VOLUME 3 LAND RIGHTS FARMING SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENTAL …

REPUBLIK INDONESIADEPARTEMEN TRANSMIGRASI

REPUBUQUE FRANCAlSEo R S TOM C N R S

avec la collaboration de· In c:oIlaboratJon with

INDECO Duta Utama PPT-UPI

VOLUME 3

LAND RIGHTS

FARMING SYSTEMS

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

SPONTANEOUS TRANSMIGRATION PROJECT

Special Studies TRANS V Loan 2578 - IND

1991

REPUBLIK INDONESIAoEPARTEMEN TRANSMIGRASI

REPUBUQUE FRANCNSEORSTOM CNRS

avec la coliaboralJon de· In collaboration wftJr


LAND RIGHTS



1991

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUCTION 11.1. Background 11.2. Research methodology 21.3. Respondents and sample areas 2

2. LAND RIGHTS UNDER TIlE MARGA GOVERNMENT IN sourn SUMATRA 32.1. The Marga Government 32.2. Land rights under the Marga Government 52.3. Land access for spontaneous settlers during the Marga Govemment 7

3. mE ABOLISHMENT OF MARGA GOVERNMENT 73.1. The main impact 83.2. The new village government 9

4. SPONTANEOUS SEITLERS AND TIlEIR PENETRATION INTO SOUTII SUMATRANADAT SOCIETY 104.1. How spontaneous migrants obtain the right to work agriculturalland 114.2. Evidence of land ownership 144.3. The ambiguities of the official instructions 17

5. CONCLUSIONS 18

TECHNICAL REPORT

LAND RIGHTS AND SPONTANEOUS SETfLEMENTS:

THE CASE OF SOUTH SUMATRA PROVINCE

1. INTRODUCI10N

1.1. Background

The spontaneous movement towards agricultural colonization is clearly an important factor

for agricultural development in Outer Indonesia, particularly South Sumatra which, after

Lampung, is the second most important receiving province. Spontaneous settlers are defined as

people who leave their homeland to go to TUral areas in another region to live, without any

support from the State. This movement began many decades ago in the wake of development

projects (road and rail constTUction, for example) and colonial settlement programs. The

movement grew with the increasingly large Transmigration schemes in South Sumatra and

neighboring, and overcrowded, Lampung.

It is of course interesting to study spontaneous migrants in terms of the process of arrivaI

in the new areas, their adaptation and assimilation to the new environment, and the question

of how they obtain the right to land. Land access as it pertains to spontaneous TUral settlers

is the topic of this report.

It has been mentioned in the Broad Lines of State PoHcy (GBHN) that land has a social

function and is a part of agrarian development. It is to he used for increasing the people's

welfare. For the three quarters of the Indonesian population that still lives in rural areas, land

play a vital role in their daily lives. Landownership is closely related to social organization in

Indonesia.

As Koentjaraningratnoted in Villages in Indonesia (1967), "Within ... the Indonesian nation

live people representing a wide variety of ethnie groups ...(and) wide variety is also exhibited

among her villages."To attain a degree of administrative uniformity and control, the central

govemment has promulgated various laws. The most important one conceming village

reorganization was the 1979 Law No. 5 Conceming Village Govemment (Undang-undangNo. 5

Tahun 1979 Mengenai Pemerintahan Desa).

In South Sumatra, this law was effectivelyapplied in 1983 with the Govemor's decision to

abolish the traditional Marga local organization.Many spontaneous migrants arrived before then,

when the procedure for obtaining land was different. It is thus necessary to take into account

the introduction of the 1979 law and the abolition of the Marga govemment.

lAND R1Gtrrs

Bach region of Indonesia has its own customary law and village organization,so care should

he exercised when generalizing the conclusions of this study outside of South Sumatra.

1.2. Research methodology

Primary and secondary data were employed in this study. The primary data was collected

during the month of June 1990. Secondary data was gathered through Iibrary research, covering

joumals,legal texts, maps, research reports and other Iiterature.

In collecting the primary data in the study areas, personal interviews were carried out with

the head of the sub-district (Kecamatan), former Marga heads (Pasirah), village heads (Kepala

Desa or Kades), community leaders (pemuka masyarakat), spontaneous migrants, and the local

or indigenous people.

Interviews were based on open-ended questionnaire and lasted anywhere from 30 to two

hOUTS each. The open method of questioning was found to he more fruitful as it left the

subjects free to discuss the specifie problems they were most familiar with.

Some interviews with the spontaneous migrant settlers and the locals were arranged by the

Kades. Other respondents were solicited door to door or in a random manner. The difficulty

of reaching many scattered spontaneous settlements prevented any attempt at constructing a

representativesample group, resulting in a analysis that is more descriptive and qualitative than

quantitative.The subject of land ownership and land access being a rather sensitive question,

the aim of this study will he to describe the spontaneous settler's situation and note the

difficulties they have in obtaining land for agriculture. This study does not include however the

spontaneous or indigenous within the boundaries of forest reserves. The recent redrawing of

these boundaries add a note of urgency to the question of secure ownership rights for both

indigenous and spontaneous settleTS.

1.3. Respondents and sampIe areas

This study was carried out in the Lahat, OKU, OKI and MURA districts, where many

spontaneous migrants were found attempting to gain access to land for coffee plantations and

food crop agriculture.

ViUages were selected as samples for this study based on information obtained at the district

and sub-district levels. Infonnants inc1uded spontaneous migrants, indigenousviUagers and officiais

from the neighborhood to the district leve1.

For OKU,among the settlementsselected were Kedaton,Mendala,Surya Mendala, Triyoso

Mendala, Trimulyo-Mendala and Talang Jipang in the Peninjauan sub-district; Jatisari in the

Muaradua sub-district; Sarekat Jaya and Tanjung Durian in the Simpang sub-district; and

Mendayun in the Buay Madang sub-district.

In OKI, Cahaya Mas in the Mesuji sub-district was chosen, along with Kota Tulung Selapan

and Ujung Tanjung in the Tulung Selapan sub-district.

lAND R1GIITS 2

ln district of Lahat, the villages of Bunga Mas and Wonorejo in the Kikim sub-district;

Kedaton in the Pulau Pinang sub-district; Kota Tanjung Sakti and Airpanas in the Tanjung Sakti

sub-district, and in the Ulu Musi sub-district the villages of Padang Tepong and Muara Beliti.

The village chosen for the MURA district was Megang Sakti near Tugu Mulyo.

2. LAND RIGHTS UNDER THE MARGA GOVERNMENT IN SOUTH

SUMATRA

This section will focus on the Marga govemment and land rights under that govemment.

Up until 1983, candidates for spontaneous settlement had to deal with this social and political

organization.

2.1. The Marga Govemment

ln South Sumatra, the Marga, before it was abolished by the 1979 Law No. 5 Conceming

Village Govemment (Undang-undangNo. 5 Tahun 1979 Mengenai Pemerintahan Desa), was the

highest institution under the customary law (or hukum adat) which govemed the traditional

society. and it controlled the utilization of the community's natural resources.

The Marga was an area or a territory govemed by a Pasirah or a Depati considered the

head of the Marga. The Marga jurisdiction was based on natural demarcation such as rivers,

valleys, the sound of the cock's crow or recognized but intangible boundaries. In perfonning his

govemmental functions, the Pasirah was assisted by the Marga Secretary or Pembarab who

sometimes also acted as the Vice-Pasirah in case the Pasirah was unable to carry out his duties.

ln religious affairs. the Pasirah was assisted by the Religious Leader or Penghulu and the Priest

or Khotib1• The entire province was divided into marga, leaving no areas uncontrolled.

The marga territory englobed a number of main settlements or villages, called dusun, which

were in tum divided into kampung. The daily activities of the govemment were administered by

the village and dusun head, the Krio, and by the head of the sub-village or kampung, the

Penggawa,all of them under the authorityof the Pasirah. In one sense, the Krio had jurisdiction

more over people than over territory. If a group of people wanted to settle a remote area,

usually referred to as a talang, they had to ask pennission for this to their Krio, who would

transfer the request to the Pasirah who controlled the land. The people of the new settlement

were then administered by their former dusun.

In comparing various regions or Sumatra, the Marga Govemment is similar to the Kuria in Tapanuli, North

Sumatra, the Nagari, in West Sumatra, and the Mukim in Ache. See H. Amrah Muslimin, "Hukum Tata Negara danAdministrasi Adat," paper delivered to the Seminar on South Sumatra's Customary Law, Palembang, 26-21November 1987, p. 4 (unpublished).

lAND RJGKI'S 3

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As the head of the Marga, the

Pasirah had absolute power. He held the

legislative,executive and judicial authority.

In producing any law, he was assisted by

the Marga RepresentativeBoard or Dewan

Marga. In the enforcement of adIJt law,

the Pasirah, Kerio or Krio and the

Penggawacould prosecute any member of

the society who was suspected of violating

adIJt law. The offender would then be

judged at the Marga Court or the Rapat

AdlJt. The Marga Court consisted of the

Pasirah as the head of the court, with aH

the Krio, Penggawa, and Khotib as sitting

members. In 1951, the judicial power of

the Pasirah was aboJished by the 1951 Martial Law, after which the role of the Pasirah in

judicial affairs was to mediate private disputes (Selo Sumardjan , 1987).

HistoricaHy,the Marga Govemmenthad existed in South Sumatra for 200 years (R.H. Arifai

Tjek Jan, 1987:3). The Dutch colonial govemmentrecognized the role of the Marga through the

Ordinance on the Unity of the Indigenous People of the Outer Islands, State Gazette, 1938, No.

4~. Many marga were combined to fonn larger units. Then, and until 1983, the marga were

grouped under the kecamatan (sub-district), introducing a sort of double management.

The elections for the head of Marga were conducted in democratic fashion. The contestants

campaigned from village to village and the people voted on the same election day. The elected

Pasirah held his position for five years and could be re-elected for another five years through

a referendum3• The Pasirah, assisted by the Marga RepresentativeBoards, proposed an annual

budget based on the Marga income4• This was derived from: 1) Marga tax: previously,aH males

in the community over the age of 18 had a dutYto work for the Marga, according to adIJt law.

This duty was then replaced by the Marga tax; 2) The annual auction of resources of, for

2This Ordinance outlined at that time several specific aspects of Marga govemment: 1. The Marga govemment is anIndonesian legal entity; 2. It is to be govemed by the head of the Marga and other adat leaders and assisted by theMarga Representative Boards; 3. The Marga have the right to levy tax on their people; 4. The Marga have a rightto sentence any offender of customary law with a corPoral punishment or imprisonment for a maximum of threedays, with enfocced labor or with a maximum fine of n. 10. This ordinance was thereafter reconfirmed by theDecision of the Govemment of South Sumatra No. G.b/53/1951 of 9 May 1951.

3The qualifications of the candidates are stipulated by the Decisions of the Govemor of South Sumatra No.G.b/S4/1951 and No. G/55/1961. They state: "Anybody, either male or female, can be elected as the head of theMargo. He or she must be from the Marga society, between 21-55 years of age, and able to read and speakIndonesian. Elementary education or past experience can qualil'y a candidate to be head of the Marga.-

4To get sorne idea of the financial situation, it should be realized that one Marga in South Sumatra was able to givea salary to its Pasirah that was higher than the salary received by the District Supervisor and the District Assistant(Asisten Wedana or Wedana). See Selo Surnardjan, 1987.

u.NDRlGKrS 4

instance. river fisheries. riverbanks and ponds; 3) Land leasing: the people from outside of the

Marga could use the Marga land by paying a leasing fee; 4) Wedding ceremony services; 5)

Market leasing fees; 6) Animal authorization. necessary for selling animais in the market; 7)

Forest production: the Marga could plant. maintain and utilize forest resources; and 7) Marga

income received from fines levied by the court.

The general framework for Marga organizationwas written down in the Sumber Cahaya. one

of the first text of its kind. written in 1630 and revised over the centuries. Individual Marga

usually worked out their own style of land management within this framework. They designated

the reserved forest (for conservation or sacred purposes). protected river banks and other areas

off limits for agriculture.

2.2. Land rights under the Marga Government

The relationship between the members of adat society and the land is very close. because

people live on the land. live from the land and are buried in it (B. Ter Haar, 1958:56). The

strong bond between adat society and the land creates their title to the land.

The right to use land in a marga territory is called hak ulayat and it falls under the

management of the Pasirah. The ulayat rights require that: 1) The adat community has the

absolute right to exploit the unutilized land within the territory of the adat lands; 2) A foreigner

or one who is not an adat member may use the land provided he has the permission issued

by the head of adat society. Without such permission. use by outsiders will be considered to be

in violation of the adat law; 3) A member of the adat society may draw benefits from the

ulayat rights for as long as it is for the use of his family. If the land is used for the benefit

of a foreigner.permission must be obtained before one starts to use the land; 4) Foreigners are

allowed to take advantageof the ulayat rights with the permission of the head of adat society.

They must present gifts to the adat society through this head. These gifts are seen as the

payment for land utilization; 5) The ulayat rights cannot be relinquished, transferred or

abandoned for any period of time. otherwise the unused land will revert to the community; 6)

The ulayat rights cover land utilization and individualland rights (Imam Sudiyat, 1981:2).

There are two kinds of ulayat land rights. the individual and the communal. In general.land

title or what is also called ulayat right under customary law. can be obtained through:

1. Opening forest or brush

2. Inheritance

3. Purchasing. transferring or giving

4. Prescription

An Indonesian indigenous person has a right to open the forest or the underbrush within

the territory of his ulayat right. Every person must notify the adat head that they have selected

lAND R1GtrrS 5

a piece of land within the ulayat territory. Following a ritual ceremony, such as the slaughter

of animais, the individuals put up signs on their land or erect poles to serve as borders marking

the Iimits of their ownership (infonnant: Raswan MD, Selcwilcam, Ulu Musi). By this action,

they have established the legal relationship between themselves and the land. As a result, they

have the right to utilize ail the natural resources within their boundaries, and other people are

not allowed to infringe on this right.

