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Table S1. Metals applications with primary substitutes and substitute performance
Metal Application Application DetailsPercentage into
ApplicationPrimary
SubstituteSubstitute
PerformanceAnalysis Details
Li
Batteries Used in rechargeable batteries (i.e., lithium-ion and lithium polymer) and primary (disposable) lithium batteries (as the anode material)
25% (1) (global) nickel-metal hydride batteries (rechargeable batteries substitute), and zinc for primary batteries (1)
good
Ceramics and glass Reduces fusion temperatures, permits control of contaminant emissions, and produces a better quality product (2)
18% (1) (global) sodium (1) exemplary
Lubricating greases Used in specialty lubricants and greases used for working in extreme temperature and change conditions (2)
12% (1) (global) calcium (1, 3) good
Pharmaceuticals and polymers
Used in pharmaceuticals (e.g., to treat bipolar disorder and as a catalyst in some new applications for weight control) and in polymers (2)
7% (1) (global) none not applicable
Air conditioning Used in air conditioning and dehumidification systems
6% (1) (global) ammonia/water systems (4)
poor
Primary aluminum production
Lowers the melting point of the cryolite bath in primary aluminum production (2)
4% (1) (global) sodium (2) good
Continuous casting Addition of lithium to continuous casting mold fluxes provides thermal insulation and lubrication
3% (1) (global) sodium good
Other Includes chemical processing 25% (1) (global) not applicable not applicable
Be
Computer and telecommunications products
Serves as both a structural support and heat sink in product applications such as computers, cellular phones, integrated circuits, and radars
50% (global) copper-nickel-silicon alloys
adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
Aerospace and defense
Used in lightweight structural components
25% (global) polymers adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
Other Includes appliances, automotive and medical applications, electronics, and industrial components
25% (global) not applicable not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
B Ceramics and glass Used in borosilicate glass for laboratory glassware and consumer cookware and to form high-strength, lightweight materials used in aerospace and consumer applications
64% (5) (global) sodium (1) good Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Soaps, detergents, and bleaches
Used primarily in household laundry and cleaning products
4% (5) (global) chlorine (for bleaches) and
good Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one
enzymes (for soaps and detergents) (1)
hundred percent due to rounding
Agriculture Serves as a micronutrient 4% (5) (global) none not applicable Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other Includes ferroboron, enamels, and glazes
27% (5) (global) not applicable not applicable Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Mg
Refractories Used as a refractory material in furnace linings for iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement production
83% (6) (global) none not applicable Global values are for 2002
Alumina, chromite, and silica substitute for magnesia in some refractory applications (1), but there is no single primary substitute
Environmental Used in water treatment and stack-gas scrubbing
6% (6) (global) lime exemplary Global values are for 2002
Agriculture Serves as a micronutrient 5% (6) (global) none not applicable Global values are for 2002
Other Includes magnesium metal uses (e.g., in aluminum-based alloys used in packaging and transportation, structural uses, and desulfurization of iron and steel), welding fluxes, and chemicals
6% (6) (global) not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2002
Al Transportation Widely used in automotive and truck, railroad, marine, and aerospace industries as castings, extrusions, and sheets
28% (7) (global) steel adequate Global values are for 2007
Building and construction
Used in windows, doors, facades siding, gutters, and roofing
24% (7) (global) steel good Global values are for 2007
Packaging Used primarily in cans and foil 15% (7) (global) steel good Global values are for 2007
Electrical Used in electrical lines for power 12% (7) (global) copper exemplary Global values are for 2007
transmission and distributionMachinery Used in machinery tools, such as
the mold material for the plastics industry
8% (7) (global) steel adequate Global values are for 2007
Consumer durables Includes use in cooking utensils and home appliances (e.g., refrigerators)
7% (7) (global) copper good Global values are for 2007
Other Includes use in applications like petrochemical piping and tanks
6% (7) (global) not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2007
Sc
Aerospace and defense
Primarily used in aerospace and military vehicles (8, 9) as an alloying element with aluminum to provide strength and weldability (8, 10)
50% (informed estimate) (global)
aluminum itself, without addition of scandium
adequate
Lighting Used in high-intensity metal halide lamps (11)
20% (informed estimate) (global)
none not applicable
Sports equipment Used primarily in bicycles, baseball bats, golf clubs, and lacrosse sticks (12)
20% (informed estimate) (global)
titanium good
Other Includes metallurgical research, analytical standards, capacitors, and transistors
10% (informed estimate) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Ti
Pigments Used in paint, plastics, ceramics, and paper
88% (global) talc adequate Based upon the estimate that 95% of total titanium supply is consumed in the form of titanium dioxide (13) and, globally, that 93% of titanium dioxide is used as a white pigment in paint, plastic, and paper from TZ Minerals International as cited in (14)
Other Includes titanium metal uses and chemicals
12% (global) not applicable not applicable
V
Full alloy steel Used in castings and pipeline fittings
43% (global) niobium (1, 15) adequate Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
High-strength low-alloy steel
Used in construction, pipelines, and automotive applications
32% (global) niobium (1, 15) adequate Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
Carbon steel Reinforces bars used mostly in the automobile industry and in construction
16% (global) niobium (1, 15) adequate Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16) and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
Other Includes use in batteries and jewelry
9% (global) not applicable not applicable
Cr Buildings and infrastructure
Used in elevators, street furniture, and steel reinforced concrete
25% (17) (global)
manganese adequate Application is dominated by constructional alloys for which manganese, molybdenum, and nickel are considered adequate substitutes (18). Aluminum is an adequate substitute in elevators and street furniture. Galvanized steel is an adequate substitute in steel reinforced concrete.
