аудиторияда талқылауды белсендіретін және студенттің жалпы компетенциясын (эмпирикалық және академиялық білім), экзистенциалдық компетенцияны (жекебас сипаттамасы және көзқарас) және қарым-қатынас компетенциясының (тілдік, сөйлеу, әлеуметтік-мәдени) қалыптасу дәрежесін сипаттайтын тапсырмалар септігін тигізеді.

Қиындық дәрежелері әртүрлі мәтіндерден тұратын құралдың барлық бөлімдерінің тақырыптық бағытталуы оқытушыға студенттердің алғашқы компетенциясының қалыптасу дәрежесіне сай ұсынылған мәтіндік материалды жүйелендіруге, жалпы әдістемелік жоспар құрастыруға және студенттердің жеке білім игеру траекториясын анықтауға мүмкіндік туғызады.

Қорытындылай келе, оқыған материалды түсіну – талдау мен ақпараттық белгілерді жүйелеуді қамтитын күрделі, көп дәрежелі процесс. Ғылыми-техникалық мәтінді түсінудің жоғарғы дәрежесі мәселе бойынша, осы заманға байланысты ғылыми-техникалық мәселелер жүйесіндегі оның орны туралы ой түю, фондық білімді логикалық қолдану, индивидуалдық-жеке бастық қатынасты анықтау және ғылым-іскерлік стилдің элементтерін пайдалана отырып қарым-қатынас дәрежесінде іс жүзіне асыру болып табылады.

Мәселе тудыратын және шығармашылық тапсырмаларды қолдану ғылыми-техникалық ақпаратты механикалық түрде жаттап алуды емес, профессионалды бағытталған қарым-қатынас дәрежесіндегі шет тілін үйрену мен практика түрінде пайдалану процесінде студент мотивациясын жоғарлататын шығармашылық сезінуді көздейді.

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1. Fields of Engineering Text 1.1 What is Engineering?Pre-reading task:1) What is engineering? Use a monolingual dictionary to define this

term. Discuss your answers in group.2) Can you draw a difference between mathematical and natural

sciences?3) Look up the following words in a dictionary and explain their

meanings and usage peculiarities: trade, craft, profession, job, occupation, work and career.

4) Read the text “What is engineering?” and take part in the discussion on the topic "Engineering". Use Supplementary Reading Section texts: “Preparation for a Discussion” and “Formulas for Scientific Communication” to express your opinion.

5) Discuss the following problems in group:- what are the main branches of engineering?- what does the field of your speciality deal with?- prove that a modern engineer has to require a basic knowledge of

lots of engineering fields.Engineering is a term applied1 to the profession in which knowledge

of the mathematical and natural sciences, gained2 by study, experience3, and practice, is applied to the efficient4 use of the materials and forces of nature. The term engineer properly denotes a person who has received professional training in pure and applied science, but is often loosely5 used to describe the operator of an engine, as in the terms locomotive engineer, marine engineer, or stationary engineer. In modern terminology these latter6 occupations are known as crafts or trades. Between the professional engineer and the craftsperson or tradesperson, however, are those individuals known as subprofessionals or paraprofessionals, who apply scientific and engineering skills to technical problems; typical of these are engineering aides7, technicians, inspectors, draftsmen8, and the like.

Before the middle of the 18th century, large-scale9 construction work was usually placed in the hands of military engineers. Military engineering involved10 such work as the preparation of topographical maps, the location, design, and construction of roads and bridges; and the building efforts and docks; see Military Engineering below. In the 18th century, however, the term civil engineering came into use to describe engineering work that was performed by civilians for nonmilitary purposes. With the increasing-use of machinery in the 19th century, mechanical engineering was recognized as a separate branch of engineering, and later mining engineering was similarly recognized.

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The technical advances of the 19th century greatly broadened the field of engineering and introduced a large number of engineering specialties, and the rapidly changing demands of the socioeconomic environment in the 20th century have widened the scope11 even further.

Vocabulary:1) to apply - қолдану;2) to gain - алу, ие болу;

3) experience - тәжірибе;4) efficient - нәтижелі , әсерлі;

5) loosely – ұқыпсыз;6) latter - бұрынғысыз, соңғы;7) aid - қосалқы құралдың;8) draftsmen - конструктор;9) large-scale - ірі масштабты;10) to involve - қатыстыру;11) scope - әрекет облысы (аймағы);

Text 1.2 Modern Engineering TrendsPre-reading task:1) What recent trends of engineering professions are considered to be

the most widespread?2) What is the influence of computerization process on the

contemporary level of high-tech development?3) Characterize modern engineering trends of our century.4) Read the text “Modern Engineering Trends”. Discuss the

following problems in group:5) What are the principles modern engineering is characterized by?6) What do you know about The National Academy of Engineering?Scientific methods of engineering are applied in several fields not

connected directly to manufacture and construction. Modern engineering is characterized by the broad application of what is known as systems engineering principles. The systems approach is a methodology of decision-making in design, operation, or construction that adopts1 the formal process included in what is known as the scientific method; an interdisciplinary, or team, approach2, using specialists from not only the various engineering disciplines, but from legal3, social, aesthetic, and behavioral4 fields as well; a formal sequence5 of procedure employing the principles of operations research.

Engineers in industry work not only with machines but also with people, to determine6, for example, how machines can be operated most efficiently by the workers. A small change in the location of the controls of

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a machine or of its position with relation to other machines or equipment, or a change in the muscular movements of the operator, often results in greatly increased production. This type of engineering work is called time-study engineering.

Among various recent trends in the engineering profession, licensing and computerization are the most widespread7. Today, many engineers, like doctors and lawyers, are licensed, by the state. The trend8 in modern engineering offices is overwhelmingly toward computerization. Computers are increasingly used for solving complex problems as well as for handling, storing, and generating the enormous9 volume of data modern engineers must work with.

The National Academy of Engineering, founded in 1964 as a private organization, sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages10 new research, and is concerned with the relationship of engineering to society.

Vocabulary:1) to adopt - қабылдау;2) approach - жақын келу, тәсіл, әдіс; 3) legal - танымал;4) behavioral - мінез-құлықтық;5) sequence - жүйелілік;6) to determine - анықтау;7) widespread - кең көп таралған;8) trend - жалпы бағыт;9) enormous – үлкен;10) to encourage – рухтандыру;Give English equivalents for the following Kazakh phrases:1. алу, ие болу2. ірі масштабты3. нәтижелі4. қосалқы құралдың5. әрекет облысы6. жақын келу, тәсіл, әдіс7. жүйелілік8. кең көп таралғанGive English definition for the following:1. engineering2. engineer3. subprofessional (paraprofessional)4. military engineering5. modern engineering

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6. the systems approach7. time-study engineering8.The National Academy of Engineering

Text 1.3 Fields of EngineeringPre-reading task:1) You are going to read a set of texts about the main branches of

engineering. What branches of engineering do you know?2) Divide into groups and take part in a round-table discussion of

principal branches of engineering.3) Do you as an up-to-date engineer have a basic knowledge of other

engineering fields?The main branches of engineering are Aeronautical and Aerospace

Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Electric Power and Machinery, Electronics, Communications and Control, Computers, Geological and Mining Engineering, Industrial or Management Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Military Engineering, Naval or Marine Engineering, Nuclear Engineering, Safety Engineering, Sanitary Engineering. The engineer who works in any of these fields usually requires a basic knowledge of the other engineering fields, because most engineering problems are complex and interrelated1. Thus a chemical engineer designing a plant for the electrolytic refining2 of metal ores3 must deal with the design of structures, machinery, and electrical devices, as well as with purely4 chemical problems.

Besides the principal branches discussed below, engineering includes many more specialties than can be described here, such as acoustical engineering, architectural engineering automotive engineering, ceramic engineering, transportation engineering, and textile engineering.

Vocabulary:1) interrelated - өзара байланысқан;2) refining – тазарту;3) ore - кен;4) purely - тек қана, әбден;

1.3.2 Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering1. What does aeronautical and aerospace engineering deal with?2. What supplementary information can you add to characterize this

field of engineering?Aeronautics deals with the whole field of design, manufacture,

maintenance1, testing, and use of aircraft for both civilian2 and military

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purposes3. It involves the knowledge of structural design, propulsion4

engines, navigation, communication, and other related areas.Aerospace engineering is closely allied5 to aeronautics, but is

concerned6 with the flight of vehicles in space, beyond7 the earth's atmosphere, and includes the study and development of rocket engines, artificial satellites, and spacecraft for the exploration of outer space.

Vocabulary:1) maintenance - техникалық қызмет ету, қанау;2) civilian – азаматтық;3) purpose – мақсат;4) propulsion - алға қозғалыс; 5) to ally - қосу;6) to be concerned - байлаулы болу;7) beyond – соңында;

1.3.1 Chemical Engineering1. Are you fond of chemistry? Have you got this discipline in your

time-table?2. Try to describe chemical field of engineering nowadays. What is

the main ecological trouble in its development? What should people do to safe the environment? Is it really possible to stop the catastrophe?

This branch of engineering is concerned with the design, construction and management1 of factories in which the essential2

processes consist of chemical reactions. Because of the diversity3 of the materials dealt with4, the practice, for more than 50 years, has been to analyze chemical engineering problems in terms of fundamental unit operations or unit processes such as the grinding5 or pulverizing6 of solids7. It is the task of the chemical engineer to select and specify the design that will best meet the particular requirements of production and the most appropriate8 equipment for the new applications.

Vocabulary:1) management – басқару;2) essential - керекті , ажырамас3) diversity - әр түрлілік;4) to deal with - істес болу;5) to grind - өңдеу;6) to pulverize - ұсақтау , ұнтақтау;7) solid – дене;

8) ppropriate - лайық , қабылдауға болатын;

1.3.2 Civil Engineering

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1. Try to prove that civil engineering is the broadcast of the engineering fields.

2. In what way is civil engineering connected with environment protection?

Civil engineering is perhaps the broadest of the engineering fields, for it deals with the creation, improvement, and protection of the communal environment, providing1 facilities for living, industry and transportation, including large buildings, roads, bridges, canals, railroad lines, airports, water-supply systems, dams, irrigation, harbors2, docks, aqueducts3, tunnels, and other engineered constructions. The civil engineer must have a thorough knowledge4 of all types of surveying5, of the properties and mechanics of construction materials, the mechanics of structures and soils, and of hydraulics and fluid6 mechanics. Among the important subdivisions of the field are construction engineering, irrigation engineering, transportation engineering, soils and foundation engineering, geodetic engineering, hydraulic engineering, and coastal7 and ocean engineering.

Vocabulary:1) to provide - пайдалануына беру;2) harbor - порт, айлақ;3) aqueduct - су кұбыр, канал;4) thorough knowledge - жеткілікті білімнің;5) survey - тексеру , бақылау;6) fluid - сұйық немесе газ тәрізді орта;7) coastal – жағалаудағы;

1.3.3 Electrical and Electronics Engineering1. Get acquainted with the following text. 2. What additional information can you give to describe this field of

engineering?3.What subject in the field of electrical and electronics engineering

does your speciality deal with?Electrical and electronics engineering is the largest and most

diverse1 field of engineering. It is concerned with the development and design, application, and manufacture of systems and devices that use electric power and signals. Among the most important subjects in the field in the late 1980s are electric power and machinery, electronic circuits, control systems, computer design, superconductors, solid-state electronics, medical imaging systems, robotics, lasers, radar, consumer2 electronics, and fiber optics3. Despite4 its diversity, electrical engineering can be divided into four main branches: electric power and machinery, electronics, communications and control, and computers.

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Vocabulary:1) diverse - әр түрлі , өте жақсы;2) consumer – тұтынушы;3) fiber optics - оптикалық шыны талшығы;4) despite - байқай емес, байқамай;

1.3.4 Electric Power and Machinery1. What are the distinctive features1 of this field of engineering?2. Try to draw a difference between AC and DC motors.The field of electric power is concerned with the design and

operation of systems for generating, transmitting, and distributing electric power. Engineers in this field have brought about several important developments since the late 1970s. One of these is the ability to transmit power at extremely high voltages2 in both the direct current3 (DC) and alternating current4 (AC) modes, reducing5 power losses6

proportionately. Another is the real-time control of power generation, transmission, and distribution, using computers to analyze the data fed back from the power system to a central station and thereby optimizing the efficiency of the system while it is in operation.

A significant7 advance8 in the engineering of electric machinery has been the introduction of electronic controls that enable AC motors to run at variable speeds by adjusting9 the frequency of the current fed into them. DC motors have also been made to run more efficiently this way.

Vocabulary:1) distinctive features - айырмалық сызықтар;2) voltage - электр кернеу;3) direct current - тұрақты ток;4) alternating current - өзгергіш ток;5) to reduce – кеміту;6) loss – жоғалту;7) significant - көрнекті;8) advance - жылжу, озу;9) adjusting - күйге келтіру;

1.3.5 Electronics1. What does electronics engineering deal with?2. What are the modern trends in electronics research?Electronic engineering deals with the research, design, integration,

and application of circuits1 and devices used in the transmission and processing of information. Information is now generated, transmitted, received, and stored electronically on a scale2 unprecedented in history, and

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there is every indication that the explosive3 rate of growth in this field will continue unabated4.

Electronic engineers design circuits to perform specific tasks, such as amplifying electronic signals, adding binary numbers, and demodulating radio signals to recover the information they carry. Circuits are also used to generate waveforms useful for synchronization and timing, as in television, and for correcting errors in digital information, as in telecommunications.

Prior to5 the 1960s, circuits consisted of separate electronic devices—resistors, capacitors6, inductors, and vacuum tubes— assembled7 on a chassis8 and connected by wires to form a bulky package9. Since then, there has been a revolutionary trend toward integrating electronic devices on a single tiny chip of silicon or some other semiconductive material. The complex task of manufacturing these chips uses the most advanced technology; including computers, electron-beam lithography, micro-manipulators, ion-beam implantation, and ultra clean environments. Much of the research in electronics is directed toward creating even smaller chips, faster switching of components, and three-dimensional integrated circuits.

Vocabulary:1) circuit - схема , нұсқа;2) scale - шкала, масштаб;3) explosive - жарылғыш зат , жаратын;4) unabated - әлі кемеген;5) prior to - алдыңғы , алдын ала;6) capacitor – конденсатор;7) to assemble - жинау, құрастыру;8) chassis - шасси, өтетін жүру бөлім;9) bulky package - бірыңғай модуль;

1.3.6 Communications and Control1. What do you know about control systems?2. In what spheres are control systems used?3. Can you characterize digital systems advantages in the sphere of

modern technologies application?Engineers in this field are concerned with all aspects of electrical

communications, from fundamental questions such as "What is information?" to the highly practical, such as design of telephone systems. In designing communication systems, engineers rely heavily on various branches of advanced mathematics, such as Fourier analysis, linear systems theory, linear algebra, complex variables, differential equations1, and probability2 theory. Control systems are used extensively in aircraft and

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ships, in military fire-control systems, in power transmission and distribution3, in automated manufacturing, and in robotics.

Engineers have been working to bring about two revolutionary changes in the field of communications and control. Digital systems are replacing analog ones at the same time that fiber optics is superseding4

copper cables5. Digital systems offer far greater immunity6 to electrical noise. Fiber optics is likewise7 immune to interference8; they also have tremendous carrying capacity, and are extremely light and inexpensive to manufacture.

Vocabulary:1) equation – теңдік;2) probability – ықтималдық; 3) distribution – тарату;4) superseding - ығыстыру , ауыстыру;5) copper cable - мыс сым;6) immunity - иммунитет, жеңілдік;7) likewise - ұқсас;8) interference - кірісу, қол сұғу, ықпалын жасау, бөгеттің;

1.3.7 Computers1. What are the advantages in this sphere of engineering

development?2. What does the abbreviation VLSI mean?3. Can you describe current trends in computer engineering?Virtually unknown just a few decades ago, computer engineering is

now among the most rapidly growing fields. The electronics of computers involve engineers in design and manufacture of memory systems, of central processing units, and of peripheral devices. Foremost1 among the avenues now being pursued2 is the design of Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) and new computer architectures. The field of computer science is closely related to computer engineering; however, the task of making computers more "intelligent", through creation of sophisticated programs or development of higher level machine languages or other means, is generally regarded3 as being in the realm4 of computer science.

One current trend in computer engineering is microminiaturization. Using VLSI, engineers continue to work to squeeze greater and greater numbers of circuit elements onto smaller and smaller chips. Another trend is toward increasing the speed of computer operations through use of parallel processors, superconducting materials, and the like.

Vocabulary:1) foremost - ең алдымен;

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2) pursue – еру;3) to regard - анықтап қарау;4) realm - облысы

1.3.8 Geological and Mining Engineering1. What activities does this branch of engineering include?2. What special and professional knowledge does a mining engineer

have to require?This branch of engineering includes activities related to the

discovery and exploration of mineral deposits and the financing, construction, development, operation, recovery1, processing, purification2, and marketing of crude3 minerals and mineral products. The mining engineer is trained in historical geology, mineralogy, paleontology, and geophysics, and employs such tools as the seismograph and the magnetometer for the location of ore or petroleum deposits beneath4 the surface of the earth. The surveying and drawing of geological maps and sections is an important part of the work of the engineering geologist, who is also responsible for determining whether the geological structure of a given location is suitable for the building of such large structures as dams.

Vocabulary:1) recovery - бұрынғы қалпына келу;

2) purification – тазарту;3) crude – айдалмаған;4) beneath - төменде;

1.3.9 Industrial or Management Engineering1. What does a modern engineer of this field deal with?This field deals with the efficient use of machinery, labor, and raw

materials in industrial production. It is particularly important from the viewpoint of costs and economics of production and safety of human operators.

1.3.10 Mechanical Engineering1. Read the following texts dealing with the problems of Military

Engineering, Naval or Marine Engineering and Nuclear Engineering.2. Do these fields of engineering have any trends in commonEngineers in this field design, test, build, and operate machinery of

all types; they also work on a variety of manufactured goods and certain kinds of structures. The field is divided into machinery, mechanisms, materials, hydraulics, and pneumatics; and heat as applied to engines, work and energy, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. The mechanical

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engineer, therefore, must be trained in mechanics, hydraulics, and thermodynamics and must be fully grounded in such subjects as metallurgy and machine design. Some mechanical engineers specialize in particular types of machines such as pumps or steam turbines. A mechanical engineer designs not only the machines that make products but the products themselves, and must design for both economy and efficiency. A typical example of the complexity of modern mechanical engineering is the design of an automobile, which entails1 not only the design of the engine that drives the car but also all its attendant2 accessories such as the steering3

and braking systems, the lighting system, the gearing4 by which the engine's power is delivered to the wheels, the controls, and the body, including such details as the door latches5 and the type of seat upholstery6.

Vocabulary:1) to entail - қосу өзінді, анықтау;2) attendant - қосымша;3) steering - басқару;4) gearing - жағу;5) latch - қорған;6) seat upholstery - отыру орынды қаптауы;

1.3.11 Military Engineering1. Try to prove that military engineering is an increasingly

specialized science.2. What other branches of engineering is military engineering

connected with?This branch is concerned with the application of the engineering

sciences to military purposes. It is generally divided into permanent land defense and field engineering. In war, army engineer battalions have been used to construct ports, harbors, depots1, and airfields. Military engineers also construct some public works, national monuments, and dams.

Military engineering has become an increasingly specialized science, resulting in separate engineering subdisciplines such as ordnance2, which applies mechanical engineering to the development of guns and chemical engineering to the development of propellants, and electrical engineering to all problems of telegraph, telephone, radio, and other communication.

Vocabulary:1) depot - қойма;2) ordnance - артиллерия

1.3.12 Naval or Marine Engineering1. What engineers are called naval architects?

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2. What specialized branch of knowledge must the marine engineer take into consideration?

Engineers who have the overall responsibility for designing and supervising1 construction of ships are called naval architects. The ships they design range in size from ocean-going supertankers as much as 1300 feet long to small tugboats2 that operate in rivers and bays. Regardless of size, ships must be designed and 'built so that they are safe, stable, strong, and fast enough to perform the type of work intended3 for them. To accomplish this, a naval architect must be familiar with the variety of techniques of modern shipbuilding, and must have a thorough grounding4

in applied sciences and mechanics that bear directly on how ships move through water.

Marine engineering is a specialized branch of mechanical engineering devoted to the design and operation of systems, both mechanical and electrical, needed to propel a ship. In helping the naval architect design ships, the marine engineer must choose a propulsion unit, such as a diesel engine or geared steam turbine, that provides enough power to move the ship at the speed required, the engineer must take into consideration5 how much the engine and fuel bunkers will weigh and how much space they will occupy, as well as the projected costs of fuel and maintenance.

Vocabulary:1) to supervise - басшылық ету, меңгеру, байқау;2) tugboat - моторлы қайық;3) indented - арналған;4) to ground – құрылу;5) to take into consideration - ескеру;

1.3.13 Nuclear Engineering1. What other branches of engineering is nuclear engineering

connected with?2. What devices and methods do nuclear engineers develop?This branch of engineering is concerned with the design and

construction of nuclear reactors and devices, and the in which nuclear fission1 may find practical applications, such as the production of commercial power from the energy generated by nuclear reactions and the use of nuclear reactors for propulsion and of nuclear radiation to induce2

chemical and biological changes. In addition to designing nuclear reactors to yield3 specified amounts of power, nuclear engineers develop the special materials necessary to withstand4 the high temperatures and concentrated bombardment of nuclear particles that accompany nuclear fission and

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fusion5. Nuclear engineers also develop methods to shield people from the harmful radiation produced by nuclear reactions and to ensure6 safe storage and disposal7 of fissionable materials.