Under customary law, if they do not use the land or if they abandon it for a period of

time, the aMt head will give them notice that their title is in jeopardy.They have to take action

to begin cultivating the land again, or else retum it to the status of ulayat right so that it will

be available for use by other members of the adat society. Nonnally,under the local agricultural

systems in the province, people have to leave clearings to fallow several years following two

seasons of food crops. Often the land is abandoned after the planting of rubher, coffee or fruit

trees which secure their right to use the land. When their stock of rice declines, they will begin

a new clearing either within the customary family land without pennission or in new land with

pennission through the Krio from the Pasirah.

The use of a piece of land and the perennial trees by one individual creates land title

recognized by the community. If the landowner dies, the land will he inherited by his children,

nonnally the eldest son. The customary inheritance law in South Sumatra would seem much the

same throughout the province, but in sorne regions where the matrilineal system is still applied,

as in the Semendo region, inheritance will fall to the eldest daughter of the family. This system

is called tunggu tubang, in contrast to the patrilineal inheritance law system. Sometimes the

fonner is referred to "female"tunggu tubang, while the latter is tenned "male"tunggu tubang.

Under the female tunggu tubang, the eldest daughter receives ail the properties, but this implies

the right of management (hak menikmati hasil) over the land and unmovable properties. She

cannot sell any of the properties she holds without the consent of her brothers. She also has

duties, for example to take care of and finance her younger brothers and sisters if they are still

in school and to attend to her brothers if they come home to visit. Those not c1assified as the

tunggu tubang have to set off on their own from the family. Nonnally, they will search for new

land to open for agricultural purposes. In these offshoot families, the eldest daughter (if any)

will he the new tunggu tubang, and will inherit ail the property, sustaining the system of tunggu

tubang. In addition to the inheritance law system above, Islamie inheritance law, called faraidh

law, is also applied. Under this law, the inheritance will he divided two to one (2:1) hetween

sons and daughters.

If, as in sorne regions, the customary law is not very strictly applied, the owner of the land

can freely sell, give or transfer his land to other indigenous people from outside his aMt

territory. The land transaction must he conducted in front of the adat head in order to establish

the legal status of the land. When the customary law in a region is very strictly applied, such

transactions are restricted to people from the same territory. The transfer must he legalized by

the Village Meeting or Rapat Adat.

Customary law also recognizes that title may he obtained by prescription. This institution

is used as a legal remedy for obtaining legal right over the land. Under customary law, there

is no exact time Iimit after which the right over the land is considered to he in the status of

lANDRlGJITS 6

prescription as it is in written law (Imam Sudiyat, 1981; Ter Haar, 1958; Selo Sumardjan,1987;

Amrah Muslimin, 1987; Surojo Wignjodipuro, 1982).

2.3. Land access for spontaneous settlers during the Marga government

Until 1983, newcomers had to ask permission trom the Pasirah through the Krio before

putting any land to use, be it unused land or land belonging to a family, as stipulated in the

Sumber Cahaya conceming foreigners in the marga community. The candidate had to precisely

situate the land for the Pasirah to extend his control over it Ü it was not in a protected area.

When agreement was reached, the new settler had to pay a fee, pacung a1as, nominal if for

individuals desiring 1 or 2 ha of non-strategie land. The fee was paid to the marga fund. A

fixed percentage was levied in the case of purchase and sale transactions with a member of the

marga community. If the new settler did not use or work the land for more than three years,

the land reverted to the community and could be attributed to other members of the marga.

Besides controlling land use, the marga also controlled the process of settlement. Sometimes

a group of spontaneous migrants would ask for permission to settle and use agriculturalland.

Usually the marga council gave permission with certain stipulations depending on the situation.

In Mendayun, Buay Madang, OKU, the migrant settlement has to be located at least two

kilometers away trom the main indigenous settlement, and two kilometers from the riverbank.

This distance represented the perimeter used for intensive agriculture by the indigenous peasants.

It was also decided that the native houses in the original village will never be sold to a foreign

family. Even ü sorne of the marga did not apply this minimum distance, they ail agreed to the

separation. Sorne of the marga would not agree on new migrant settlements unless all the

settlers had the same religion as the indigenous people, but others were not concemed with that

problem.

3. THE ABOLISHMENT OF MARGA GOVERNMENT

In 1979, the central govemment promulgated the 1979 Act No. 5 Conceming Village

Govemment.The objectives of enforcing the above act are mentioned in the Preamble, that is,

to promote the unification of the system of govemment at the lowest level in all parts of the

Indonesian territory, to strengthen and render effective village govemments so they could carry

out their activities and encourage public participation in development. In executing the above

Act, the Govemor of South Sumatra, through the Letter of Decision No. 142 KPTSIIIII1983,

of 24 March 1983, formally abolished the Marga govemment.

The above decision raised diverse reactions from scholars in South Sumatra, and made it

ail the more urgent to arrange a seminar on South Sumatra adat law from 26-28 November

1987 in Palembang. One paper submitted during the seminar pointed out that the main reason

lANDRIGHrS 7

for Marga abolition was to attract more developmentfunding for villages (Bandes-BantuanDesa)

from the central govemment. The Village Assistance DevelopmentFunding provided for every

village in Indonesia was regulated by the 1984 Instruction of the Home Affairs Minister No. 26.

The amount of the funding is Rp 1,250,OOOper village.

H the marga was considered equivalent to the village, the total amount of development

funding available for South Sumatra would he 188 units. H the traditional dusun was taken to

he the village or desa, that the numher of units would inèrease to 2,190. One can imagine how

much funding could he absorbed by the South Sumatra regional govemment. Based on the

aforementioned Home Minister's Instruction, the funding allocation amounts to Rp 950,000 to

he used for stimulating village development.The kind of development to he pursued is decided

by the LKMD. A small portion of the Rp 950,000 will he distributed equally to each section

in the LKMD. Rp 50,000 is to he used for the routine expenses incurred by the LKMD.

Rp 250,000 is for Family Prosperity Education (PKK). Of the Rp 250,000, about Rp 190,000 is

to he used for the implementationof its program.

3.1. The main impact

The abolishment of the marga govemment has had significant impact in the field study

villages, as can he summarized helow:

1. -The marga territory has become fragmented into small tracts under the jurisdiction of the

desa or dusun, but the village territory and its borders were never properly delineated,since

under the marga system the village border was of little importance; ail the rights and

authority were under the common marga govemment. As noted above, the Krio had to

manage the people rather than a territory. No transfer of knowledge or infonnation was

instituted from the Pasirah to ail his Krio for managing and preserving the environment in

their territory. No defined territory was distributed to each new village.

To use the words of one of the district heads (Camat): "Now the desa and dusun are

autonomous and we don't have the authority to detennine the boundary of each one."

2. The original sources of Marga income have now heen replaced with developmentfunds from

the provincial govemment sent directly to the desa and dusun LKMD without the transfer

of infonnation conceming their management. The next step should he a retum to the

traditional systems at the village level with the creation of village land (tanah bengko) put

under production to sustain a development fund.

3. Unused land is now controlled by the Provincial Govemmentand forest production, which

previouslyhelonged to the Marga, is now under the control of the Department of Forestry.

This can he linked to the rapid development of estate land distribution over the last five

years.

lANDRlGHrS 8

4. The village (desa or dusun) govemmentis unable to maintain adat law because traditionally

it was not prepared for such a role. It is only competent to execute Govemment programs

linked with modemization efforts. Nowadays, an indigenous peasant will dear new land

without asking permission from the Kades if the land does not belong to anyone.

5. An example of the vast changes in traditionallife and social control is the deterioration of

the Marga public meeting houses formerly used for large meetings to inform the public

(Selo Sumardjan, 1987:22-23).

3.2. The New Village Government

Now the village govemment is the lowest level of govemment under the system of provincial

govemment following the district (kabupaten) and sub-district (kecamatan) as everywhere in

Indonesia and in keeping with the 1979 Act No. 5 Conceming Village Govemment.The duties oC the Kades are: 1) To administer govemment activities at the village level; 2) to

cany out social, development and security activities; 3) In social aCCairs, the Kades has the obligation to

guide Carmers in increasing agricultural production, to increase people's awareness oC the need to

participate in development, to guide people in sanitation and beautification, and other aspects rcquiring

social guidance. In the matter oC village security and stability, the Kodes has to cany out the police

Cunction, as the executor oC orders Crom higher authorities, establishes night-watch patrols, and report to

his superiors any unsettled cases.

This Act also mentions the conditions that have to be met by those who run Cor the position

oC Kades. The rcquirements are the Collowing: one must be CaithCul to one Supreme God; one must be

loyal and obedient to Pancasila and the 1945 Indonesian Constitution; one must have good behavior and

be honest, Cair, intelligent and respectCul; one must not have been involved in the September 30th

Movement (G.30 S/PKI); one must not have been stripped oC the right to vote by court order; one must

not have been indicted or punished by decision oC a court oC laW; one must be registered as a local

resident Cor at least two years consecutively, unless one is a village native; one must be between the age

oC 25 and 60, physically and spiritually healthy and have at least a junior high school level oC education

or equivalent past experience and knowledge. The Kodes is appointed by the Bupati or mayor oC the

Kotmnadya on behalC oC the Govemor. The elected Kodes will hold the position Cor an eight year term.

Importantly for this study, the Kades is in charge of controlling the movement of the

population, through the issuance of travel documents (surat jalan), moving documents (surat

pindah) for villagers with good hehavior, and the same for incoming migrants.

He or she must prepare and sign ail documents related to the buying and selling of land

hetween individuals,and documents certifying traditional rights to use land. This is the first step

that must he taken by an owner or user of a parcel of land in order to gain recognition from

a higher authority.The village head cannot, however, issue such documents for parcels exceeding

2 ha. He receives a certain fee, the amount of which is usually set by the LKMD and is shared

with the kecamatan if the documents have to he processed at that level. Usually indigenous

people do not use this procedure unless they want to apply for bank loans.

u.NDRJG~ 9

4. SPONTANEOUS SETTLERS AND THEIR PENETRATION INTO SOUTH

SUMATRAN ADAT SOCIE'IY

If one observes the flow of spontaneous migrants at the local level, it can be generalized

that spontaneous migrants do not usually settle directly in one location but pass through other

places before obtaining the information about suitable places to settle. Few of those interviewed

came directly from Java, as did Idan (36), interviewedon 14 July 1990 at Kampung1 of Cahaya

Mas village. During this transit period they collect capital from working odd jobs and gather

information about possible settlement areas, ail the while getting used to the new region's

customs and social environment.

Upon their arrivaI in a new location, spontaneous migrants have to show the surat jalan,

or travel document, issued by the Kades at their place of origin. Normally the Kades or the

Desa administration will ask the migrant the reasons for his travel.

In general, they do not have particular skills to help them at the new location. Interviews

carried out during the field trips indicated that only two of them had skills such as tailoring,

tombstone carving, brick-making,or masonrf. Unfortunately,these kinds of skills could not be

fully exploited due to their lack of capital. No wonder there is a trend among spontaneous

migrants to work as hired laborers, or upahan, on rubber and coffee plantations belonging to

locals. A slight difference is apparent between spontaneous migrants in the sub-districts of

Peninjauan,Pulau Beringin and Muaradua who rely mainly on hired work, and those in the sub

districts of Kikim such as Pak Tasjaatmajaat Wonorejo village who hires himself out when he

is forced to stop making bricks during the rainy season.

In smallholder rubber plantations, spontaneous migrants work mainly at land clearing. We

met spontaneous migrants as rubber tappers, or penakok karet, only on large estates. In coffee

plantations they may work as coffee pickers, or pemetik kopi, porters or weeders. Even if sorne

of them had already acquired skills at this work from their place of origin, they leam about the

specific environment at their plantation. As a result of this process of transferring local

knowledgefrom the indigenous people to the spontaneous migrants, a process that may last from

one to five years, the latter may leam how to plant coffee or rubber. Nonnally, after amassing

enough money, the single laborers, or bujangan, retum to Java to pick up their families. For

those who have already brought their families with them, they usually retum the plantations to

the owners and move or buy new land for agricultural purposes.

Thus, it can be said that even though spontaneous migrants were merely peasants in Java,

in the new location they work in ail sectors of the economy, as manual laborers, as gado-gado

sellers, as tombstone carvers such as those migrants in Tulung Selapan or they open small stalls,

or warung, such as those owned by spontaneous migrants at Talang Jipang (Pak Pulung) and

at Megang Sakti. Their daily gross incomes range from Rp 2500 to Rp 15,000.

5Thc infonncIS wen: Pak Tasjaalmaja al Wonon:jo villagc (inlcrvicwed on 22 July 1990) and Pak Soslro al UjungTanjung village (inlcrvicwed on 2 Augusl 1990).

u.NDRlGKfS 10

4.1. How spontaneous migrants obtain the right to work agricultural land

Land ownership rights were obtained by spontaneous migrants at the research locations

foHowing land transactions made with the locals. According to adat law in South Sumatra, land

transactions may be of two categories,perbuatanhukum sepihak, or "one-sidedlegal action,"and

perbuatan hukum duo pihak, or "two-sidedlegal action."

An example of the first type is the estabJishment of a vinage or the opening of a forest

by a member of adat society. A "two-sidedaction" wouJd incJude land purchasing transactions,

caHed adol in Java and transactions that are directly connected with land, such as menjual gadai,

menjuallepas, menjual tahunan (Bushar Muhammad, 1985:111-116).