Global values are for 2000Industrial machinery Used in chemical and
petrochemical applications, as well as in power generation, food processing, heat exchangers, and tanks
25% (17) (global)
none not applicable Aluminum is a poor substitute in food processing equipment.
Global values are for 2000
Transportation Used in cars, ships, trains, aircraft components, and bicycles
15% (17) (global)
aluminum adequate Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of chemicals or food by truck, rail, or
ship, or for the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers. Tin-nickel, silicon-based coatings, and organic polymer films are adequate substitutes for automotive plating applications.
Global values are for 2000Household appliances and electronics
Used in dishwashers, washing machines, and consumer electronics
5% (17) (global) aluminum adequate Aluminum and plastic are good substitutes in white goods. Tin-nickel alloy is an adequate substitute for plating in electronics.
Global values are for 2000Other Used in metal goods such as
cutlery and fasteners, and also in refractory and chemical applications
30% (17) (global)
not applicable not applicable Brass can be a good substitute in some stainless steel fasteners (19); tungsten carbide is a good substitute in high-speed steels; and aluminum is an adequate substitute in miscellaneous metal goods.
Global values are for 2000Mn Metallurgy Used in steel metallurgy as a
deoxidizing and desulfurizing agent
90% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
none not applicable
Non-steel alloys Used mostly as aluminum alloys (e.g., beverage cans, kitchen ware, and roofing) (23, 24)
6% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
plastics (25) adequate
Batteries Used in dry cell batteries as the cathode material
2% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
lithium ion batteries
exemplary Although manganese may be used as cathode material in lithium ion batteries, the cathode material can also be an oxide (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide) or a polyanion (e.g., lithium iron phosphate)
Other Used in other metallurgy (e.g., copper and nickel), for corrosion protection of aluminum alloys, as a brick colorant, and in plant fertilizers and animal feed
2% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Fe
Construction Used in bridges, buildings, and highways
48% (26) (global)
wood adequate
Machinery Used in machine tools, construction equipment, farm implements, and electricity power lines
31% (26) (global)
fiber-reinforced polymer (27)
adequate
Transportation Used in cars, trucks, aircraft, subways, and trains
13% (26) (global)
aluminum (27) good
Metal goods Includes use in cans and containers, household appliances, and electronic equipment
8% (26) (global) aluminum (27) good
Co
Superalloys Used primarily in turbine engine components
22% (28) (global)
nickel adequate Global values are for 2006
Nickel-based superalloys may substitute for cobalt-based superalloys. For higher operating performance, most nickel-based alloys contain cobalt. If cobalt is not added, the performance decreases.
Batteries Used in lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and nickel-cadmium batteries in consumer goods and in hybrid electric vehicles (mostly as nickel-metal hydride batteries)
22% (28) (global)
manganese good Global values are for 2006
Manganese can substitute for cobalt in lithium ion batteries (and, these, in turn, may substitute for nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium batteries)
Cemented carbides Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment
11% (28) (global)
nickel with chromium
adequate Global values are for 2006
Catalysts Used primarily in petroleum refining, products for plastics and detergent manufacture, and polyester precursors
11% (28) (global)
nickel good Global values are for 2006
Nickel substitutes for cobalt in petroleum-refining catalysts (1), which accounts for the largest amount of cobalt in catalysts (29)
Pigments Used in coloring glass and in paints
9% (28) (global) none (30) not applicable Global values are for 2006
Other elements can substitute for some degree for cobalt (e.g., cerium, iron, and vanadium), but there is no single substitute
Magnets Used primarily in Alnico magnets (for applications like electric motors and loudspeakers) and in samarium-cobalt magnets magnets (for applications like turbomachinery and spectrometers)
7% (28) (global) neodymium magnets
good Global values are for 2006
Other For example, as driers, in soaps, and as tire adhesives
18% (28) (global)
not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2006
Ni Industrial machinery Used in chemical and petrochemical industries, food processing, industrial plumbing, and heat exchangers
31% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
nickel-free stainless steels
poor Adequate performance in the food processing industry
Household appliances and metal goods
Used in dishwashers, washing machines, rice cookers, tools, fasteners, cutlery, and pots and pans
28% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
nickel-free stainless steels
good (32)
Building and construction
Used in architectural applications and street furniture
17% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
nickel-free stainless steels
good (32) Coated aluminum is a good substitute in street furniture.