Vocabulary:1. fission - жарылу, бөліну; 2. to induce - туғызу;3. to yield - істеп шығару;4. to withstand - шыдау;5. fusion - (ағып келіп) қосылу;6. to ensure - кепіл болу;7. disposal - бақылау, бұйрық беру, құқық;

1.3.14 Safety Engineering1. Do you know what safety engineering deals with?2. Is the branch of safety engineering connected with other fields of

engineering?This field of engineering has as its object the prevention of accidents.

In recent years safety engineering has become a specialty adopted by individuals trained in other branches of engineering. Safety engineers develop methods and procedures to safeguard workers in hazardous1

occupations. They also assist in designing machinery, factories, ships, and roads, suggesting alterations and improvements to reduce the amount of accidents. In the design of machinery, for example, the safety engineer seeks to cover all moving parts or keep them from accidental contact with the operator, to put cutoff switches within reach of the operator, and to eliminate2 dangerous projecting parts. In designing roads the safety engineer seeks to avoid such hazards as sharp turns and blind intersections, known to result in traffic accidents. Many large industrial and construction firms, and insurance3 companies engaged in4 the field of workers compensation, today maintain safety engineering departments.

Vocabulary:1) hazardous - қауіпті;2) eliminate - жою;

3) insurance - сақтандыру;4) to be engaged in - қатысу, қатынасу;1.3.15 Sanitary Engineering1. Prove that the field of sanitary engineering deals with the

environment protection.2. If you are given the right to develop the program of sewage and

other wastes recycling what ideas will your project contain?

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This is a branch of civil engineering, but because of its great importance for a healthy environment, especially in dense urban population areas1, it has acquired the importance of a specialized field. It chiefly deals with problems involving water supply, treatment, and distribution; disposal of community wastes and reclamation2 of useful components of such wastes; control of pollution of surface waterways, groundwater's, and soils; milk and food sanitation3; housing and institutional sanitation; rural4 sanitation; insect and vermin5 control; control of atmospheric pollution; industrial hygiene, including control of light, noise, vibration, and toxic materials in work areas; and other fields concerned with the control of environmental factors affecting health. The methods used for supplying communities with pure water and for the disposal of sewage and other wastes are described separately.

Vocabulary:1) dense urban population areas - қалың елді қалалық аудандар;2) reclamation - бұрынғы қалпына келу;3) sanitation - санитария;4) rural - ауылдық;5) vermin - зиянды жәндік , жатыпішерлер;

1.4 Are the following statements true or false?1. Engineering is a term applied to the profession in which

knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied to the efficient use of the materials and forces of nature.

2. Paraprofessionals apply medical skills to biological problems.3. Military engineering involve such work as providing facilities for

living, irrigation and roads building.4. The National Academy of Engineering was founded in 1959.5. Civil engineering is connected with the environment protection.6. Electronic engineering deals with the design of civil facilities and

research of soils structure.1.5 Complete the following sentences with the appropriate

words: civil engineering, aeronautics, diverse, circuits, chips, copper cable.

1. … is perhaps the broadest of the engineering fields, for it deals with the creation, improvement, and protection of the communal environment.

2. … deals with the whole field of design, manufacture, maintenance, testing, and use of aircraft for both civilian and military purposes.

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3. Electrical and electronics engineering is the largest and most … field of engineering.

4. Much of the research in electronics is directed toward creating even smaller …, faster switching of components, and three-dimensional integrated circuits.

5. Digital systems are replacing analog ones at the same time that fiber optics is superseding … .

Text 1.13.16 AutomationPre-reading task:1. What were the first robots originally designed for?2. What industries use automation technologies?3. What do the abbreviations CAM and CAD stand for?4. Read the text “Automation” and discuss the following questions in

group:a) How is the term automation defined in the text?b) What is the most «familiar example» of automation given in the

text?c) What was the first step in the development of automaton?d) What was the first industry to adopt the new integrated system of

production?e) What is feedback principle?f) What is FMS?Automation1 is the system of manufacture performing certain tasks,

previously2 done by people, by machines only. The sequences3 of operations are controlled automatically. The most familiar example of a highly automated system is an assembly plant4 for automobiles or other complex products.

The term automation is also used to describe non-manufacturing5

systems in which automatic devices6 can operate independently of human control. Such devices as automatic pilots, automatic telephone equipment and automated control systems are used to perform various operations much faster and better than could be done by people.

Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development. Mechanization was the first step necessary in the development of automation. The simplification of work made it possible to design and build machines that resembled7 the motions of the worker. These specialized machines were motorized and they had better production efficiency8.

Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in environments dangerous to human workers, are now widely used to

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transfer, manipulate, and position both light and heavy work pieces performing all the functions of a transfer machine.

In the 1920s the automobile industry for the first time used an integrated system of production. This method of production was adopted by most car manufacturers and became known as Detroit automation.

The feedback principle is used in all automatic-control mechanisms when machines have ability to correct themselves. The feedback principle has been used for centuries. An outstanding early example is the flyball governor9, invented in 1788 by James Watt to control the speed of the steam engine10. The common household thermostat11 is another example of a feedback device.

Using feedback devices, machines can start, stop, speed up, slow down, count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These operations are commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations.

Computers have greatly facilitated12 the use of feedback in manufacturing processes. Computers gave rise to the development of numerically controlled machines. The motions of these machines are controlled by punched13 paper or magnetic tapes. In numerically controlled machining centres machine tools can perform several different machining operations.

More recently, the introduction of microprocessors and computers have made possible the development of computer-aided14 design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD and CAM) technologies. When using these systems a designer draws a part and indicates its dimensions15 with the help of a mouse, light pen, or other input device. After the drawing has been completed the computer automatically gives the instructions that direct a machining centre to machine the part.

Another development using automation are the flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). A computer in FMS can be used to monitor and control the operation of the whole factory.

Automation has also had an influence on the areas of the economy other than manufacturing. Small computers are used in systems called word processors, which are rapidly becoming a standard part of the modern office. They are used to edit texts, to type letters and so on.

Automation in IndustryMany industries are highly automated or use automation technology

in some part of their operation. In communications and especially in the telephone industry dialing and transmission are all done automatically. Railways are also controlled by automatic signaling devices, which have sensors that detect carriages passing a particular point. In this way the movement and location of trains can be monitored.

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Not all industries require the same degree of automation. Sales, agriculture, and some service industries are difficult to automate, though agriculture industry may become more mechanized, especially in the processing and packaging of foods.

The automation technology in manufacturing and assembly is widely used in car and other consumer product industries.

Nevertheless, each industry has its own concept of automation that answers its particular production needs.

Vocabulary:1) automation - автоматтандыру;2) previously - ертерек;3) sequence - жүйелілік;

4) assembly plant - құрастырылатын зауыт;5) nonmanufacturing - өндіріссіз;6) device - құрылғы, құрал;7) resemble - сенделу, еске түсіру;8) efficiency - нәтижелілік;9) flyball governor - центрден тепкіш реттеуіш;10) steam engine – паровоз;11) household thermostat - тұрмыс термостат;12) facilitate - жағдай жасау;13) punched - тесілген;14) aid - көмек;15) dimension - өлшеу , мөлшерлер;1. Give English equivalents for the following Kazakh word

combinations:1. автоматты құрылғының2. автоматтандырылған өндіріс

3. қарапайым мақсаттар орындау 4. жеңілдер сияқты , дәл осылай және ауыр бөлшектің

5. өндіріс интеграцияланған жүйесі 6. кері байланыс принцибы 7. механизм үдей алады және тежеу

8. компьютер командалар автоматты жібереді9. жоғары автоматтандырылған жүйе10. өндірілмеген жүйе

Text 1.13.17 Types of Automation Pre-reading task:1. What is the most important application of automation?2. What are the types of automation used in manufacturing?

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3. Read the text “Types of Automation” and discuss the following questions in group:

4. What is fixed automation?5. What are the limitations of hard automation?6. What is the best example of programmable automation?7. What are the limitations of programmable automation?8. What are the advantages of flexible automation?Manufacturing is one of the most important application areas for

automation technology. There are several types of automation in manufacturing. The examples of automated systems used in manufacturing are described below.

1. Fixed automation, sometimes called «hard automation» refers to automated machines in which the equipment1 configuration allows fixed sequence2 of processing operations. These machines are programmed by their design to make only certain processing operations. They are not easily changed over from one product style to another. This form of automation needs high initial3 investments4 and high production rates5. That is why it is suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found in the automobile industry, automatic assembly machines6 and certain chemical processes.

2. Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in large quantities7, ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For each new product the production equipment must be re-programmed and changed over. This reprogramming and changeover take a period of non-productive8 time. Production rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the equipment is designed to facilitate9 product changeover10

rather than for product specialization. A numerical-control machine-tool is a good example of programmable automation. The program is coded in computer memory for each different product style and the machine-tool is controlled by the computer program.

3. Flexible automation is a kind of programmable automation. Programmable automation requires time to re-program and change over the production equipment for each series of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In flexible automation the number of products is limited so that the changeover of the equipment can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done at a computer terminal without using the production equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of different products to be produced one right after another.

Vocabulary:

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1) equipment - жабдықтау;2) sequence - жүйелілік;3) initial - алғашқы, бастапқы;4) investment - инвестиция, үлес;5) rate - жылдамдық, екпін;6) assembly machines - құрастырылатын машинаның;7) quantity - сан;8) non-productive - өндіргішсіз;9) to facilitate - жағдай жасау;10) changeover - асу, қайтадан жөндеу;1. Give English equivalents for the following Kazakh phrases:

1. қолдану сферасы;2. операциялардың бекітілген жүйелілігі;3. автоматы құрастырылатын машинаның;

4. айқын химиялық процестер;5. станок сандық бағдарламалық басқарумен;6. жоғалған өндіріс уақыт;7. әр түрлі өнім;2. Give English definition for the following:1. automation technology2. fixed automation3. assembly machines4. non-productive time5. programmable automation6. computer terminal7. numerical-control machine-tool

Text 1.13.18 Robots in ManufacturingPre-reading task:1. What is the most common application of robots in automobile

manufacturing?2. What operations could be done by robots in car manufacturing

industry?3. Read the text “Robots in Manufacturing” and discuss the

following questions in group:4. How are robots used in manufacturing?5. What is «material handling»?6. What does a robot need to be equipped with to do loading and

unloading operations?7. What does robot manipulate in robotic processing operation?8. What are the main reasons to use robots in production?

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9. How can robots inspect the quality of production?10. What operations could be done by robots in hazardous or

uncomfortable for the human workers conditions?Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations. The

applications of robots can be divided into three categories:- material handling1

- processing operations- assembly and inspection.Material-handling is the transfer2 of material and loading and

unloading of machines. Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work parts from one to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple: robots pick up3 parts from one conveyor and place them on another. Other transfer operations are more complex, such as placing parts in an arrangement4 that can be calculated by the robot. Machine loading and unloading operations utilize5 a robot to load and unload parts. This requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper6 that can grasp7

parts. Usually the gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on the work part. Examples of such applications include spot welding8, continuous9 arc welding10 and spray painting11. Spot welding of automobile bodies is one of the most common applications of industrial robots. The robot positions a spot welder against the automobile panels and frames12 to join them. Arc welding is a continuous process in which robot moves the welding rod along the welding seam. Spray painting is the manipulation of a spray-painting gun13 over the surface of the object to be coated. Other operations in this category include grinding14 and polishing15 in which a rotating spindle16 serves as the robot's tool.

The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and inspection. The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual17 labor18. But the design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly methods that are satisfactory for humans are not always suitable for robots. Screws and nuts are widely used for fastening in manual assembly, but the same operations are extremely difficult for a one-armed robot.

Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing. In a typical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and determines whether the part answers the quality specifications. In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labor. There are

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certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans that can be done by robots:

- the operation is repetitive, involving the same basic work motions every cycle,

- the operation is hazardous19 or uncomfortable for the human worker (for example: spray painting, spot welding, arc welding, and certain machine loading and unloading tasks),

- the work piece or tool are too heavy and difficult to handle,- the operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts20.Vocabulary:1) handling - үндеу, айналдыру;2) transfer - тапсыру , тасымалдау;3) pick up - алу, теріп алу;4) arrangement – орналастыру;5) to utilize - пайдалану , тауып алу қолдану;6) gripper - басып алу;7) to grasp - ұстап алу;8) spot welding - нүктелі дәнекерлеу;9) continuous – толассыз;10) arc welding - дәнекерлеу;11) spray painting - бояу тозаңдатумен; 12) frame – рама;13) spray-painting gun - бояу тозаңдатқышы;14) grinding - ажарлау;15) polishing - өңдеу;16) spindle - шпиндель;17) manual - қолдық;18) labor - еңбек;19) hazardous - қауіпті;20) shift - алмастыру;

Text 1.13.19 ComputersPre-Reading Task:1. What do you know about computer science and technology on the

contemporary level?2. Who has a computer in your group? Ask them what do they use it

for?3. What are the most important applications of computer? (Are

computer games just a «waste of time» or it is a nice hobby and a lot of fun?)

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4. Read the text “Computers”, do the task below and organize a round - table discussion on the problem.

50 years ago, people hadn’t even heard of computers, and today we cannot imagine life without them.

Computer technology is the fastest-growing industry in the world. The first computer was the size of a minibus and weighed a ton. Today, its job can be done by a chip the size of a pin head. And the revolution is still going on.

Very soon we’ll have computers that we’ll wear on wrists or even in our glasses and earnings. Such wearable computers are being developed now.

Japan’s biggest mobiles-phone company has just released its cleverest product - a mobile phone that allows you to stuff the Internet as well as make calls. People are already using the phone to check the news headlines, follow the stock market and download the latest jokes. Soon they will be able to buy cinema tickets and manage their bank accounts.

The next generation of computers will be able to talk and even think for themselves. They will contain electronic ‘neural networks’. Of course, they’ll be still a lot simpler that human brains, but it will be a great step forward. Such computers will help it diagnose illnesses, find materials, understand and control the world’s money markets, identify criminals and control space travel.

Computer revolution is changing our life and our language, too. We are constantly making up new words or giving new meanings to old ones. Most of computer terms are born in Silicon Valley, the world’s top computer-science center.

1. Chose an answer – a or b.1. A mouse isa) a small furry animal with a long tailb) a small box used to operate a computer2. To surf isa) to ride on a board of the waves of the seab) to move around the Internet3. A bug isa) a small insectb) an error in a computer program.4. A flame isa) a red or yellow burning gas seen when something is on fireb) an unfriendly or rude e-mail5. To boot isa) to kick

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b) to start a computer6. A geek isa) someone who bites the heads off alive chickens as part of a showb) a person who knows everything about computers

Text 1.13.20 What is a Computer?Pre-reading task:1. Is computer intelligent?2. Why so many people are still «computer illiterate»?3. Read the text “What is a Computer?” and discuss the following

questions in group:4. What does the term «computer» describe?5. What are five components of computer system?6. What is connectivity?7. What is software? What’s the difference between hardware and

software?8. Why people are the most important component of a computer

system?9. In what way terms «data» and «information» differ?10. How does computer convert data into information?The term “computer” is used to describe a device1 made up of a

combination of electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical) components. Computer has no intelligence2 by itself and is referred to as3 hardware4. A computer system is a combination of five elements:

- Hardware- Software- People- Procedures5

- Data/informationWhen one computer system is set up to communicate with another

computer system, connectivity becomes the sixth system element. In other words, the manner6 in which the various7 individual systems are connected8 — for example, by phone lines, microwave9 transmission10, or satellite — is an element of the total computer system.

Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without software instructions11, the hardware doesn’t know what to do. People, however, are the most important component of the computer system: they create12 the computer software instructions and respond13 to the procedures that those instructions present.

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The basic job of the computer is the processing of information. Computers accept information in the form of instruction called a program and characters14 called data15 to perform mathematical and logical operations, and then give the results. The data is raw16 material while information is organized, processed, refined17 and useful for decision18

making. Computer is used to convert19 data into information. Computer is also used to store information in the digital form.

Vocabulary:1) device - құрылғы;2) intelligence - ақыл;

3) to refer to as - бірдеңе атау; 4) hardware - жабдықтау;

5) procedures - процедура, операция;6) manner - үлгі, тәсіл;7) various - әртүрлілер;8) to connect - қосу;9) microwave - микротолқынды;10) transmission - тапсыру;11) instruction - бұйрық;12) to create - жасау;13) to respond - жауап беру;14) characters - символдар;15) data - дерек, мәлімет, көрсеткіштер; 16) raw - айдалмаған, дымқыл;17) to refine - тазалау;18) decision - шешім;19) to convert - айналдыру, қайта құру;1. Are the following statements true or false?1. Computer is made of electronic components so it is referred to as

electronic device.2. Computer has no intelligence until software is loaded.3. There are five elements of computer system: hardware, software,

people, diskettes and data.4. The manner in which computers are connected is the connectivity.5. Without software instructions hardware doesn’t know what to do.6. The software is the most important component because it is made

by people.7. The user inputs data into computer to get information as an output.8. Computer is used to help people in decision making process.

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2. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate words: program, information, processing of information, software, connectivity, computer, people.

1. … doesn’t come to life until it is connected to other parts of a system.

2. … is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.

3. … create the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those instructions present

4. Information in the form of instruction is called a…5. The manner in which the various individual systems are connected

is…6. … is organized, processed and useful for decision making7. The basic job of the computer is the… .

Text 1.13.21 HardwarePre-Reading Task:1. Without what parts computer is unable to work?2. What is the most expensive part of the hardware?3. What other hardware devices do you know? What are they for? Do

you know how to use them?4. Read the text “Hardware” and discuss the following questions in

group:5. What is the Webster's dictionary definition of hardware?6. What groups of hardware could be defined?7. What is input hardware? What are the examples of input

hardware?8. What is a mouse designed for? What is a light pen?9. What is processing hardware? What are the basic types of memory

used in a PC?10. Can a PC-user change the ROM? Who records the information in

ROM?11. What is storage hardware? What is CD-ROM used for? Can a

user record his or her data on a CD? What kind of storage hardware can contain more information: CD-ROM, RAM or ROM?

12. What is modem used for? Can PC-user communicate with other people without a modem?

13. What is hardware? Webster's dictionary gives us the following definition of the hardware— the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical devices composing a computer system.

Computer hardware can be divided into four categories:

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- input hardware- processing hardware1

- storage hardware- output hardware- Input hardwareThe purpose of the input hardware2 is to collect data and convert3 it

into a form suitable for computer processing. The most common input device is a keyboard4. It looks very much like a typewriter. The mouse5 is a hand held device connected6 to the computer by small cable. As the mouse is rolled7 across the mouse pad, the cursor moves across the screen. When the cursor reaches8 the desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the mouse once or twice to signal a menu selection or a command to the computer.

The light pen uses a light sensitive9 photoelectric cell to signal screen position to the computer. Another type of input hardware is optic-electronic scanner10 that is used to input graphics as well as typeset characters. Microphone and video camera can be also used to input data into the computer. Electronic cameras are becoming very popular among the consumers for their relatively low price and convenience.

Processing hardwareThe purpose of processing hardware is retrieve11, interpret and

direct12 the execution13 of software instructions provided to the computer. The most common components of processing hardware are the Central Processing Unit and main memory.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU31) is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets14 software instructions and coordinates the processing activities that must take place. The design of the CPU affects15 the processing power and the speed of the computer, as well as the amount16 of main memory it can use effectively. With a well-designed CPU in your computer, you can perform highly sophisticated17 tasks in a very short time.

Memory is the system of component of the computer in which information is stored. There are two types of computer memory: RAM and ROM.

RAM18 (random access memory) is the volatile19 computer memory, used for creating loading, and running programs and for manipulating and temporarily20 storing data;

ROM21` (read only memory) is nonvolatile, nonmodifiable computer memory, used to hold programmed instructions to the system.

The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you саn perform.

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Storage hardwareThe purpose of storage hardware22 is to store computer instructions

and data in a form that is relatively permanent and retrieve when needed for processing. Storage hardware serves the same basic functions as do office filing systems except that it stores data as electromagnetic signals. The most common ways of storing data are Hard disk23, floppy disk and CD-ROM24.

Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing programs and relatively large amounts of data.

Floppy disk (diskette) — thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material, for storing computer data and programs. There are two formats for floppy disks: 5.25" and 3.5". 5.25" is not used in modern computer systems because of it relatively large size, flexibility and small capacity25. 3.5" disks are formatted 1.4 megabytes and are widely used.

CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) is a compact disc on which a large amount of digitized read-only data can be stored. CD-ROMs are very popular now because of the growing speed which CD-ROM drives can provide26 nowadays.

Output hardwareThe purpose of output hardware27 is to provide the user with the

means to view information produced by the computer system. Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Hardcopy output can be held in your hand, such as paper with text (word or numbers) or graphics printed on it. Softcopy output is displayed on a monitor.