Spontaneous migrants commonly practice land transactions with the indigenous people which

have no direct relationship with the land, even though its object stiJ) regards land, such as crop

sharing, or bagi hasil. Nevertheless, there is a tendency among spontaneous migrants to conduct

transactions with the indigenous people such as land-sharing, or bagi tanah, land puchasing, or

jual beli tanah, land purchasing by instaHment, or membeli tanah dengan mencicil, land rentaI,

or sewa tanah, borrowing land (numpang), and land rental-purchase,or sewah beli tanah.

These transactions are considered as two-sided legal actions. Under the adat law in South

Sumatra, these practices had never previouslybeen praeticed. FoHowing is an explanation of the

above transactions.

CROP-SHAR/NG TRANSAcnONS

According to Prof. Gonggrijp and Prof. De Stopelar in their book entitJed Arbeid in de

Javaanche Maatchapij, the crop-sharing institution is a kind of payment (pengupahan)resembJing

the payment system employed in capitaJist society (AP. ParJindungan, 1989:5). Other scholars,

such as ReroHe, even speak of crop-sharing institutions as "nameless contracts" (onbenoemde

contract)whichenglobe sewa gadai, perseroan, and perjanjian upah (wage contract) arrangements.

The institution of crop-sharing is stiJl in existence in aH parts of Indonesia and goes by the

tenns maro, martelu, memperduoi, toyo, tesent, and jejuron. The tenn used depends on the

region. Under the agreement whereby a landowner gives permission to another person to work

his land, the cultivator,or penggaraphas to give haU, or separuh, of the yield to the landowner.

This system has many social and economic aspects (AP. ParJindungan, 1989:6).

In the 1980 President's Instruction No. 13, dated 10 March 1969, Conceming Guidance for

the Implementation of the 1969 Act No. 2 Conceming the Crop-sharing Agreement (UU No.

2 Tahun 1969 Mengenai Perjanjian Bagi Hasil) it is mentioned under Article 1, paragraph 1 (c)

that the crop-sharing agreement, under whatever name, is conducted between the landowner on

the one hand and another individual or legal entity on the other hand, under this Act caHed

cultivator,or penggarap,by which agreement the cultivator is permitted by the owner to carry

out agricultural undertakings on the owner's land by sharing crops equaHy between both parties.

From the definition above one might observe that the institution of crop-sharing is a form of

land utiJization that requires sorne elements of production, tirst and foremost capital and

manpower. Unfortunately. the Act does not function effectivelyas not aH people are aware of

the Act.

lAND R1GImI 11

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Basically.the institution of crop-sharing continues to function because many landowners are

unable to cultivate ail their land themselves. Sheltema mentions sorne factors tending to cause

the emergence of crop-sharing institutions. Thase factors are the lack of capital. laborers and

animais to till the land. the factor of social status as exemplified by the haj men (who have

carried out a pilgrimage to Mecca). the effect of the former desa apparatus. and other socio

economic factors. Owners who are merchants. women. or under-aged children are Iikely to share

out their land as are those who have land far from the village or undistributed land inherited

through the tunggu tubang inheritance system (AP. Parlindungan. 1987:7).

At the research locations.crop-sharing arrangements are obviouslyrecognized and employed

between indigenous people and spontaneous migrants at coffee plantations. except the

arrangements do not always follow the strict mie. but rather depend on population and

plantation density.Iabor supply and demand in the area. and the location of the piece of land

(accessible or isolated). In the best case. from the worker's point of view. the sharing will be

on a one to one (1:1) basis. Each of them receive one portion. If the landowner provides food

and other supplies. the share will be two for the landowner to one for the worker. Frequently

the proportion is better for the worker when the landowner does not provide anything but the

land or the plantation. or if the plantation is composed of old trees in need of rejuvenationor

maintenance. Under this condition. the hired worker may sometimes receive two or three

portions while the owner of the land receives one portion. The yield distribution of three to one

(3:1) is called martelu or jejuron (Bushar Muhammad. 1985:117).

Very often we see coffee smallholders allow their hired spontaneous migrant workers to

plalJt food crops in between the young coffee plants for their own consumption and benefit with

no share in production given to the owner.

When the land is under food crop cultivation,the sharecropping system also varies from one

place to another. For irrigated rice. the usual share is 1:1 and the spontaneous migrant is

expected to pay for ail of the inputs. Often examples were found of workers being able to keep

the entire production from the second planting season in the year. We found cases where the

owner is an urban absentee who receives 1 part to 10 for the worker (cases noted along the

rood near Simpang.OKU).

As for yield-sharing in the case of brick-making.like in the case of Pak Sostro at Ujung

Tanjung.Tulung Selapan. OKI. the share is ten to one (10:1). meaning ten bricks for the renter

and one brick for the maker. This arrangement came about because Pak Sostro rented land and

borrowed money from the owner for his project. The amount of bricks that have been paid are

calculated on a weekly or monthly basis.

LAND-SHARING TRANSACTIONS, OR PAROAN TANAH

Now and then the transaction carried out between indigenous people and migrants do not

concem sharing crop yield but rather the sharing of the land itself. We found this system mainly

in the mountain areas.

Usually the two families work together from the beginning for the creation of a new coffee

plantation.The land is chosen by the indigenous.usually on his family's territory but not always.

They do not ask for permission to open a new clearing. Il is enough to know that the land

r- LAND R1Gtn'S 12

111111111111111

does not belong to anyone else; They dear a large piece of forest or land (nearJy 2 ha the first

year) working together for the first two years of the plantation. During this first stage, the

indigenous people win plant dry rice (padi ladang) fonowed by the spontaneous migrant, and

they win share production on a 1:1 basis. After this, the local win often leave the plantation and

the spontaneous settler win work the whole plantation and live alone. During this time, the

migrant is able to borrow money for living expenses, usuany having to pay it back with the first

substantial harvest.

Before the first major coffee harvest, the plantation win be shared into two equal parts.

Often the spontaneous settler win work on the part belonging to the indigenous owner with a

sharecropping arrangement.

This system is not secured by any written contract.

LAND-PURCHASING TRANSACTIONS

Under customary law, the purchasing transaction must be conducted or sealed by concrete

or cash and reaJ. Concrete or cash means the payment or the down-payment, or panjer. The

down-payment serves to prevent the land being sold to another person. Real means the

transaction to transfer right over the land is written and signed on stamped paper in front of

the adat head or the Kades. The rights over the land are automaticany transferred to the new

owner when the seHing price has been paid (Bechtiar Effendy, 1982:22), and is even considered

legal ü conducted in the absence of the adat head, Kades or the Land Certification Officer

(PP'AT: Pejabat Pembuat Akte Tanah, refer to the Supreme Court Decision, 19 September 1970,

No. Registrasi Perkara 123/K/Sip/1970, and Artide 5 of the 1960 Basic Agrarian Law No. 5).

LAND-PURCHASE BY INSTALLMENT

In reality, under the adat law system in the province of South Sumatra, the practice of

purchasing land by instanment is not commonly used among the locals. Ownership rights over

the land are mainly derived from purchasing, inheritance and opening the forest. As increasing

numbers of spontaneous migrants penetrated and assimiJated into the local communities, there

resulted a shifting of the local customs. One impact of such penetration is the creation of the

system of land-purchasingby instaHment.The emergence of this institution is due to the inability

of the spontaneous migrants to buy agricultural land with cash, as did Pak Irfan (36) at Cahaya

Mas, Kampung III, in buying his land from Mbah Musyirin, an ex-transmigrant from Air

Sugihan.

RENTING OF LAND

The rentaI of land is another form of land transaction conducted by the spontaneous

migrants in the vinages researched. This transaction implies that the landowner permits the

tenant to cultivate his land for agricultural purposes or to use it as a site for the construction

of a house. Payment is in the form of agricultural production paid after the harvest or every

month. We found this arrangement in Belitang where population density is quite high.

11111

lAND R1Gtn'S 13

1[

[

[

ln Tapanuli, North Sumatra, this kind of transaction is called mengasidi, while in South

Sumatra it is called sewa bumi, in Kalimantan it is called cukai and in Bali ngupetenin.

THE "NUMPANO" LAND TRANSACTION

Numpang means staying with somebody, or using a house or land without paying anything.

Although this type of access to land is transitory,lacking any legal status, it frequentlyallows

the spontaneous migrant to save up enough capital to buy the land or another parceI.

The landowner grants the land to the cultivator. Different from a land rentai transaction,

in this case the owner pays nothing. This kind of system is commonly applied among the

spontaneous migrants at the Batumarta Transmigration scheme where each of the original

transmigrant families received 5 ha of land. It is also common with urban absentee owners who

have an interest in seeing that their land be occupied and cultivatedfor the present time. When

the owner decides to sell the land, the penumpangmust leave without any compensation. This

arrangement is very often used for housing.

ln Java, this transaction is called magersari while in Parahiangan it is named lindung or

indung (Bushar Muhammad, 1985:120).

LAND RENfALjPURCHASE TRANSACTIONS

The system of land rental/purchase agreements, similar to that of purchasing land by

installments, is never practiced by the adat society in South Sumatra, but it is employed by the

spontaneous migrants as a wayof obtaining agriculturalland, an example being Pak Sostro at

Ujung Tanjung, Tulung Selapan, OKI.

At tirst, Pak Sostro rented the land. Payment was to be in the form of the bricks he

produced. Once the amount of bricks he had paid equalled the price of the land, he was

considered the new owner.

4.2. Evidence of land ownership

It is commonly perceived that as the need for land for development increases, the land

available for carrying out the development becomes harder to find. One solution is land clearing,

which is carried out through giving compensation to the people affected. In this context, the

govemment or private agency will only pay compensation for the land if the owner can show

c1ear evidence of land ownership. This means that people have to have complete and authentic

documents to support their c1aim to ownership rights over the land. The fact remains that land

ownership in the villages are most often based on adat rights which are difficult to prove under

the State or written laws.

To protect the people's land ownership rights based on adat law, the Govemment of

Indonesia suggested that people register their lands. The requirement for land registration is

provided for in Article 19 of the 1961 Act No. 5 Conceming the Basic Agrarian Law. This

r UND R1GKI'S 14

article aims at legal certainty. Legal certainty, as it is mentioned under this article, entails the

legaJ certainty of the Jocation, size and measurements of the land, and the legal status of the

ownership. Land registration can also function to aid the owner in obtaining a Jand certificate

(K. Wantjik SaJeh, 1985:56-57).

However, since many people Jack an understanding of the urgency to register their Jand,

sometimes the adat society views the obligation of registering Jand as a strange exercise given

that the Jand has often been in their famiJy's possession for generations. As Jong as the

boundary of Jand is c1ear and there are no other c1aims on it (A. Romsan, 1986:66) Jand

ownership win not he chanenged. The reJuctance of the indigenous people to register their Jand

is aJso due to the high cost of the administrative formaJities and the fact that if an the Jand

owned under adat Jaw (including the forest pJantations) were to he registered, they wouJd have

to pay an extremeJy heavy IPEDA Jand tax.

PRONA PROGRAM

In terms of Jand registration the Govemment introduced another mechanism, the so-caned

NationaJ Program to register Jand or ProgramNasional (PRONA). The objective of Prona was

to assist underpriviJegedpeople (orang yang tidak mampu) in obtaining land certification. The

Prona application process is inexpensiveand quick. The application is conectivesubmitted. There

are two types of Prona, for those living in the urban areas (Prona Perkotaan) and TUral areas

(Pr,!na Pedesaan).

The Prona Program unfortunateJydoes not work as wen as was expected,and it does not

help an underpriviJeged people to obtain a Jand certificate. Information gathered in the fieJd

suggests that various probJems are preventing efficient implementation of the program. The

Prona program is distributed in a sub-district for a certain numher of certificates which are

awarded a littJe in each vinage, rather than vinage by vinage and incJuding the entire population.

The agriculturaJ Jand in the vinages is not at the same Jocation but is separated wideJy. This

situation creates extra expenditures for the Jand registration official who checks the Jand on the

spot; this resuJts in making Prona a long and expensive process of achieving land certification.

The criterion of underprivileged people (orang yang tidak mampu) is not c1early defined, since

there are many people who are able to pay who are also appJying for the Prona program.

The program has no sufficient funds since it was designed with the previous General

Ejection in mind, thus there are sub-districts which win get Prona whiJe others win not.

LAND OWNERSHIP DOCUMENTS

With reference to the evidence of land ownership, the research in the field revealed that

there were many types of proof of land ownership. Land ownership was proved by the

Information Certificate (Surat Keterangan),the Certificate Informing Legal Right Over the Land

(Surat KeteranganHak Atas Tanah), the Certificate Informing Customary Legal Right Over the

LAND R1GIITS 15

1

Land (Surat KeteranganHak Adat Atas Tanah), the Certificate Informing Land Ownership (Surat

KeterCUlganPemilikan Tanah). In addition, there are also the so-called akte and the segel, proofs

of ownership derived from a land purchasing transaction. It should he noted that the akte is the

result of the action to transfer ownership rights through purchase, while the segel means the

stamped paper on which an akte is written, thus theyare synonyms in everydayuse. Related to

the land ownership certificate is the certification by the Kades that the land as it is mentioned

on the certificate is located within his jurisdiction.Implicitly,the certificate issued by the Kades

is a legal instrument justifying land ownership. The certificate from the Kades is the first phase

that must he accomplishedby the land owner in applyingfor a land certificate (SertifikatTanah).