Transportation: excluding aerospace
Used in automotive applications, shipbuilding, railway applications, and bicycles
15% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
aluminum adequate Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of
chemicals or food by truck, rail, or ship; the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers; and plated applications.
Transportation: aerospace
Used primarily in jet engine blades
4% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
none not applicable Titanium aluminide (TiAl)-based alloys are good substitutes for low-pressure turbine blades (33), but no substitutes exist for high-pressure turbine blades. New manufacturing techniques for TiAl have been proposed, with the potential to replace nickel in all engine parts (34). No substitutes exist for plating applications.
Electronics Used in various computer parts and in cellular phones
5% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
none not applicable Includes many miscellaneous uses, such as nickel-iron, stainless steels, high nickel alloys, copper alloys, plating, solders, and chemicals
Cu Electrical Used in electric motors and generators, power transmission lines, and housing and industrial wiring
26% (35) (global)
aluminum (36) poor Global value includes building wire and power utility; electrical uses of copper are in nearly every end-use category
Industrial Used in industrial equipment and machine tools
19% (35) (global)
steel (36) adequate
Transportation Used in aircraft, marine, tanks, automotive, and train systems
13% (35) (global)
aluminum (36) poor
Cooling Used in air conditioning equipment and heating tubing
7% (35) (global) aluminum (36) adequate
Plumbing Includes fixtures and pipes 6% (35) (global) plastics (polyvinyl chloride) (36)
good
Communications Used in telecommunications wiring
5% (35) (global) optical fiber (silicon) (36)
exemplary
Electronics Used in switches, printed circuit foils, transistor bases, microwave
4% (35) (global) aluminum (36) poor
tubes, and computersArchitecture Used in roofing and decorative
items2% (35) (global) aluminum (36) good
Building plant Used in nails, rivets, soldering copper, and metal seals
1% (35) (global) steel (36) adequate
Other Includes chemical and inorganic pigments, watches, clocks, and jewelry
17% (35) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Zn
Galvanizing Used in construction, utilities, industrial equipment, consumer goods, and automotive applications
50% (37) (global)
aluminum/silicon alloy
good Global values are for 2005
Brass and bronze Used in construction, transportation (e.g., railway engineering parts and bridge and expansion plates), and electrical applications
17% (37)
(global)aluminum-based alloys (1)
good Global values are for 2005
Zinc-based alloys Used in construction, consumer goods, and automotive applications
17% (37)
(global)aluminum-based alloys (1)
good Global values are for 2005
Other Includes semi-manufactured items and chemicals
16% (37) (global)
not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2005
Ga
Integrated circuits Used in integrated circuits 67% (38) (global)
silicon good
Optoelectronic devices
Includes laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, and solar cells
31% (38) (global)
indium phosphide good
Other Includes research and development and specialty alloys
2% (38) (global) not applicable not applicable
Ge Fiber optic systems Used in telecommunication infrastructure, cellular phones, and optical fibers
30% (1) (global) aluminum oxide good
Infrared optics Used in lenses, windows, and infrared thermal imaging systems, mainly for military
25% (1) (global) zinc selenide (1) good
applicationsPolymerization catalysts
Used in catalysts for production of polyester, synthetic textile fibers, and plastics
25% (1) (global) titanium alkoxides adequate
Electronics and solar electric applications
Used in solar cells, automobile taillights, cameras, flashlights, cellular telephone display screens, televisions, and traffic signals
15% (1) (global) silicon (1) good
Other Includes phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy
5% (1) (global) not applicable not applicable
As
Wood preservation and pesticides
Used in wood preservatives and agricultural chemicals
68% (global) copper (39) good Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Semiconductor devices
Used in light-emitting diodes, displays, lasers, microwave devices, solar cells, and integrated circuits
7% (global) silicon (41) good Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Copper alloys Used in industrial plant piping, radiators, and brass
7% (global) antimony (39) good Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Other Used as a fining agent in the glass industry, as a decolorizing agent, in ceramics, and in pharmaceuticals
18% (global) not applicable not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Se Glass manufacturing Used to decolorize container and other glass, to reduce solar heat transmission in architectural plate glass, and to produce red color in plastics, ceramics, and glass (1)
40% (42) (global)
cerium oxide (36) good
Metallurgy Used to improve machinability 25% (42) bismuth (36) good
of copper, lead, and steel alloys (1)
(global)
Agriculture Serves as a micronutrient 15% (42) (global)
none not applicable
Chemical and pigments
Used in plastics, inks, paints, catalysts in chemical reactions, and the preparation of organic compounds and rubber
10% (42) (global)
tellurium (36) good
Electronics Used in photocopiers, electrical rectifiers, and solar cells
10% (42) (global)
silicon (36) good
Sr
Pyrotechnics and signals
Used mainly in fireworks and flares
30% (global) none (1, 43) not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
Ferrite ceramic magnets
Used mainly in toys, electronics, and windshield wipers
30% (global) barium (1) adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
Master alloys Used mainly as an additive to aluminum-silicon alloys
10% (global) sodium (44) adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