Monitor is a component with a display screen for viewing computer data, television programs, etc.

Printer28 is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data or graphics.

Modem29 is an example of communication hardware — an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via telephone or other communication lines.

Hardware comes in many configurations, depending on what the computer system is designed to do. Hardware can fill several floors of a large office building or can fit on your lap30.

Vocabulary:1) processing hardware - мәлімет өңду құрылғысы;2) input hardware - мәлімет еңгізу құрылғысы;3) to convert - қайта құру;4) keyboard – пернетақта;5) mouse - объектілердің ауыспалылығына арналған құрылғы

экранда, «тышқан»;

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6) to connect - қосу, біріктіру;7) to roll - домалату , домалату;8) to reach - жету;9) sensitive - сезгіш;10) scanner - сканер;11) to retrieve - шығару, алып шығару;12) to direct - басқару;13) to execute - орындау;14) to interpret - аудару;15) to affect - әсер ету;16) amount - сан;17) sophisticated - күрделі;

18) RAM - Read Access Memory - есте сақтайтын шапшаң құрылғы;

19) volatile - ұшатын, беріксіз, уақытша, энергияға (электр жүйеге) байланыс;

20) temporarily - уақытша; 21) ROM - есте сақтайтын тұрақты құрылғы;

22) storage hardware - мәлімет сақтау құрылғысы;23) hard disk - қатты тегеріш, «винчестер»24) CD-ROM - жинақтағыш компакті - тегеріштерде (CD);25) capacity - сыйымдылық;26) to provide - қамсыздандыру;27) output hardware - мәліметтің шыгу құрылымдары;28) printer - принтер;29) modem - модем;30) lap - тізелер, буындар;30) CPU, microprocessor – микропроцессор;1. Are the following statements true or false? Prove your

answers.1. Computer is an electronic device therefore hardware is a system of

electronic devices.2. The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert it

into a form suitable for computer processing.3. Scanner is used to input graphics only.4. The purpose of processing hardware is to retrieve, interpret and

direct the execution of software instructions provided to the computer.5. CPU reads and interprets software and prints the results on paper.6. User is unable to change the contents of ROM.7. 5.25" floppy disks are used more often because they are flexible

and have more capacity than 3.5" disks.

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8. Printer is a processing hardware because its purpose is to show the information produced by the system.

9. Modem is an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data from one computer to another via telephone or other communication lines.

10. The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data in a form that is relatively permanent and retrieve them when needed for processing.

2. Match the following words with the given definition: processor, keyboard, mouse, floppy-disk, hard-disk, modem, monitor, ROM, RAM.

1. nonvolatile, nonmodifiable computer memory, used to hold programmed instructions to the system;

2. the part of a television or computer on which a picture is formed or information is displayed;

3. rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing computer programs and relatively large amounts of data;

4. an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via telephone or other communication lines;

5. a set of keys, usually arranged in tiers, for operating a typewriter, typesetting machine, computer terminal, or the like;

6. volatile computer memory, used for creating, loading, and running programs and for manipulating and temporarily storing data; main memory;

7. central processing unit: the key component of a computer system, containing the circuitry necessary to interpret and execute program instructions;

8. a palm-sized device equipped with one or more buttons, used to point at and select items on a computer display screen and for controlling the cursor by means of analogous movement on a nearby surface;

. a thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated withmagnetic material, for storing computer data and program.

Text 11.13.22 Types of Software Pre-Reading Task:1. What do you think is more expensive — hardware or software?2. Has anyone in your group ever purchased software? Why do you

think piracy (audio, video, computer software) still exists?3. Read the text “Types of Software” and discuss the following

questions in group:4. What is software?5. In what two basic groups could software (programs) be divided?

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6. What is system software for?7. What is an operating system — a system software or application

software?8. What is a «driver»?9. What is application software?10. What is application software used for?11. What is the tendency in application software market in recent

years?12. What is the application of communication software?A computer to complete1 a job requires2 more than just the actual

equipment3 or hardware we see and touch. It requires Software — programs for directing4 the operation of a computer or electronic data.

Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs instruct the hardware how to conduct5 processing. The computer is merely a general-purpose6 machine which requires specific7 software to perform a given task. Computers can input, calculate, compare, and output data as information. Software determines the order in which these operations are performed.

Programs usually fall in one of two categories: system software and applications software.

System software controls8 standard internal9 computer activities. An operating system, for example, is a collection of system programs that aid10 in the operation of a computer regardless11 of the application software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of the systems programs is booted12 or loaded into the computers memory. This software contains information about memory capacity13, the model of the processor, the disk drives to be used and more. Once the system software is loaded, the applications software can be brought in.

System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These programs are called drivers and coordinate peripheral14 hardware and computer activities. User needs to install15 a specific driver in order to activate a peripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a printer or a scanner you need to worry in advance about the driver program which, though, commonly goes along with your device. By installing the driver you «teach» your mainboard16 to «understand» the newly attached17 part.

Applications software satisfies your specific need. The developers18

of application software rely mostly on marketing research strategies trying to do their best to attract more users (buyers) to their software. As the productivity of the hardware has increased greatly in recent years, the programmers nowadays tend to include as much as possible in one program to make software interface look more attractive to the user. These class of

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programs is the most numerous and perspective from the marketing point of view.

Data communication within and between computers systems is handled19 by system software. Communications software transfers20 data from one computer system to another. These programs usually provide21

users with data security22 and error checking23 along with physically transferring data between the two computer's memories. During the past five years the developing24 electronic network communication has stimulated more and more companies to produce various communication software, such as Web-Browsers25 for Internet.

Vocabulary:1) to complete - іске асыру, аяқтау;2) to require - талап ету;3) equipment - жабдықтау;4) to direct - басқару, басшылық ету;5) to conduct - өткізу;6) general-purpose - жалпы тағайындаудың;7) specific - нақтылы, айқын;8) control - басқару;9) internal - ішкі;10) aid - көмек;11) regardless - байқайсыз, қатыссыздық;12) to boot - толтыра арту;

13) memory capacity - жад (ақыл) сыйымдылығы; 14) peripheral - шеттегі;

15) to install - қондыру, кірістіру; 16) mainboard - аналық төлеу;17) to attach - қосу;18) developer - өңдеуші, құрастурышы;19) to handle - басқару, үндеу;20) to transfer - аудару, алып бару;

21) to provide with - бірдеңеменмен қамсыздандыру;22) security - қауіпсіздік;23) to check - тексеру;24) to develop - дамыту, көрсету;25) Web-browser - (бағдарлама, пайдаланушыға мүмкіндік

беретін Internet аулары аукымды электрондықпен хабарды іздеу және салыстырып оқу);

1. Are the following statements true or false? Prove your answers.

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1. Computer programs only instruct hardware how to handle data storage.

2. System software controls internal computer activities.3. System software is very dependable on the type of application

software being used.4. The information about memory capacity, the model of the

processor and disk drives are unavailable for system software.5. The driver is a special device usually used by car drivers for

Floppy-disk driving.6. It is very reasonable to ask for a driver when you buy a new piece

of hardware.7. Software developers tend to make their products very small and

with poor interface to save computer resources.8. Communication software is in great demand now because of the

new advances in communication technologies.9. Application software is merely a general-purpose instrument.10. Web-browsers is the class of software for electronic

communication through the network.

Text 1.13.23 Operating SystemsPre-reading task:1. Why do you think Bill Gates, President of Microsoft Company is

one of the richest people on the Earth?2. Judging from your experience tell if UNIX is used nowadays?

What about OS/2?3. Ask the students in your group who have experience working with

Windows (2000 or XP) about the advantages and disadvantages of these operational systems.

4. Read the text “Operating Systems” and discuss the following questions in group:

5. What problems faced programmers in the 1940's and 1950's?6. Why were the first programs «complex» and «time-consuming»?7. What are the basic functions of operating system?8. What does the abbreviation DOS mean?9. What company developed the first version of DOS operating

system? For what purpose was it done? Was the new operational system successful?

10. What is the difference between the PC-DOS and MS-DOS?11. What does the abbreviation NT stand for? Is NT DOS-

compatible? What are the basic requirements for NT?12. Who is the developer of OS/2?

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13. What makes UNIX so different from the other operational systems?

14. What are the special features of Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows XP?

When computers were first introduced in the 1940's and 50's, every program written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as how to perform several other tasks not necessarily related to the program. The additional program instructions for working with hardware devices were very complex1, and time-consuming2. Programmers soon realized3 it would be smarter4 to develop one program that could control the computer's hardware, which others programs could have used when they needed it. With that, the first operating system was born.

Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or mouse. They also provide disk management by letting you store information in files. The operating system also lets you run programs such as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands that help you to use the computer.

DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system. DOS was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS is an abbreviation for «Microsoft DOS». When IBM first released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from Microsoft for use on the PC and called it PC-DOS. From the user’s perspective, PC-DOS and MS-DOS are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands.

The version of DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over the past decade5, DOS has undergone several changes. Each time the DOS developers release a new version6, they increase the version number.

Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced7 version of the popular Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programs. NT requires a 386 processor or greater and 8 Mb of RAM. For the best NT performance, you have to use a 486 processor with about 16 Mb or higher. Unlike the Windows, which runs on top of DOS8, Windows NT is an operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible9. The advantage of using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC's memory management capabilities.

OS/2 is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, OS/2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse10. Also like NT, OS/2 performs best

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when you are using a powerful system. Many IBM-based PCs are shipped11 with OS/2 preinstalled.

UNIX is a multi-user operating system that allows12 multiple users13

to access14 the system. Traditionally, UNIX was run on larger mini computers to which users accessed the systems using terminals and not PC's. UNIX allowed each user to simultaneously15 run the programs they desired16. Unlike NT and OS/2, UNIX is not DOS compatible. Most users would not purchase UNIX for their own use.

Windows 2000 & XP are the most popular user-oriented operating systems with a friendly interface and multitasking capabilities.

Vocabulary:1) complex - күрделі;2) to consume - тұтыну;3) to realize - түсіну, ұғыну;4) smart - ақылды;5) decade - онкүндік, онжылдық;6) version - болжама;7) to enhance - үлкейту, кеңейту;

8) on top of DOS - «үстіңгі жағынан», ДОЖ (дисктік операциялық жүйе) негізінде;

9) compatible - бірге қосылатын; 10) with a click of a mouse - біреумен ғана шертумен тышқан бүркеншектегі шегелері;

11) are shipped - жеткізіп беріледі;12) to allow - рұқсат ету;13) multiple users - көп санды пайдаланушылар;14) access - рұқсат;15) simultaneously - бір уақытта;16) to desire - тілеу;1. Match the following words with the given definition: UNIX,

DOS, NT, OS/2, Windows 95.1. Like NT, ... is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user

interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse.2. … is the most commonly used PC operating system3. … is a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to

access the system4. … is an operating system developed by Microsoft, the enhanced

version of the popular Microsoft Windows Programs.5. The usage of ... is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it

very quickly.

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2. Are the following statements true or false? Prove your answers.

1. When computers were first introduced in 40's and50's programmers had to write programs to instruct CD-ROMs, laser printers and scanners.

2. The operational system controls and manages the use of the hardware and the memory.

3. There are no commands available in operating systems, they are only in word processors.

4. Microsoft developed MS-DOS to compete with IBM's PC-DOS.5. NT requires computers with 486 CPU and 16 M random access

memory.6. OS/2 is DOS compatible because it was developed by Microsoft.7. Traditionally, UNIX was run by many users simultaneously.8. Windows 95 and Windows 98 are DOS compatible and have very

«friendly» and convenient interface.

2 What is the Internet?

Text 2.1 “What is the World Wide Web?” Pre-reading task:1. Are you a part of computer revolution? 2. You are going to read a set of texts about the World Wide Web.

Discuss in group why you really need the Internet. What factors influence your decision?

3. Read the text “What is the Internet?” and discuss the following questions:

4. Do you use Internet? 5. Why so many activities such as e-mail and business transactions

are possible through the Internet?6. What is the World Wide Web?7. What is Web browser?8. What does a user need to have an access to the WWW?9. What are hyperlinks?10. What resources are available on the WWW?11. What are the basic recreational applications of WWW? 12. What is this computer phenomenon called the Internet, or the

Net? Do you personally have need of it? Before you decide to get "on" the Internet, you may want to know something about it.

Millions of people around the world use the Internet to search for and retrieve1 information on all sorts of topics in a wide variety2 of areas

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including the arts, business, government, humanities3, news, politics and recreation4. People communicate through electronic mail (e-mail), discussion groups, chat channels and other means of informational exchange. They share5 information and make commercial and business transactions6. All this activity is possible because tens of thousands of networks7 are connected to the Internet and exchange information in the same basic ways.

Using the Internet, David, a teacher in the United States, acquired course materials. A Canadian father accessed8 it to stay in contact with his daughter in Russia. A housewife used it to examine scientific research on the early beginnings of the universe. A farmer turned to it to find information about new planting methods that make use of satellites. Corporations are drawn to it because of its power to advertise their products and services to millions of potential customers. People around the globe read the latest national and international news by means of its vast reporting and information services.

The World Wide Web9 (WWW) is a part of the Internet. But it's not a collection of networks. Rather, it is information that is connected or linked10 together like a web. You access this information through one interface or tool called a Web browser11. The number of resources and services that are part of the World Wide Web is growing extremely fast. In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the WWW, and more than half the information that is transferred across the Internet is accessed through the WWW. By using a computer terminal (hardware) connected to a network that is a part of the Internet, and by using aprogram (software) to browse12 or retrieve information that is a part of the World Wide Web, the people connected to the Internet and World Wide Web through the local providers13 have access to a variety of information. Each browser provides14 a graphical interface. You move from place to place, from site15

to site on the Web by using a mouse to click on a portion of text, icon or region of a map. These items are called hyperlinks16 or links. Each link you select represents a document, an image, a video clip or an audio file somewhere on the Internet. The user doesn't need to know where it is, the browser follows the link.

All sorts of things are available on the WWW. One can use Internet for recreational purposes. Many TV and radio stations broadcast live17 on the WWW. Essentially, if something can be put into digital format and stored in a computer, then it's available on the WWW. You can even visit museums, gardens, cities throughout the world, learn foreign languages and meet new friends. And, of course, you can play computer games through WWW, competing18 with partners from other countries and continents.

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Just a little bit of exploring the World Wide Web will show you what a lot of use and fun it is.

Vocabulary:1) to retrieve - шығару;2) variety - әр түрлілік, спектр;3) humanities - гуманитарлық ғылымның;4) recreation – алданыш;5) to share - бөлу;6) business transactions - сауда операциялары;7) network - желі;8) access - рұқсат;9) World Wide Web - «дүние жүзілік өрмешінің өрмегі»10) to link - қосу;11) browser - браузер (хабар іздеу бағдарламасы);12) to browse - анықтап қарау, қадала қара;13) provider - провайдер (компания, жергілікті телефондық

аулар арқылы рұқсат мүмкіндік беруші);14) to provide - қамсыздандыру (бірдеңеменмен);15) site - бет, сайт;16) hyperlink - гиперсілтеме;17) broadcast live - тікелей эфирда тапсыру;18) to compete - жарысқа түсу;1. Are the following statements true or false? Prove your

answers.1. There are still not so many users of the Internet.2. There is information on all sorts of topics on the Internet,

including education and weather forecasts.3. People can communicate through e-mail and chat programs only.4. Internet is tens of thousands of networks which exchange the

information in the same basic way.5. You can access information available on the World Wide Web

through the Web browser.6. You need a computer (hardware) and a special program (software)

to be a WWW user.7. You move from site to site by clicking on a portion of text only.8. Every time the user wants to move somewhere on the web he/she

needs to step by step enter links and addresses.9. Films and pictures are not available on the Internet.10. Radio and TV-broadcasting is a future of Internet. They're not

available yet.

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3. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate words: web browser, providers, link, WWW.

1. You access the information through one interface or tool called a ... .

2. People connected to the WWW through the local ... have access to a variety of information.

3. The user doesn't need to know where the site is, the... follows the ... .

4. In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the ... .5. Each ... provides a graphical interface.3.6 Local ... charge money for their services to access... resources.

Text 2.2 What Is It?

Pre-Reading Task:1. Some people think that the Internet is very harmful, especially for

young people, because it carries a lot of information about sex, drugs, violence and terrorism. Do you think that some kind of censorship is necessary on the WWW?

2. World famous authors and publishers say that the Internet violates their copyright because Web-programmers put all kinds of books, pictures, music, films and programs free on the Internet and this reduces their sales and profits.

3. Has anyone in your group experience working on the Internet? Ask them 1) about the difficulties they had; 2) useful information retrieved; 3) fun they got? Why so few people have experience working on the Internet?

4. Read the text “What Is It?” and discuss the following questions in group:

5. To what spheres of human’s activities does the Internet provide access to?

6. What services and resources does the Internet offer?Imagine a room filled with many spiders, each spinning its own web.

The webs are so interconnected that the spiders can travel freely within this maze. You now have a simplified view of the Internet — a global collection of many different types of computers and computer networks that are linked together. Just as a telephone enables you to talk to someone on the other side of the earth who also has a phone, the Internet enables a person to sit at his computer and exchange information with other computers and computer users any place in the world.

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Some refer to the Internet as the information superhighway. Just as a road allows travel through different areas of a country, so the Internet allows information to flow through many different interconnected computer networks. As messages travel, each network that is reached contains information that assists in connecting to the adjacent network. The final destination may be in a different city or country.

Each network can "speak" with its neighbor network by means of a common set of rules created by the Internet designers. How many networks are connected worldwide? Some estimates say over 30,000. According to recent surveys, these networks connect over 10,000,000 computers and some 30,000,000 users throughout the world. It is estimated that the number of connected computers is doubling each year.

What can people locate on the Internet? It offers a rapidly growing collection of information, with topics ranging from medicine to science and technology. It features exhaustive material on the arts as well as research material for students and coverage of recreation, entertainment, sports, shopping, and employment opportunities. The Internet provides access to almanacs, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and maps.

There are, however, some disturbing aspects to consider. Can everything on the Internet be regarded as wholesome? What services and resources does the Internet offer? What precautions are in order? The following articles will discuss these questions.

Text 2.3 Services and Resources of the Internet Pre-Reading Task:1. Can you name common resource which is provided by Internet? 2. Do you have your own e-mail address? 3. Do you think that e-mail is better than ordinary post service

procedure?A common resource provided by the Internet is a worldwide system

for sending and receiving electronic mail, known as e-mail. In fact, e-mail represents a large portion of all Internet traffic and is for many the only Internet resource they use. How does it work? To answer that question, let's review the ordinary mail system first.

Imagine that you live in Canada and wish to send a letter to your daughter living in Moscow. After properly addressing the envelope, you mail it, starting the letter's journey. At a postal facility, the letter is routed to the next location, perhaps a regional or national distribution center, and then to a local post office near your daughter.

A similar process occurs with e-mail. After your letter is composed on your computer, you must specify an e-mail address that identifies your

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daughter. Once you send this electronic letter, it travels from your computer, often through a device called a modem, which connects your computer to the Internet via the telephone network. Off it goes, bound for various computers that act like local and national postal routing facilities. They have enough information to get the letter to a destination computer, where your daughter can retrieve it. Unlike the regular mail, e-mail often reaches its destination, even on other continents, in minutes or less unless some part of the network is heavily congested or temporarily out of order. When your daughter inspects her electronic mailbox, she will discover your e-mail. The speed of e-mail and the ease with which it can be sent even to multiple recipients all over the world make it a popular form of communication.

1. Choose the correct answer – a, b or c.1. What do you use a modem for?a) to print a documentb) to play musicc) to send messages along a telephone line2. What do you see when you want to look for sites on the World

Wide Web?a) a browserb) a CD-ROMc) a printer3. What can you use the Internet for?a) to delete a file from your computerb) to help you find information and communicate with peoplec) to make your computer work faster

Text 2.4 NewsgroupsPre-Reading Task:1. What kind of service is called Usenet? 2. What does Usenet offer?Another popular service is called Usenet. Usenet offers access to

newsgroups for group discussions on specific topics. Some newsgroups focus on buying or selling various consumer items. There are thousands of newsgroups, and once a user has gained access to Usenet, there is no cost to subscribe to them.

Let's imagine that someone has joined a newsgroup involved in stamp collecting. As new messages about this hobby are sent by others subscribing to this group, the messages become available to this newcomer. This person reviews not only what someone has sent to the newsgroup but also what others have written in response. If, for example, someone

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requests information about a particular stamp series, shortly afterward there may be many responses from around the world, offering information that would be immediately available to all who subscribe to this newsgroup.

A variation of this idea is the Bulletin Board System (BBS). BBS is similar to Usenet, except that all files are located on a single computer, usually maintained by one person or group. The content of news-groups reflects the varied interests, viewpoints, and moral values of those who use them, so discretion is needed.

Text 2.5 File Sharing and Topic SearchingPre-Reading Task:1. What is “one of the original Internet goals”? 2. What help is available when one does not know where a subject

may be located within the Internet?One of the original Internet goals was global information sharing.

The teacher mentioned in the previous article located another educator on the Internet who was willing to share already developed course materials. Within minutes the files were transferred, despite a 2,000-mile distance.

