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Table S1. Metals applications with primary substitutes and substitute performance

Metal Application Application DetailsPercentage into

ApplicationPrimary

SubstituteSubstitute

PerformanceAnalysis Details

Li

Batteries Used in rechargeable batteries (i.e., lithium-ion and lithium polymer) and primary (disposable) lithium batteries (as the anode material)

25% (1) (global) nickel-metal hydride batteries (rechargeable batteries substitute), and zinc for primary batteries (1)

good

Ceramics and glass Reduces fusion temperatures, permits control of contaminant emissions, and produces a better quality product (2)

18% (1) (global) sodium (1) exemplary

Lubricating greases Used in specialty lubricants and greases used for working in extreme temperature and change conditions (2)

12% (1) (global) calcium (1, 3) good

Pharmaceuticals and polymers

Used in pharmaceuticals (e.g., to treat bipolar disorder and as a catalyst in some new applications for weight control) and in polymers (2)

7% (1) (global) none not applicable

Air conditioning Used in air conditioning and dehumidification systems

6% (1) (global) ammonia/water systems (4)

poor

Primary aluminum production

Lowers the melting point of the cryolite bath in primary aluminum production (2)

4% (1) (global) sodium (2) good

Continuous casting Addition of lithium to continuous casting mold fluxes provides thermal insulation and lubrication

3% (1) (global) sodium good

Other Includes chemical processing 25% (1) (global) not applicable not applicable

Be

Computer and telecommunications products

Serves as both a structural support and heat sink in product applications such as computers, cellular phones, integrated circuits, and radars

50% (global) copper-nickel-silicon alloys

adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally

Aerospace and defense

Used in lightweight structural components

25% (global) polymers adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally

Other Includes appliances, automotive and medical applications, electronics, and industrial components

25% (global) not applicable not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally

B Ceramics and glass Used in borosilicate glass for laboratory glassware and consumer cookware and to form high-strength, lightweight materials used in aerospace and consumer applications

64% (5) (global) sodium (1) good Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Soaps, detergents, and bleaches

Used primarily in household laundry and cleaning products

4% (5) (global) chlorine (for bleaches) and

good Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one

enzymes (for soaps and detergents) (1)

hundred percent due to rounding

Agriculture Serves as a micronutrient 4% (5) (global) none not applicable Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Other Includes ferroboron, enamels, and glazes

27% (5) (global) not applicable not applicable Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Mg

Refractories Used as a refractory material in furnace linings for iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement production

83% (6) (global) none not applicable Global values are for 2002

Alumina, chromite, and silica substitute for magnesia in some refractory applications (1), but there is no single primary substitute

Environmental Used in water treatment and stack-gas scrubbing

6% (6) (global) lime exemplary Global values are for 2002

Agriculture Serves as a micronutrient 5% (6) (global) none not applicable Global values are for 2002

Other Includes magnesium metal uses (e.g., in aluminum-based alloys used in packaging and transportation, structural uses, and desulfurization of iron and steel), welding fluxes, and chemicals

6% (6) (global) not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2002

Al Transportation Widely used in automotive and truck, railroad, marine, and aerospace industries as castings, extrusions, and sheets

28% (7) (global) steel adequate Global values are for 2007

Building and construction

Used in windows, doors, facades siding, gutters, and roofing

24% (7) (global) steel good Global values are for 2007

Packaging Used primarily in cans and foil 15% (7) (global) steel good Global values are for 2007

Electrical Used in electrical lines for power 12% (7) (global) copper exemplary Global values are for 2007

transmission and distributionMachinery Used in machinery tools, such as

the mold material for the plastics industry

8% (7) (global) steel adequate Global values are for 2007

Consumer durables Includes use in cooking utensils and home appliances (e.g., refrigerators)

7% (7) (global) copper good Global values are for 2007

Other Includes use in applications like petrochemical piping and tanks


Sc

Aerospace and defense

Primarily used in aerospace and military vehicles (8, 9) as an alloying element with aluminum to provide strength and weldability (8, 10)

50% (informed estimate) (global)

aluminum itself, without addition of scandium

adequate

Lighting Used in high-intensity metal halide lamps (11)


none not applicable

Sports equipment Used primarily in bicycles, baseball bats, golf clubs, and lacrosse sticks (12)


titanium good

Other Includes metallurgical research, analytical standards, capacitors, and transistors


not applicable not applicable

Ti

Pigments Used in paint, plastics, ceramics, and paper

88% (global) talc adequate Based upon the estimate that 95% of total titanium supply is consumed in the form of titanium dioxide (13) and, globally, that 93% of titanium dioxide is used as a white pigment in paint, plastic, and paper from TZ Minerals International as cited in (14)