Pigments and fillers For example, in phosphorescent pigments
10% (global) barium (1) poor Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
Electrolytic production of zinc
Used to produce high purity zinc 10% (global) barium (45) adequate Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
Other Includes use in toothpaste (46) and fluorescent lamps
10% (global) not applicable not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
Y
Phosphors Used in flat-panel displays, x-ray intensifying screens, and temperature sensors
54% (47) (global)
none (48) not applicable
Ceramics Y-stabilized zirconia (zirconium oxide) used in refractories and as jet turbine blade and nozzle coatings
32% (47) (global)
calcium poor
Other Includes electronics, heating elements, and superalloys uses
14% (47) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Zr Ceramics Milled or micronized zircon is used as an opacifier for tile glazes and porcelain enamels
64% (39, 49) (global)
alumina (1) adequate
Refractory Used in the glass industry and steel industry (e.g., in ladles and continuous casting nozzles)
18% (39, 49) (global)
alumina spinels (1)
adequate
Foundry molds Used as a basic mold material and facing on other mold materials
14% (39, 49) (global)
chromite (50) poor (50)
Other Used in television glass (due to its x-ray absorption properties and ability to toughen the glass), in alloys, as structural parts in the core of water moderated nuclear reactors, in catalysts, and in jewelry
4% (39, 49) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Nb
Construction Used in heavy engineering and infrastructure applications
29% (51) (global)
vanadium (52) good
Transportation Used in various automobile parts 24% (51) (global)
vanadium (52) good
Oil and gas industry Used in oil and gas pipelines, and in the petrochemical sector
24% (51) (global)
vanadium (52) good
Stainless steel Includes use in exhaust systems in automobiles, in heat resistant steel in the petrochemical industry, and in power plants
10% (51) (global)
tantalum adequate
Niobium metal and alloys
Used in jet engines, land-based turbines, high energy particle accelerators, magnetic resonance imaging, and niobium oxide capacitors
5% (51) (global) molybdenum adequate
Other Includes use in drill pipes, well casings, and cutting tools
8% (51) (global) not applicable not applicable
Mo Constructional Used in oil and gas exploration 35% (53) molybdenum-free adequate Percentages into applications do not
engineering steels (pipings and refineries), heavy machinery, transportation (e.g., automotive for powertrain systems, off-road vehicles, and ships), power generation, and chemical and petrochemical machinery (e.g., tanks)
(global) constructional engineering steels
sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Stainless steel Used in chemical and petrochemical machinery, building and construction, food processing, pulp and paper industry, oil and gas exploration (piping), and pollution control in power generation
25% (53) (global)
molybdenum-free stainless steels
adequate (32) Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Tool and high speed steel
Used in metal processing, automotive (powertrain and exhaust systems), machining tools, and consumer goods (e.g., drills)
11% (53) (global)
molybdenum-free tool and high speed steel
adequate Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemicals Used as catalysts in the petrochemical industry (desulphurization), pigments, coatings, and lubricants
10% (53) (global)
none not applicable Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Cast iron Used in transportation (including automotive exhaust systems), heavy machinery, and metal processing
8% (53) (global) molybdenum-free cast iron
adequate Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Superalloys Used in aerospace, chemical and petrochemical machinery, oil and gas, and pollution control in power generation
6% (53) (global) niobium poor Tungsten is another likely substitute in superalloys
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
See comments about nickel use in aerospace
Molybdenum metal Used in automotive, electronics, and chemical and petrochemical applications
6% (53) (global) none not applicable Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Ru
Electrical Used in thick film pastes, perpendicular magnetic recording technology for computer hard disks, and electroplated reed contacts
59% (global) (54)
iridium adequate Substitute refers to oxides of iridium that can substitute for oxides of ruthenium in thick film resistors pastes (55)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemical Used as process catalysts for a number of chemical processes, including synthesis of ammonia
20% (global) (54)
magnetite adequate Substitute refers to the magnetite catalyst used in the majority of ammonia synthesis plants (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Electrochemical Coating of dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry
14% (global) (54)
iridium adequate Substitute refers to iridium-based coatings as an alternative to ruthenium-coated anodes used in the chlor-alkali industry (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other Used as an alloying agent in various applications
8% (global) (54) not applicable not applicable Other precious metals can presumably be used in most of these other applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Rh Autocatalyst Used as a catalyst to control vehicle NOx emissions
86% (54) (global)
none not applicable Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered
from post-consumer recycling
No substitutes have been identified for rhodium for the control of gasoline-power vehicle NOx
emissions (57)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemical Used as a process catalyst for a number of processes, including the oxo process for the conversion of alkenes to n-aldehydes (hydroformylation)