Just as we locate a phone number by using a telephone directory, a user may find locations of interest on the Internet by first gaining access to what are known as search sites. The user supplies a word or a phrase; the site then replies with a list of Internet locations where information can be found. Generally, the search is free and takes only a few seconds!

The farmer mentioned earlier had heard of a new technique called precision farming, which uses computers and satellite maps. By entering that phrase at a search site, he found the names of farmers who were using it as well as detailed information about the method.

Text 2.6 The World Wide WebPre-Reading Task:1. Describe the advantages of the World Wide Web.2. Read the text “The World Wide Web” and discuss the main idea

of the text:The part of the Internet called World Wide Web (or Web) allows

authors to use an old-fashioned idea - that of footnotes - in a new way. When an author of a magazine article or a book inserts a footnote symbol, we scan the bottom of the page and are possibly directed to another page or book. Authors of Internet computer documents can do essentially the same thing using a technique that will underline or highlight a word, a phrase, or an image in their document.

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The highlighted word or image is a clue to the reader that an associated Internet resource, often another document, exists. This Internet document can be fetched and displayed immediately for the reader. The document may even be on a different computer and located in another country. David Peal, the author of “Access the Internet”, notes that this technique "links you to actual documents, not just references to them."

The Web also supports the storage and retrieval, or playing, of photographs, graphics, animations, videos, and sounds. Everyone can obtain and play a short color movie of the current theories regarding the universe and hear the narration through computer's audio system.

Text 2.7 Surfing the Net Pre-Reading Task:1. Have you got the Internet connection at home? 2. How often do you surf the net?By using a Web browser, a person can easily and quickly view

information and colorful graphics that may be stored on computers in many different countries. Using a Web browser can be similar in some ways to actual travel, only easier. One can visit the Web exhibits of the Dead Sea Scrolls or the Holocaust Memorial Museum. This ability to move nimbly back and forth from one Internet Web site to another is commonly called surfing the Net.

Businesses and other organizations have become interested in the Web as a means to advertise their products or services as well as to offer other kinds of information. They create a Web page, a sort of electronic storefront window. Once an organization's Web page address is known, potential customers can use a browser to go "shopping," or information browsing. As in any marketplace, however, not all products, services, or information provided on the Internet are wholesome.

Researchers are trying to make the Internet secure enough for confidential and safeguarded transactions. We will talk more about security later.

Text 2.8 What Is "Chat"? Pre-reading task:1. Do you have a “nickname”? 2. Do you think it is possible to find your second half through the

Internet dating offices?3. Do you visit chats? How much time do you spend there?Another common service of the Internet is the Internet Relay Chat, or

Chat. Chat allows a group of people, using aliases, to send messages to one

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another immediately. While used by a variety of age groups, it is especially popular among young people. Once connected, the user is brought into contact with a large number of other users from all around the world.

So-called chat rooms, or chat channels, are created that feature a particular theme, such as science fiction, movies, sports, or romance. All the messages typed within a chat room appear almost simultaneously on the computer screens of all participants for that chat room.

A chat room is much like a party of people mingling and talking at the same general time, except that all are typing, short messages instead. Chat rooms are usually active 24 hours a day.

1. Match the words or phrases (1-6) to the definitions (a-f).1. chat room2. e-commerce3. joystick4. cyberspace5. desktop6. multitaskinga. the ability of a computer to run several programmes at once;b. the screen you see after you’ve switched your computer;c. an area on the Internet where people can communicate with each

other in ‘real time’;d. the business of buying and selling goods and services in the

Internet;e. a sick which helps to move in computer games;f. the imaginary place where electronic messages, information

pictures, etc. exist when they are sent from one computer to another.

Text 2.9 Security — Is Your Privacy Protected Pre-Reading Task:1. Is security protection important for keeping your privacy?2. Read the text “Security — Is Your Privacy Protected?” and

discuss the following questions in group:- do you think your information is protected when you use the Internet? Is it safe to share confident information through the Internet? Share your opinion with your group-mates.- choose any topics you like on the given problem ”Internet” and discuss it in group.- write a composition giving your own opinion on the topic “The World Wide Web”.

Another key concern is confidentiality. For example, your e-mail message should be seen only by your intended recipient. While the letter is

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in transit, however, a clever and possibly unscrupulous person or group could intercept or monitor your correspondence. To protect messages, some people use e-mail software products to scramble their letter's sensitive contents before mailing it. At the other end, the receiving party may need similar software for unscrambling the message.

Recently, much discussion has focused on the exchange of credit-card and other sensitive information for commercial use on the Internet. Although substantial innovations are expected to strengthen security, the noted American computer security analyst Dorothy Denning states: "Completely secure systems are not possible, but the risk can be reduced considerably, probably to a level commensurate with the value of the information stored on the systems and the threat posed by both hackers and insiders. Absolute security is not realizable in any computer system, whether connected to the Internet or not.

3 Science

Text 3.1 Pre-Reading Task:1. What can you say about modern science development?2. Why is science so important in the modern world?3. Read the text “Science” and discuss the following questions in

group:-how does science help to keep peace in the world?- how can science solve the energy program?- what proves that the study of science is important to understand

natural world?Science is important to most people living in the modern world for a

number of reasons. In particular, science is important to world peace and understanding, to the understanding of technology, and to our understanding of the world.

Science is important to world peace in many ways. On onehand, scientists have helped to develop many of the modern tools ofwar. On the other hand, they have also helped to keep the peacethrough research which has improved life for people. Scientists havehelped us to understand the problem of supplying the world with enough energy; they have begun to develop a number of solutions to the energy problem - for example, using energy from the sun and from the atom. Scientists have also analyzed the world's resources. We can begin learning to share the resources with the knowledge provided to us by science.

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Science studies the Universe and how to use its possibilities for the benefit of men.

Science is also important to everyone who is affected by modern technology. Many of the things that make our lives easier and better are the results of advances in technology and, if the present patterns continue, technology will affect us even more in the future than it does now. In some cases, such as technology for taking salt out of ocean water, technology may be essential for our lives on the Earth.

The study of science also provides people with an understanding of natural world. Scientists are learning to predict earthquakes, are continuing to study many other natural events such as storms. Scientists are also studying various aspects of human biology and the origin and developments of the human race. The study of the natural world may help to improve life for many people, all over the world.

A basic knowledge of science is essential for everyone. It helps people to find their way in the changing world.

Text 3.2 Science and TechnologyPre-Reading Task:1. What role have scientific and technological developments played

in human's life?2. What proves that science and technology are closely related

today?3. Read the text “Science and Technology” and discuss the following

questions in group:4. What does the term «technology» refer to?5. What does the term «industrial technology» mean?6. How is scientific activity in the 1970s estimated?7 What facts prove that the scientific revolution in the 16th century

was the time that science and technology began to work together?In recent years, scientific and technological developments have

drastically changed life on our planet as well as our views both of us as individuals in society and of the Universe as a whole.

Today, science and technology are closely related. Many modem technologies such as nuclear power and space flights depend on science and the application of scientific knowledge and principles. Each advance in pure science creates new opportunities for the development of new ways of making things to be used in daily life. In turn, technology provides science with new and more accurate instruments for its investigation and research.

Technology refers to the ways in which people use discoveries to satisfy needs and desires, to alter the environment, to improve their lives.

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Throughout human history, men and women have invented tools, machines, materials and techniques, to make their lives easier. Of course, when we speak of technology today, we are looking at it in a much narrower sense. Generally, we mean industrial technology, or the technology that began about 200 years ago with the development of power-driven machines, growth of the factory system, and mass production of goods that has created the basis for our modern society. Today we often say that we live in an age of science and technology. According to one estimate, 90 % of all the scientists who ever lived, were alive and active in the 1970-s. This increased scientific activity has brought new ideas, processes, and inventions in ever-growing amount.

The scientific revolution that started in the 16th century was the first time that science and technology began to work together. Thus, Galileo who made revolutionary discoveries in astronomy and physics also built an improved telescope and patented a system of lifting water. However, it was not until the 19th century that technology truly was based on science and inventors began to build on the work of scientists. For example, Thomas Edison built on the early experiments of Faraday and Henry in his invention of the first practical system of electrical lighting. Edison carried on his investigations until he found the carbon filament for the electric bulb in a research laboratory. This was the first true modern technological research.

In a sense, the history of science and technology is the history of all humankind.

Text 3.3 Miniature Radios and computers. Pocket Radios. Pre-Reading Task:1. You are going to read four texts about pocket radios and miniature

computers. Divide into groups and discuss the main idea of the texts.2. What other types of miniature computers and radios do you know?3. Do you know what the word “wireless” means?The transistor's compactness and low power requirements also

brought a new day in a host of simpler devices. Radio receivers hardly larger than a package of cigarettes were on a reality.

In 1956-58 the transistor found one of the most spectacular applications. It helped Russian and American specialists to launch the first satellites and to open the space age. Only a few of the biggest satellites have been able to carry vacuum-tube equipment. Most satellites have appended on transistors not only for reporting back to the earth but for operating the instruments with which the satellites explored the mysterious regions around the earth.

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But the most striking aspect of the transistor is not the host of devices it made possible. More important was its effect on a new branch of science and technology which may be called “solids-state electronics”.

Pocket-size TV CameraThe ultra-miniature TV camera was made possible by a new design

approach, which combines transistors, specially developed transistor circuitry and a new half-inch vidicon camera tube.

The pocket-size TV camera (JTV-1) weighs less than, pound and measures only 1 7/8 ths by 2 3/8 ths by 4 1/2 inches. It can be operated in the palm of the hand, used with an attachable pistol-grip handle, bolted to wall or floor, or mounted on a tripod.

It is the first TV camera of its type to incorporate a photoelectric control, which enables the camera to accommodate changes in the order of 100 to 1 in scene lighting. Made rugged for military airborne, mobile, and field requirements the pocket-size camera has high resistance to shock and vibration.

Simple in design and operation, the camera can be operated by non-technical personnel.

Molecular ComputerA small computer with molecular blocks as its "brain" is being

developed.The new device, called a Mol-E-Com, will weigh 14 pounds and

occupy less than one-third of a cubic foot. A solid semiconductor crystal with its internal structure rearranged as a functional electronic block replaces the tubes, transistors, and resistors in conventional miniaturized circuitry.

Mol-E-Com is expected to have the same capabilities as a transistorized computer ten times its size and weight, making it useful for rockets

Miniature Computer is size of Bread Loaf.A compact electronic computer about the size of a loaf of bread, yet

capable of working as fast as a room size computer, has been demonstrated successfully.

The baby computer, is called Maddam, a name derived from Macro-Module and Digital Differential Analyzer Machine.

The scientists indicate that the Maddam is a special purpose computer to be used only for military requirements as they develop. The working model was built to show that existing electronic components can be used in shrinking a commercial computer from a room size to size of a desk, and that military electronic equipment can be compressed to a convenient size for aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles.

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The computer has 5,500 components housed in a space measuring three inches by six inches by 11 inches, and a component density of 69,000 components per cubic foot. It weighs 12 pound and can perform 33,000 mathematical calculations per second.

Text 3.4 What is a Microprocessor? Pre-reading task:1. Read the first part of the text ‘What is a Microprocessor”?2. Study the definition of terms given below the text. 3. Discuss the following questions in group:4. What is a microprocessor? Try to give your own definition of this

term.5. What is a microcomputer based on?Part IA microprocessor1 is a programmable logic device. That is, the

function of logical operation that the device accomplishes may be altered by applying instructional "words" at its input.

The above definition, although correct, is somewhat broad. Technically, the term microprocessor has come to mean the central processing unit (CPU)2 of a small computer system. By itself, the microprocessor cannot function; but when it is combined with a relatively small number of support circuits, it has most of the characteristics included in the classic definition of a computer. The microprocessor has traded the greater speed and word length of a computer for compact size and low cost.

A microcomputer is a fully operational system based upon a microprocessor chip3 which in itself contains a large percentage of the computer capability. The system possesses all of the minimum requirements of a computer:

It can input and output data4, usually in digital form. This data can be exchanged between the microcomputer5 and several common input/output devices such as teletype, CRT displays, paper tape reader, floppy disk6 memories, magnetic tapes7, cassette8 tapes and laboratory instruments.

It contains an ALU (arithmetic logic unit) which performs arithmetic and/or logical operations such as add, subtract, compare, rotate left or right, AND, OR, NEGATE, EXCLUSIVE, OR.

It contains memory9 which is directly addressable and may contain both data and instructional words.

It is programmable. That is, the data and programmed instructions may be arranged in any desired order, in contrast to a pocket calculator,

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which is usually fixed in its capabilities and requires a precise keyboard sequence that cannot be altered.

Vocabulary:1) Microprocessor - a realization of the central processing part of a

computer on one or more LSI10 circuits. Characteristics of a microprocessor include small size and low cost.

2) Central processing unit (CPU) - орталык процессор, ОП3) Chip - a small piece of silicon on which an integrated circuit is

fabricated. More commonly used to describe a complete encapsulated device.

4) Data - a collection of numeric, alphabetic or special characters denoting facts and information.

5) Microcomputer - a class of computers having all the major central processor functions contained on a single printed circuit board or single integrated circuit. A microcomputer contains a microprocessor plus additional circuitry needed to complete the system such as memory, input and output ports, and a clock generator.

6) Floppy disk - a low cost magnetic disk constructed of coated plastic.

7) Magnetic tape - a tape with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective magnetization of portions of the surface.

8) Cassette - a container holding magnetic tape for insertion into tape transport equipment.

9) Memory - a general term which refers to any storage media for data. Basic memory functional types include read/write and read-only.

10) Large-scale integration (LSI) – улкен интегралды сулба, УИС

Text 3.5 What is a Microprocessor?Pre-reading task:1. Read the second part of the text ‘What is a Microprocessor’? 2. Study the definition of terms given below the text. 3. Discuss the following questions in group:4. Find in the text the definition of a microprocessor. What kind of

new information has been added to its content?5. What is the history of the invention of this logic device?6. What is the function of the microprocessor?7. What does a typical microprocessor consist of?8. What is the feature of bit-sliced chips made by the bipolar

technology?9. How are modern microprocessors differentiated?

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Part IIA microprocessor is the central arithmetic and logic unit of a

computer, together with its associated circuitry, scaled down so that it fits on a single silicon chip (sometimes several chips) holding tens of thousands of transistors, resistors and similar circuit elements. It is a member of the family of large-scale integrated circuits that reflect the present state of evolution of a miniaturization process that began with the development of the transistor in the late 1940's. A typical microprocessor chip measures half a centimeter on a side. By adding anywhere from 10 to 80 chips to provide timing, program memory, random-access memory1, interfaces for input and output signals and other ancillary functions, one can assemble a complete computer system on a board whose area does not exceed the size of this page. Such an assembly is a microcomputer, in which the microprocessor serves as the master component. The number of applications for microprocessors is proliferating daily in industry, in banking, in power generation and distribution, in telecommunications and in scores of consumer products, ranging from automobiles to electronic games.

As in the central processing unit, or CPU, of a larger computer, the task of the microprocessor is to receive data in the form of strings of binary digits (O's and 1's), to store the data for later processing, to perform arithmetic and logic operations on the data in accordance with previously stored instructions and to deliver the results to the user through an output mechanism such as an electric typewriter, a cathode-ray-tube2 display or a two-dimensional plotter. A typical microprocessor would consist of the following units: a decode and control unit3 (to interpret instructions from the stored program), the arithmetic and logic unit5, or ALL) (to perform arithmetic and logic operations), registers (to serve as an easily accessible memory for data frequently manipulated), an accumulator5 (a special register closely associated with the ALL)), address6 buffers (to supply the control memory with the address from which to fetch7 the next instruction) and input-output buffers (to read instructions or data into the microprocessor or to send them out).

Present microprocessors vary in their detailed architecture depending on their manufacture and in some cases on the particular semiconductor technology adopted. One of the major distinctions is whether all the elements of the microprocessor are divided among several identical modular chips that can be linked in parallel, the total number of chips depending on the length of the "word" the user wants to process: four bits (binary digits), eight bits, 16 bits or more. Such a multichip arrangement is known as a bit-sliced organization. A feature of bit-sliced chips made by

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the bipolar technology is that they are "microprogrammable": they allow the user to create specific sets of instructions, a definite advantage for many applications.

Vocabulary:1) Random-access memory - strictly a computer memory,

structured, so that the time required to access any data item stored in the memory is the same as for any other item. Now more often used to describe a semiconductor memory that can be used for reading and writing data.

2) Cathode-ray-tube - a device used to generate pictures as found in a television or visual display.

3) Control unit - the part of the computer which directs the sequence of operations, interprets the instructions, and provides the requisite signals to execute those instructions.

4) Arithmetic and logic unit - a device which executes arithmetic and/or logic operations according to the instructions in a program.

5) Accumulator - a register in which numbers are totaled, manipulated, or temporarily stored for transfers to and from memory or external devices.

6) Address - a unique label, name, or number that identifies a memory location or a device register for access by a computer. To send an address to a memory or a device in order that a particular location in memory or the device may be identified.

7) Fetch - the action of reading data or instructions from memory.1. Give the Kazakh equivalents to the following:silicon chip, microprocessor chip, modular chips, multi-chip

arrangement, arithmetic and logic unit, central processing unit, a cathode-ray-tube display, a two-dimensional plotter, address buffer, a bit-sliced organization, strings of binary digits, interface, program memory, random-access memory

2. Give the abbreviations of the following:large-scale integrated circuits, random-access memory, input-output,

central processing unit, arithmetic and logic unit3. Give the English equivalents to the following:процессор, кристалл, синхронизация, адрестер буфері,

енгізу/шығару сигналы, бір тақтамен жинау, мәліметтерді сақтау, екілік таңба, логикалық және арифметикалық амалдары.

Text 3.6 Classification of Microprocessors Pre-Reading Task:1. Read the text “Classification of Microprocessors”. 2. Study the definition of terms given below the text.

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3. Discuss the following questions in group:4. How are modern microprocessors classified? 5. What are the levels in hardware classification?6. What are the characteristic features of the second level of the

microprocessors' classification? 7. What are the advantages of the small computer system level? 8. What is the FDS intended for?The flood of microprocessors and microcomputers reaching the

market, combined with the rapid rate of innovation, guarantees that any attempt to catalogue them will be instantly obsolete. A more fruitful introduction to the "micro" marketplace is to classify systems hierarchically according to their capability and function. Along these two dimensions there is a well-defined upward progression in both hardware1 and software. In hardware the levels are chips, modules2, "breadboard" systems, small computer systems, full-development systems and multiprocessor systems. This hierarchy is not absolute because the evolving technology creates ever more powerful chips, some of which can bridge two or three hierarchic levels. Chips are used to construct a module, modules to construct a small computer system (SCS) and small computers to construct a full-development system (FDS). Multiprocessor systems can incorporate modules, SCS's or FDS's, depending on the application and complexity.

At the first level of the hierarchy are the microprocessor chips, representing the large-scale integration of tens of thousands of individual electronic devices: transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors. At this level there are also more specialized chips: random-access memories (RAM's), read-only memories (ROM's)3, programmable read-only memories (PROM's), input-output (I/O) interfaces and others. The cutting edge of the technology works most directly at the chip level, providing, for example, RAM's of ever-higher storage capacity4.

Generally the various kinds of chips are grouped into families that are compatible with particular microprocessors. The families will include a series of RAM, ROM and PROM chips to create a memory system, a series of interface chips capable of handling both parallel and serial input-output functions and miscellaneous chips to enhance system capabilities, such as high-speed arithmetic operations. Master-control chips are needed to establish priorities5 and to keep signals flowing smoothly through the complex maze of interconnections. The compatibility of chips and chip families made by different manufacturers varies widely.

Vocabulary:

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1) Hardware - the mechanical, magnetic, electronic and electrical devices or components of a computer.

2) Module - an assembled printed circuit performing a distinct function, or a self-contained program section.

3) Read-only memory (ROM) - a device or medium used to store Information and which may be read, but not written into, by the central processor.

4) Capacity of a memory store - the number of bits or words or bytes that can be stored.

5) Priority – the sequence in which various entries and tasks are processed or peripheral devices are serviced.

1. Give the full names of the following abbreviations:RAM, ROM, PROM, SCS, FDS, I/O2. Give the Kazakh equivalents to the following:capability, dimension, hardware, software, module, breadboard

system, small computer system, full-development system, multiprocessor system, family, master-control chip, priority, compatibility, storage capacity.

3. Complete the following sentences:1. Chips are used to construct... .2. Modules are used ... .3. Small computer systems are used ... .4. Multiprocessor systems can include.... 5. At the first level of the hierarchy are.... 6. At the first level of the hierarchy are more specialized chips:..

Text 3.7 Uses and Applications of MicroprocessorsPre-reading task:1. Read the text “Uses and Applications of Microprocessors” and

discuss the main idea of it in group.2. Draw a diagram of microprocessors applications.3. Make a list of the microprocessor’s applications you have read

about or you have seen by yourself.4. Find additional information of microsystems application.The uses and applications of microcomputers appear, at present, to

fall somewhere between discrete logic, on the one hand, and minicomputers, on the other. The microprocessor fills the large gap between discrete circuits and the relatively sophisticated minicomputer. The microprocessor also fills the cost gap between discrete circuits.