The latter is issued either by the Camat as the officer of the PPAT (Pejabat Pembuat Akte

TalUlh) or the National Land Board (Badan Pertanahan NasionallBPN, which was previously

called the Office of Agraria). In other words, the certificate from the Kades is basic

consideration for the Camat or the PPAT or the BPN for the issuance of a land certificate

(Sertifikat Tanah) which is the strongest evidence of land ownership. The following is a

discussion of the above certificates:

Segel or Zegel

Segel, or Zegel as it is sometimes named, on Segel paper or printed and stamped paper is

one evidence of land ownership transferred through a buying and seIling transaction that is

commonlyused by people at the villages researched. The stamped paper is signed by the parties

involved.Thase parties are the seller, the buyer and the witnesses. Therefore, the signed printed

and stamped paper must he acknowledged by the Kades. If the transaction is not written on

printed and stamped paper, people often use plain paper with stamps, or meterai attached using

the same procedure as above.

In comparison to ail the land certificates mentioned above, the segel has the lowest legal

status. This kind of land certificate can easily he overruled by an instrument considered aSstronger evidence of land ownership. Most people in the villages have ownership certificates on

printed and stamped paper. In remote areas, frequently people employ oral "good-faith"

agreements. The transfer of ownership is not declared on a piece of paper and is not

acknowledged by the Kades. This kind of ownership is difficult to prove in terms of written law.

By appene;ting the signatures of the parties involved on legal paper, the right over the land

automaticallyshifts to the new holder.

The Certificate Informing Legal Right Over the Land or Surat Keterangan Hak Atas Tanah

This kind of certificate is issued by the Kades and acknowledged by the Camat. The

acknowledgementmade by the Camat here does not imply approval by the Camat. The Kades

issues this kind of letter in the event the landowner does not have complete proof of land

ownership. The Kades will only recognize the right over the land or the right to use the land.

This recognition does not extend to the right to own the land. If the land is taken for

development,the owner of the land will only receive compensation for the usage he is deprived

lAND R1GKI'S 16

of and not for the land itself. Often spontaneous migrants own their land based on this

certificate.

The Certificate Informing Customary Legal Right Over the Land, or Surat Keterangan Hak

Adat Aras Tanah

The difference with the above certificate is that this one depends on the landowner showing

evidence that the right to land ownership was obtained through the adat law tradition and that

his family has owned the land in question for generations. In terms of land compensation, he

will get two kinds: compensation for the land, and compensation for lost usage, based on the

tanam tumbuh (major crops).

According to the 1961 Govemment Regulation No. 10 (for the implementationof the 1960

Act No. 5), the Certificate Informing Customary Legal Right Over the Land will only he issued

by the Kades if the land has adat status. That letter is signed by the Kades and is acknowledged

by the Camat. The Certificate Informing Customary Legal Right Over the Land will he taken

into account when applying for the land certificate (Sertifikat Tanah issued by the Camat in his

capacity as officer of the PPAT).

The CertificatelnformingLand (Ownership)or the Surat Keterangan(Pemilikan) Tanah (SKT)

The SKT certificate resembles the Certificate Informing Land Ownership or the SKPT, the

only difference heing that the work ownership (pemilikan) is now missing. The SKT or SKPT

is signed by the Kades and acknowledgedby the Camat. It contains the acknowledgementof the

Kades conceming the size and measurements of the land and its physical boundaries, as weIl

as the original title of the land. Either the SKT or the SKPTwill he taken into consideration

by the Camat when issuing the Land Certificate of ownership.

Here, as mentioned above, the Camat functions as the officer of the PPAT as obliged by

Article 19 of the 1961 Govemment Regulation No. 10. The officiais mentioned under the above

articles are the Notary, the head of Agraria, civil servant or any other official who has passed

the test given by the Home Minister. If the above officers are absent at the sub-district level,

the Camat will take over their functions as any other institution having the same level (see

Article 5 of the 1961 Act No. 10 Conceming Foreign Investment; see also the "Perkembangan

Hak Ulayat setelah Berlakunya UUPA di kecamatan Talang Kelapa oleh Kelompok Mahasiswa

FH.UNSRI: 17-19).

4.3. The Ambiguities of the Official Instructions

The 1972 Home Minister's Regulation No. 6 gave authorization for people to open land

measuring less than two hectares. This authority is provided for under Article 11 which declares:

"The head of the sub-district or kecamatan may make decisions pertaining to the authorization

UND R1GHI'S 17

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to open land li the size of the land is less than two hectares"6.The Camai makes his decision

taking into consideration the information produced by the Kades through his issuance of a land

certificate. For area exceeding two ha, the authorization has to go through the Bupati (district

head) and for very large blocks, through the Govemor.

IN 1984, the Instruction of the South Sumatra Govemor No. 868/KPTSII/1984 Conceming

the Prohibition for the Camai to Give Permission to Open Land was issued. This new

instruction was certainly the result of the realization of the growing deforestation problem in the

province of South Sumatra. It stipulated that neither the Camai nor the Kades had the

knowledge required to ensure environmental protection (such knowledge was lost with the

Pasirah).

Legally, the meaning of the word "open land" in the Govemor's Instruction is broad and

unclear due to the absence of any description of land classification,such as forest land, brosh,

and so forth. One can observe that the elucidation of Article 6 of the Home Minister's

Regulation, in paragraph (1), suggests that the issuance of licenses to open land are for TUral

development and agricultural extensification.What is implicit here is that the term "open land"

is meant to refer to agricultural activities.

The question remains, is this Governor's Instruction effectivelyapplied in the villages? In

other words, do the Camai and the Kades have the means at their disposai to implement the

Instruction?

Information gathered from field research indicates that while sorne of the Kades are aware

of the existence of the Instruction,others are not. In effect, many land certificates or SKT have

been issued by the Kades and Camai after the Instruction was issued in 1984.

For the indigenous people, it is clear that one could easily c1aim land ownership by applying

to the Kades for an SKT on the grounds that the land was once used by his or her ancestors.

With regard to spontaneous settlers, the Kades has an interest in ignoring the instruction in his

effort to develop his or her village and attain the mark of 500 families, the minimum required

to qualify as' an official village entitling it to the village development allowance that will soon

be attributed.

Another question is what will happen to those settlers who have already paid for the

certificate if their land is requested for a large development project?

5. CONCLUSION

One major finding of this study is that spontaneous settlers, arriving without any aid from

the State, do participate actively in the regional economy, mainly through the extension of

1..-

6 Unofficial translation.

lAND R1GKI'S 18

Any action to make land access easier and ownership more secure would be advantageous,

not only for the spontaneous migrants but also for the local populations. Local administrations

should be informed of the exact boundaries of the forest reserve and the action to take for

environmental preservation. Better management by the village head will depend on a more

precise definition of the village territory. Further research is needed on this question and on the

Govemor's Instruction preventing the Camai from granting permission for opening land.

The legal situation for indigenous people and for migrants is the same as far as land

ownership security and compensation in the event of large project development or the creation

of protected forest is concemed. A migrant is usually more conscious, however, of the risk of

not having a .proper certificate than an indigenous person who places his trust in the atÜJl

community. As soon as they have begun working their own land, the spontaneous settlers will

try to obtain at least an SKT certificate or a document proving his customary rights over the

land. The study found more systematic application for these documents in the food crop areas

as opposed to the coffee plantation areas. This factor may be due to the increased concentration

of new settlers which incite their village heads to obtain certification while in the coffee areas

the _demand is more scattered.

agricultural land which results in increased production. The settlement process directly involves

the indigenous and local administration.

The arrival of large numbers of spontaneous migrants introduced new sharecropping

arrangements that were unknown before in the region.

Land rights are obtained by purchase from other migrants or from the locals; migrants may

also get land at very low cost as unoccupied land is still available. To legalize their ownership,

spontaneous migrants normally apply for the SKT, which costs them from Rp 7500 to Rp 30,000.

The use of Segelor printed and stamped paper is a traditional means of transferring land rights

or ownership for both spontaneous migrants and local people. Other examples of certificates

used are: the Certificate Informing Legal Right Over the Land, the Certificate Informing

Customary Legal Right Over the Land, and the Certificate Informing Land Ownership.

11111111111111111111

u.ND R1GHI'S 19


REPUBLIQUE FRANCAISEORS TOM C N R S

avec la collaboration d.· In coIlaboraVon wIth


FARMING SYSTEMS



1991

Tabell.

Tabel2.

Tabel3.

Tabel4.

Tabel5.

Tabel6.

Tabel7.

Tabel8.

Tabe19.

TabellO.

Tabeili.

List of Table

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Batumana,

Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani uDtuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan di

Batumana, Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanarnan Sayur-Sayuran di

Batumarta, Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman 7=(cabe, gandum)di

Batumarta, Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatandan PengeluaranLain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Tumpangsaridi Batumana,

Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Bumiagung,

Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Jagung di Bumi Agung,

Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Kedele di Bumi Agung,

Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan di

Bumi Agung, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Sayur-Sayuran di Bumi

Agung, Sumatra Selatan

Pendapatandan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Tumpangsari Bumi Agung,

Sumatra Selatan

Tabel12

Tabe113.

Tabe114.

Tabe115.

Tabe116.

Tabe117.

Tabe118.

Tabe119.

Tabe120.

Tabel21.

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Ubi Kayu Cabaya

Mas,sumatra Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan di

Cahaya Mas,Sumatera Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Tumpangsari di Cahaya

Mas, Sumatera Selatan.

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Cabaya Mas,

Sumatera Selatan.

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Kampung Baru,

Sumatera Selatan

Pendapatandan PengeluaranLain UsahataniuntukJenis Tanaman Jagungdi KampungBaru,

Sumatera Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk JeDis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan di

Kampung Baru, Sumatera Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Tumpangsari di Kampung

Baru, Sumatera Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Padi di Kedaton,Sumatera

Selatan

Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Ubi Kayu di Kedaton,

Sumatera Selatan

ii

MIGRASI SPONTAN

PendabuluaD

Laporan ini akan membahas sistem usabatani transmigran umum, mignm SpontaD dan penduduk asU

di daerah Sumatra Selatan, dibedakan juga atas daerah Batumarta (Kec. Baturaja), Bumi Agung (Kec. MuaraDua), GunungCahaya (Kec. Muara Dua), ketiganyadari KabupatenBaturaja, Cahaya Mas dan KampungBaru

(Kec. Mesuji) dan Kedaton, ketiganya dari Kabupaten Kayuagung. Jumlah contoh pada masing-masing daerah

adalah: Batumarta (n=21KK), Bumi Agung (n= 12 KK), Gunung Cahaya (n=9 KK), Cahaya Mas (n= 6KK),

Kampung Baru (n= 7 KK), Kedaton (n= 2KK).

Dalam pembahasan ini akan dikemukakan beberapa informasi, antara Iain karakteristikrumah tangga,

tanah garapan, usahatani tanaman pangan (padi, jagung, kedele, ubi kayu), tanaman hortikultur (kacang

kacangan, sayur), dan beberapa tanaman produktif lainnya (termasuk sistem tumpangsari). Pembahasan

mengenai tingkat produksi, pendapatan usahatani,pengeluaranserta curahan tenaga kerja dalam usahatani juga

dikemukakan. Selain itu juga akan dikemukakan curahan waktu kerja dan tingkat pendapatan pada pekerjaan

di luar sektor pertanian.

Karakteristik Rumab Tangga

Karakteristik rumah tangga transmigran umum, migrasi spontan dan pendudukasli akan dicirikan oleh

umur kepala keluarga, jenis kelamin kepala keluarga, pendidikan kepala keluarga, bisa baca tulis, pekerjaan

utama, pekerjaan tambahan, rata-rata jumlah anggota keluarga dan suku bangsa.

Berdasarkan tabellampiran 1 s/d 5, karakteristik rumah tangga hanya dapat dibedakan antara status

pendudukasli dan migran spontansaja. Karakteristikrumahtanggayang didasarkan pada status penduduk,hanya

terdapat di daerah Batumarta, Bumi Agung dan Gunung Cabaya. Sedangkan daerah Cahaya Mas dan Kampung

Baru yang dapat diungkapkan hanya pada status penduduk migran spontan.

Umur kepala keluarga rata-rata yang termuda di daerah Batumarta, baik untukstatus pendudukasli (31

tahun) maupun migran spontan (37 tahun), sedangkandi daerah Bumi Agung mencirikan rata-rata umum kepala

keluarga tertua, status penduduk asli (50 tahun) migran spontan (38 tahun). Pada daerah Gunung Cahaya,

Cahaya Mas dan Kampung Baru umur kepala keluarga rata-rata bervariasi antara 40 tabun sampai dengan 45

tahun. Informasi ini memberikan indikasi bahwa para migran spontan maupun pendudukasli yang berusaha di

daerah baru, daerah transmigran umum maupun daerah yang sudah berkembang adalah kepala keluarga yang

berumur produktir.

Jenis kelamin kepala keluarga seluruh sampel di daerah penelitiansemuanya pria (100 % pria), baik

penduduk asU maupun migran spontan. Hal ini berarti untuk daerab pioDir (pembukaan lahan baru)

memerlukan kerja keras dan pimpinan pria, mungkin karena alasan keamanan, kelja kasar dan kelja berat.

Rata-rata tingkat pendidikan migran spontan umumnya relatif lebih tinggi dari penduduk asti, pada 5

daerah sampel penelitian tingkat pendidikan rata-rata berkisar antara 5 s/d 7 tahun, sedangkan penduduk asli

bervariasi antara 3, 4 dan 8 tahun. Informasi ini memberikan petunjuk,bahwa mlpu spontaD mempun,al dasar

peodidikan untuk mengembaogkan laban usabanya (dalam art1 kata peudidikan rormal) lebih baik, diharapkan

bisa menularkan pengetahuan usahataninya kepada penduduk asli. Walaupun dalam beberape bal (misalDya

pertanian laban berpindah dan pengelolaan tanaman hutan atau tanaman keras: karet,kopi), kemungkinanbesar

penduduk asli lebih berpengalaman. Dalam bal kemampuan baca tulis bampir seluruh penduduk mampu baca

tulis, nampaknya pendudukasli rata-rata bisa baca tulis lebih banyak persentasenya dibandingkandengan migranspontan, hanya di daerah Batumarta penduduk hanya setengab dari contoh yang mampu baca tulis (baik

penduduk asli rnaupun migran spontan).