8% (54) (global) cobalt adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to the cobalt catalyst that was previously used in the oxo process for the production of aldehydes from alkenes (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Glass Used as an alloying agent with platinum in glass manufacturing equipment
3% (54) (global) platinum adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to the use of platinum either alone or with an alloying agent other than rhodium, such as gold or iridium (58)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Electrical Used as an alloying agent with platinum in thermocouples, and in sliding and pressure contacts used for electric motors
<1% (54) (global)
nickel adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to nickel used in type K and type N thermocouples that can be used in oxidizing or inert atmospheres up to 1260°C (59)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other Various uses, including electroplating onto metal surfaces, such as jewelry, to provide protection and finishing
4% (54) (global) not applicable not applicable Rhodium coatings are noted as being superior to all other platinum-group metal coatings in terms of hardness, mechanical and chemical stability, and reflectivity (60)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Pd Autocatalyst Used as a catalyst used to control vehicle exhaust emissions
54% (54) (global)
platinum good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Platinum and palladium are noted as being equally effective at controlling emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles (61)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Electrical Includes a wide variety of uses in electronics, including as a thick film paste used in multilayer ceramic capacitors
17% (54) (global)
nickel good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to the use of nickel-based multilayer ceramic capacitors in place of those based on palladium (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Jewelry Used as a fabricated jewelry and alloying agent
12% (54) (global)
platinum good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to platinum jewelry alloyed with elements other than palladium (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Dental Used as an alloying agent in dental restorations
8% (54) (global) nickel good Refers to nickel-based metal alloys used in restorative dentistry (63)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Investment Used in coins and exchange traded funds
5% (54) (global) gold good Gold, silver, and platinum can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemical Used as a process catalyst for a variety of chemical and petroleum applications
4% (54) (global) nickel adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to nickel catalysts that can be used in hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes (64), indirect synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (65), and in hydro-cracking and hydro-treating (64)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other Various uses, including the control of industrial emissions and oxygen sensors
1% (54) (global) not applicable not applicable Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of palladium in these other applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Ag Electrical and electronics
Used in switching devices, batteries, calculators, and hearing aids
23% (66) (global)
copper (66) poor
Jewelry Jewelry 18% (66) (global)
gold (66) exemplary
Investment Used as coins and medals 14% (66) (global)
gold (66) exemplary
Photography Used in the manufacture of film, 12% (66) paper (66) adequate
photographic paper, photocopying paper, and x-ray film
(global)
Silverware Used in bowls and flatware 6% (66) (global) stainless steel (36) exemplary
Other Includes uses in solders, bearings, dental amalgams, and mirrors
27% (66) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Cd
Batteries (consumer) Used in nickel-cadmium batteries in cordless power tools, cellular phones, camcorders, portable computers, portable household appliances, and toys
66% (global) lithium-ion batteries
exemplary Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)
Batteries (industrial) Used in nickel-cadmium batteries for a variety of industrial uses (e.g., in the aircraft industry for starting and emergency power)
17% (global) none not applicable Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)
Pigments Used mainly in plastics, but also in glasses, ceramics, and enamels
8% (1) (global) cerium sulfide (1) adequate (68)
Coatings Used mainly in industrial applications for transportation (e.g., shipbuilding, railway, aircraft, and critical automotive uses), industrial fasteners, and communications
7% (1) (global) none not applicable
Other For example, as stabilizers in plastics
2% (1) (global) not applicable not applicable
In Indium tin oxide thin-film coatings (mostly for liquid crystal displays)
Used in flat-panel devices and liquid crystal displays
84% (42) (global)
aluminum-doped zinc oxide (69)
adequate Global values are for 2007
Solders and alloys Used in solders and alloys in 8% (42) (global) gallium (70) good Global values are for 2007
aircraft and automotive applications, as well as in bearings, dies, seals, and sputtering targets
Electrical components and semiconductors
Used in computers, batteries, photodetectors, and photovoltaic/solar cells
2% (42) (global) gallium arsenide (71)
good Global values are for 2007
Other Includes research and compounds
6% (42) (global) not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2007
Sn
Solder Used in electronics 54% (72) (global)
epoxy resin (1) good Global values are for 2009
Tinplate Used mainly in cans and containers
17% (72) (global)
aluminum exemplary Global values are for 2009
Chemicals Used as a polyvinyl chloride stabilizer, and in biocides and lead-acid batteries
13% (72)
(global)lead (73) adequate Global values are for 2009
Brass and bronze Used in construction and transportation
5% (72) (global) copper-based alloys
good Global values are for 2009
Other Includes float glass 11% (72)
(global)not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2009