Because of its relatively low cost and flexibility, the microsystem has an abundance of applications at home and small business environment. It

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fills the needs of small manufacturers who cannot afford, or do not need, large computer systems.

Some of the present applications which have already found their way into the market place are:

— Video TV games;— Intelligent computer terminals;Process controllers;Telephone switching controls;Programmable household appliances;Computerized automotive electronic systems.Computers are being used as part of the educational process, and

guidance. Controlled computers have made possible space exploration and automated factories.

Microprocessors can also be expanded to serve specialized control functions in the area of industrial tools and machinery. Because they are programmable logic systems, they can be adapted to serve a variety of job functions each of which previously required individually designed circuits. The low cost of production makes them extremely attractive.

It is perhaps this hardware1/software2 trade that makes the impact of the microprocessor so great. Entirely different circuit functions can now be accomplished with the same hardware by means of a different set of program instructions. The microprocessor is recognized as the device which finally unites two previously separate areas: that of the hardware designer and the programmer.

Vocabulary:1) Hardware - the mechanical, magnetic, electronic and electrical

devices or components of a computer.2) Software - programs which control the operation of computer

hardware and the associated documentation, etc., needed to do so.

Text 3.8 The Types of Memory Pre-Reading Task:1. Describe the recent level of technology development.2. What types of memory do you know?3. Read the text “The Types of Memory” and make a list of different

types of a microcomputer memory. In all types of computer systems, from a small dedicated

microprocessor system to the largest full size computer, memory plays a very essential part. The memory section of the microcomputer system serves the purpose of holding either information, that the computer will need, or information, that the computer has already generated, which will

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be utilized in the future. In other words, the memory of a microcomputer is used for storing the program and the data. There are two basic types of memory, namely read/write memory whose contents can be altered by writing new information into it and read-only memory (ROM) whose contents are fixed. Read/write memory is usually exclusively referred to as random-access memory (RAM) for historical reasons, although strictly speaking most modern read-only memories can also be accessed in a random order and therefore qualify for such a description. Random means that any one of the different memory locations can be written into or read from with equal ease and that it takes the same amount of time to address any one of the different memory locations within the same device.

The semiconductor RAM memory is of the volatile type. That is, when power is removed, all information previously written in memory is lost.

A problem develops because memory needs to have both non-volatility and read/write capability. At the time of this writing, there is not one RAM chip that has both of these desirable functions. The memory chips are either of the RAM family and have the read/write capability but are volatile or of the ROM family and have only the read capability but are non-volatile. So the read/write feature of the RAM makes it a very versatile memory device. However, its volatility presents a special problem.

Recently, technology has advanced to the stage where nonvolatile RAM's can be made. These do not lose their information when the power in them is interrupted.

The next generation of semiconductor RAM memories has advanced to higher density (more memory cells/chip) and higher operating frequencies.

The essential difference as far as the user is concerned is that ROM retains the information in it even without power, even if a program error or other fault causes the system to try and overwrite the contents of the ROM. It is therefore used mainly for storing fixed programs and constants.

As the term ROM implies, this type of memory can only be read from and not written into by the user.

Since the ROM has the feature of nonvolatility, it lends it self to applications such as dedicated subroutines including mathematical packages, monitor1 programs, debug2 programs and any program that has a fixed structure where there is no need to make changes to the program that resides in the ROM.

Vocabulary:1) Monitor - a program which observes, supervises, controls or

verifies the operation of a computer system.

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2) Debug - to isolate and remove malfunctions from a computer or mistakes from a program.

Text 3.9 The Storage Medium Pre-reading task:1. What is the capacity of floppy disks and Winchester disks?2. What are the advantages of floppy disks and Winchester disks? 3. Read the text “The Storage Medium” and discuss the following

questions in group:4. What are the common secondary-storage mediums? 5. Which storage medium does she/he use for program storage? 6. Which storage medium would she/he use if she/he had a personal

computer and why?7. Compare the capacity of the storage medium you are using with

the capacity of the described mediums.The term "memory" is usually reserved for describing the internal

storage of a computer. In its strictest sense it refers to the storage locations that can be immediately addressed by the program counter. They are often referred to as the primary storage while magnetic tape1, magnetic disk2 or diskette, magnetic drum3 are referred to as the secondary storage.

One of the standard mediums for the secondary storage is the floppy disk: a flexible disk of plastic, coated on one side or both sides with a magnetic material. Information is stored in concentric tracks of minute magnetized regions; changes in the direction of magnetization represent binary O's and 1's. The information is written onto the disk and retrieved from it by a recording head that is moved radically across the spinning disk to a particular track. The track in turn is divided into a number of sectors, and as a rule information is written or read one sector at a time.

A 'more expensive alternative to the floppy disk is the Winchester disk4, in which the magnetic coating is applied to a rigid aluminum platter5. For example, a personal computer Winchester disk unit can have such a capacity that it can transfer data faster than a floppy disk. On the other hand, the Winchester disk is permanently sealed in the drive unit, where as a floppy disk can be removed from the drive and replaced by a fresh disk.

A simpler, less expensive secondary memory medium is the audio magnetic-tape cassette. One cassette can store about as much information as a relatively low-capacity floppy disk. The access time to a particular address, or storage location, much longer for tape than it is for a disk because the speed of the tape is much lower than that of a disk and because the information is arrayed in a single linear sequence. An important feature,

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of all the magnetic secondary-storage mediums is that information is maintained even when the computer turned off.

Vocabulary:1) Magnetic tape - a tape with a magnetic surface on which data can

be stored by selective magnetization of portions of the surface.2) Magnetic disk - a flat circular plate with a magnetic surface on

which data can be stored by selective magnetization of portions of the flat surface. The information is recorded on a series of concentric tracks.

3) Magnetic drum - a circular cylinder with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective magnetization of portions of the curved surface.

4) Winchester disk – қатты магнитті диск5) A rigid aluminum platter – қатты алюмин диск (пластина).

Text 3.10 Disk BuffersPre-reading task:1. Read the text “Disk Buffers” and discuss the following problems

in group:2. In what way can a change in disk buffer size affect disk I/O times?3. What factors can interact to cause disk delays?Microcomputer systems that process large and complicated files

often spend considerable time reading from, and writing, mass-storage devices. This operation creates long processing pauses that annoy end users. By simply enlarging the PC-DOS/MS-DOS disk-buffer setting from its normal default value of 2, you can dramatically reduce disk I/O delays.

A disk buffer is a block of main memory in which the DOS holds data that is being read from or written to a disk. Each time DOS is requested to read or write a record, it first looks to see whether the sector containing that record is already in a buffer. By increasing the size of the disk buffer, the more likely it is that sought-after data will be in main memory. If it is, then DOS simply transfers the record to the application without the need to read the data from the disk which, of course, saves time.

The logical solution would seem to be to move all the data used, by an application into the disk-buffer area. Unfortunately, microcomputer systems are not blessed with huge blocks of main memory and a compromise must be made between the amount of memory used for disk buffering and the main memory required for other system operations.

Many factors interact to cause disk delays (including facets of the specific hardware configuration and operating system), they cannot be derived theoretically. Instead, they must be measured empirically using the

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actual system configuration, operating system and "typical" disk transactions made in actual applications.

Measuring something as complicated as the timing of Disk I/O in a microcomputer system requires a system model.

Text 3.11 Static Memory Devices: Organization and Characteristics

Pre-Reading Task:1. What is the term memory is usually reserved for?2. What types of a microcomputer memory can you name?3. Read the text and draw a classification scheme of different

memory types. 4. State the most important characteristics for memories.One can divide memories into two major types: static memories and

dynamic memories. Static memories are those that retain the information, without the need to refresh that information at frequent time intervals. Static memories are simpler than dynamic memories in their operating characteristics. As long as DC power is applied to the device, a static memory will retain all of the information stored in it. No other input signals are required. However, when the power is turned off, this information is lost. These memories are called volatile1 memories. Other memories that retain their information after the power is turned off are called non-volatile. Static memories in spite of their higher cost per bit of storage are favoured for small memory systems because they call for a minimum of external support circuitry. At a further premium in cost the power consumption of static memories can be reduced to such a negligible value that small batteries will power them for days or weeks. Such memories exploit the "complementary" MOS (CMOS) technology: they are found in some pocket calculators that hold their data or their program even when the power switch is in the "off position.

Vocabulary:1) Volatile memories - the temporal information in the store can be

destroyed when the computer is switched off.

4 Supplementary Reading SectionText 4.1 A Will to LearnPre-Reading Task:1. Read the text “A Will to Learn” and discuss the following

questions in group:- what made you choose University rather than another higher

educational institution? Give your reasons.

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- what is to be a Bachelor student?- what subjects are included in the first-year curriculum at your

faculty? What subject is the most interesting; the least interesting; the one you think the most important; the one you find the most difficult?

- was it easy for you to get accustomed to the University system of lectures and seminars after the school system of classes and home tasks? Which are more useful in your opinion — lectures or seminars? Do you have to work much after your lectures and seminars are over? Do you often work at the University library? What are the advantages and disadvantages of working at the library, at home, at a hostel?

2. Share your own opinion on the following problems:- what is learning power? - what qualities are necessary in order to become educated? What

modern conditions exist which make it possible for a person to become educated and cultured? Can you think of other factors? What is the role of a teacher in this process? Why is the greatest teaching sometimes only of partial value? Do you agree that a student cannot be lifted beyond the limits of his ability?

- why is one's pre-university level of knowledge important? Were you a student of the preparatory department of the university? Did you take preparatory courses in English/Kazakh history of science?

- do you agree that learning power is the primary need among universities?

- what is more important for good education - learning power or good teaching? Why? What do you thing about will to learn? Is it great enough?

A will to Learna) No human activity, be it work or study, can be performed without

will power. You may do everything possible to carry out what you've planned, to finish what you've started, to complete what you've aimed at. It seems so easy, yet how many things are left unfinished - books that we haven't read to the end, academic subjects that we haven't studied thoroughly, promises that we haven't kept, things that have been left undone, not thought over, goals that haven't been reached. There are a lot of people who tend to justify (ақтау, кешіру) this by thinking: "This is insignificant, it isn't worth the trouble, so why worry?" Some say: "I’ll set myself a goal and I'll reach it by all means”. But if you do not accustom yourself to carrying out the small things and bear your aim in mind from the moment of its conception (түсінік, негізгі пікір) to its complete realization, you'll never achieve any great goal.

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There are a lot of legends about absent-minded scientists, how they forget to put on their coats and some such things. But is it a matter of absent mindedness or just deep concentration on other things? It was not the apple that had fallen on Newton's head that gave rise to the law of gravity but his great concentration on the problem about which he had kept thinking day and night. And another thing is you should know a lot to be able to formulate and keep in focus great humane ([hju΄meın] –адамгершілік, гуманитарлық, қоғамдық ) aims. (By Academician R.V. Petrov)

1. Discuss the following questions in group:- do you always try to carry out what you've planned, to finish what

you've started? - do you leave many things unfinished? What are they? Do you

always keep your promises? - do you try to find excuses for not doing things?- are you absent-minded? Do you forget things? Is it because you are

concentrating on something important or you simply don't pay attention to such things?

- do you agree with Academician Petrov about the importance of will power? What other things are necessary if you want to succeed in some field of human activity?

- in what ways did school influence you? Was it a formative influence in your life? Which of the teachers influenced you most? What subject did he/she teach?

- was there a friend who influenced you or did you influence him/her?

- looking back to your school experience, can you say what factors in school life influenced you most: teachers, friends, extracurricular activities, etc.? Give enough evidence to prove your point.

- are you easily influenced by people with greater life experience than yours?

- what books influenced you most in your school years? - what evidence is there which suggests that school plays a great part

as a formative influence today?

Text 4.2 ArgumentPre-Reading Task:1. What is an argument? 2. Can we state that an argument is an important element of any

scientific discussion?

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3. Do you know the proverb: “It’s funny how the strongest words show up in the weakest arguments”? Try to find out the Kazakh equivalent.

4. Read the text “Argument” and discuss this problem in group.An argument is not a quarrel. Originally to argue meant to make

clear, and thus to show, to prove, to give evidence. An argument is a presentation of reasons for or reasons against something; it means that the person who states an argument has tried to understand the matter in question and that he is using his powers of reasoning to show how the evidence supports his position.

In an argument one person may win, if he wins, he wins because his evidence is greater in quantity or superior in importance to the evidence of the other persons or because he reasons better, shows more clearly the logical conclusions that must be drawn from the material. Even the opponent may be completely convinced by the winning argument - particularly if he had not thought very much or very deeply about the subject before. To win an argument properly, then, one should have both knowledge that gives evidence and good powers of reasoning.

One must remember that mere assertion has no value in argument. There is any number of assertions which people make, and their statements may represent very strong belief, yet such statements, without evidence, will not convince another person that they are true. People disagree on a great many questions, but often they disagree because they have not thought enough about these questions, because they have not gathered evidence or have not analyzed the evidence (From “A Writing Apprenticeship” by Norman Brittin).

1. Discuss the following questions in group:1.1 Do you agree with the first statement? Is it positive and

emphatic? 1.2 What did "to argue" originally mean? What is an argument?

What does it mean? 1.3 How many people may win an argument? What are the ways to

win an argument? What does the victory depend on: on the strength of the evidence or the personality of the speaker?

1.4 Are opponents easy to convince? Why? Why not? 1.5 Has mere assertion any value in an argument? Will it convince

another person without evidence? Why not? 1.6 Give 3 possible reasons why people may disagree on some

questions. Can you think of any other possibility? 1.7 Look back at what kind of evidence does Leacock use to

convince the reader. Is there enough evidence to convince the audience? What assertions does he make that are not based on any evidence?

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1.8 Does it matter which pieces of evidence are presented first and presented last? Give your reasons.

Text 4.3 Preparation for a Discussion Pre-Reading Task:1. Is it necessary to prepare for a group discussion by thinking,

talking and reading about the problem under consideration?2. Read the text ”Preparation for a Discussion” and give your opinion

on the subject.3. Many discussions fail because the participants haven't done

enough preparation. Everyone must think, talk and read about the topic before the discussion takes place. When the topic is announced:

4. Think about it. What is your opinion? On what evidence is it based?

5. Talk to others about it. Discuss it with your friends and parents. If you know someone who is an authority on the subject, discuss it with him. Be ready to change your previous opinion in the light of new evidence.

6. Consult reference books, recent publications and magazine articles. Inform yourself as thoroughly as you can about the topic. Keep an open mind while you are learning.

Duties of participants in a group discussion The chairman should:- know the subject thoroughly.- make a brief introductory statement.- introduce the speakers to the audience.- ask questions to stimulate discussion.- see that everyone has a chance to speak.- summarize the discussion.- thank the audience and the speakers.A speaker in a group discussion should:-know the subject thoroughly.-listen intelligently. When you agree with another speaker, listen to

increase your information on the subject. When you disagree, listen to accept a different viewpoint if it is supported by sufficient evidence.

-speak so that everyone can hear.-recognize and acknowledge the truth of what others say.-always be polite. Sarcasm is out of place. Self-control is a mark of

maturity (ер жету, жетілу). Disagree reasonably - and with factual evidence.

A member of the audience should:-know the subject thoroughly.

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-listen attentively. Ask yourself: what evidence is offered in support of each important argument? Take notes as you listen.

-join in when the chairman invites the audience to participate. A discussion in which there is general participation is more stimulating and interesting than one in which only a few take part.

-focus on the main issues.-speak audibly and distinctly (so that all may hear).

Text 4.4 Round-table Discussion Pre-Reading Task:1. What is the way to organize a round table discussion? 2. Formulas for Scientific Communication will help you to organize

a discussion. Study them and use in the process of group discussion, composing reports and writing abstracts on the given problem.

3. Study the following information and take part in a round-table discussion.

The round table is a form of group discussion in which the participants exchange views around the table (not necessarily round!) under the leadership of a chairman. The number of participants usually does not exceed a dozen.

Problems for discussion:-the role of science in modern society.-new trends in university education.-university students of the 21st century, qualities and qualifications.-an ideal university student; an ideal university teacher.computer is the modern wonder of the world.1. Answer the following questions:1. What is your research problem?2. What is of special interest in the problem of your research?3. What is the subject of your research?4. Why has the interest in this problem increased considerably in

recent years?5. Do you follow/stick to any theory/hypothesis/concept? What is it?6. What concept is your research based on?7. How does your research differ from other studies on the same

problem?8. Has your research problem attracted much attention in recent

years? Has it been widely studied?9. What aspects of the problem have been considered over the last

few years?10. Who was the first to recognize/point out the problem?

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11. What aspects of the problem did researchers concentrate on at that time?

Text 4.5 How to Read in EnglishPre-Reading Task:1. Read the text “How to Read in English”. 2. Write down things that were new to you and that you never used

to do before when reading in English. 3. In future try to follow this competent advice.When you begin to read silently and you come to words and phrases

that are new to you, use the following techniques: 1) Read the passage through for general sense first, without stopping to puzzle over unfamiliar words or constructions; then go back for a second, more careful reading. When you come to an unknown word read on at least to the next punctuation mark before you look it up. Try to get the meaning from the sentence without having to look for it in the dictionary. 2) When you decide that you must look up a word, (a) underline the word with your pencil, (b) take a good look at the phrase that contains it, and pronounce the phrase aloud, (c) repeat the phrase over and over, aloud if possible, concentrating all your attention on its sound and spelling while you are looking for a key word in the vocabulary or dictionary, (d) when you find it, put a dot (точка) before the word in its column, (e) turn back to your page, find the last underlined word, and go on reading. Never write the translation into your language on the page. Doing so puts the emphasis on the native language equivalent and not on the English word, which is the word that you must learn. When you finish your assignment, reread it and see how many of the phrases containing underlined words you still understand. Look up the words you haven’t yet learned and put another dot in front of them in the vocabulary list; look through the vocabulary once a week and make a special effort to learn the words with several dots. These are your “hard” words. Lear them now, or you will be spending hours looking them up month after month, year after year. And go back over your reading material to check your understanding of the sentences that have underlined words and phrases.

If you want to learn English well, the skills that you acquire will be helpful in foreign language learning whenever and wherever you learn it. You may then have to work with inadequate materials or with no materials at all and with a person who has had little or no training as a teacher. But if, in learning English, you have also learned how to stuffy languages in general, you will be able to apply this skill to study other languages at any time or place.

5 Phrases for Scientific Communication

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This section contains recommendations on writing and presentation a research paper and a scientific report.

5.1 Thinking about your Presentation1. Answer the questions:1. What is the topic of the paper you are going to presents?2. Why are you interested in this particular topic? Do you always

prepare for presentations?3. What recommendations for making oral presentations do you find

most helpful?4. Which ones do you always follow?State your purpose – be specific.Identify the central idea of your presentation.List the main points of your presentation.Think of supporting material for each main point.Decide what kinds of visual aids you will use.Read and practice some useful paper speech patterns.5.2 Introductory Paper Speech Patterns:Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen. I am greatly honored to be invited to this conference. In this paper I would like to talk about the concept of ... The object of this paper is to show ... To begin with, let us imagine that ... As many of you know ... First of all I would like to ... I am sure I don't have to remind you that ... I am very pleased to have this opportunity to ... In my paper I want to highlight ... In the introduction to my paper I would like to ...I tell this story because ... I want to begin my presentation with ... Let me begin with ... The first thing I want to talk about is ... The subject that I will discuss is ...5.3 List of Phrases to Write an Introduction.Formulate the problem and identify the methods of research. Give the historical background of the investigation:During the past decade there has been increasing research into ...In some theoretical studies ...... were able to provide a fully generalized, compact simultaneous

solution to ... .In particular, they employed ... for ...

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... is an important and common problem.It has become a canonical problem in the study of ... providing a

valuable test for simulation methods or theoretical models.In the previous paper ... we used a specific model for ... The paper examines a method for ...Earlier descriptions of the ... assumed that ...However, detailed experimental studies of ... indicate that ...The most treatments available are restricted to the …Accordingly, we suggest that ... To date a number of different interpolation techniques have been

used in ...In Section 2 paper continues with a discussion of ... Section 3

overviews ... Section 4 then proposes ... and this matter is discussed in Section 5. Finally in Section 6 we discuss ...

Several techniques have been used to investigate …Make a brief review of related literature:There is a wide body of literature which suggests that ...... effects have received much attention.There were the limited number of studies conducted on ...The listings of the program may be found in ...Examples are given in ... Extensive field studies were undertaken by the scientists at...Justify the need for your investigation:Thus heat transfer regime has received little attention ...It is therefore important to establish the ...Studies on the ... process have been and still are of the interest

because of the ...In spite of significant recent advancement in the fundamental

understanding of... several important aspects of the ... still remain controversial.

... investigations have been proved very valuable in ... but they do not give a complete picture of ... since they eliminate ...

Most of the above investigations concentrated on the general effects of... and did not look carefully at the ...

There is still lack of knowledge of ... Much further research is needed to understand ...

There is still no complete knowledge of ...There are still many gaps in our knowledge of the problems of ... We still know very little about the origin of ...5.4 Speech Patterns for the Body of the PaperAccording to this theory...