Other Includes titanium metal uses and chemicals

12% (global) not applicable not applicable

V

Full alloy steel Used in castings and pipeline fittings

43% (global) niobium (1, 15) adequate Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)

High-strength low-alloy steel

Used in construction, pipelines, and automotive applications


Carbon steel Reinforces bars used mostly in the automobile industry and in construction


Other Includes use in batteries and jewelry

9% (global) not applicable not applicable

Cr Buildings and infrastructure

Used in elevators, street furniture, and steel reinforced concrete

25% (17) (global)

manganese adequate Application is dominated by constructional alloys for which manganese, molybdenum, and nickel are considered adequate substitutes (18). Aluminum is an adequate substitute in elevators and street furniture. Galvanized steel is an adequate substitute in steel reinforced concrete.

Global values are for 2000Industrial machinery Used in chemical and

petrochemical applications, as well as in power generation, food processing, heat exchangers, and tanks

25% (17) (global)

none not applicable Aluminum is a poor substitute in food processing equipment.

Global values are for 2000

Transportation Used in cars, ships, trains, aircraft components, and bicycles

15% (17) (global)

aluminum adequate Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of chemicals or food by truck, rail, or

ship, or for the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers. Tin-nickel, silicon-based coatings, and organic polymer films are adequate substitutes for automotive plating applications.

Global values are for 2000Household appliances and electronics

Used in dishwashers, washing machines, and consumer electronics

5% (17) (global) aluminum adequate Aluminum and plastic are good substitutes in white goods. Tin-nickel alloy is an adequate substitute for plating in electronics.

Global values are for 2000Other Used in metal goods such as

cutlery and fasteners, and also in refractory and chemical applications

30% (17) (global)

not applicable not applicable Brass can be a good substitute in some stainless steel fasteners (19); tungsten carbide is a good substitute in high-speed steels; and aluminum is an adequate substitute in miscellaneous metal goods.

Global values are for 2000Mn Metallurgy Used in steel metallurgy as a

deoxidizing and desulfurizing agent

90% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)

none not applicable

Non-steel alloys Used mostly as aluminum alloys (e.g., beverage cans, kitchen ware, and roofing) (23, 24)


plastics (25) adequate

Batteries Used in dry cell batteries as the cathode material


lithium ion batteries

exemplary Although manganese may be used as cathode material in lithium ion batteries, the cathode material can also be an oxide (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide) or a polyanion (e.g., lithium iron phosphate)

Other Used in other metallurgy (e.g., copper and nickel), for corrosion protection of aluminum alloys, as a brick colorant, and in plant fertilizers and animal feed



Fe

Construction Used in bridges, buildings, and highways

48% (26) (global)

wood adequate

Machinery Used in machine tools, construction equipment, farm implements, and electricity power lines

31% (26) (global)

fiber-reinforced polymer (27)

adequate

Transportation Used in cars, trucks, aircraft, subways, and trains

13% (26) (global)

aluminum (27) good

Metal goods Includes use in cans and containers, household appliances, and electronic equipment

8% (26) (global) aluminum (27) good

Co

Superalloys Used primarily in turbine engine components

22% (28) (global)

nickel adequate Global values are for 2006

Nickel-based superalloys may substitute for cobalt-based superalloys. For higher operating performance, most nickel-based alloys contain cobalt. If cobalt is not added, the performance decreases.

Batteries Used in lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and nickel-cadmium batteries in consumer goods and in hybrid electric vehicles (mostly as nickel-metal hydride batteries)

22% (28) (global)

manganese good Global values are for 2006

Manganese can substitute for cobalt in lithium ion batteries (and, these, in turn, may substitute for nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium batteries)

Cemented carbides Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment

11% (28) (global)

nickel with chromium

adequate Global values are for 2006

Catalysts Used primarily in petroleum refining, products for plastics and detergent manufacture, and polyester precursors

11% (28) (global)

nickel good Global values are for 2006

Nickel substitutes for cobalt in petroleum-refining catalysts (1), which accounts for the largest amount of cobalt in catalysts (29)

Pigments Used in coloring glass and in paints

9% (28) (global) none (30) not applicable Global values are for 2006

Other elements can substitute for some degree for cobalt (e.g., cerium, iron, and vanadium), but there is no single substitute

Magnets Used primarily in Alnico magnets (for applications like electric motors and loudspeakers) and in samarium-cobalt magnets magnets (for applications like turbomachinery and spectrometers)

7% (28) (global) neodymium magnets

good Global values are for 2006

Other For example, as driers, in soaps, and as tire adhesives

18% (28) (global)

not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2006

Ni Industrial machinery Used in chemical and petrochemical industries, food processing, industrial plumbing, and heat exchangers

31% based upon modifications to (31) (global)

nickel-free stainless steels

poor Adequate performance in the food processing industry

Household appliances and metal goods

Used in dishwashers, washing machines, rice cookers, tools, fasteners, cutlery, and pots and pans



good (32)

Building and construction

Used in architectural applications and street furniture



good (32) Coated aluminum is a good substitute in street furniture.