Sb Flame retardants Includes use in plastics, textiles, rubber, adhesives and plastic covers for aircrafts and automobiles
51% (74) (global)
hydrated aluminum oxide (1)
adequate
Lead-acid batteries Used mainly in vehicle batteries 26% (74) (global)
calcium alloy (75) good
Ceramics and glass Used as an additive to glass to remove microscopic bubbles
4% (74) (global) tin oxide (76) adequate
Chemicals Used mainly as a heat stabilizer and as a catalyst for the production of polyester
7% (74) (global) titanium (77) poor
Other Includes ammunition, cable coverings, fireworks, metal
12% (74) (global)
not applicable not applicable
castings, paper, pigments, and rubber products
Te
Metallurgy: ferrous products
Used as an additive to stainless steel
48% (78) (global)
bismuth (36) good
Chemicals and catalysts
Used for the oxidation of organic compounds, hydrogenation of oils, and chlorination
25% (78) (global)
selenium (36) good
Metallurgy: nonferrous products
Used in power and communication cables, automotive bearings, and solders
12% (78) (global)
lead (79) good
Photoreceptor and thermoelectric devices
Used in thermal imaging devices and navigation systems
8% (78) (global) silicon (36) good
Other Used as germicides, fungicides, color additives, and ceramics
7% (78) (global) not applicable not applicable
Ba
Oil industry Used mainly as a weighting agent in gas and oil-well drilling fluids
84% (80) (global)
hematite adequate Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use
Other Includes use as a filler in plastics, paint, and rubber, as well as use in automobile brakes and clutch pads, electronics, ceramics, and medical applications
16% (80) (global)
not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use
La Fluid cracking catalysts
Used in petrochemical and related applications
46% (47) (global)
none (48) not applicable
Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal
16% (47) (global)
lithium-ion batteries
good (48)
Glass polishing Includes polishing of glass and ceramics
13% (47) (global)
iron oxide adequate (81)
Metallurgy, except Includes addition to steel to 8% (47) (global) magnesium adequate (81)
batteries improve malleability and to molybdenum to decrease hardness
Glass additives Used in optical glass, infrared glass, and camera lenses
7% (47) (global) cerium good
Other Includes use in welding electrodes, carbon arc lamps, and lighter flints
10% (47) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Ce
Glass polishing Used to polish precision optics 25% (47) (global)
iron oxide adequate (81)
Glass additives Used as a decolorizer and dopant 19% (47) (global)
selenium adequate (82)
Automobile catalytic converters
Cerium oxide applied as an oxygen-exchange coating on the ceramic (83)
16% (47) (global)
lanthanum adequate (47)
Metallurgy, except batteries
Includes aluminum, magnesium, and iron alloys
14% (47) (global)
magnesium adequate (81)
Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal
10% (47) (global)
lithium-ion batteries
good (48)
Other Includes use in arc welding and carbon arc lighting
16% (47) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Pr Neodymium magnets
Used with neodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets
70% (47) (global)
samarium-cobalt magnets
good (48)
Glass polishing Used as a polishing agent for electronic and thermoelectric components
7% (47) (global) iron oxide adequate (81)
Metallurgy, except batteries
Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines
7% (47) (global) magnesium adequate (81)
Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries
5% (47) (global) lithium-ion batteries
good (48)
Automobile Used in combination with 2% (47) (global) cerium good
catalytic converters lanthanum and ceriumOther Includes use in gas doping
agents for industrial lighting9% (47) (global) not applicable not applicable
Nd
Neodymium magnets
Used with praseodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets
76% (47) (global)
samarium-cobalt magnets
good (48)
Metallurgy, except batteries
Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines
8% (47) (global) magnesium adequate (81)
Ceramics Used as a coloring agent 4% (47) (global) cerium adequate
Automobile catalytic converters
Used in combination with lanthanum and cerium
1% (47) (global) cerium good
Other Used as a coloring agent for glass
11% (47) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Sm
Battery alloys Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries
73% (47) (global)
lithium-ion batteries
good (48)
Other Includes use in samarium-cobalt magnets, as a nuclear reactor neutron absorber, and as an optical glass doping agent
27% (47) (global)
not applicable not applicable
EuPhosphors Used as a red phosphor in flat-
panel displays and fluorescent lamps
100% (47) (global)
none (48) not applicable
Gd
Neodymium magnets
Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets
69% (47) (global)
neodymium adequate (48)
Phosphors Used as a green phosphor in flat-panel displays
21% (47) (global)
yttrium adequate (48)
Other Used as a contrast agent in medical imaging (84), as an x-ray intensifier (85), and in nuclear fuel rods
10% (47) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Tb Phosphors Used largely in compact fluorescent lights
89% (47) (global)
erbium adequate (48)
Neodymium magnets
Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets
11% (47) (global)
dysprosium adequate (48)
DyNeodymium magnets
Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets
100% (47) (global)
none (86) not applicable
HoMagnets Used in the pole pieces of the
strongest static magnets100% (global) neodymium
magnetsadequate Global value based on estimate for
the United States (87)
ErPhosphors Used in fiber optic cables and
flat-panel displays100% (global) terbium adequate (48) Global value based on estimate for
the United States (87)
TmX-ray Includes use in portable x-ray
detectors and lasers100% (global) barium poor Global value based on estimate for
the United States (87)
YbX-ray Includes use in laser applications 100% (global) thorium poor Global value based on estimate for