Pekerjaan utama penduduk (asli maupun migran spontan) bampir seluruhnya adalah pertanian, kecuali

di Batumarta ada sekitar 8 % migran spontan pekerjaan utamanya bukan pertanian (perdagangan dan jasa).

Pekerjaan tambahan migran spontan persentasenya lebih besar dibandingkan dengan penduduk asli, pekerjaan

tambahan para migran spontan tersebut kebanyakan dagang, buruh industri, angkutan, jasa, tukang bangunan

dan buruh tani. Sedangkan penduduk asli pekerjaan tambabannya kebanyakan pada dagang dan buruh tani.

Informasi ini memberikan indikasi, bahwa variasi pelœrjaan tambahan migran spontaD untuk menambah

pendapataD rumah tangga iebih besar dari pada penduduk asli. Sedangkan pekerjaan utamanya masih

menggantungkan pada sektor pertanian.

Rata-rata jumlah anggota rumah tangga relatif kecil, yaitu antara 4 s/d 6 orang per rumah tangga. Rata

rata jumlah anggota keluarga penduduk asli (6) relatif lebih besar daripada migran spontan (4), terutama di

Batumarta. Tetap di Gunung Cahaya migran spontan (5) lebih besar daripada penduduk asli (4), di daerah

lainnya relatifsama. Informasi ini memberikan indikasibahwa rata-rata jumlah anggota keluarga peududuk asll

maupun migran spontan relatif kecil, kemungkinan karena mereka mengiku-ti program keluarga berencana

atau masih berada pada usia relatif muda.

Penduduk asli di Batumarta terdiri dari suku Ogan (83%) dan suku Komering (17%),di Bumi Agungterdiri dari suku Daya (100%), sedangkan di Gunung Cahaya kebanyakansuku Ogan (100%). Migran spontanyang berada di daerah-daerah tersebut kebanyakan suku Jawa, baik yang berasal dari pulau Jawa rnaupun yangberasal dari Jawa Lampung. Hanya di Batumarta ada 15 % suku Sunda, di Gunung Cahaya ada 20 % sukuSunda dan di Cahaya Mas ada sekitar 33 % suku Bali, selebibnya migran spontan dari suku Jawa. Kelihatannyasuku Jawa, ada kecenderungan aktif menjadi pioner daIam usaha menari lahan usaha baru untukberusahatani, diikuti oleh suku Bali dan Sunda. Kemungkinan mereka terdesak (push) oleh semakin beratnyabeban usaha di daerah asal.

Tanah Glranan Menurut Status Penduduk

Di daerah Batumarta. rata-rata tanah milik transmigran umum lebih loas (5 ha) daripada tanah milikpendudukasli (3 ha) dan transmigran spontan (1,5 ha). Tanah milik tersebut kebanyakan terdiri dari tanah daratdan kebun jauh lebih besar daripada tanah sawah (transmigran spontan 0,25 ha, penduduk asli 0,5 ha). Sawahmereka kebanyakan ditanami tanaman pangan dan sayur-sayuran, sedangkan kebunnya terdiri dari tanaman

2

karet, tanah darat ditanami buah-buahan dan atau ketela pohon atau bero(tidak ditanami). Di luar pemukimantransmigran, tanah penduduk asli lebih luas, kareoa transmigran umum maupun migran spontan tidak memilildlaban usaha di luar pemukiman transmigrasi Batumana.

Rata-rata tanah garapan di Laban Usaba l, transmigran umum di Batumana lebih luas dibandingkandengan pendudukasli dan migran spontan, terutama di lahan sawah, tetapi di lahan darat pendudukasli relatifsama dengan migran spontan (0,5 ha) lebih luas dibandingkan transmigran umum (0,25 ha). Di Laban UsabaII, penduduk asli lebih luas garapannya (0,5 di sawah, 1,5 di tanah darat) dibandingkan dengan transmigranumum (hanya di kebun 1,35 ha) dan migran spontan (0,63 ha), tanah darat (0,5 ha). Tetapi loas garapan kebuntransmigran umum rata-rata lebih luas (3,65 ha) dibandingkan pendudukasli (2,06 hs) dan migran spontan (0,91ha). Kelibatannya transDlïgran umum leblh Dlengutamakan kebun karetnya dibandiogkan deogan tana npanpn, clemikian pula halnya penduduk asl!, namun tl'ansmigran spontan kebanyakan kerja paela tana npanpn (Dlengeljakan Iahan usaba transmigran umum atau penduduk asll), kalau lob menanam karet,tanaman ltu untuk kepentingan pemilik Iaban (transmlgran umum/penduduk asll).

Migran spontan di daerah Batumarta kebanyakan memiliki lahan usaha di luar pemukiman berupakebun (rata-rata 0,75 ha), terutama di hutan sekunder, sedangkan penduduk asli di lokasi yang sama (hutansekunder) juga mengusahakan sekitar 0,5 ha. Dalam hal ini transmigran umum tidak mengganggu(tidakberusaha- tani) di hutansekunder. Infonnasiini memberikan pengertianbahwa ada kecenderungan migranspontan meucoba mengusahakan butan sekunder sebagai laban usaba kebunnya karena tidak memiliki Iabanusaba di daerab transmigrasi umum atau karena laban usabanya yang semplt (di daerab laban cadangan).Sedangkan pendudukasllkebanyakan DlengBnggap bahwa butan sekunder yang ada sebagai tanab ulayat nenekmoyang mereka. Keadaan ini kemungkinan akan menjadi masalah dengan Perhutani di belakang hari.

Pada daerah transmigrasiBatumarta,ada transmigran umum yang mendapatkanpembagian lahan usaha5 ha(Batumarta 1 s/d IX), ada pula yang mendapatkan pembagian lahan usaha hanya 3 ha. Biasanya pendudukasli (10 s/d 20 persen dari jumlah transmigran umum) mendapatkan pembagian dan atau fasilitas yang samadengan transmigran umum dan berbaur di dalam lokasi transmigrasi. Migran spontan kebanyakan pertama kalibekerja pada transmigran umum atau penduduk asli di dalam lokasi transmigrasi, kemudian mendapatkalikebijaksanaan untuk menempati lahan cadangan (Iahan R) atau kalau mampu mereka membeli tanah daritransmigran umum atau penduduk asli, kemungkinan yang Iain adalah menempati dengan seidzin petugastransmigrasi, lahan usaha yang ditinggal-kan oleh transmigran umum atau penduduk asli.

Di daerah Bumi Agong tidak ada lokasi transmigrasi,sehinggahanya dibedakan tanah garapan atau mi1ikantara penduduk asli dan migran spontan saja. Rata-rata pemilikantanah darat relatiflebih loas migran spontandaripada pendudukasli, tanah darat aninya tanahyang ditanami tanaman pangan üagungdan ketela pohon)dansayur-sayuran. Tetapi rata-rata pemilikan kebun relatif lebih luas penduduk asli (1,63 ha) daripada migranspontan (1,5 ha). Tanah garapan di hutan sekunder, haïk tanah darat maupun kebun rata-rata garapan pendudukasli relatif lebih luas daripada migran spontan (lihat tabel 7). Informasi ini memberikan indikasi, bahwapendudukdaerah Bumi Agung (haik pendudukasli maupun migran spontan) dalam menanam kopi telah mulaimerambah hutan sekunder, pada umumnya hutan sekunder dapat diusahakan untuk ditanami kopi atau lada,tetapi tidak dapat dimiliki. Penduduk asli relatif lebih luas lahan usahanya di hutan sekunder, karena alasanadanya hak tanah ulayat, walaupun tidak diakui oleh pemerintah.

Di daerah Gunung Cahaw, sepeni halnya di Bumi Agung masuk wilayah kecamatan Muara Dua dantidak ada dalam lokasi transmigrasi, sehingga juga hanya dibedakan s18t05 penduduk asli dan migran spontansaja. Sepeni halnya di Bumi Agung pemilikan sawah dan tanah darat rata-rata migran spontan lebih luasdaripada penduduk asli, tetapi pemilikan kebun lebih luas penduduk asli daripada migran spontan (tabel 8).Demikian pula halnya dengan tanah garapan di hutan sekunder, untuk tanah darat dan sawah migran spontanlebih luas daripada penduduk asli,namun untuk kebun (kopillada) tanah garapan di hutan sekunder lebih luaspenduduk asli daripada migran spontan. Pada umumnya para migran spontan yang tinggal di daerah Ounung

3

Cahaya maupun Bumi Agung rata-rata sudah lebih dari 5 tahun, mereka ada yang datang langsung dari Jawa,adapula yang datang dari daerab kolonisasi Lampung atau daerah transmigrasilkolonisasi BUtang (SumateraSelatan). Kedatangan mereka ke daerah ini umumnya tertarik dengan keterbukaan daerah oleh penduduk desadi daerah kecamatan Muara Oua dalam rangka memenuhi persyaratan jumlah penduduk untuk berdiri sebapidesa, selain itu lahan usahanya tersedia relatü luas (minimum 2 ha) dengan nilai beli dari ta1Iah ulayat banyadengan ganti rugi sekitar Rp. 50 000,- per ha. Lahan usaha tersebut umumnya dapat ditanami kopi dengantanaman sela jagungl ketela. Oleh brena itu rata-rata pemilikan lahan usabanya lebih dari 2 ha, sehab darilahan usaha minimum yang dapat dimiliki oleh migran spontan dapat dikembangkan terus dari hasil usabanyaatau dari keuntunganyang didapat. Usaba berkebun di hutan sekunder seringka1i dilakukan oleh penduduk astidan migran spontan dalam rangka memperluas kebunnya, karena kebun yang lama sudab tidak produktiflagi.Usaha di hutan sekunder ini umumnya sepengetahuan petugas Perhutani. karena alasan tanah ulayat pendudukasli di desa.

Di daerah Cahava Mas, kee. Mesuji, kab. Kayu Agung, berada di daerab transmigrasi baikuntukpendudukaslimaupun sebagian migran spontan. Jadi ada migran spontan yang berusahatani di dalam lokasitransmigrasi, ada pula migran spontan yang berusahatani di luar lokasi transmigrasi (di hutan primer, masihberdekatan dengan wilayah transmigrasi). Rata-ratapemilikan maupun garapan lahan usaha di dalam daerabtransmigrasi maupun di luar daerah transmigrasi luasannya sama, yaitu 2 ha, yaitu tanah darat 1,75 ha,kebunlpekarangan 0,25 ha. Migran spontan yang berusahatani di hutan sekunder pun juga mengusahakankebunJtanah darat sekitar 2 ha (dalam hal ini kebun juga dipergunakan untuk lahan usaha tanaman pangan)(lihat tabel 9).Daerah ini berdekatan dengan wilayah transmigrasi, namun yang di luar wilayah transmigrasi (hutan primer) jugadiusahakan oleh para migran spontan,sehingga hampir terbentuksebagai satu desa hunian baru, dengan tatananmeniru tatanan dari wilayah transmigrasi. Pada umumnya migran spontan dalam merambah hutan tersebutmengusahakannya di tengah-tengah hutan, sehingga belum ketahuan oleh pemerintahan daerah, namunsepengetahuandan membeli lahan hak ulayat pendudukasli. Setelah terbentuksatu desa hunian baru, kemudianmendaftarkan diri kepada pemerintahan kecamatan.

Hal yang sama terjadi pula di daerah Kamouog Baro, pada daerah ini sama sekali baru (tidak adapenduduk asli, juga berada di luar daerah transmigrasi), namun tatanan dan anggapannya masih berada dalamlokasi sekitar daerah transmigrasi, walaupun para migran spontan ini membuka hutan sendiri. Para migranspontan ini kebanyakan datang dari daerah koloniasi Blitang dan Lampung, sebagian kecil datang dari Jawa danberbagai kota di Sumatra. Penguasaan lahan usahanya juga berkisar sekitar 2 ha, seperti halnya tatanan daerahtransmigrasi. terdiri atas pekarangan/kebun 0,5 ha dan tanah darat sekitar 1,5 ha/1,6 ha (lihat tabel 10).Kelihatannyadi daerah-daerah antara Mesuji - Kayu Agung, telah bermunculandesa desa baru yang dahulunyaterdiri dari hutan primer maupun sekunder. Munculnya desa-desa baru ini karena penduduk asli membuka diriterhadap kedatangan migran spontan yang berasal dari penduduk kolonisasiltransmigrasi Lampung maupunBlitangdari sukuJawa, Sunda dan Baliyang sudah mulai berkembang jumlahanggota rumah tangganya (pecahanKK atau sanak familinya yang baru datang dari daerah asalnya). Pada umumnya desa-desa baru yang dibuka olehmigran spontan (dulunya hutan) ini berkembang lebih pesat dibandingkandengan desa-desa pendudukasli. Halyang sama terjadi di Kedaton, daerah yang berada di luar lokasi daerah transmigrasi (berada di desa pendudukasli). Pada daerah ini, penduduk memiliki lahan usaha tanah darat maupun kebun yang jauh lebih luas (4 ha)dibandingkan dengan migran spontan (1 ha). Tetapi pengusahaan lahan migran spontan ini lebih intensü,terutama untuk tanaman pangan.