Transportation: excluding aerospace

Used in automotive applications, shipbuilding, railway applications, and bicycles


aluminum adequate Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of

chemicals or food by truck, rail, or ship; the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers; and plated applications.

Transportation: aerospace

Used primarily in jet engine blades


none not applicable Titanium aluminide (TiAl)-based alloys are good substitutes for low-pressure turbine blades (33), but no substitutes exist for high-pressure turbine blades. New manufacturing techniques for TiAl have been proposed, with the potential to replace nickel in all engine parts (34). No substitutes exist for plating applications.

Electronics Used in various computer parts and in cellular phones


none not applicable Includes many miscellaneous uses, such as nickel-iron, stainless steels, high nickel alloys, copper alloys, plating, solders, and chemicals

Cu Electrical Used in electric motors and generators, power transmission lines, and housing and industrial wiring

26% (35) (global)

aluminum (36) poor Global value includes building wire and power utility; electrical uses of copper are in nearly every end-use category

Industrial Used in industrial equipment and machine tools

19% (35) (global)

steel (36) adequate

Transportation Used in aircraft, marine, tanks, automotive, and train systems

13% (35) (global)

aluminum (36) poor

Cooling Used in air conditioning equipment and heating tubing

7% (35) (global) aluminum (36) adequate

Plumbing Includes fixtures and pipes 6% (35) (global) plastics (polyvinyl chloride) (36)

good

Communications Used in telecommunications wiring

5% (35) (global) optical fiber (silicon) (36)

exemplary

Electronics Used in switches, printed circuit foils, transistor bases, microwave

4% (35) (global) aluminum (36) poor

tubes, and computersArchitecture Used in roofing and decorative

items2% (35) (global) aluminum (36) good

Building plant Used in nails, rivets, soldering copper, and metal seals

1% (35) (global) steel (36) adequate

Other Includes chemical and inorganic pigments, watches, clocks, and jewelry

17% (35) (global)


Zn

Galvanizing Used in construction, utilities, industrial equipment, consumer goods, and automotive applications

50% (37) (global)

aluminum/silicon alloy


Brass and bronze Used in construction, transportation (e.g., railway engineering parts and bridge and expansion plates), and electrical applications

17% (37)

(global)aluminum-based alloys (1)


Zinc-based alloys Used in construction, consumer goods, and automotive applications

17% (37)

(global)aluminum-based alloys (1)


Other Includes semi-manufactured items and chemicals

16% (37) (global)


Ga

Integrated circuits Used in integrated circuits 67% (38) (global)

silicon good

Optoelectronic devices

Includes laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, and solar cells

31% (38) (global)

indium phosphide good

Other Includes research and development and specialty alloys

2% (38) (global) not applicable not applicable

Ge Fiber optic systems Used in telecommunication infrastructure, cellular phones, and optical fibers

30% (1) (global) aluminum oxide good

Infrared optics Used in lenses, windows, and infrared thermal imaging systems, mainly for military

25% (1) (global) zinc selenide (1) good

applicationsPolymerization catalysts

Used in catalysts for production of polyester, synthetic textile fibers, and plastics

25% (1) (global) titanium alkoxides adequate

Electronics and solar electric applications

Used in solar cells, automobile taillights, cameras, flashlights, cellular telephone display screens, televisions, and traffic signals

15% (1) (global) silicon (1) good

Other Includes phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy


As

Wood preservation and pesticides

Used in wood preservatives and agricultural chemicals

68% (global) copper (39) good Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Semiconductor devices

Used in light-emitting diodes, displays, lasers, microwave devices, solar cells, and integrated circuits

7% (global) silicon (41) good Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Copper alloys Used in industrial plant piping, radiators, and brass

7% (global) antimony (39) good Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Other Used as a fining agent in the glass industry, as a decolorizing agent, in ceramics, and in pharmaceuticals

18% (global) not applicable not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Se Glass manufacturing Used to decolorize container and other glass, to reduce solar heat transmission in architectural plate glass, and to produce red color in plastics, ceramics, and glass (1)

40% (42) (global)

cerium oxide (36) good

Metallurgy Used to improve machinability 25% (42) bismuth (36) good

of copper, lead, and steel alloys (1)

(global)

Agriculture Serves as a micronutrient 15% (42) (global)

none not applicable

Chemical and pigments

Used in plastics, inks, paints, catalysts in chemical reactions, and the preparation of organic compounds and rubber