the United States (87)
LuMedical Used widely in positron emission
tomography (88) 100% (global) bismuth adequate (85) Global value based on estimate for
the United States (87)Hf Aerospace Used as an alloying additive in
nickel-based superalloys in turbine vanes in the combustion zone of jet aircraft engines
39% (89) (global)
zirconium metal good
Nuclear energy control rods
Used as control rod material in nuclear reactors
16% (89) (global)
silver-cadmium-indium alloy (1)
good
Superalloy: fuel reprocessing plants
Used in spent nuclear fuel storage racks, and for tanks and piping in spent fuel reprocessing plants
13% (89) (global)
zirconium metal good
Refractory Hafnium oxide used as a specialized refractory material
13% (89) (global)
zirconium dioxide good
Manufacturing: plasma cutting tools
Pure hafnium used as the active tip for plasma arc cutting tools
9% (89) (global) zirconium metal (90)
good
Electronics Hafnium and hafnium oxide sputtering targets used for coatings and specialized electronic applications
4% (89) (global) zirconium dioxide (91)
good
Other Primarily used in optical fiber, with a smaller amount in catalysts
6% (89) (global) not applicable not applicable
Ta
Capacitors Used in capacitors 48% (92) (global)
aluminum (1) good
Alloy additives Used primarily in superalloys in turbine engine components
16% (92) (global)
niobium (1) good
Sputtering targets Used in sputtering targets 11% (92) (global)
zirconium adequate
Tantalum carbide Used mostly in cutting tools 11% (92) (global)
niobium (1) good
Other Includes use in chemicals and other mill products
14% (92) (global)
not applicable not applicable
W
Cemented carbides Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment
50% (93) (global)
boron nitride (73) adequate Global values are for 2005
Mill products Includes use in electronic and welding applications
15% (93) (global)
molybdenum good Global values are for 2005
Steel Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment
8.5% (global) molybdenum (73, 94)
good Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use
Superalloys Used primarily in turbine engine components
8.5% (global) nickel and molybdenum alloys (73)
good Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use
Other Includes use in pigments 18% (93) (global)
not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2005
Re Superalloys Used primarily in turbine engine components
78% (95) (global)
none not applicable See comments about nickel use in aerospace
Catalysts Used primarily in petroleum refining catalysts
15% (95) (global)
platinum good (96)
Other Includes use in radiation screens 7% (95) (global) not applicable not applicable
and semiconductors
Os
Electron microscopy Used as a staining agent in microscopic analyses
No recent publically available data, so uses are weighted equally
ruthenium good Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide as a substitute staining agent in polymer microscopy (97)
Chemical Used as a process catalyst for a limited number of processes
ruthenium good Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide used in the syn-dihydroxylation of alkenes (98)
Other Used as an alloying agent, typically with other platinum-group metals, for various applications
not applicable not applicable Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of osmium in these applications
Ir Electrochemical Used as a coating for dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry and in numerous other applications
25% (54) (global)
ruthenium adequate Substitute refers to the use of ruthenium and ruthenium-tin oxide coatings in the chlor-alkali industry as an alternative to the ruthenium-iridium coatings (99)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemical Used as a process catalyst for several processes including acetic acid synthesis
21% (54) (global)
rhodium adequate Substitute refers to the rhodium catalyst used in the Monsanto acetic acid production process (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Electrical Used in crucibles used to grow high purity single crystals of metal oxides
15% (54) (global)
molybdenum poor Substitute refers to molybdenum crucibles that can be used to grow sapphire and yttrium aluminum garnet crystals (100)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other Used as an alloying agent with 40% (54) not applicable not applicable Platinum can be alloyed with
platinum in various applications (global) elements other than iridium in certain applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Pt Autocatalyst: diesel Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by diesel engines
33% (54, 101) (global)
none not applicable Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Although palladium can routinely substitute for up to 25% of platinum, it still cannot completely replace platinum in diesel applications (71)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Jewelry Used in jewelry fabrication 26% (54) (global)
palladium good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitutes refers to palladium as a jewelry metal and alloying agent in white gold (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Autocatalyst: gasoline
Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by gasoline engines
13% (54, 101) (global)
palladium good Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does
not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to the use of palladium instead of platinum in gasoline engines (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Investment Used as small and large bars, coins, and exchange traded funds
7% (54) (global) gold good Gold, silver, and palladium can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemical Used as a catalyst for the production of a variety of bulk and specialty chemicals
5% (54) (global) cobalt adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to the use of a cobalt oxide catalyst in the production of nitric acid (102)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Glass Used in glass manufacturing equipment