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After this, I need/it remains only to say that ... Again, I want to emphasize that... It should be emphasized that ... It should be pointed out that... Let me give you my explanation of ... Let me now turn to ... Let us consider what happens if ...Let us have a closer look at ...Let us imagine that ... Let us suppose that ... Now I come to ... On the contrary ...On the one hand ..., on the other hand ... Primarily ...This is indeed the case when ... This in turn implies ... This is particularly true for ...5.5 Closing Paper Speech PatternsSince I am running out of time ...As my time is running out...Before I close I would like to emphasize the importance of ...Finally I want to say a few words about ...I end this paper with a description of ...I leave it to you to judge ...In closing I want to mention very briefly …In conclusion, let me say ...In conclusion, may I repeat... . Summing up, I would like to ...The last part of my talk will be devoted to ... To all this must be added that...5.6 Formulas for Scientific Communication.Practice the following phrases in scientific problem discussion.

Establishing Contacts

I’m glad you’ve asked me that question.

Agreeing Yes, indeed.I think you are entirely

right.It appears to me to be

true.

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I agree that...That's just what I think.

Disagreeing I am arguing against...I would object just a

little...I object to...I wish I could agree with

you but...Expressing

surpriseIt is rather surprising...It is unbelievable...I am puzzled by...I wonder about...I find it hard to believe

that...Expressing

uncertainlyIt seems unlikely that...I have doubts about...I am not at all sure

about...I am not yet certain...I am doubtful whether...I have been rather

puzzled by...I doubt it.

Making contribution

In connection with ... I would like to add

Let me add that...In addition I would like

to mention...I would add that...

Calling attention

I want to point out that...I would like to note...I would like to stress the

importance of...It is worth pointing out

that...I would like to draw your

attention to...I would like to call

attention to...

Making The paper/report raises

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assessment an important question ...This method is

particularly important because...

The paper/report demonstrates how important it is to...

These results/data are of particular interest.

Provoking arguments

Would you agree with...?There seems to be some

contradiction between your points of view. Does that mean you think...?

Asking for details/classification

Could you be more specific about...?

I am not clear about...Could you give us/me

some more facts to back that up, please?

Introducing opinions/attitudes

Well, I'd like to say that...

What I think is...

Delaying an answer

Well, let me see...Well, now...That's a good

question...Oh, let me think for a

moment...

6 Supplementary Terminology SectionThis section consists of two parts. The first part contains definition and explanation of terms you will

need to undertake a research process. The appropriate translation and explanation of the terms like examination, research, reproduction, précis, composition, essay, translation, making notes, etc. are worth studying at the educational level for Bachelor students.

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The second part is aimed at acquaintance with translation of names of specialities, faculties, departments, terms and abbreviations connected with academic studies. The given stock of vocabulary is essential for radio-engineering students.

6.1 Definition and Explanation of TermsДиплом(First) degree is usually the most appropriate translation, since

диплом is awarded after five - years’ specialized study at an institution of higher education. The use of Diplоmа implies а shorter course, from one of а lower academic standard.

First should be included only when it is necessary to distinguish this degree (=диплом) from а higher degree (=ғылыми нәтиже).

e.g. - I've only got а first degree.Дипломдық жұмыс is difficult to translate into English, because

there is nothing of this kind in most higher educational establishments in England. In order to graduate, students only have to pass the necessary examinations. In some institutions, however, mainly newer ones, students also have to write а dissertation, that is, а sort of extended essay based on some independent study or investigation, and this practice seems to be spreading. Dissertation could therefore be used as а translation of дипломная работа, bearing in mind that it exists only in some English institutions. In American English dissertation is а work submitted for а higheг degree (BrE thesis). This fact and the possible confusion with Kazakh диссертация make dissertation а far from ideal translation of дипломдык жумыс.

The only other solution seems to be some descriptive expression with graduation, for ехаmple, graduation essay/paper/dissertation.

Дипломдык жоба can be translated as graduation project. Remember, however, that this is not а set expression and that project has а wider use in modern English.

Дипломдық жұмысты/дипломдық жобаны қорғауEven in those institutions where students write а dissertation there is

no occasion corresponding to Kazakh коргау. The dissertation is simply marked by the examiner(s) together with the student's examination papers.

One possibility is to use the expression oral (examination) or viva, as in the case of theses but this has various disadvantages. Firstly, an оrаl examination (оr viva) is not conducted like а қорғау. Secondly, it is not сlеаr how to specify the idea of а first degree. Graduation/final oral (examination) оr viva is possiblе, but this does not suggest the discussion of а dissertation ог рарег. Moreover, it would be better to keep the

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expression graduation/final oral (examination) as а translation of the oral part of the мемлекеттік емтихан.

There seems to be no good alternative to the literal translation defense of оnе's dissertation or graduation paper/project. Remember, however, that this will not be сlеаr to English реорlе without an explanation. It is better to translate this like passing or presenting the Diploma project.

Зерттеулік жұмыс - researchThe most detailed definition of this word is given by Webster:

"studious inquiry or examination, esp. investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised, theories or laws."

In higher educational establishments research is often contrasted with teaching:

e.g. а). The job combines teaching and research.b). He spent so much time on teaching that there was not much left

for research.Research can be translated as зерттеулік жұмыс (ғылыми-

зерттеулік/зерттеулік жұмыс) or ғылым, depending on the context.The word research is usually uncountable, as in the examples given

above. А particular investigation is not called a research but а piece of research (or an investigation/study). Sometimes, however, research is used countably in the plural.

e.g. а). His researches produced some interesting results. Research may also be used as а verb:

e.g. b). He is researching into the origin of language, problem of air pollution.

More often, however, the expressions to do research or to be engaged in research are used in this sense.

The prepositions on, in and into are used with the noun research, as follows.

On is used with а more or less specific subject.e.g. с). I'm doing research on security protection development. In is used with the field of investigation.e.g. d). He is famous for his research in computer graphics.It occurs less often, mainly with words such as problem, cause,

relation, origin.Емтихан - examinationAn examination, like а test, is designed to test someone's knowledge

or ability, but is usually conducted more formally and the results are more

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important. The contraction exam is widely used by teachers and learners, the full form being confined to formal style.

In England most examinations are written, in all types of educational establishments. The examination paper is set beforehand (meaning that the examiners choose and put together а series of questions to be answered), and either duplicated ("көбейтілген") or printed. At the examination each pupil/student is given а сору, and they sit and answer the questions in writing for а fixed period of time. Sometimes they have to answer аll the questions, sometimes only а certain number, according to the instructions printed on the paper. When the time is up, they give in their papers and leave the room. The papers are marked later and the results announced. In the case of internal examinations it may be a few days later, but with public and degree examinations it is usually about two months.

In modern languages there is usually an oral examination too, often called simply an oral in non-formal style, but there are no oral examinations in other subjects. In such subjects as chemistry, physics, biology, cookery, woodwork there are practical examinations, often called simply practicals in non-formal situations.

The following expressions are used in connection with examinations. Remember that most of them refer mainly to written examinations, as described above.

Емтихандық жұмыс - examination paperThis term is used in three different senses:(1) оf the content of the examination, the questions;e.g. а). (One student to another) - What did you think of the paper? -

It was terrible.(2) of the sheet on which the questions are printed or typed; e.g. b). (Candidate to invigilator) - Excuse me I haven't got а paper.(3) of the sheet on which the answers are written;e.g. с). (Invigilator to candidates) - Please give in your papers now.The meaning is usually clear from the context, but if necessary the

following more explicit expressions can be used:the questions - for the contentthe question paper - for the sheet on which the questions are printedthe answer paper - for the sheet on which the answers are written.Емтихандық сұрақ - examination questionА question in an examination is anything which the candidate has to

do, whether it is in the form of а question or not. Thus the following may be called questions:

а). translate the following passage into English - а translation question

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b). describe the events which led up to the French Revolution - an essay question

Емтиханды өткізуa) to hold an examination - to arrange for it to take place (formal

style)e.g. а). The university holds an entrance examination in May. b). The fifth-form examination will be held in room 15.b) to conduct an examinationThis may mean:(1) very much the same as to hold an examinatione.g. а). Institutes of education approve syllabuses and conduct

examinations.(2) to make the necessary administrative and practical arrangements,

for example, provide а suitable room, give out question papers, and see that examination regulations are observed.

e.g. b). The examination must be conducted in accordance with the regulations.

(3) to examine (in the case of oral examinations)e.g. с). The examination will be conducted in French. To conduct is

also formal style.c) to set an examination (paper)This means to choose the questions and put them together, with

appropriate instructions. It applies almost exclusively to written examinations.

e.g. а). School examinations are set by the staff of the school concerned.

b). (One teacher to another) - We must set the third year exam paper this week.

d) to examine, examiner, etc.To examine may mean:(1) in а written examination, to set and mark the papers. e.g. а). Dr Evans is examining for Leeds (=Leeds University) this

year.(2) to conduct an oral examination.e.g. b). (One teacher to another) - Can you come and see mе

tomorrow?- No, I'm afraid I can't. I'm examining.Note that I've got an exam is also possible in conversation, but it is

ambiguous, since it may also mean that one is taking an exam. In most cases, however, the context makes it clear.

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An examiner is а person who sets and marks а written examination, or conducts an oral.

An examining board is а group, or committee, of examiners. Commission and committee are not used here.

An (examination) candidate is а person being examined. It is formal style.

e.g. Candidates must be in the examination room by 10 a.m. Examinee means the same as candidate but is rarely used.

Аудару - translationThe following expressions are used in connection with translation:to do/write а translation;to translate from Kazakh into English/English into Kazakh, etc.;а Kazakh- English/ English- Kazakh translation, etc.prose (translation) - translation from the native language into а

foreign language, that is, for Kazakh students, from Kazakh into English.unseen (translation) or simply translation - translation from а

foreign language into the native language, that is, for Kazakh students, from English into Kazakh.

These last two terms are widely used in the senior forms of schools and in higher education. They originated in connection with the study of Latin and Greek. Prose was used because а passage of English prose was given for translation into Latin/Greek, unseen because а passage of Latin/Greek, prose or verse, which the students had not seen before, was given for translation into English. There is no reason why Kazakh teachers should adopt these terms, since the terms Kazakh-English/English-Kazakh translation are clearer (although much longer), but they may come across prose/unseen in an English situation.

unprepared translation sometimes used in the sense of any translation not prepared beforehand (as in an ехаminаtion), and sometimes in the same sense as unseen, as defined above.

to translate smth. at sight or straight off – бір беттен аудару (colloquial);

to translate literally/word for word - қатаң, дәлме-дәл аудару; a literal /word-for-word translation - әріптік, сөзбе-сөз аудару;to translate freely – еркін аудару;а free translation – еркімен, еркінше аудару;an exact/accurate translation - ұқыпты аудару;а rough translation – аудару шамамен, шамасында

(approximate, capable of being improved on).Render in one of its senses is а synonym of translate. It can be

defined as: "to reproduce or express in another language, to translate".

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However, it rarely occurs in that sense now, except in such sentences as:This idea is difficult to render in English/Russian.Note that render does not imply а freer translation than translate

and that it is confined mainly to formal style.Елестету, еске түсіру, өндірілген зат - reproductionReproduction as used in language teaching generally means

reproducing a story in the foreign language without translating. For example, the class listens to а story in French and then writes that story from memory in French, although not necessarily in exactly the same words and not necessarily including all the details. It is thus а test of comprehension, memory, and of the ability to express oneself in а foreign language, not of the ability to translate. А reproduction may be written or oral.

The verbs dо and write are used with reproduction. e.g. а). Today you're going to do/write а reproduction. It should be mentioned, however, that reproduction is not а very

common type of work in England. Reproduce can also be used in such sentences as:

b). - Now I'm going to read you а story (in French). Listen to it carefully and then reproduce it (orally/ in writing).

In your own words could be added.Retell (in one's own words) can be used for oral reproduction of a

story.e.g. с). - You are to read lesson 8 at home, and next lesson I shall ask

you to (re) tell the story in your own words.Write in one's own words can be used to denote written

reproduction of a story.Конспект, қысқартылған жоспар - precisPrecis ['preisi], of French origin, denotes а particular type of

summary written by schoolchildren or students as an exercise in picking out the important points in a passage and expressing them clearly and concisely. А precis is usually expected to be between, а sixth and а tenth of the original in length, depending on how much is expressed in the passage. It is usually done in the native language, but some teachers of English as а foreign language use it too.

Precis is used with the verb to make or to write, as follows:to make/write а precis of а passage/text/article.It is also used as а verb.e.g. Precis the following passage.

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With reference to complete works (stories, novels, plays, etc.) precis is not appropriate. Неге the general words summary, summarize, or the more specific word synopsis [si'nopsis] are used.

e.g. а). - I'd like you to finish reading the story/novel and make а summary/synopsis of the plot.

b). Summarize the events which led up to the quarrel. Note that plan cannot be used in such sentences as (а). This word is

appropriate only when the novel, story, etc. is: (1) not yet written, (2) made by the author.

Thus the author of а novel, story or play may make а plan of the work he intends to write, or а student may make a plan for an essay, but one cannot make а plan of а work already written by someone else. If Kazakh teachers need а word to denote something less than а synopsis of the plot, for example what is called in Kazakh мәтіннің жоспары, the word outline can be used.

e.g. You are to make an outline of the text/passage at home. However, this type of work is not customary in England and the

suggested translation will therefore only give а very general idea of what is meant.

Шығарма - composition and essayComposition and essay are both translated into Russian as

сочинение but there is а distinction between them.А composition is fairly short (usually 1-3 pages) and simple, usually

narrative or descriptive. Compositions are written by schoolchildren in their own language up to the age of about 14, and in foreign languages as long as they are capable of writing only on simple narrative or descriptive subjects. Compositions may be written by anyone in the early stages of learning а foreign language.

Some examples of composition subjects are: а) My Hobby;b) Taking Part in a Scientific Conference;c) Mу Favourite Television Programme.These are examples of free composition ("Еркін тақырып

бойынша шығарма"). However, in the early stages of language learning, many teachers prefer guided composition ("жоспар бойынша шығарма"). The teacher gives the class а plan, either one he has made himself or one taken from а book, and the class write their compositions according to this plan, or outline. Another type of composition is the picture composition, where the pupils/students write а story told in а series of pictures.

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Composition is also used uncountably to mean the art or technique of putting ideas together, either orally or in writing.

e.g. (From а publisher's catalogue) This book can be used in teaching both oral and written composition.

An essay is usually longer (up to about 20 pages). It expresses ideas, as opposed to simply telling а story or describing something, or, if it is narrative or descriptive, it should have some literary merit. Essays are written by older schoolchildren and students in their own language, and, in а foreign language, by those who have sufficiently mastered the language to be able to express their ideas in it, or write literary prose.

Some examples of essay subjects are:а). Classification of Microprocessors". b). The Influence of Television on Society.с). What is the Purpose of Learning Foreign Languages? d). Computers in Medicine.As essays are written not only in language work, one may speak of а

scientific essay, a history essay, and so on. University students regularly write essays on various aspects of their subject, and examination questions are often in the form of essays.

An essay should be planned, that is, the writer should make а plan before starting to write. An essay plan usually consists of а list of points which one intends to make, in logical order or in order of importance, with reference to illustrations and quotations if necessary. An introduction and а conclusion should also be mentioned. The point of making а plan is that it should be made before, not after writing the essay. Teachers often say to their pupils/students:

- You must make а plan of your essay before you start writing.or - You must plan your essay.We also speak of а well/badly-planned essay.The following expressions with composition/essay are widely

used:an English/French/German composition/essayThis is more common than а composition/essay in

English/French/German in such sentences as:- We've got to write an English composition for homework.а composition/essay subject/topice.g. а). Here is а list of essay subjects/topics for the 3rd year. b). - We've got an essay for homework.- What on? - the usual form in conversation- What's the subject?- On what subject? - more formal

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Theme is not used in the sense of а (composition/essay) subject or topic.

to write а composition/essay on (some subject) or about (smth/smb)

e.g. - For homework I want you to write а composition оn/about computer security.

On is more specific than about here.

6.2 Giving а Talk/Paper What is the difference between the verbs to “talk” and to “speak”?What does a noun “talk” denote?Talk (n & v), SpeakTo give а talk means "to speak informally on some subject in

everyday, non-academic language". Students may be asked to give talks in language classes, in order to practice expressing themselves at length in the foreign language and sometimes also to introduce а discussion of the subject by the whole group. For example, а teacher may say to one of his students:

- Next week I'd like you to give а (short) talk about/on types of Automation.

Talk may also be used as а verb.e.g. Next week I'd like you to talk (for а few minutes) about/оn . . .However, the verb speak is on the whole more common in this

situation, because it expresses more clearly that one person will speak and the others listen.

The talk can begin as follows:- I'd like to say а few words about ...tell you (something) about .. - The subject of mу talk is . . .- My subject is ... PaperThis is more serious, more academic, than а talk. It is defined as: "а

written or printed essay, dissertation, or article on some particular topic; now esp. а communication read to а learned society". The distinctive characteristics of а paper are that it is: 1. academic; 2. written out in full, usually for the purpose of being read aloud at а seminar, conference, or meeting of а learned society. It may or may not be published afterwards. Sometimes paper is used of something which is published in а journal without being read first, in the sense оf а learned article. Paper as defined above corresponds in most cases to (ғылыми) баяндама or, less often, ғылыми мәтін. The verb read or give is used with paper.

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e.g. He read/gave а paper at the seminar/conference. ReportIn traditional British English this word is connected with practical or

administrative matters, not academic work. It is defined as а formal statement of the results of an investigation, or of any matter on which definite information is required, made by some person instructed or required to dо so". For example, the secretary of а society makes an annual report on the activities of the society and the treasurer gives а report on how the society's money has been spent. Committees make, and often publish reports on their findings (Official reports are often called by the name of the chairman of the committee, for example, the Robbins Report on higher education, 1963 (chairman Lord Robbins) and the James Report on teacher training, 1972 (chairman Lord James)). In this sense report corresponds to есеп.

Recently the word report has acquired а new use. It now also denotes an account (written or oral) of the results of а study or investigation carried out by one or-more pupils/ students as part of their work in some subject. This use is mainly American, but is coming into British English, especially in connection with project work. The verb to make is used with report in such situations.

e.g. One of the students made а report on electronics engeneering development.

Making NotesOne may say to make notes or to take notes, but the two verbs are

not interchangeable. When reading а book or article, for example, one makes notes, when listening to someone speak one takes notes.

e.g. а). Read the book carefully and make some notes (on ...)b). Did you take notes at the lecture?To make а note of smth. means "to write down some fact or other

piece of information", for example, someone's telephone number.e.g. c). - I'll just make а note of your telephone number. If someone has taken notes at а lecture, for example, and wants to

rewrite them more clearly and neatly for future reference, the expression to copy up is used, not rewrite.

e.g. d). - I'll сору up the notes at home.Сору (up) is also used when someone misses а lecture and wants to

have some notes.e.g. е). - I missed Professor Brown's lecture but I copied up the notes.f). - Can I сору your notes on Professor Brown's lecture?Simply lecture cannot be used in the sense of lecture notes. Notes is followed by the preposition on.

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e.g. g). Will you lend те your notes on applied mathematics?The subject can also be specified by such expressions as: grammar/literature/philosophy notesКурсдық жұмысThere is nothing equivalent to this in most English universities and

colleges. Arts students (i.e. students of the humanities) write essays regularly throughout each year, and in some newer institutions they also do projects, but none of these seem to occupy the specific place of курсдық жұмыс in their course of studies. Essay, or project, can be used to translate жұмыс. An essay may range in length from З-4 pages to about 20, and may involve а lot of reading. and/or collecting of material.

Курсдық is difficult to translate in such а way as to make а good combination with essay and project. The only possibilities seem to be yearly or first/sеcond/third/fourth-year. This gives the following possible translations:

yearly essay/projector first/second/third/fourth-year essay/projecte.g. а). First-year essays must be given in by April 30th.b). (Teacher to students) - You should be starting work on your

(yearly) projects soon.с). (One student to another) - Have you finished your essay/project

yet?SeminarThis is а still smaller and, more informal group. The number of

students usually ranges from five to ten. Seminars are often held weekly, and as а rule one of the group reads а paper, which is then discussed by the others. There is also а tendency now to use seminar in а wider sense, to denote any meeting for study and/or discussion of some question, not necessarily academic.

The preposition on is used with seminar.e.g. a seminar on fields of engeneeringThe following verbs are used with seminar in the same way as with

lecture and class:to arrange to attendto hold to go toto give to missto haveTo take а seminar is used in the sense of "өткізу" and to take part

in, in the sense of "қатынасу".Express your opinion on what is to be a Bachelor? What other scientific degrees do you know?

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Is there any difference between American and Russian Degrees: High School Graduate, Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, Ph. Doctor?

6.3 Study the following information and compare it with the Kazakh system of training.

Student TrainingStudents in England are trained in one of the following ways:(1) at a university, where they first take a degree in some subject(s)

and then a Postgraduate Diploma/Certificate in Education in the faculty/department of education;

(2) at a college of education, where they take either a degree course leading to the Bachelor of Education, or a shorter, less academic course leading to the Student Certificate. Both courses combine the study of the subject(s) to be taught with student training;

(3) at a college of higher education, where they take the Diploma in Higher Education, and then a student training course leading either to the Bachelor of Education or the Student Certificate.