10% (42) (global)

tellurium (36) good

Electronics Used in photocopiers, electrical rectifiers, and solar cells

10% (42) (global)

silicon (36) good

Sr

Pyrotechnics and signals

Used mainly in fireworks and flares

30% (global) none (1, 43) not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Ferrite ceramic magnets

Used mainly in toys, electronics, and windshield wipers

30% (global) barium (1) adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Master alloys Used mainly as an additive to aluminum-silicon alloys

10% (global) sodium (44) adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Pigments and fillers For example, in phosphorescent pigments

10% (global) barium (1) poor Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Electrolytic production of zinc

Used to produce high purity zinc 10% (global) barium (45) adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Other Includes use in toothpaste (46) and fluorescent lamps

10% (global) not applicable not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Y

Phosphors Used in flat-panel displays, x-ray intensifying screens, and temperature sensors

54% (47) (global)

none (48) not applicable

Ceramics Y-stabilized zirconia (zirconium oxide) used in refractories and as jet turbine blade and nozzle coatings

32% (47) (global)

calcium poor

Other Includes electronics, heating elements, and superalloys uses

14% (47) (global)


Zr Ceramics Milled or micronized zircon is used as an opacifier for tile glazes and porcelain enamels

64% (39, 49) (global)

alumina (1) adequate

Refractory Used in the glass industry and steel industry (e.g., in ladles and continuous casting nozzles)

18% (39, 49) (global)

alumina spinels (1)

adequate

Foundry molds Used as a basic mold material and facing on other mold materials

14% (39, 49) (global)

chromite (50) poor (50)

Other Used in television glass (due to its x-ray absorption properties and ability to toughen the glass), in alloys, as structural parts in the core of water moderated nuclear reactors, in catalysts, and in jewelry

4% (39, 49) (global)


Nb

Construction Used in heavy engineering and infrastructure applications

29% (51) (global)

vanadium (52) good

Transportation Used in various automobile parts 24% (51) (global)

vanadium (52) good

Oil and gas industry Used in oil and gas pipelines, and in the petrochemical sector

24% (51) (global)

vanadium (52) good

Stainless steel Includes use in exhaust systems in automobiles, in heat resistant steel in the petrochemical industry, and in power plants

10% (51) (global)

tantalum adequate

Niobium metal and alloys

Used in jet engines, land-based turbines, high energy particle accelerators, magnetic resonance imaging, and niobium oxide capacitors

5% (51) (global) molybdenum adequate

Other Includes use in drill pipes, well casings, and cutting tools


Mo Constructional Used in oil and gas exploration 35% (53) molybdenum-free adequate Percentages into applications do not

engineering steels (pipings and refineries), heavy machinery, transportation (e.g., automotive for powertrain systems, off-road vehicles, and ships), power generation, and chemical and petrochemical machinery (e.g., tanks)

(global) constructional engineering steels

sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Stainless steel Used in chemical and petrochemical machinery, building and construction, food processing, pulp and paper industry, oil and gas exploration (piping), and pollution control in power generation

25% (53) (global)

molybdenum-free stainless steels

adequate (32) Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Tool and high speed steel

Used in metal processing, automotive (powertrain and exhaust systems), machining tools, and consumer goods (e.g., drills)

11% (53) (global)

molybdenum-free tool and high speed steel

adequate Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Chemicals Used as catalysts in the petrochemical industry (desulphurization), pigments, coatings, and lubricants

10% (53) (global)

none not applicable Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Cast iron Used in transportation (including automotive exhaust systems), heavy machinery, and metal processing

8% (53) (global) molybdenum-free cast iron

adequate Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Superalloys Used in aerospace, chemical and petrochemical machinery, oil and gas, and pollution control in power generation

6% (53) (global) niobium poor Tungsten is another likely substitute in superalloys

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

See comments about nickel use in aerospace

Molybdenum metal Used in automotive, electronics, and chemical and petrochemical applications

6% (53) (global) none not applicable Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Ru

Electrical Used in thick film pastes, perpendicular magnetic recording technology for computer hard disks, and electroplated reed contacts

59% (global) (54)

iridium adequate Substitute refers to oxides of iridium that can substitute for oxides of ruthenium in thick film resistors pastes (55)


Chemical Used as process catalysts for a number of chemical processes, including synthesis of ammonia

20% (global) (54)

magnetite adequate Substitute refers to the magnetite catalyst used in the majority of ammonia synthesis plants (56)


Electrochemical Coating of dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry

14% (global) (54)

iridium adequate Substitute refers to iridium-based coatings as an alternative to ruthenium-coated anodes used in the chlor-alkali industry (56)


Other Used as an alloying agent in various applications

8% (global) (54) not applicable not applicable Other precious metals can presumably be used in most of these other applications