Usahatani di Daerah Observasi Migrasi 8000tan

U8AHATANI DI BATUMARTA

Jenis tanaman semusim yang diusahakan di daerah transmigran Batumarta pada dasarmya meliputi:padi, kacang-kacangan, sayur-sayuran, cabe dan tanaman tumpangsari. Adapun nilai pendapatan danpengeluaran dari usahataninya secara rinci dijelaskan pada tabel-tabel berikut ini.

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Tabel1. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Batumarta,Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan

5tat05 PendudukKeterangan

Umum Asti Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi : 0,25 0,48 0,53a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) 631 401,25 43,75b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 126.200 rn..'lE/,50 110.937,50c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - 22,80 86,25

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 631 424,05 530Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 126.200 97.531,50 132.500

PenjuaIan Hasil :JmIh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - - 327Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 200 230 250Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp)

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) 22.500 36.992 5.840Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 61 114,96 63,335Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 12.08 66,32 27.60Temak!Traktor (rata-2 JK1) - 23.04 58.88

b. Luar Kel. Pria (ra18-2 JKP) 16 25,12 21,29Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 18 24,48 19.08

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JIa) - - 9,87c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 11.395,75 9.780 8.224,01

PengeIuaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (ra18-2 Rp) 12.300 - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - - 1.200d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) 1.800 2.500

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp) 12.300 1.800 3.700Pendapatan bersih (Rp) 80.004,25 43.715,5 43.179,49

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Pada tabel di atas temyata dapat dikemukakan, bahwatingkat pendapatan bersih usahatani padi darimigran umum taDlpak lebih baik apabila dibandingkan migran spontandan pendudukasli di daerah tersebut,karena dengan loas lahan rata-rata yang relatif lebih sempit (0,25 ha) bila dibanding pendudukasli dan migranspontan (0,48 dan 0,50 ha), mampu memperoleh pendapatan bersih rata-rata sebesar Rp. 80.004,25,-.

Penduduk asli yang loas pemilikan lahan rata-ratanya hampir sama dengan migran spontan (0,48 dan0,53) nampak pendapatan bersih yang diperoleb sedikit lebih baik dari migran spontan yaitu sebesar 43.715,5berbanding Rp 43.179,49,. Walaupun bila dibandingkan dari nilai produksi petani migran spontan lebih tinggi.Jika diperbatikan dari aspek penjualan basil, khusus untuk migran umum dan penduduk asli setempat, produksiyang diperoleb tidak ditujukan untuk komersil atau dijual, melainkan digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutubansendiri Lain balnya dengan petani yang berasal dari migran spontan, hasil produksi padi yang diperolehsebagianbagian besar (327 kg dari 443 kg) dijual.

Tentang tenaga kerja yang dipergunakan, meskipun tampaknya pemakaian tenaga kerja baik yangberasal dari dalam maupun luar keluarga, pada petani yang berasal dari migran umum secara pro- porsional,namun bila diperhatikan dari segi nilai upah yang di-keluarkan, makapetani migran umum lebib tinggi ( Rp.11.395,75).

Hal Iain yang dapat dikemukakan, yaitu tingginya produksi padi yang diperoleh oleh petani migran umum didaerah batumarta ini, sebenamya diantaranya tidak lepas dari lahan yang dipergunakan,dimanaseluruh petanimigran umum menanam padinya di sawah (lihat lampiran). sedang pendudukasli atau migran spontansebagian besar ditanam pada tegal atau pekarangan.

Sedangkan untuk kegiatan usahatani jenis tanaman kacang-kacangan di daerah Batumarta, basilnyaseperti yang dikemukakan pada Tabel 2 .

Pada tabel tersebut dijelaskan, bahwa areal rata-rata untuk tanaman kacang-kacangan di daerah inirelatifhampir sama dengan kegiatan yang dilakukan pada usahatani padi. Namun apabila ditinjaudari segi nilaihasil produksinya (terutama bagi petani migran spontan dan penduduk asli), tampaknya usabatani kacangkacangan ini lebih menguntungkan(dari loas areal rata-rata 0,50 dan 0,53 hektar, mampu memperoleh nilai hasilproduksi sebesar Rp. 277.500,- dan Rp. 232.500,-).

Selain itu, jika ditinjau dari aspek penjualanhasil, kegiatan usahataniyang dilakukan ini tidak digunakanuntukmemenuhi kebutuhansendiri atau bersifat konsumtif,melainkanseluruhnyahasil produksidyang diperolehditujukan untuk komersial atau dijual. baik itu pada petani yang berasal dari migran umum, spontan maupunpenduduk asli setempaL

Tentang penggunaan tenaga kerjanya, seperti yang dikemukakan pada tabel tersebut di atas,untukkegiatan usahatani jenis tanaman kacang-kacangan ini relatif tidak begitu besar migran . hal ini tentu sajamembawa pengaruh pada pengeluaran biaya untuk tenaga kerja yang relatif sedikit pula.

Apabila ditinjau dari aspek penggunaan biaya saprodi, dibandingkan dengan usahatani padi, dalamusahatani ini temyata biaya yang dikeluarkanm lebih kecil (untuk loas areal rata-rata hanya dikeluarkan biayasarana produksiyang umumnya meliputibenih, pupukdan obat senilai Rp. 5.375,-, Rp 8.700,- dan Rp 12.450,-)

Sayur-sayuran yang merupakan salah satu kebutuhan pokok masyarakat di Sumatra Selatan, temyatajuga diusahakan di daerah Batumarta. Namun kegiatan usahatani jenis sayur-sayuran ini secara keseluruhanhanya dilakukan oleh petani yang berasal dari migran umum dan migran spontan dan tanpa diusahakan olehpenduduk asli setempat. Adapun gambaran pendapatan dan pengeluaran usaha-taninya diuraikan pada Tabel3. berikut ini.

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Tabel2. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan diBatumarta, Baturaja, Sumatra selatan

Status PendudukKeterangan

Umum Asti Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produlcsi: 0,20 0,50 o,s3a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) 60 462,50 425b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 45.000 277.500 212.500c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - - 40

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 60 462.50 465Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 45.000 277.500 232.500

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) 50 437,50 -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 750 600 500Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Biaya sarana Produlcsi (Rp) 5.375 8.700 12.450Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 48,80 119.75 58.75Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 9.66 27.63 27.6fJTernak!Traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 9,60 58.88

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 12.80 26.16 21,29Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 14,40 25.50 19.08

Ternakltraktor (rata-2 JKT) - - 9,87c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 9.116,60 10.187.5 8.224,01

Pengeluaran Iain :a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp) - - -Pendapatan bersih (Rp) 30.508.40 258.612.5 191.825.99

7

Tabel3. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Sayur-Sayuran diBatumana, Baturaja, Sumatra selatan


Umum Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi : 0,05 - 0,50a. Hasil setelah dilcurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) 125 - 525b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 18.750 - 262.500c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - - -

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 125 - 525Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 18.750 - 262.500

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) 100 - -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 150 - -NilaiTebas (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) 3.575 - 300Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 12,4 - 58.75Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 2,16 - 26.04Temakffraktor (rata-2 JK1) - - 48

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 3.2 - 20.08Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 18 - 19.08

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JIa) - - 9,31c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 2.279.15 - 7.578,50

Pengeluaran Iain :a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp) - - -Pendapatan bersih (Rp) 12.895.9 - 254.621.5

8

Pada tabel3. di atas dapat diHhat bahwa luas areal rata- rata untuk kegiatan usahatani sayuHayuranantara transmigran spontan dan umum temyata jauh lebih luas transmigran spontan yaitu rata-rata 0,5 ha.dibanding 0,05 ha. Namun meskipun demikiaD, hasil produksi yang diperoleh justru ditujukan untuk komersialatau untuk dijual. Sedang migran spontan, hasilnya digunalcan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan sendiri.

Namun apabila dilihat dari nilai hasil yang diperoleh rata-rata Rp 18.750,-per musim tampaknyapendapatan dari kegiatan usa-hatani sayur-sayuran ini tidaklah begitu banyak membawa ani bagi peningkatanpendapatan masyarakat transmigran umum tersebuL

Untuk tenaga kerja yang dipergunakan dalam usahatani ini re-latip kecil dibandingJcan dengan kegiatanusahatani yang Iain. De-mikian pula dengan biaya sarana produksi tidak besar.

Selain ketiga tanaman yang telah disebutkan terdahulu di daerah Batumarta, diusahakan juga jenistanaman 7 yang pada umumnya terdiri dari cabe.

Dari luas areal rata-rata yang digunalcan untuk kegiatan usahatani ini yakni 0,02 hektar dan 0,30 hektar,temyata mampu memberikan ani tersendiri bagi masyarakat di daerah ,Batumarta. Adapun gambaran daripendapatan dan pengeluaran Iain dari kegiatan usahataninya dapatlah dilihat pada tabel 4.

Tabel4. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman 7=(cabe, gandum)diBatumarta, Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan


Umum Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi : - - 0,30a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - - 245b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - - 180.687,50c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - - -

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - - 245Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - - 180.687,50

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - - -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - - 245Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - - 737,50

Biaya Sarana ProduIcsi (Rp) - - 27.625Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - - 35.85Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - - 15.62Temaklfraktor (rata-2 JKT) - - 28.8

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - - 21.05Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - - 10.80

Temakltraktor (rata-2 JKT) - - 5.58c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - - 4.655,10

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - - -b. NiIai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - - .c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - - 2050d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp) - - 2.050Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - - 146.357,5

9

Dari tabel 4. tersebut di atas dapatlah dikemukakan disini bahwa kegiatan usahatani jenis 7 iniseluruhnya diusahakan oleh trasmigran spontan. Sedangkan transmigran umum tidak mengusahaltannya. Selainitu secara keseluruhan pula bahwa dari produlcsi yang diperoleh temyata tidak untuk dijual,melainkansemata-mata hanya untuk memenubi kebutuhansendiri belalca. Jika produlcsidari hasi1 tanaman tersebut dini1aidengan uang tampaknya memang tidaklah begitu besar.

Satu hal lagi yang perlu diperhitunglcan keberadaan kegiatan usahatani Iain yang diusabakan olehpetani di Batumarta adalah jenis tanaman tumpangsariyang diantaranyameliputijagung,kacangpanjang.Adapungambaran kegiatan usahataninya dapatlah dilihat pada tabel 5.

Tabel5. Pendapatandan PengeluaranLain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Tumpangsari di Batumarta,Baturaja, Sumatra Selatan


Umum Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produlcsi: - 0,50 0,375a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 40 375b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 50.000 68.750c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - - 25

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 40 400Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - 50.000 168.750

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - - -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 1.250 450Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Biaya Sarana Produlcsi (Rp) - 6.375 14.500Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 119.75 44,812Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 69,80 19,51Temak/Traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 24 36

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 26.16 15,06Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 25,50 13,50

Temakltraktor (rata-2 JKT) - - 6,98c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 10.137,5 5.818,8

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp) - - -Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - 33.487,5 148.431,20

10

Tidak berbeda dengan label 4, pada tabel5 ini kegiatan usa-hatani dari tanaman jenis tumpangsari jupdiusahakan oleh penduduk asli setempat dan transmigran spontan. Hanya saja areal rata-rata yang digunakantidaklah jauh berbeda (0,5 dan 0,375 ha). Namun dari segi nilainya tampakjauh lebih baik yang diperoleholehtransmigran spontan (Rp. 168.750 dibanding Rp. 50.000,-), meskipun demildan, temyata produksi tanamantumpangsari yang diperoleh tersebut tidak digunakan untuk tujuan komersial atau dijual.

5elain itu dari tabel tersebut juga dapat dijeJaskan bahwa kegiatan usahatani tumpangsari ini, khususnyapada pendudukyang transmigran spontantidaklahdikerjakansendiri, melainkan menggunakanpula tenaga kerjadari luar keluarga dengan sistim bagi hasil yaitu sebesar 16: 1 (400: 25),sedang pengeluaran Iain dari usahatanibaik yang berupa pajak atau lainnya untuk penduduk asli maupun transmigran spontan tidak ada.

USAHATANI DI BUMIAGUNG

5epeni yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya, bahwa di daerah Bumi Agung tidak ada lokasi transmigran, sehingga tanah garapan atau milik yang lerdapat di daerah ini hanya migran spontan dan penduduk aslisetempat

Usahatani musiman yang diusahakan di daerah ini pada umumnya terdiri dari usahatani padi, jagung,kedelai, kacang-kacangan, sayur-sayuran, dan tanaman tumpangsari. Adapun gambaran dari usa-hatani padamasing-masing komoditi dapatlah dilihat pada tabel-tabel di bawah ini.

Tabel6. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Bumiagung,Sumatra Selatan


Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi : 0,917 0,25a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) 1.800 1.012b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 480.060 240.350c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) 40 253

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 1.840 1.265Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 490.728 300.437,50

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 266,70 237,50Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) 31.167 53.375Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 553,41 35.17Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 94,91 12,78TernakITraktor (rata-2 JIa) - 10

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 88.03 38.18Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 113,75 12.49

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JIa) - 4c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 56.166,25 13.924,25

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) 290 -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) 77.343 -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) . 2.500

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ 2.500(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) 79.843 2.500

312.883,75 170.550,75

11

Pada tabel6 di atas dapal dilihal bahwa luas areal rata-rata yang diusahakan unluk tanaman padi antarapenduduk asli dan migran spontan lernyata lebih luas penduduk asli (0,917 ha).Namun apabila dilihal dari hasi1produlcsi total yang diperoleh ternyata masih lebih haik migran spontan, karena dengan luas areal rata-rata 0,25ha. mampu menghasilkan 1.265 kg sedang penduduk asli hanya mampu menghasilkan sebanyak 1.840 kg untukluas hampir 1 ha.(0,917 ha).