Students with a degree are called graduate students (or simply graduates) and those with a Teacher's Certificate - certificated teachers or non-graduate teachers (or non-graduates).

The university institutes of education are establishments attached to а university which supervise and coordinate the training of teachers in their areas, approve syllabuses for the Teacher's Certificate examinations and conduct these examinations. They also provide service training and carry out research.

Teacher training, whether at а college of education, college of higher education or in the education faculty/department of а university, includes: lectures on educational history, theory, psychology; classes and seminars on teaching methods; teaching practice.

6.4 Read the text and try to explain what is to be a graduate student.

A Graduate StudentIn England а graduate is not а student but simply а person who has

graduated, that is, taken а first degree, either at university or other institution providing higher education courses. It implies а contrast with non-graduate, that is, а person with а qualification other than а degree.

e.g. а). These jobs are open to graduates.b). Graduates earn more than non-graduates.Graduate can also be used in the sense of "оқу бітіруші".e.g. а). Many British prime ministers have been graduates of Oxford

(or Oxford graduates).

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b). University graduates often have difficulty in finding jobs nowadays.

In American English, however, graduate is used differently. When attributive it generally corresponds to British English postgraduate, as in graduate student and graduate work.

It denotes a person who has received а degree or diploma from any educational institution, including high school and the expressions high school graduate and college/university graduate occur frequently. It follows from this that graduate cannot be used alone to denote а person with а higher educational qualification, as in British English.

6.5 Compare the given difference of the verbs “to learn” and “to study”.

What is the peculiar in their meaning and usage?‘To learn’, ‘to study’ and alternativesTo learn means "to get knowledge of (some subject) or skill in

(some activity), either by reading, having lessons, or by experience";Learn may have either an imperfective meaning (as in exam- or а

perfective meaning. It may mean to learn by heart", as in:I want you to learn the scientific terms (by heart) for next lesson.To study means "to give time and attention to gaining knowledge,

especially from books, to pursue some branch of knowledge". Unlike to learn, it applies only to knowledge, not skill, or ability to dо something. Thus one can learn to read, to type, to cook, to play the piano, etc. but not study. (Study is used with to only in the sense of "in order to", as in He's studying to be а programmer.)

With the names of subjects, for example, history/English/ physics, etc. either learn or study are possible:

In the second form many pupils study two foreign languages.He studied history of Microsoft.In practice, however, the two verbs are not interchangeable. Study is

restricted mainly to formal style. In non-formal style learn is preferred, at least with reference to elementary or practical knowledge, such as one acquires at school or at evening classes, for example. For instance we say:

Не learns/is learning English/history/physics at school.If we meet а foreign visitor who speaks Kazakh we ask:- Where did you learn Kazakh?Study in such cases, besides being too formal for the situation,

would imply an advanced, theoretical course, for example, а degree course at university.

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Study (English/history/physics, etc.) is more widely used with reference to advanced, theoretical knowledge, such as one acquires at university or college.

He's studying English at university.Even here, however, study sounds rather formal, and tends to be

replaced in conversation and informal writing by the more colloquial dо. Learn here would imply а more practical, elementary course.

With the names of authors and their works, periods оf history, subjects of investigation, etc. study, but never learn is used.

When there is no object, learn refers to the process of acquiring knowledge:

Some students learn more quickly than others. He doesn't want to learn.Study with no object generally means "to be а student". He's

studying at Pavlodar State University of Radio Engineering.He published several articles while he was still studying.Note that we dо not say: “He studies at school/in the first form”, but:He's at school or He goes to school.He's in the first form .Neither learn nor study is appropriate here, nor in the translation of

such Kazakh sentences as: “Ол қалай оқиды? Ол жақсы/жаман оқиды”.Here we say, for example:- How's he getting on at school/college/university?- Не's getting on (doing very well) at school/college/university.To read is sometimes used in the sense of "to study" with reference

to universities, mainly of the humanities. - She is reading English. (=She's studying English at university.)

- He reads history at Cambridge.This use of read can be explained by the fact that formerly students

spent most of their time reading books recommended by their tutor rather than attending lectures and classes.

The following verbs are widely used in conversation and in formal writing instead of learn or study:

e.g. - he's doing English this year. - they dо two foreign languages in the third form. - I did French for five years at school, but I can't speak а word. - mу son's doing engineering.6.6 Study the following definition of the words profession,

occupation and job.

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Try to give information about you future profession, future plans and career.

Discuss the following problems in group:- choosing а career is sometimes very difficult. - teaching is а demanding career.- should all careers be open to women?- it is often difficult for women to combine а career and а family.Career differs from profession, occupation and job in that it often

means more than simply а sphere of activity or а way of earning one's living. It implies advancement, gradual promotion to more difficult and/or responsible work, and is therefore used only of those occupations where this is possible. Note that it does not generally have the derogatory connotation sometimes present in the Kazakh word мансап.

Career is also used in the sense of professional/creative activity or life.

e.g. Mendeleev began his career as a chemist.Could you explain the difference between ‘a learner’ and ‘a student’? What is to be a mature student?LearnerThis word is sometimes used in а collective sense. More often,

however, it is qualified, as in the following examples:- Michael is а quick learner.- this is а good method for slow learners.- the Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (title of а

dictionary by А. S. Hornby).- young Teachers and Reluctant Learners. StudentIn traditional British English this word denotes а young person

studying at university or college (а university/college student). There is, however, а growing tendency, of American origin, to call anyone attending an educational institution (including schools) а student.

e.g. At the age of 15-16 students take their first public examination.There has been а Union of School Students in England for some

years. In England this use of student is still mainly confined to secondary school pupils, but is gradually extending to the primary stage, too, following American usage.

Note too that even in traditional British English student is а wider term than the Kazakh студент in another respect, since it includes those who already have a degree or diploma and are pursuing some further course of study, either full-time or part-time. For example, those people who give up their job and go back to university or college to improve their

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qualifications become students again for the duration of their course. Adults attending evening classes, even recreational ones, are also students while they are at their classes. Those doing full-time research are students too, although not simply students, but postgraduate students.

The term mature student is used in some institutions of а person who starts а full-time course at university or college after some years in а job, in contrast to the majority, who start immediately after leaving school.

Thus the word student may be applied to anyone who is studying, regardless of age, qualifications and level of study.

6.7 Translation of terms and abbreviations connected with academic studies and scientific research work

6.7.1 Студенттер – students Бакалавр дәрежесіз немесе дипломсыз студент -

Undergraduate Student Бірінші курс студенті - Freshman Екінші курс студенті - Sophomore Үшінші курс студенті - Junior Жоғары курс студенті - Senior Магистрант - Graduate Student Аспирант - Postgraduate Student, Doctoral Student Докторант - Postdoctoral StudentСтудент (магистрант, аспирант) (сабак беретін) - Student

Teaching Assistant Студенттердің жалпы саны - Total Enrollment

Бітіруші (-лер) - Graduate (s), Alumnus (Alumni) Бітіруші (-лер) - Alumna (Alumnae) Басқа мамандықтан, оқу орнынан келген студент - Transfer

Students Сырттай оқитын студенттер - Correspondent Students6.7.2 Бөлімдер, салалар:Ректорат - University's Administration Факультет - CollegeДеканат - College's Administration, Dean's Office Кафедра - DepartmentМамандандыратын кафедра, факультет - Principal Education

Units, Program offering Department Мамандандырмайтын кафедра - Supporting Academic

DepartmentБөлім - DepartmentҚабылдау комиссия - Office of Admissions Филиал - Regional Branch

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Оқілдық - Regional Office Оқу лабораториялар -laboratories

Оқулық жұмыс:Студенттер терімі - Recruiting of Students Таңдау бағыты - Elective Мамандандыру бағыты - Core CoursesМіндетті бағыт - Required Courses Бөліп шығару - Dismissal Оқу жоспары - Curriculum (Curricula) Пән бағдарламасы - Syllabus (Syllabi) Университет жарнамасы - University promotion Академиялық мәлімет, диплом қосымшасы - Transcripts Студенттік карточка - Student's records Мамандандыру - Major, Option, Subprogram Коллоквиум - recitation Әңгімелесу – interview Мамандық, (оқу) бағыты - Program of Study, Program, Field of

StudyМамандандыру (ғылыми) - Area of Interests, Field of Interest 6.7.3 Дәрежелер:Дәреже – Degree Техника ғылымдарының кандидаты - Candidate of

Engineering Science Техника ғылымдарының докторы - Doctor of Engineering

Science Бакалавр - BachelorМагистр - MasterИнженер дәрежесі, дипломы - Diploma in Engineering Техника және технология салаларындағы АҚШ

аккредитациялық комиссия - ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology Inc.)

Техника және технология салаларындағы аккредитациялық комиссия - ТАС (Technology Accreditation Commission)

Университет мақсаттары - Mission Statement Бағдарлама нәтижелеріне заңды назарлары бар тапсырыс берушілер, әлеуметтік топтар ( студенттер, өнеркәсіп, бітірушілер, банкілер және п. т.) - Constituencies

Бағдарламаның оқу мақсаттары (бағдарламаның аяғындағы алғашқы жылдарында бітірушілердің жасайтын ісін суреттеуі) - Educational Objectives

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Бағдарламаның күтілетін нәтижелері (бағдарламаны бітіру уақытына дейінгі студенттердің білу және қолдану ісінің суреттеуі) - Program Outcomes

6.7.4 ҚысқартуларТ.ғ.д., профессор - Dr. of Tech. Sc., Prof. Т.ғ.к., доцент - Cand. of Tech. Sc., Asc. Prof. Т.ғ.к., ассистент - Cand. of Tech Sc., Ass. Prof. Т.ғ.к., ж.ғ.ж.- Cand. of Tech. Sc., Senior Research Assistant Ф-м. ғ.д.- Dr. of Phys.-Math. Sc. Ф.ғ.д.- Dr. of Phil. Sc. Псих.ғ.д.- Dr. of Ps. Sc. Э.ғ.к. - Cand. of Ес. Sc. FT - Full timePT - Part timeFTЕ - Full Time Equivalent CV - Curriculum Vitae

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Appendix

Test 1 Geometric Optics. Physics Optics

A. ReadingRead the text. From the list A–E choose the sentence which best

fits each gap in the text. There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use.

The Visible Spectrum and DispersionThe two most obvious properties of light are readily describable in

terms of the wave theory of light: intensity (or brightness) and colour. The intensity of light is the energy it caries per unit time, and is related to the square of the amplitude of the wave, just as for any wave (1;…). Visible light – that to which our eyes are sensitive – falls in the wavelength range of about 400 nm to 750 nm. This is known as the visible spectrum, and within it lie the different colors from violet to red. Light with wavelength shorter than 400 nm is called ultraviolet (UV), and light with wavelength greater than 750 nm is called infrared (IR) (2;...).

A prism separates white light into a rainbow of colours. This happens because the index of refraction of a material depends on the wavelength. White light is a mixture of all visible wavelengths, and when incident on a prism, the different wavelengths are bent to varying degrees. Because the index of refraction is greater for the shorter wavelengths, violet light is bent the most and red the least (3;…).

Rainbows are a spectacular example of dispersion – by drops of water (4;…). Red and violet rays are bent by spherical water droplets and are reflected off the back surface. Red is bent the least and so reaches the observer’s eyes from droplets higher in the sky. Thus, the top of the rainbow is red.

Diamonds achieve their brilliance from a combination of dispersion and total internal reflection (5;…). Incident light therefore strikes many of the internal surfaces before it strikes one at less than 25° and emerges. After many such reflections, the light has traveled far enough that the colours have become sufficiently separated to be seen individually and brilliantly by the eye after leaving the crystal.

A. This spreading of white light into the full spectrum is called dispersion.

B. You can see rainbows when you look at falling water droplets with the Sun at your back.

C. White light passes through a slit and an interference pattern is observed on a screen.

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D. The colour of the light is related to the wavelength or frequency of the light.

E. Because diamonds have a very high index of refraction of about 2,3, the critical angle for total internal reflection is only 25°.

F. Although human eyes are not sensitive to UV or IR, some types ofphotographic film do respond to them.

B. Choose the correct item to fill in the gaps1. When a crest of one wave arrives at the same time as a crest of

another wave, the amplitudes of two waves add to form a larger amplitude. This is … interference (positive, productive, constructive).

2. When light strikes a transparent medium, some light is reflected and some is ... (transported, transmitted, carried through).

3. For angles greater than Qc, the light is reflected and none is refracted. This phenomenon is called … internal reflection (absolute, complete, total).

4. When light passes from air into a … medium as glass, the rays are refracted or “bent” toward the normal (more condensed, denser, more compressed).

5. A great deal of evidence suggests that light moves from the object to our eyes in straight-line … (paths, routes, tracks).

6. Refraction of light may cause optical … (deceptions, illusions, errors).

7. We know that … sound waves have wavelengths of centimeters to meters (perceptible, distinct, audible).

C. Fill in the correct word derived from the words in brackets

PolarizationLight waves are transverse electromagnetic waves with the electric

and magnetic field vectors oscillating perpendicular to the direction of 1) …(propagate). The atoms of a light source generally emit light waves that are 2) … (random) oriented and a beam of light has transverse field vectors in all 3) … (direct). Such light is said to be 4) … (polarize). Polarization refers to the5) … (prefer) orientation of the field vectors. If there is some 6) … (part) preferential orientation of the field vectors, the light is 7) … (part) polarized. If the vectors are in a single plane, the light is 8) … (line) polarized.

D. Choose the right words from the list to fill in the spaces:White, incident, interference, parallel, red, light waves, sound waves,

away

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from, violet, toward, internal reflection, diffuse reflection, dispersion.

1. Rays reflected from relatively rough surfaces are not …; this is called diffuse reflection.

2. Because of … … in all directions, an ordinary object can be seen from many different angles.

3. The angle of refraction depends on the speed of light in the two media and on the … angle.

4. When light passes from one material into a second material where the index of refraction is less (say, from water into air), the light bends … the normal.

5. The ray bends … the normal when entering the water.6. … light is electromagnetic radiation containing all wavelengths

visible to the human eyes.7. … light has a shorter wavelength than … light.8. A diamond is said to have “fire” because of colourful …, in

addition to having brilliance due to … …9. We are well aware that … … bend around the corners while … …

do not.10. The colourful display seen in oil films and soap bubbles can be

explained by …E. Fill in the gaps with the verbs in brackets using the to-

infinitive or the bare infinitive form1. In working out lens problems we usually want … the image

distance (know).2. He saw the magnetic field … the beam of electrons downward in

the discharge tube (deflect).3. Diffraction can … rise to interference (give).4. Polarizing sunglasses allow only the vertical component of the

light … (pass).5. Let’s … certain terms to explain the action of all waves in this

figure (use).6. You had better … polarizing sunglasses if you want to reduce the

glare. (wear).7. The extra cargo made the ship … (sink).8. The Sun will cause the temperature … (rise).9. He was made … the results of his experiment on the diagram

(illustrate).10. In the course of the upper-air observations with the help of the

radiosond we saw the carrier balloon … (burst).

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F. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct infinitive or the -ing form

1. I can’t help … (wonder) how Andy managers to afford … (run) such an expensive car.

2. I avoid … (travel) in the rush-hour if I can.3. If you don’t stop … (waste) your time and at least try … (do)

something, the boss will be furious.4. I’m looking forward to … (see) you again soon.5. I meant … (get up) earlier but I forgot to set my alarm clock.6. If you can’t sleep properly, try … (walk) before you go to bed.7. I can’t get used to … (get up) early.8. You’ll never regret … (do) a kind action.9. As teenagers we used to … (understand) each other very well.10. It’s no use … (complain). They won’t do anything about it.G. Choose the correct answer1. The world … the same since the first atomic bomb was exploded

above the New Mexico desert.a) was never; b) has never been; c) had never been.2. The objects in our environment … of matter.a) are composed; b) were composed; c) will be composed.3. The science of chemistry … with the composition, structure,

properties of matter and the transformation that this matter undergoes.a) dealt; b) is dealing; c) deals.4. By the time the scientific method was born in the sixteenth

century, much … about the properties of matter.a) was discovered; b) has been discovered; c) had been discovered.5. Einstein’s equation which related mass to energy … since 1905.a) is known; b) has been known; c) was known.6. Our modern listing of elements … to 109 with more expected.a) has grown; b) has been; grown c) grew.7. Alchemy… a mixture of magic and experimentation.a) was; b) has been; c) had been.8. Our knowledge of the universe …a) grows; b) grew; c) is growing.9. Since Berzelius’ time most elements … by the first one or two

letters of the English name (C for carbon, O for oxygen, H for hydrogen).a) have symbolized; b) were symbolized; c) have been symbolized.10. In the very earliest of civilization nine elements …: gold, silver,

lead, copper, tin, iron, carbon, sulfur and mercury.a) had been isolated; b) were isolated; c) are isolated.H. Translate the following text:

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Waves Versus Particles; Huygen’s Principle and diffractionThat light carries energy is obvious to anyone who has focused the

Sun’s rays with a magnifying glass on a piece of paper and burnt a hole in it. But how does light travel, and in what form is this energy carried?

Historically, this question turned out to be a difficult one. For one thing, light does not reveal itself in any obvious was as being made up of tiny particles no do we see tiny light waves passing by as we do water waves. The evidence seemed to favor first one side and then the other until about 1830, when most physicists had accepted the wave theory. By the end of the nineteenth century, light was considered to be an electromagnetic wave. In the early twentieth century, light was shown to have a particle nature as well. Nonetheless, the wave theory of light retains valid and has proved very successful.

The Dutch scientist Christian Huygens (1629–1695), a contemporary of Newton, proposed a wave theory of light that had much merit. Still useful today is a technique he developed for predicting the future position of a wave front when an earlier position is known. This is known as Huygen’s principle and can be stated as follows: every point on a wave front can be considered as a source of tiny wavelets that spread out in the forward direction at the speed of the wave itself. The new wavelet is the envelope of all the wavelets – that is, the tangent to all of them.

Huygen’s principle is particularly useful when waves impinge on an obstacle and the wave fronts are partially interrupted. Huygen’s principle predicts that waves bend in behind an obstacle. This is just what water waves do. The bending of waves behind obstacles into the “shadow region” is known as diffraction. Since diffraction occurs for waves, but not for particles, it can serve as one means for distinguishing the nature of light.

Test 2 Special Theory of Relativity

A. ReadingRead the text and choose from the list A–F the sentence which

best fits each gap in the text. There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use.

The Michelson-Morley ExperimentA. The Michelson-Morley Experiment was designed to measure the

speed of the ether – the medium in which light was assumed to travel – with respect to the Earth.

B. The “null” result was one of the great puzzles of physics at the end of the nineteenth century.

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C. It is assumed that the “ether wind” is moving with speed v to the right. Alternatively, the Earth is assumed to move to the left with respect to the ether at speed v.

D. The medium for light waves could not be air, since light travels from the Sun to the Earth through nearly empty space.

E. In a reference frame which was not at rest, extra terms would have to be added to take into account the relative velocity.

F. Briefly, what they did was measure the difference in the speed of light in different directions.

With the introduction of the theory of electromagnetism in the last half of the nineteenth century it was assumed that light would have a different speed in different frames of reference. Maxwell’s equations predicted the speed of light to be c = 3 . 108 m/s. This seemed to imply there must be some special reference frame where c would have this value (1;…).

Waves travel on water and along ropes or strings, and sound waves travel in air and other materials. It was natural for nineteenth-century physicists to think that light must travel in some medium (2;…). Therefore, another medium was postulated, the ether. The ether was not only transparent, but because of difficulty in detecting it, was assumed to have zero density.

Scientists soon set out to determine the speed of the Earth relative to this absolute frame, whatever it might be. A number of clever experiments were designed. The most direct were performed by A.A. Michelson and E.W. Morley in the 1880s (3;…). The experiments thus hoped to find an absolute reference frame, one that could be considered to be at rest.

One of the possibilities nineteenth-century scientists considered was that the ether is fixed relative to the Sun, for even Newton had taken the Sun as the centre of the universe. If this were the case (there was no guarantee, of course), the Earth’s speed of about 3 . 104 m/s in its orbit around the Sun would produce a change of 1 part in 104 in the speed of light (3 . 108 m/s). Direct measurement of the speed of light to this accuracy was not possible. But A.A. Michelson, later with the help of E.W. Morley, was able to use his interferometer to measure the difference in the speed of light to this accuracy (4;…). They expected to find a difference depending on the orientation of their apparatus with respect to the ether. For just as a boat has different speeds relative to the land when it moves upstream, downstream, or across the stream, so too light would be expected to have different speeds depending on the velocity of the ether past the Earth.

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They detected no difference at all (5;…). One possibility to explain the null result was to apply an idea put forth independently by G.F. Fitzgerald and H.A. Lorentz (in the 1890s) in which they proposed that any length (including the arm of interferometer) contracts by a factor in the direction of motion through the ether. According to Lorentz, this could be due to the ether affecting the forces between the molecules of a substance, which were assumed to be electrical in nature. This theory was eventually replaced by the far more comprehensive theory proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905 – the special theory of relativity.