Rh Autocatalyst Used as a catalyst to control vehicle NOx emissions

86% (54) (global)

none not applicable Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered

from post-consumer recycling

No substitutes have been identified for rhodium for the control of gasoline-power vehicle NOx

emissions (57)


Chemical Used as a process catalyst for a number of processes, including the oxo process for the conversion of alkenes to n-aldehydes (hydroformylation)

8% (54) (global) cobalt adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to the cobalt catalyst that was previously used in the oxo process for the production of aldehydes from alkenes (56)


Glass Used as an alloying agent with platinum in glass manufacturing equipment

3% (54) (global) platinum adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to the use of platinum either alone or with an alloying agent other than rhodium, such as gold or iridium (58)


Electrical Used as an alloying agent with platinum in thermocouples, and in sliding and pressure contacts used for electric motors

<1% (54) (global)

nickel adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to nickel used in type K and type N thermocouples that can be used in oxidizing or inert atmospheres up to 1260°C (59)


Other Various uses, including electroplating onto metal surfaces, such as jewelry, to provide protection and finishing

4% (54) (global) not applicable not applicable Rhodium coatings are noted as being superior to all other platinum-group metal coatings in terms of hardness, mechanical and chemical stability, and reflectivity (60)


Pd Autocatalyst Used as a catalyst used to control vehicle exhaust emissions

54% (54) (global)

platinum good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Platinum and palladium are noted as being equally effective at controlling emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles (61)


Electrical Includes a wide variety of uses in electronics, including as a thick film paste used in multilayer ceramic capacitors

17% (54) (global)

nickel good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to the use of nickel-based multilayer ceramic capacitors in place of those based on palladium (62)


Jewelry Used as a fabricated jewelry and alloying agent

12% (54) (global)

platinum good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to platinum jewelry alloyed with elements other than palladium (62)


Dental Used as an alloying agent in dental restorations

8% (54) (global) nickel good Refers to nickel-based metal alloys used in restorative dentistry (63)


Investment Used in coins and exchange traded funds

5% (54) (global) gold good Gold, silver, and platinum can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing


Chemical Used as a process catalyst for a variety of chemical and petroleum applications

4% (54) (global) nickel adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to nickel catalysts that can be used in hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes (64), indirect synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (65), and in hydro-cracking and hydro-treating (64)


Other Various uses, including the control of industrial emissions and oxygen sensors

1% (54) (global) not applicable not applicable Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of palladium in these other applications


Ag Electrical and electronics

Used in switching devices, batteries, calculators, and hearing aids

23% (66) (global)

copper (66) poor

Jewelry Jewelry 18% (66) (global)

gold (66) exemplary

Investment Used as coins and medals 14% (66) (global)

gold (66) exemplary

Photography Used in the manufacture of film, 12% (66) paper (66) adequate

photographic paper, photocopying paper, and x-ray film

(global)

Silverware Used in bowls and flatware 6% (66) (global) stainless steel (36) exemplary

Other Includes uses in solders, bearings, dental amalgams, and mirrors

27% (66) (global)


Cd

Batteries (consumer) Used in nickel-cadmium batteries in cordless power tools, cellular phones, camcorders, portable computers, portable household appliances, and toys

66% (global) lithium-ion batteries

exemplary Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)

Batteries (industrial) Used in nickel-cadmium batteries for a variety of industrial uses (e.g., in the aircraft industry for starting and emergency power)

17% (global) none not applicable Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)

Pigments Used mainly in plastics, but also in glasses, ceramics, and enamels

8% (1) (global) cerium sulfide (1) adequate (68)

Coatings Used mainly in industrial applications for transportation (e.g., shipbuilding, railway, aircraft, and critical automotive uses), industrial fasteners, and communications

7% (1) (global) none not applicable

Other For example, as stabilizers in plastics


In Indium tin oxide thin-film coatings (mostly for liquid crystal displays)

Used in flat-panel devices and liquid crystal displays

84% (42) (global)

aluminum-doped zinc oxide (69)


Solders and alloys Used in solders and alloys in 8% (42) (global) gallium (70) good Global values are for 2007

aircraft and automotive applications, as well as in bearings, dies, seals, and sputtering targets

Electrical components and semiconductors

Used in computers, batteries, photodetectors, and photovoltaic/solar cells

2% (42) (global) gallium arsenide (71)


Other Includes research and compounds


Sn

Solder Used in electronics 54% (72) (global)

epoxy resin (1) good Global values are for 2009

Tinplate Used mainly in cans and containers

17% (72) (global)

aluminum exemplary Global values are for 2009

Chemicals Used as a polyvinyl chloride stabilizer, and in biocides and lead-acid batteries

13% (72)

(global)lead (73) adequate Global values are for 2009

Brass and bronze Used in construction and transportation

5% (72) (global) copper-based alloys


Other Includes float glass 11% (72)