4% (54) (global) iridium poor Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Recent developments have allowed
iridium to be used in the glass industry although some limitations still exist (103)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Medical and biomedical
Used in dental alloys, biomedical devices, and anti-cancer drugs
3% (54) (global) palladium adequate Substitute refers to the use of palladium-based alloys as alternatives to platinum-based alloys in dental (62) and biomedical applications (104)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Petroleum Used as a catalyst for various petroleum refining processes
3% (54) (global) molybdenum poor Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to molybdenum oxide-based catalysts that were used in the older reforming process (82)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Electrical Used in contacts for various electronic applications and in computer hard disks
3% (54) (global) palladium adequate Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to iron-palladium and cobalt-palladium alloys in thin
films that have been investigated for use in computer hard disk drives (105)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other Used in various applications, including stationary pollution control, spark plugs and oxygen sensors, and corrosion resistant coatings
4% (54) (global) not applicable not applicable Other platinum-group metals can presumably be used in some of these other applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Au
Jewelry Jewelry 62% (106) (global)
silver (66) good
Official transactions and private investment
Used as medallions and small bars
23% (106) (global)
silver (66) good
Electronics Used in printed circuit boards, connectors, semiconductors, and thermocouples
8% (106) (global)
silver (106) adequate
Dental and medical Used in dental fillings 2% (106) (global)
silver (36) adequate
Other industrial Used in industrial control and monitoring instruments, and corrosion-resistant chemical process equipment
5% (106) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Hg Artisanal and small-scale gold mining
Used for gold extraction 21% (107) (global)
borax (108) adequate Global values are for 2005
Vinyl chloride monomer production
Used as the catalyst in the production of vinyl chloride monomer
20% (107) (global)
precious metal salts (109)
adequate Global values are for 2005
Chlorine-caustic soda manufacturing
Used in the mercury cell process for the production of chlorine
13% (107) (global)
membrane cells (1)
good Global values are for 2005
and sodium hydroxideDental equipment and supplies
Used mainly in dental amalgams 10% (107) (global)
ceramic composites (1)
exemplary Global values are for 2005
Electrical: batteries Used in batteries 10% (107) (global)
lithium ion batteries
exemplary Global values are for 2005
Electrical: electrical and electronic devices
Used in wiring devices and switches
5% (107) (global)
gallium indium alloy (110)
adequate Global values are for 2005
Substitute of gallium indium alloy functions as a direct replacement for mercury within switches
Electrical: lighting Includes usage in fluorescent lamps
4% (107) (global)
none (111) not applicable Global values are for 2005
Measuring and control devices
Used mainly in thermometers and thermostats
9% (107) (global)
galinstan (an alloy of gallium, indium, and tin) (1)
exemplary Global values are for 2005
Other Includes use in fungicides, chemicals, pigments, and pesticides
8% (107) (global)
not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2005
Tl
Electronics Used in gamma radiation detection equipment, communications equipment, cardiovascular imaging, and in thallium-impregnated glass used as coverings on electronic devices (e.g., semiconductors and capacitors)
90% (informed estimate) (global)
none not applicable Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute
Other Includes chemical uses (e.g., synthesis of organic compounds) and in alloys to improve corrosion resistance (e.g., in switches)
10% (informed estimate) (global)
not applicable not applicable Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute
Pb Batteries Used in lead-acid batteries for back-up power (e.g., in hospitals and weapons systems), in
80% (112) (global)
none not applicable
transportation vehicles, and to assist electric utilities in shifting loads among grids
Other Includes use in ammunition, sheet/pipes, pigments, and cable sheathing
20% (112) (global)
not applicable not applicable
Bi
Fusible alloys, solders, and ammunition cartridges
Includes use in solders, wires, safety fuses, and molded products
35% (113) (global)
lead good Global values are for 2006
Metallurgical additives
Used in automobiles, planes, grip tubes, tools, and punches
35% (113) (global)
lead (73) adequate Global values are for 2006
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals
Includes use in antacids 28% (113) (global)
magnesium compounds (73)
good Global values are for 2006
Other For example, used in pigments, dentistry, glass, enameled ceramics, and plastic lenses
2% (113) (global)
not applicable not applicable Global values are for 2006
Th
Welding electrodes Used in thoriated tungsten electrodes
65% (global) cerium good Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
Lighting Solution of thorium and cerium nitrates used to produce gas mantles
20% (114) (global)
yttrium compounds (1)
good Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
Refractory Used in high temperature crucibles for melting pure, carbon-sensitive metals at 2300℃
14% (114) (global)
yttrium oxide (115)
exemplary Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
Nuclear applications Behaves as a breeder, absorbing neutrons and forming uranium-233
1% (114) (global)
none not applicable Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
UNuclear energy Used as a nuclear fuel in power
station reactors100% (global) thorium adequate Assumed that nuclear energy is the
only significant end-use of uranium
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