Adapun pengelolaan lahannya temyata untuk penduduk asli dilakukan dengan cara sistem bagi basüsedang untukmigran spontan meskipunjuga menggunakan tenaga kerja dari luar keluargasistem yang digunakanadalah dengan upahan biasa atau sistem bawon yang apabila dibandingkannilainya, keduanya tidak jauh berbeda.

Selain itu hasil yang diperoleh"baik transmigranspontanmaupun pendudukasli tidaklahditujukanuntukdijual (komersial) melainkan masih dipakai untuk memenuhi kebutuhan sendiri.

Sebagai gambaran dari pendapatan dan pengeluaran yang dipe-roleh untuk usahatani jenis tanamanjagung hasilnya dijelaskan pada Tabel 7. di bawah ini.

1 1

Tabel7. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Jagung di Bumi Agung,Sumatra Selatan


Asti Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produlcsi: - 0,75a. Basil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 1.322b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 337.110c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -

Basil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) . 1.322Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) . 337.110

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 687,50Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 255Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - 31.352Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalarn Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 105,51Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 38,35Ternak!fraktor (rata-2 JIa) - 30

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 114,54Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 37,48

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JIa) - 12c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 41.772,75

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - 164,25b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 41.883,75c. Pajak (rala-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - 2.550(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - 44.433,75

- 219.551,52

12

Temyata dari tabel di atas dapatlah dikemukakan disini bahwa untuk usahatani jagung ini hanyadiusahakan oleh pendudukyang berasal dari migran spontan. Adapun hasilnya dari luas areal 0,75 ha. mampumenghasilkan jagung sebanyak 1.332 kg.dan temyata pula bahwa dari hasil yang diperoleh tersebut sekitarsetengahnya (687,sn kg) dijual, sedangkan sisanya disimpan dan digunakan untulc memenuhi konsumsi petaniitu sendiri.

Jika dilihat dari nilai produksi diperoleh tampaknya dari usahatani ini cukup baïk yaitu sebesar Rp.337.110,dari sini tentu saja akan dapat memberikan harapan tersendiri bagi petani di daerah tersebut. termasukpada tenaga kerja yang dipakai untuk pengelolaan usahatani ini digunakan dengan sistem bagi hasil yaitu sekitar1 : 9 (164,25 kg: 1.322 kg). Jadi pengeluaran pada usahatani jagung ini hanya terdapat pada biaya bagi hasil danbiaya Iain.

Kemudian tentang gambaran dari usahatani kedelai seperti yang disajilcan pada tabel 8, temyata tidakjaub berbeda dengan usahatani jenis tanaman jagung, yaitu secara keseluruhan diusaha- Ican oleh petani yangberasal dari tansmigran spontan saja.

Tabel8. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Kedele di Bumi Agung,Sumatra Selatan


Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi: - 0,57a. Hasil seteiah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 563,30b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 422.475c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 563,30Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - 422,475

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 563,30Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 750Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) ., - 61.312,50Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 80,19Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - .- 29,14Ternakffraktor (rata-2 JK1) - 22,80

b. Luar Ket. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 87,05Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 28,48

Ternak/traktor (rata-2 JIa) - 9,12c. o Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 31.747,29

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - -c. Pajak (ra18-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (ra18-2 Rp) - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - -(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - -

- 329.415,21

13

Pada tabel tersebut di atas menunjukkanbahwa usahatanikedelai ini secara keseluruhanditujukanuntukkomersial atau dijual. Deri luas areal rata-rata 0,57 ha. temyata mampu menghasilkan 563 kg dengan nilaiprodulcsi Rp. 422.475,-

Satu hal yang menarik untuk dikemukakan disini bahwa kegiatan usahatani kedelai ini seluruhnyadikerjakan dengan tanpa menggunakan tenaga kerja dari luar keluarga melainkan semuanya dikerjakan olehtenaga kerja dalam keluarga itu sendiri. Demikian pula pengeluaran lain untuk usahatani jenis tanaman kedeJaiini temyata tidak ada.

Kegiatan usahatani jenis tanaman kacang-kacangan yang diusahakan di daerah Bumi Agung secarakeseluruhan dilakukan pada tanah tegaJ. Adapun hasil kegiatan usahataninya disajikan pada pada Tabel 9.

Tabel9. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan diBumi Agung, Sumatra Selatan


Asti Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produlcsi : - 0,25a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 198b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 49.500c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - 18

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 216Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - 54.000

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 150Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 250Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -


a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - . 35,17Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 12.78Temak/fraktor (rata-2 JK1) - 10

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 38,18Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 12.49

Ternakltraktor (rata-2 JKT) - 4c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 13.924,25

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - 1.250

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - -(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - 1.250

- 3.076

14

Tabel 9. di atas memberikan gambaran bahwa kegiatan usaha-tanijenis kacang-kacangan ini seluruhnyadiusahakan oleh petani yang berasal dari transmigran spontan. kegiatan usahatani yang dilakukannya temyatahanya diusahakan rata-rata pada suatu areal yang tidak begitu loas (0,25 ha). Namun demikian, dari hasil yangdiperoleh sebagian besar ditujukan untuk dijual.

Jika dilihatdari nilai produksinyayakni sebesar Rp.54.000per 0,25 ha. setiap musim, kegiatan usahataniini agaknya tidak begitu banyak berpengaruh bagi pendapatan petani yang bersangkutan. Hal Iain yang dapatdikemukakan bahwa pengeluaran Iain usaha-tani hanya terdapat pada pajak yaitu Rp. 1.250 untuk setiap 0,25hektamya.

Apabila diperhatikanjuga dari tabel di atas tentangadanya pengeluaran untuk bawon, maka jelas bahwatenaga kerja yang dipakai tampaknya tidak seluruhnya kegiatan tersebut dikerjakan sen-diri, melainkan masih diperlukan pula tenaga kerja yang berasaldari luar keluarga.

Kegiatan usahatani yang Iain dan diusahakan di Bumi Agung adalah usahatani jenis tanaman SayurSayuran. Gambaran kegiatanusahatani baik yang berupa pendapatan maupun pengeluarannya dijelaskan pada tabel 10. di bawah ini.

TabellO. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Sayur-Sayuran di BumiAgung, Sumatra Selatan


Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi: - 0,75a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 805b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 148.750c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -


Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 700Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 350Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - 200Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 105,5Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 38,34Temak!Traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 30


Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 12c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 41.772,75

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - 1.000

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - -(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - 1.000

- 105.777,25

15

Tabel 10 tersebut ternyata memberikan suatu gambaran bahwa kegiatan usahatani di daerah BumiAgung baik untukjenis tanaman jagung, kedelai, kacang-kacangan maupun sayur-sayuran dilakukanoleh petanimigran spontan.

Dari rata-rata luas areal 0,75 ha. mampu menghasilkansayur- sayuran sebanyak 805 kg dengan nilai hasiltotal Rp. 148.750,- dan hampir keseluruhan hasil sekitar 700 kg ditujukan untuk dijual atau komersial. Senasecara keseluruhan pula pengelolaan kegiatan usahatani sayur-sayuran ini dikerjakan oleh tenaga kerja dalamkeluarga. Sedang pengeluaran lain usahatani yaitu hanya terdapat pada pajak tanah saja (Rp.1.ooo untuksetiap 0,75 ha).

Tanaman Tumpangsari di daerah Bumi Agung kegiatan usahataninya diusahakan oleh penduduk aslisetempat maupun oleh petani yang berasal dari transmigran spontan.

Jenis tanaman yang diusahakanpada umumnya meliputi; Jagung, kedelai, kacang panjangdan mentimunadapun pendapatan dan pengeluaran usahatani jenis tanaman tumpangsari dapatlah dilihat pada tabel 11.

Tabell1. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman TumpangsariBumi Agung,Sumatra selatan


Asli Spontan


(rata-rata kg) 600 570b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 350.000 669.750c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 600 570Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 350.000 669.750

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) 600 495Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 583 1.175NUai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -


a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 603,50 37,280Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 103,50 13.55Ternak!fraktor (rata-2 JIa) - 10.60

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 96 40,47Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 124,50 12,977

Ternak/traktor (rata-2 JIa) - 4.24c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 61.250 14.759,7

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -


277.550 611.990,30

16

Dari luas areal rata-rata untuk kegiatan usahatani yang disajikan tabel 11, penduduk asli lebih luasdibandingkan dengan petani yang berasal dari migran spontan (1 ha dengan 0,265 ha).

Walaupun dari segi luas areal dan produksi yang diperoleh pada tanaman tumpangsari penduduk aslisetempat lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan migran spontan(600kg dengan 570 kg), namun ni-lai produksinya temyata jauh lebih baik petani migran spontan (Rp.669.750dengan Rp.350.000,-). perolehantersebut disebabkan karena harga hasil tanaman tumpang sari dari petani migran spontan jauh lebih tinggi(Rp.l.l7S per kg) dibanding penduduk asli (Rp.S83 per kg).

Adapun jika dilihat dari jumlah rata-rata yang dijual, maka nampak bahwa kegiatan usabatani yangdilakukan keduanya (penduduk asli atau migran spontan) bersifat komersial,khususnya petani yang berstatuspendudukasli keseluruhan hasilnya dijual. Sedang- kan untuk pengeluaran Iain usahatani ini baïk penduduk aslimau- pun migran spontan tidak ada.

USAHATANI DI CAHAYA MAS

Sebagai bagian dari wilayah kecamatan Muara Oua, daerah Ca- haya Mas ini tidak terdapat lokasitransmigrasi, sehingga di daerah ini untuk kegiatan usahataninya hanya dibedakan antara petani yang berstatuspenduduk asli dan petani dari migran spontan.

Jenis komoditi yang diusahakan di daerah transmigran Cahaya-mas antara lainmeliputi; ubi kayu,kacang-kacangan, padi, dan tanaman tumpangsari. Adapun nilai pendapatan dan pengeluaran dariusahataninya dapatlah dilihat pada tabel 12, 13, 14 dan 15 berikut ini, Dari tabel tersebut menggambarkanbahwa kegiatan usahatani untukjenis tanaman ubi kayu di daerah Cahaya Mas, merupakan kegiatan usahataniyang dilakukan baik oleh penduduk asli setempat maupun petani yang berasal dari migran spontan.

Tanaman Ubi kayu seperti yang disajikan pada tabell2, diusahakan baik oleh pendudukasli setempatmaupun oleh petani migran spontan. Adapun luas areal rata-rata usahatani ini, penduduk asli lebih sempitdibandingkan dengan petani migran spontan (0,25 ha. dan 1 ha.).

Tabell2. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Ubi Kayu CahayaMas,Sumatra Selatan

Slatus PcndudukKeterangan

Asli Sponlan

2) 1.IIlIs rala·rala (ha) Produksi : ll,2S UXIa. Hasil sctelab dikurangi BIwon

(rala-rala kg) 2.SOO 17.500b. Bilai basil (rala-2 Rp) 87.soo 612.500c. Pcngel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - ·

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 2.SOO 17.500Nilai Hasil Total(rala-2 kg) 87.soo 6l2.5OO

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yaag dijuaJ (rata·2 kg) - -Harp perKg (rata-2 kg) 35 35NilaiTebas (rata.2 Rp) - ·

Biaya SaraDa Produksi (Rp) - -Tcuap ketja :

a. Dalam Ke1. Pria (rala·2 JKP) 28,25 63,75Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 19,75 92,SOTernak!I'raktor (rata-2 JKT)

b. Luar KeI. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 24,50 40,83Wanila (rata-2 JKW) 24,50 32,13

TemakItraktor (rata-2 JK1) 10 42,56c. Nilai upab Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 22.750 69.458

PeltgeJuaran Iain :a. Bagi basil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi basil (rata-2 Rp) - ·c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) . -cL Iamnya (rata.2 Rp) - -

TOIaI Pcogduaran :Tcn.Kerja+ - ·(a+b+c:+d) (rata·2 Rp)PeodapalaD bersib (Rp) - -

64.250 542.042

17

Secara keseluruhan, baik pada penduduk asli maupun migran spontan hasil produksi dari tanaman ubikayu ini tidaklahditujukanuntuk komersial atau dijual, melainkan semata-mata untukkonsumsi sendiri. Sedang tidak adanya pengeluaran untuk bawon pada tabel tersebut menunjukkan babwakegiatan usahatani ini sebagian besar pekerjaan tertentu dikerjakan oleb tenaga kerja dalam keluarga.

Untuk kegiatan usabatanijenis kacang-kacangandi daerah Cahaya Mas. termyata hanya diusahakanolehpetani yang berasal damigran spontan. Sedangkan penduduk asli di daerah ini tidak Ada yang mengushakannyaadapun gambara dari kegiatan usahatani tersebut dapat dilihat pada 18bel 13.di bawah ini.

Tabe113. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain UsahataDÏ untuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan diCahaya Mas, Sumatera Selatan


Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi : - 1,00a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 1625b. Bilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 1.137.500c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 1.625Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - 1.137.500

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 1.625Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 700NUai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -


a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 63,75Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 92,50Ternak/Traktor (rata-2 JKT) -

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 40.83Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 32,13

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 42,56c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 69.458

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) . -


- 1.047.042

18

Pada tabel tersebut di atas dapatlah dikemukakan bahwa areal rata-rata yang digunakan untuk kegiatanusahatani jenis kacang- kacangan di daerah ini cukup luas yaitu 1 ha. Selain itu nampak jelas bahwa seaU8keseluruhan dari hasil kegiatan usahatani ini ditujukan untuk komersial. Karena dari hasil yang diperoleh yaitusebesar 1.625 kg tidak ada yang disisihkan untuk disimpan atau di konsumsi sendiri.

Dari nilai produksi sebesar Rp. 1.137.500,- setiap musimnya nampak bahwa usahatani jenis kacangkacangan tidaklah sedikit di-dalam memberikan tambahan pendapatan bagi kehidupan petani khususnya migranspontan. selain itu pengeluaran Iain dari usahatani sepeni bagi hasil, pajak dan pengeluaran lain tidak ada.