(global)not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2009

Sb Flame retardants Includes use in plastics, textiles, rubber, adhesives and plastic covers for aircrafts and automobiles

51% (74) (global)

hydrated aluminum oxide (1)

adequate

Lead-acid batteries Used mainly in vehicle batteries 26% (74) (global)

calcium alloy (75) good

Ceramics and glass Used as an additive to glass to remove microscopic bubbles

4% (74) (global) tin oxide (76) adequate

Chemicals Used mainly as a heat stabilizer and as a catalyst for the production of polyester

7% (74) (global) titanium (77) poor

Other Includes ammunition, cable coverings, fireworks, metal

12% (74) (global)


castings, paper, pigments, and rubber products

Te

Metallurgy: ferrous products

Used as an additive to stainless steel

48% (78) (global)

bismuth (36) good

Chemicals and catalysts

Used for the oxidation of organic compounds, hydrogenation of oils, and chlorination

25% (78) (global)

selenium (36) good

Metallurgy: nonferrous products

Used in power and communication cables, automotive bearings, and solders

12% (78) (global)

lead (79) good

Photoreceptor and thermoelectric devices

Used in thermal imaging devices and navigation systems

8% (78) (global) silicon (36) good

Other Used as germicides, fungicides, color additives, and ceramics


Ba

Oil industry Used mainly as a weighting agent in gas and oil-well drilling fluids

84% (80) (global)

hematite adequate Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use

Other Includes use as a filler in plastics, paint, and rubber, as well as use in automobile brakes and clutch pads, electronics, ceramics, and medical applications

16% (80) (global)

not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use

La Fluid cracking catalysts

Used in petrochemical and related applications

46% (47) (global)


Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal

16% (47) (global)

lithium-ion batteries

good (48)

Glass polishing Includes polishing of glass and ceramics

13% (47) (global)

iron oxide adequate (81)

Metallurgy, except Includes addition to steel to 8% (47) (global) magnesium adequate (81)

batteries improve malleability and to molybdenum to decrease hardness

Glass additives Used in optical glass, infrared glass, and camera lenses

7% (47) (global) cerium good

Other Includes use in welding electrodes, carbon arc lamps, and lighter flints

10% (47) (global)


Ce

Glass polishing Used to polish precision optics 25% (47) (global)

iron oxide adequate (81)

Glass additives Used as a decolorizer and dopant 19% (47) (global)

selenium adequate (82)

Automobile catalytic converters

Cerium oxide applied as an oxygen-exchange coating on the ceramic (83)

16% (47) (global)

lanthanum adequate (47)

Metallurgy, except batteries

Includes aluminum, magnesium, and iron alloys

14% (47) (global)

magnesium adequate (81)

Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal

10% (47) (global)


good (48)

Other Includes use in arc welding and carbon arc lighting

16% (47) (global)


Pr Neodymium magnets

Used with neodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets

70% (47) (global)

samarium-cobalt magnets

good (48)

Glass polishing Used as a polishing agent for electronic and thermoelectric components

7% (47) (global) iron oxide adequate (81)


Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines

7% (47) (global) magnesium adequate (81)

Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries

5% (47) (global) lithium-ion batteries

good (48)

Automobile Used in combination with 2% (47) (global) cerium good

catalytic converters lanthanum and ceriumOther Includes use in gas doping

agents for industrial lighting9% (47) (global) not applicable not applicable

Nd

Neodymium magnets

Used with praseodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets

76% (47) (global)

samarium-cobalt magnets

good (48)


Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines

8% (47) (global) magnesium adequate (81)

Ceramics Used as a coloring agent 4% (47) (global) cerium adequate

Automobile catalytic converters

Used in combination with lanthanum and cerium

1% (47) (global) cerium good

Other Used as a coloring agent for glass

11% (47) (global)


Sm

Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries

73% (47) (global)


good (48)

Other Includes use in samarium-cobalt magnets, as a nuclear reactor neutron absorber, and as an optical glass doping agent

27% (47) (global)


EuPhosphors Used as a red phosphor in flat-

panel displays and fluorescent lamps

100% (47) (global)


Gd

Neodymium magnets

Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets

69% (47) (global)

neodymium adequate (48)

Phosphors Used as a green phosphor in flat-panel displays

21% (47) (global)

yttrium adequate (48)

Other Used as a contrast agent in medical imaging (84), as an x-ray intensifier (85), and in nuclear fuel rods

10% (47) (global)


Tb Phosphors Used largely in compact fluorescent lights

89% (47) (global)

erbium adequate (48)

Neodymium magnets


11% (47) (global)

dysprosium adequate (48)

DyNeodymium magnets


100% (47) (global)