B. Choose the correct item to fill in the space1. Within experimental … no contradictions have been found in the

theory (mistake, omission, error)2. Relativity does not … classical mechanics (contradict, satisfy,

mind).3. Matter can be … into energy (modified, remodeled, converted).4. The time interval between two … even if they are simultaneous,

depends on the observer’s reference frame (incidents, events, episodes).5. The laws of physics … the relativity principle (observe, follow,

obey).6. To accelerate an object up to the speed of light would require …

energy (absolute, endless, infinite).7. A general result of relativity is known as time … (dilation,

extension, increase).8. Mass, another basic mechanical … is measured to increase as its

speed increases (magnitude, amount, quantity).9. The length of an object is measured to be shorter when it is

moving relative to the … than when it is at rest (viewer, observer, spectator).

10. Certain … assumptions make sense from everyday experience (unprovable, unverifiable, unchecked).

C. Fill in the correct word derived from the words in brackets1. Two events are said to occur … (simultaneous) if they occur at …

(exact) the same time.2. Einstein concluded that the … (consistent) he found in

electromagnetic theory were due to the … (assume) that an absolute space exists.

3. This … (propose) was embodied in two postulates.4. … (long) contraction, like time … (dilate), is not noticeable in

everyday life.5. Somehow we feel, just as physicists did before the advent of …

(relative), that space and time are … (complete) separate entities.

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6. Before Galileo, the vertical … (direct), that in which objects fall, was considered to be … (distinct) different from the two horizontal dimensions.

7. We have recognized the … (valid) of this principle in everyday life.

8. In classical mechanics the … (measure) of space and time doesn’t change from one reference frame to another.

9. We can conclude that … (simultaneous) is not an absolute concept.

10. The effect is … (notice) only when the relative speed of the two reference frames is very large.

D. Choose the right word from the list to fill in the spaces:Mind, light, set of coordinates, at rest, relative, unaccelerated,

relativity, observer, spatial, absolute, definition, in motion, fixed, view.

The 20th century saw remarkable developments in the theory of a) … These developments have been responsible for profound changes in the way that physicists, astronomers and mathematicians b) … the world.

The special theory of relativity is best known as a description of how objects behave when they travel with speeds near that of c) … It leads to an

understanding of time and space as d) … quantities that depend on how a particular observer is moving, rather than absolute quantities measured with respect to a e) … system of coordinates.

The problem of space and time is not a new one. The German philosopher Nicolas of Cusa (1401–1464) argued that space and time are merely products of the f) …, and therefore are inferior to the mind that created them. Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), an Italian philosopher whose ideas anticipated modern science, pointed out that such words as “above”, “below”, “at rest” and g) … are meaningless in the universe of revolving suns and planets, for which there is no fixed centre. In the 17th century, the celebrated English physicist and mathematician, Isaac Newton, contrasted the h) … time of the scientist with the less precise everyday notions of space and time. He regarded the material world as a collection of particles, each one of which could be i) … or moving, not merely in relation to the others, but in relation to absolute space.

Relativity states that it is impossible to give a clear j) … of an “absolute” space and time. Objects in the Universe cannot be measured with respect to some single, fixed system of coordinates. Only relative space and time exist, in which each k) … refers events to their own frame of reference and to each other.

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For example, you could choose to measure events in your house relative to their position from your front door and their time according to your kitchen clock.

Any l) … frame of reference is as good as any other for describing events and for carrying out experiments to determine the laws of nature. The system of coordinates needed to describe any frame of reference are the three m) … dimensions, plus time. In other words, relativity is concerned with a four dimensional n) … called space-time, and with how events appear differently when viewed in different frames of reference.

E. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense1. He will be late for the train if he … (not start) at once.2. If you … (speak) more slowly, he might have understood you.3. If Paul comes this evening, we … (talk) it over with him.4. If you were going to travel to Tibet, when … (be) the best time to

go?5. I wouldn’t drink that wine if I … (be) you.6. If you … (not like) opera, why are you here?7. If the salary … (be) good, I would have accepted the job.8. If heat energy continuously … (not remove) from the core of the

fission reactor, the fuel rods may fuse.9. If you hadn’t been in such a hurry, you not … (put) salt into the

coffee instead of sugar.10. It … (be) easier if Leeds were on a direct link to Oxford.11. If I … (listen) more carefully to his directions, I wouldn’t have

got lost.12. What would you do, if you … (become) President.13. If I were you, I … (not go) in this weather.14. If enough strontium-90 … (ingest), it can destroy the bone

marrow or perhaps cause cancer.15. If we get a lift, we … (be) in time.F. Choose the correct answer:1. The element hydrogen … in nature as three isotopes: protium,

hydrogen, deuterium.a) is found; b) is being found; c) has found2. There are lots of books about black holes. William Kaufman’s

“Black holes Warped Spacetime” is also worth …a) to read; b) being read; c) reading.3. R. Wald’s “Space, Time and Gravity” is an exposition of general

relativity for non-scientists. I … it myself, but I’ve heard good things about it.

a) didn’t read; b) haven’t read; c) am not reading.

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4. Human beings have long desired to control the weather. However, little progress ... toward achieving this desire.

a) has been made; b) was made; c) is making.5. If Madame Curie’s work on radium …successful, she wouldn’t

have been awarded the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1911.a) wasn’t; b) couldn’t have been; c) hadn’t been.6. Madame Curie died in 1934 from leukemia (cancer of the blood)

which may … by overexposure to radioactivity.a) be caused; b) have been caused; c) have caused.7. She died one year before the Curies’ daughter Irene Joliot Curie,

and her husband Fredefic Joliot … the Nobel prize in chemistry.a) had been awarded; b) were being awarded; c) were awarded.8. If he helps us, the job … us half an hour.a) will take; b) would take; c) would have taken.9. We expect all the alkali metals … similar properties.a) to be having; b) have; c) to have.10. The Sun’s temperature … to be about 15 million K at its centre.a) is believed; b) was believed; c) believed.11. The temperature at the visible surface of the Sun … at about

6000 K.a) is being measured; b) had been measured; c) has been measured.12. When chemists discovered gallium, scandium and germanium,

they found that they had the properties that Mendeleev …a) predicted; b) has predicted; c) had predicted.13. So far, we … compounds as being either ionic or covalent.a) classified; b) have classified; c) had classified.14. The National Weather Service … to getting the weather

information to the public by the fastest means available.a) is dedicated; b) has dedicated; c) dedicated.15. If the dew point … below 0ºC, the water vapour freezes on

condensinga) will be; b) were; c) is.

G. Translate the following textThe second postulate of the special theory of relativity states that

light propagates through empty space with a definite speed c independent of the speed of the source or observer. It may seem hard to accept, for it violates commonsense notions. First of all, we have to think of light traveling through empty space. Giving up the ether is not too hard, however, for after all, it had never been detected. But the second postulate also tells us that the speed of light in vacuum is always the same, 3 . 108

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m/s, no matter what the speed of the observer or the source. Thus, a person traveling toward or away from a source of light will measure the same speed for that light as someone at rest with respect to the source. These conflicts with our everyday notions, for we would expect to have to add in the velocity of the observer. Part of the problem is that in our everyday experience, we do not measure velocities anywhere near as large as the speed of light. Thus we can’t expect our everyday experience to be helpful when dealing with such a high velocity. On the other hand, the Michelson-Morley experiment is fully consistent with the second postulate.

Test 3 A. ReadingChoose the most suitable heading from the list A–G for each part

(1–7) of the text.

The 21st Century EngineerA. Integration of disparate components into the whole that exceeds

the sum of its respective capabilities.B. Creating microscopic devices.C. Advances in modern science and technology that will shape the

future of engineering.D. Skills and abilities that 21st century engineers need.E. Revolution in the acquisition of knowledge.F. The capability that facilitates computing.G. “Chaotic engineering”.

(1;…) What does the 21st century engineer need to know? To attempt an answer, let’s briefly examine some of the new capabilities that are shaping the future of engineering – terascale, nanoscale, complexity, cognition, and holism.

Because science and technology are transforming forces, it will be these emerging fields, the unpredicted territories, that will change and expand our capabilities as engineers and innovators.

(2;…) Terascale. This new capability takes us three orders of magnitude beyond present general-purpose and generally accessible computing capabilities.

In the past, our system architectures could handle hundreds of processors. Now we are working with systems of 10 000 processors. In a very short time, we’ll be connecting millions of systems and billions of

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“information appliances” to the Internet. Crossing that boundary of one trillion operations per second will launch us toward new frontiers.

(3;…) Nanoscale. This advance will take us three orders of magnitude below the size of most of today’s human-made devices. Nanostructuresare at the confluence of the smallest of human-made devices and the large molecules of living systems, letting us imagine connecting machines to living cells.

Nanotechnology lets us manipulate matter one atom or molecule at a time. It could lead to amazing breakthroughs – for example, to molecular computers that could store the equivalent of the U.S. Library of Congress in a device we could wear.

(4;…) Complexity. Mitch Waldrop writes in his book “Complexity” about a point “where the components of a system never quite lock into place, and yet never quite dissolve into turbulence, either …”. It’s often called the edge of chaos. If we look at science and engineering, we discern this zone of transformation at many scales and in many disciplines. For example, researchers are trying to wed polymers to silicon – a marriage of opposites, because plastics are chaotic chains while silicon consists of orderly crystals. The resulting electronic devices would have marvelous flexibility, be less expensive to make, and, therefore, empower more people. Again, it comes to managing order and disorder, all at once.

(5;…) Cognition. The dictionary defines cognition as “the mental process or facility by which knowledge is acquired”. Because of new knowledge, methods, and tools, I believe we are on the verge of a cognitive revolution. We are poised for many exciting new discoveries in this area. These breakthroughs will lay the foundation for progress in many areas of national importance, from teaching children how to read to understanding learning processes, from building humanlike computers and robots to designing networks and systems capable of cognition.

(6;…) Holism. According to the dictionary, again, holism is “the concept that any entity is greater than merely the sum of its parts”. It refers to new capabilities to put things together – how to integrate seemingly disparate things into a greater whole. This includes social as well as physical and virtual engineering systems.

(7;…) All told, progress in these areas will lay out the capacity for anintegrated design field far beyond what is imaginable with today’s technology.

Taken together, this means that 21st century engineers will need to be astute makers, trusted innovators, agents of change, master integrators, enterprise enablers, technology stewards and knowledge handlers. They will need to embrace complex systems and reach the right decisions about

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how huge amounts of time, money, people, knowledge and technology are tasked to a common end.

B. Fill in the gaps with an appropriate word from the list:Spinning motion, conductors, commonsense, non-accelerating,

spontaneously, incidence, reverse, interference, charge, ferromagnetic.

1. When in thermal contact, heat flows … from a hotter object to a colder one until they are at the same temperature.

2. Processes that are left to themselves tend to become more and more disordered, never the …

3. Normally when objects are charged by rubbing. They hold their … only for a limited time and eventually return to the neutral state.

4. Metals are generally good … whereas most other materials are insulators.

5. Individual electrons in an atom have a magnetic field due to what is best understood as a …

6. Materials that are highly magnetic are called …7. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of …8. … effects are defined as change in wave motion produced by

phase and amplitude relations of two or more waves.9. The special theory of relativity deals with inertial (…) reference

frames.10. The concept of dilation may be hard to accept, for it violates our

… understanding.C. Fill in the correct word derived from the words in brackets:1. A beautiful … (atmosphere) phenomenon commonly seen after

rain is called the rainbow. The … (colour) arc of a rainbow is the result of several … (optic) effects: refraction, internal … (reflect) and dispersion.

2. The universe can be extreme. There are realms that are tiny and yet … (incredible) massive, therefore requiring that both quantum mechanics and general relativity … (simultaneous) be brought to bear.

3. We use heat energy, either directly or … (direct), to do most of the work that is done in everyday life. The ……. (operate) of heat engines is based on the laws of thermodynamics.

4. The volt is the unit of … (volt) and is equal to one joule per coulomb. … (volt) is caused by a … (separate) of charge.

5. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. The … (strong) of the attraction or … (repulse) depends on the … (strong) of the magnetic poles.

D. Correct the mistakes:1. If you will not stop eating chocolates, you’ll put on weight.2. You look exhausted. What did you do?

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3. I don’t mind to lend you the money.4. My salary is being deposited in my bank account every month.5. He is late. He might miss the bus.6. The flat hasn’t tidied yet.7. Martin is saying to be a good sportsman.8. He known to have several bank accounts.9. I hope that the new sports centre is opening soon.10. I heard him to call for help.11. I am going to work by bus because my car is repaired at the

moment.12. I usually have my house cleaning by my cleaner.13. There is no point to worry until you get the results.14. If I were not busy yesterday, I wouldn’t have helped you.15. The bank has closed by the time they got there.

E. Translate one of the following texts into Kazakh:

Text AWhat is a black hole?A black hole is a region of space that has so much mass concentrated

in it that there is no way for a nearby object to escape its gravitational pull. Let’s start by thinking about gravity under fairly simple circumstances.

Suppose that you are standing on the surface of a planet. You throw a rock straight up into the air. Assuming you don’t throw it too hard, it will rise for a while, but eventually the acceleration due to the planet’s gravity will make it start to fall down again. If you threw the rock hard enough, though, you would make it escape the planet’s gravity entirely. It would keep on rising forever. The speed with which you need to throw the rock in order that it just barely escapes the planet’s gravity is called escape velocity.

Now imagine an object with such an enormous concentration of mass in such a small radius that its escape velocity was greater than the velocity of light.

Then, since nothing can go faster than light, nothing can escape the object’s gravitational field. Even a beam of light would be pulled back by gravity and would be unable to escape.

Massive objects distort space and time, so that the usual rules of geometry don’t apply any more. Near a black hole, this distortion of space is extremely severe and causes black holes to have some very strange properties. In particular, a black hole has something called an event horizon. This is a spherical surface that marks the boundary of the black

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hole, the horizon has a very large velocity. In fact, it is moving outward at the speed of light! That explains why it is easy to cross the horizon in the inward direction, but impossible to get back out.

Text BThe ForcesThe world around us is replete with means of exerting influence:

balls can be hit with bats, bungee enthusiasts can through themselves earthward from high platforms, magnets can keep superfast trains suspend just above metallic tracks, Geiger counters can tick in response to radioactive material, nuclear bombs can explode. We can influence objects by vigorously pushing, pulling, or shaking them; or by freezing, heating, or burning them. During the past hundred years physicists have accumulated mounting evidence that all of these interactions between various objects and materials can be reduced to combinations of four fundamental forces. One of these is the gravitational force. The other three are the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the strong force.

Gravity is the most familiar of the forces, being responsible for keeping us in orbit around the Sun as well as keeping our feet firmly planted on earth. The mass of an object measures how much gravitational force it can exert as well as feel. The electromagnetic force is the next most familiar of the four. It is the force driving all of the conveniences of modern life – lights, computers, TVs, telephones. It underlies the awesome might of lightning storms and the gentle touch of a human hand.

The strong and weak forces are less familiar because their strength rapidly diminishes over all but subatomic distance scales; they are the nuclear forces.

This is why these two forces were discovered much more recently. The strong force is responsible for keeping quarks “glued” together inside of protons and neutrons and keeping protons and neutrons tightly crammed together inside atomic nuclei. The weak force is best known as the force responsible for the radioactive decay of substances such as uranium and cobalt.

Text CQuantum Mechanics – A New TheoryThe new theory, called quantum mechanics, unifies the wave –

particle duality into a single consistent theory. As a theory, quantum mechanics has been extremely successful. It has successfully dealt with the spectra emitted by complex atoms, even the fine details. It explains the relative brightness of spectral lines and how atoms form molecules. It is also a much more general theory that covers all quantum phenomena from

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blackbody radiation to atoms and molecules. It has explained a wide range of natural phenomena and from its predictions many new practical devices have become possible. Indeed, it has been so successful that it is accepted today by nearly all physicists as the fundamental theory underlying physical processes.

Quantum mechanics deals mainly with microscopic world of atoms and light.

But in our macroscopic world, we do perceive light and we accept that ordinary objects are made up of atoms. This new theory must therefore also account for the verified results of classical physics. That is, when it is applied to macroscopic phenomena, quantum mechanics must be able to produce the old classical laws.

This, the corresponding principle is met fully by quantum mechanics. This doesn’t mean we throw away classical theories such as Newton’s laws. In the everyday world, the latter are far easier to apply and they give an accurate description. But when we deal with high speeds, close to the speed of light, we must use the theory of relativity; and when we deal with the tiny world of the atom, we use quantum mechanics.

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Keys to the tests (1-3)

Test 1

A. 1 – D; 2 – F; 3 – A; 4 – B; 5 – E.

B. 1) constructive; 5) paths; 2) transmitted; 6) illusions; 3) total; 7) audible. 4) denser;

C. 1) propagation; 5) preferential; 2) randomly; 6) partial; 3) directions; 7) partially; 4) unpolarized; 8) linearly.

D. 1) parallel; 6) white; 2) diffuse reflection; 7) violet; red; 3) incident; 8) dispersion; internal reflection; 4) away from; 9) sound waves; light waves; 5) toward; 10) interference.

E. 1) to know; 6) wear; 2) deflect; 7) sink; 3) give; 8) to rise; 4) to pass; 9) to illustrate; 5) use; 10) burst.

F. 1) wondering; to run; 6) walking; 2) traveling; 7) getting up; 3) wasting; to do; 8) doing; 4) seeing; 9) understand; 5) to get up; 10) complaining.

G. 1 – b; 2 – a; 3 – c; 4 – c; 5 – b; 6 – a; 7 – a; 8 – c; 9 – c; 10 – b.

Test 2

A. 1 – E; 2 – D; 3 – A; 4 – F; 5 – B.

B. 1) error; 6) infinite;

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2) contradict; 7) dilation; 3) converted; 8) quantity; 4) events; 9) observer;5) obey; 10) unprovable.

C. 1) simultaneously; exactly; 6) direction; distinctly; 2) inconsistencies; assumption; 7) validity; 3) proposal; 8) measurement; 4) length; dilation; 9) simultaneity; 5) relativity; completely; 10) noticeable.

D. a) relativity; h) absolute; b) view; i) at rest; c) light; j) definition; d) relative; k) observer; e) fixed; l) unaccelerated; f) mind; m) spatial; g) in motion; n) set of coordinates.

E. 1) doesn’t start; 9) wouldn’t have put; 2) had spoken; 10) would be; 3) ‘ll talk; 11) had listened; 4) would be; 12) became; 5) were; 13) wouldn’t go; 6) don’t like; 14) is ingested; 7) had been; 15) ‘ll be. 8) is not continuously removed;

F. 1) a; 6) b; 11) c; 2) c; 7) c; 12) c; 3) b; 8) a; 13) b; 4) a; 9) d; 14) a; 5) c; 10) a; 15) c.

Test 3A. 1 – C; 2 – F; 3 – B; 4 – G; 5 – E; 6 – A; 7 – D.

B. 1) spontaneously; 6) ferromagnetic; 2) reverse; 7) incidence; 3) charge; 8) interference; 4) conductors; 9) non-accelerating;

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5) spinning motion; 10) commonsense.C. 1) atmosphere; colourful; optical; reflection; 2) incredibly; simultaneously; 3) indirectly; operation; 4) voltage (2); separation; 5) strength; repulsion; strength.

D. 1. If you don’t stop eating chocolates, you’ll put on weight. 2. You look exhausted. What have you been doing? 3. I don’t mind lending you the money. 4. My salary is deposited in my bank account every month. 5. He is late. He might have missed the bus. 6. The flat hasn’t been tidied yet. 7. Martin is said to be a good sportsman. 8. He is known to have several bank accounts. 9. I hope that the new sports centre will open soon. 10. I heard him call/calling for help. 11. I am going to work by bus because my car is being repaired at

the moment. 12. I usually have my house cleaned by my cleaner. 13. There is no point in worrying until you get the results. 14. If I hadn’t been busy yesterday, I wouldn’t have helped you. 15. The bank had closed by the time they got there.

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Әдебиеттер

1 Dooley J. Grammarway 2/J. Dooley, V. Evans. – Newbury : Express Publishing, 1998. – 152 p.

2 Dooley J. Grammarway 3/J. Dooley, V. Evans. – Newbury : Express Publishing, 2000. – 216 p.Shipman J.T. An Introduction to Physical Science / J.T. Shipman.

3 Giancoli D.C. Physics: Principles with Application/D.C. Giancoli. – New Jersey : Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1998. – 1096 p.

4 Graver B.D. Advanced English Practice/B.D. Graver. – Oxford : University Press, 1996. – 320 p.

5 Evans V. Round – Up. English Grammar Practice/V. Evans. – England : Pearson Education Limited, 2000. – 176 p.

6 J.D. Wilson. – Massachusetts Toronto : D.C. Health and company, 1990. – 630 p.

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Contents

Алғы сөз…………………………………………………….........31. Fields of engineering……………………………………………...62. What is the Internet?……………………………………….........403. Science……………………………………………………..........494. Supplementary Reading Section………………………………...635. Phrases for Scientific Communication……………………..........696. Supplementary Terminology Section……………………………747. Appendix………………………………………………...............93 Әдебиеттер………………………………………………….....112

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