HoMagnets Used in the pole pieces of the

strongest static magnets100% (global) neodymium

magnetsadequate Global value based on estimate for

the United States (87)

ErPhosphors Used in fiber optic cables and

flat-panel displays100% (global) terbium adequate (48) Global value based on estimate for


TmX-ray Includes use in portable x-ray

detectors and lasers100% (global) barium poor Global value based on estimate for


YbX-ray Includes use in laser applications 100% (global) thorium poor Global value based on estimate for


LuMedical Used widely in positron emission

tomography (88) 100% (global) bismuth adequate (85) Global value based on estimate for

the United States (87)Hf Aerospace Used as an alloying additive in

nickel-based superalloys in turbine vanes in the combustion zone of jet aircraft engines

39% (89) (global)

zirconium metal good

Nuclear energy control rods

Used as control rod material in nuclear reactors

16% (89) (global)

silver-cadmium-indium alloy (1)

good

Superalloy: fuel reprocessing plants

Used in spent nuclear fuel storage racks, and for tanks and piping in spent fuel reprocessing plants

13% (89) (global)

zirconium metal good

Refractory Hafnium oxide used as a specialized refractory material

13% (89) (global)

zirconium dioxide good

Manufacturing: plasma cutting tools

Pure hafnium used as the active tip for plasma arc cutting tools

9% (89) (global) zirconium metal (90)

good

Electronics Hafnium and hafnium oxide sputtering targets used for coatings and specialized electronic applications

4% (89) (global) zirconium dioxide (91)

good

Other Primarily used in optical fiber, with a smaller amount in catalysts


Ta

Capacitors Used in capacitors 48% (92) (global)

aluminum (1) good

Alloy additives Used primarily in superalloys in turbine engine components

16% (92) (global)

niobium (1) good

Sputtering targets Used in sputtering targets 11% (92) (global)

zirconium adequate

Tantalum carbide Used mostly in cutting tools 11% (92) (global)

niobium (1) good

Other Includes use in chemicals and other mill products

14% (92) (global)


W

Cemented carbides Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment

50% (93) (global)

boron nitride (73) adequate Global values are for 2005

Mill products Includes use in electronic and welding applications

15% (93) (global)

molybdenum good Global values are for 2005

Steel Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment

8.5% (global) molybdenum (73, 94)

good Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use

Superalloys Used primarily in turbine engine components

8.5% (global) nickel and molybdenum alloys (73)

good Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use

Other Includes use in pigments 18% (93) (global)


Re Superalloys Used primarily in turbine engine components

78% (95) (global)

none not applicable See comments about nickel use in aerospace

Catalysts Used primarily in petroleum refining catalysts

15% (95) (global)

platinum good (96)

Other Includes use in radiation screens 7% (95) (global) not applicable not applicable

and semiconductors

Os

Electron microscopy Used as a staining agent in microscopic analyses

No recent publically available data, so uses are weighted equally

ruthenium good Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide as a substitute staining agent in polymer microscopy (97)

Chemical Used as a process catalyst for a limited number of processes

ruthenium good Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide used in the syn-dihydroxylation of alkenes (98)

Other Used as an alloying agent, typically with other platinum-group metals, for various applications

not applicable not applicable Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of osmium in these applications

Ir Electrochemical Used as a coating for dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry and in numerous other applications

25% (54) (global)

ruthenium adequate Substitute refers to the use of ruthenium and ruthenium-tin oxide coatings in the chlor-alkali industry as an alternative to the ruthenium-iridium coatings (99)


Chemical Used as a process catalyst for several processes including acetic acid synthesis

21% (54) (global)

rhodium adequate Substitute refers to the rhodium catalyst used in the Monsanto acetic acid production process (56)


Electrical Used in crucibles used to grow high purity single crystals of metal oxides

15% (54) (global)

molybdenum poor Substitute refers to molybdenum crucibles that can be used to grow sapphire and yttrium aluminum garnet crystals (100)


Other Used as an alloying agent with 40% (54) not applicable not applicable Platinum can be alloyed with

platinum in various applications (global) elements other than iridium in certain applications


Pt Autocatalyst: diesel Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by diesel engines

33% (54, 101) (global)

none not applicable Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Although palladium can routinely substitute for up to 25% of platinum, it still cannot completely replace platinum in diesel applications (71)


Jewelry Used in jewelry fabrication 26% (54) (global)

palladium good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitutes refers to palladium as a jewelry metal and alloying agent in white gold (62)


Autocatalyst: gasoline

Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by gasoline engines

13% (54, 101) (global)

palladium good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does

not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to the use of palladium instead of platinum in gasoline engines (62)


Investment Used as small and large bars, coins, and exchange traded funds

7% (54) (global) gold good Gold, silver, and palladium can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing


Chemical Used as a catalyst for the production of a variety of bulk and specialty chemicals

5% (54) (global) cobalt adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to the use of a cobalt oxide catalyst in the production of nitric acid (102)


Glass Used in glass manufacturing equipment

4% (54) (global) iridium poor Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Recent developments have allowed

iridium to be used in the glass industry although some limitations still exist (103)


Medical and biomedical

Used in dental alloys, biomedical devices, and anti-cancer drugs

3% (54) (global) palladium adequate Substitute refers to the use of palladium-based alloys as alternatives to platinum-based alloys in dental (62) and biomedical applications (104)


Petroleum Used as a catalyst for various petroleum refining processes

3% (54) (global) molybdenum poor Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to molybdenum oxide-based catalysts that were used in the older reforming process (82)


Electrical Used in contacts for various electronic applications and in computer hard disks

3% (54) (global) palladium adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to iron-palladium and cobalt-palladium alloys in thin

films that have been investigated for use in computer hard disk drives (105)


Other Used in various applications, including stationary pollution control, spark plugs and oxygen sensors, and corrosion resistant coatings

4% (54) (global) not applicable not applicable Other platinum-group metals can presumably be used in some of these other applications


Au

Jewelry Jewelry 62% (106) (global)

silver (66) good

Official transactions and private investment

Used as medallions and small bars

23% (106) (global)

silver (66) good

Electronics Used in printed circuit boards, connectors, semiconductors, and thermocouples

8% (106) (global)

silver (106) adequate

Dental and medical Used in dental fillings 2% (106) (global)

silver (36) adequate

Other industrial Used in industrial control and monitoring instruments, and corrosion-resistant chemical process equipment

5% (106) (global)


Hg Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Used for gold extraction 21% (107) (global)

borax (108) adequate Global values are for 2005

Vinyl chloride monomer production

Used as the catalyst in the production of vinyl chloride monomer

20% (107) (global)

precious metal salts (109)


Chlorine-caustic soda manufacturing

Used in the mercury cell process for the production of chlorine

13% (107) (global)

membrane cells (1)


and sodium hydroxideDental equipment and supplies

Used mainly in dental amalgams 10% (107) (global)

ceramic composites (1)

exemplary Global values are for 2005

Electrical: batteries Used in batteries 10% (107) (global)

lithium ion batteries


Electrical: electrical and electronic devices

Used in wiring devices and switches

5% (107) (global)

gallium indium alloy (110)


Substitute of gallium indium alloy functions as a direct replacement for mercury within switches

Electrical: lighting Includes usage in fluorescent lamps

4% (107) (global)

none (111) not applicable Global values are for 2005

Measuring and control devices

Used mainly in thermometers and thermostats

9% (107) (global)

galinstan (an alloy of gallium, indium, and tin) (1)


Other Includes use in fungicides, chemicals, pigments, and pesticides

8% (107) (global)


Tl

Electronics Used in gamma radiation detection equipment, communications equipment, cardiovascular imaging, and in thallium-impregnated glass used as coverings on electronic devices (e.g., semiconductors and capacitors)


none not applicable Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute

Other Includes chemical uses (e.g., synthesis of organic compounds) and in alloys to improve corrosion resistance (e.g., in switches)


not applicable not applicable Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute

Pb Batteries Used in lead-acid batteries for back-up power (e.g., in hospitals and weapons systems), in

80% (112) (global)

none not applicable

transportation vehicles, and to assist electric utilities in shifting loads among grids

Other Includes use in ammunition, sheet/pipes, pigments, and cable sheathing

20% (112) (global)


Bi

Fusible alloys, solders, and ammunition cartridges

Includes use in solders, wires, safety fuses, and molded products

35% (113) (global)

lead good Global values are for 2006

Metallurgical additives

Used in automobiles, planes, grip tubes, tools, and punches

35% (113) (global)

lead (73) adequate Global values are for 2006

Pharmaceuticals and chemicals

Includes use in antacids 28% (113) (global)

magnesium compounds (73)


Other For example, used in pigments, dentistry, glass, enameled ceramics, and plastic lenses

2% (113) (global)


Th

Welding electrodes Used in thoriated tungsten electrodes

65% (global) cerium good Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

Lighting Solution of thorium and cerium nitrates used to produce gas mantles

20% (114) (global)

yttrium compounds (1)

good Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

Refractory Used in high temperature crucibles for melting pure, carbon-sensitive metals at 2300℃

14% (114) (global)

yttrium oxide (115)

exemplary Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

Nuclear applications Behaves as a breeder, absorbing neutrons and forming uranium-233

1% (114) (global)

none not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

UNuclear energy Used as a nuclear fuel in power

station reactors100% (global) thorium adequate Assumed that nuclear energy is the

only significant end-use of uranium

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