Sedangpenggunaantenaga kerjanya, sebagian besar menggunakan tenaga kerja dalam keluarga, kecualitenaga temak!traktor digunakan tenaga yang berasal dari luar keluarga

Usahatani jenis tanaman tumpangsari di daerah Cahaya Mas agaknya mendapat perhatian khusus daripenduduk asli setempat maupun petani migran spontan, hal tersebut ditunjukkanoleh tabel14.dimana luasareal rata-rata yang diusahakan untuk kegiatan usahatani cukup luas yaitu 1,75 ha untuk penduduk asli danmigranspontan 0,88 hektar.

Tabe114. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Tumpangsari di CahayaMas, Sumatera Selatan.


Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi: 1,75 0,88a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) 2.000 1.211b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 600.000 581.280c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) 400 139

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 2.400 1.350Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 720.000 648.000

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 617Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 300 480Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) 29.000 195.422.05Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 197,75 56,10Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 138,25 81,4Ternak!fraktor (rata-2 JKT)

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 171,5 35,93Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 171,5 28,27

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) 70 37,45c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 159.250 61.123,04

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - .c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -


411.750 324.734,91

19

Hal yang menarik untuk dikemukakan dari hasil tabel di atas,adalah tujuan kegiatan usahatani setelahhasil diperoleh. Untuk penduduk asli, hasil yang diperoleh rata-rata seluruhnya tidak dijual atau dengan kataIain hanya digunakan untuk konsumsi sendiri,sedangkan pada petani migran spontan sekitar setengah hasilproduksi yang diperoleh (617 kg) dijual.

Jika ditinjau dari hasil produksinya, tampak bahwa petani migran spontan lebih baik , karena denganluas rata-rata usahatani 0,88 ha bemilai Rp. 581.280 sedanglcan untuk penduduk asli hanya bemilai Rp.600.000,- dari loas areall,75 ha.

Tentang Penggunaan tenaga, kerja baik penduduk asU maupun migran spontan tenaga kerja yangdipakai cukup berimbang antara tenaga kerja yang berasal dari dalam keluarga dan dari luar keluarga. Jitadilihat dari segi Jumlah jam kerja dan biaya yang dikeluarkan, kegiatan usahatani ini cukup besar.

Untuk usahatani jenis tanaman padi pada di daerah ini dilakukan pada tanah sawah, tegal dan kebunhasil kegiatannya disajikan pada pada tabe115.

Tabe115. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Cahaya Mas,Sumatera Selatan.

Stat05 PendudukKeterangan

Asli Spontan


(rata-rata kg) 618 1.338b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 154.500 334.500c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) 42 125

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 660 1.463NUai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 165.000 365.750

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (ra18-2 kg) - 769Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 250 250Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -


a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 84.375 149,49Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 26,25 53,28Ternak!Traktor (rata-2 JKT)

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 805,5 404,79Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 81 189,97

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - -c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) 82.125 92.2J!,7

Pengeluaran Iain :a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - 264b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 66.000c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) 1.000 4.600d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - -(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) 1.000 70.600

68.250 13.458

20

Pada tabel 15 di atas dapat dilihat bahwa luas areal rata-rata yang diusahakan untuk tanaman padiantara pendudukasli dan migran spontan ternyata hampir seimbang (0,75 ha. dan 0,69 ha.). Namun bila dilihatdari hasil produksi total yang diperoleh temyata masih jauh lebih baik migran spontan, karena dengan kondisiluas areal rata-rata yang hampir berimbang tersebutmampu memperoleh hasillebih dari dua kali lipat hasil yangdiperoleh penduduk asti (1.338 kg dengan 618 kg).

Kemudian untuk pengeJolaan Iahan, pada penduduk asti menggunakan sistem bawon sedang untulepetani migran spontan selain menggunakan sistem bawon juga menggunakan sistem bagi hasil. Jadi pengeluaranusahataninya relatif lebih besar dibanding dengan penduduk asti.

Jika dUihat dari aspek penjualan hasil, nampak bahwa untuk petani migran spontan sebagian dari hasil(769 kg) dijual, sedang untuk penduduk asli seluruhnya digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan sendiri.

USAHATANI DI KAMPUNG DARU

Sebagai daerah yang masih baru, dan dekat dengan daerah transmigrasi, di daerah kampung baruhanya terdapat transmigran spontan saja tanpa penduduk asti.

Kegiatan usahatani semusim di daerah ini pada dasamya terdiri atas. usahatani jenis tanaman; padi,jagung, kacang-kacangan dan tumpangsari, gambaran kegiatan tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel 16, 17, 18 dan19.

Pada tabel 16. dapatlah dikemukakan bahwa dengan luas areal rata-rata untuk tanaman padi 0,5 ha.di daerah Kampung Baru, hanya mampu menghasilkan produksi sebesar 1.055kg. yang berarti relatif rendahproduksinya. rendahnya produksi ini karena tanaman padi tersebut umumnya ditanam pada tegal-tegal danpekarangan serta sebagian besar menggunakan varietas gogo.

Selain itu, dari tabel tersebut menyatakan pula bahwa hasil yang diperoleh seluruhnya semata-mataditujukan untuk mencukupi kebutuhansendiri saja. Sedang tenaga kerja yang dipergunakan selain tenaga kerjadalam keluarga juga dipakai tenaga dari luar keluarga dengan menggunakansistem bawon dengan perbandingansekitar 1 : 8 (1.055: 155). kemudian pengeluaran Iain seperti pajak, bagi hasil dan biaya Iain rata-rata tidak ada.

Tabe116. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Padi di Kampung Baru,Sumatera Selatan

SIlIlUS PendUdukKeterangaD

Asli Spontan

2) 1.lIlIs rata-rata (ha) PrOduksi : - 0,50a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) · 900b. Bilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) · 270.000Co Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - 155

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata·2 kg) - 1.os5Nilai Hasii Total(rata-2 kg) · 316.500

Penjualan Hasn :Jm1h yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - -Harga perKg (rata-2 kg) · 300NilaiTebas (rata-2 Rp) · -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - 33.S00Tenaga kerja :

L Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) · 42,34Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 43,69TemakITralctor (rata-2 JKT) • - -

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 30,22Wanita (rata-2 JKW) · 2{)

Ternalc/lralctor (rata-2 JKT) - 15.75Co Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 74.293,5

Pengeluaran Iain :a. Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) · .b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) - -Co Pajak (rata·2 Rp) · -cl. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ · -(a+b+c+d) (rata·2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) · .

• · 162.206,5

21

Tentang gambaran kegiatan untuk usahatani jenis tanaman jagung yang juga banyak ditanam di daerahini. hasil kegiatannya dapat pada tabel 17. di bawah ini

Tanaman jagungyang hanya diusahakanoleh petani migran spontansepeniyang diungkapkanpada tabeldi atas, dapat dijeJaskan bahwa kegiatan usahatani tersebut selain untukdikoQSumsisendiri, sebagian besar dijual(882 kg dari 1.250 kg).

Jika dilihat dari Juas areal rata-rata yang diusahakan (0,75 ha.) dengan produksi yang diperoleh,nampaknya bisa memberikan tambahan pendapatan tersendiri bagi petani (1.250 kg dengan nUai produksi Rp.210.000,-).

Tabel 17. Pendapatan dan PengeJuaran Lain Usahatani untukJeDis Tanaman Jagung di Kampung Baru,Sumatera Selatan


Asli Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi : - 0,75a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) - 1.250b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 210.000c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - 150

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 1.400Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - 235.200

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 882Harga per Kg (ra18-2 kg) - 168Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - 126.137,17Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 63.51Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 65.54Ternakn'raktor (rata-2 JIa) - -

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 45,33Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 30

Ternakltraktor (rata-2 JKT) - 23,63c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 112.385,5

Pengeluaran Iain:a. Bagi hasil (ra18-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (ra18-~ Rp) - -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - -(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapa18n bersih (Rp) - -

- -']2).522,67

22

Namun jika dilihat dari pendapatan bersih yang diperoleh maka jelas kegiatan usabatani ini sangattidak menguntungkan (nilai pendapatan negatip Rp. 28.522,67). Hal ini dikarenakan besarnya nilai biaya upahyang dikeluarkan.

Pada tabel tersebut juga dapat dikemukakanbahwa dalam penggunaan tenaga kerjanya tidakseluruhnyadari dalam keluarga melainkan sebagian kegiatan rnasih menggunakan tenaga kerja dari luar denganpengupahan memakai sistem bawon.

Untuk usahatani jenis kacang-kacangan di daerah Kampung Baru nampaknya mempunyai perhatiantersendiri dari masyarakat petani migran di daerah tersebut, hasil kegiatannya seperti yang disajikan pada tabel18.

Tabe118. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usabatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Kacang-Kacangan diKampung Baru, Sumatera Selatan


Asti Spontan


(rata-rata kg) · 600b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 420.000c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - 120

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 720Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2kg) · 504.000

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 600Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) · 700NilaiTebas (rata-2 Rp) - -


a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 42,34Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 43,69TernaklI'raktor (rata-2 JKT) - -

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 30,22Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 20

Ternak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 15,75c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 4.293,5



- 403.206,5

23

Pada tabel di atas dapat dilihat bahwa kegiatan usahatani jenis kacang-kacangan ini oleh petani migranspontan ditujukan untuk komersil. hal tersebut ditunjukkan bahwa dari hasil produksi bersih yang diperoleb(600 kg untuk luas rata-rata 0,5 ha) seluruhnya dijual tanpa ada yang dikonsumsisendiri.

Jika diperhatikandari nilai hasil, temyata kegiatan usa-hataniini memberikan nilai tambah yang cuJrupbaik, yaitu Rp. 420.000,- untuk hasil sebesar 600 kg.(harga Rp.7oo,- per kg).

Adapun penggunaan tenaga kerjanya sama sepeni yang dijelaskan pada tabel-tabel sebelumnya, didaerah ini yaitu menggunakan pula tenaga kerja dari luar keluarga dengan upah sistern bawon. Selain biaya yangdikeluarkan untuk bawon, biaya lainnya tidak ada

Petani yang berasal dari transmiran spontan di daerah Kampung Baru juga memanfaatkan labanpertaniannya yang umumnya berupa tegal dan pekarangan dengan tanaman jenis tumpangsari.

Adapun jenis tanaman tumpangsari yang diusahakan pada umumnya meliputi: padi, kacang tanah danjagung. Adapun hasilnya sepeni yang diungkapkan pada tabel 19.

Tabe119. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Tumpangsari di KampungBaru, Sumatera Selatan


Asli Spontan


(rata-rata kg) - 1.663b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 796.577c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - 285

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) - 1.948Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) - 933.092

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - 1.543Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 479Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - 92.495,17Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 77.90Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 80,67Ternak{fraktor (rata-2 JKT) -


Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - 28,98c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 137.859,24



- 565.722,59

24

Temyata dari tabel19.di atas dapatlah dikemukakan bahwa untuk usahatani tumpangsari dengan luasareal rata-rata 0,92 ha. mampu menghasilkan produksi dengan nilai bersih Rp. 796.577,- Jelas hal tersebutmemberikan nilai tambahan pendapatan yang tidak sedikit bagi petani kh0505nya migran spontan.

Dari seluruh produksi yang diperoleh tersebut sebagian besar ditujukan untuk dijual atau dengan kataIain usahatani ini bersifat komersil (1.543 kg dari 1.663 kg). Sedang penggunanaan tenaga kerjanya sebagianmasih menggunakan tenaga kerja dari lu-ar keluarga. Hal tersebut dapat dilihatdari besamya nilai bawon yangdikeluarkan.

USAHATANI DI KEDATON

sebagai daerah yang berada di luar lokasi transmigrasi, di daerah Kedaton, Usahatani sem05im yangdiusahakan pada dasamya hanya terdiri dari usahatani jenis tanaman padi dan ubi kayu adapun hasilnya dapatdilihat pada tabel 20 dan 21.

Tabe120. Pendapatandan PengeluaranLain Usahatani untukJenis Tanaman Padi di Kedaton,SumateraSelatan


Asli Spontan


(rata-rata kg) - 330b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) - 82.500c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -


Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) - 250Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - -Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 57Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 26,5Ternak!Traktor (rata-2 JKT) - -

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) - 16Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - 4

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - -c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - 7.500

Pengeluaran Iain:a Bagi hasil (rata-2 kg) - -b. Nilai bagi hasil (rata-2 Rp) . -c. Pajak (rata-2 Rp) - -d. lainnya (rata-2 Rp) - -

Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+ - -(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp)Pendapatan bersih (Rp) - .

- 75.000

25

Seperti yang dijelaskan pada tabel di atas, kegiatan usahatani padi di daerah ini dilakukan oleh petanimigran spontan. Pada dasamya luas areal rata-rata untuk tanaman padi ini tidak lah luas (rata-rata 0,25 ha.)serta umumnya ditanam pada tegal atau pekarangan sehingga produksi relatif rendah yaitu 330 kg untuk setiap0,25 hektar.

Jika diperhatikan dari segi penjualan hasil, maka jelas nampak bahwa hasil produksi tersebut tidakditujukan untuk dijual, melainkan semata-mata untuk memenuhi kebutuhan sendiri saja. Selain itu dari aspektenaga kerja juga nampak kegiatan ini seluruhnya dikerjakan oleh tenaga kerja dalam keluarga (pengeluaranbawon tidak ada).

Berbeda dengan usahatani jenis tanaman padi, maka untuk usahatani jenis tanaman ubi kayu, umumnyadiusahakan oleh penduduk asti setempaL Adapun hasilnya dijelaskan pada tabel 21.

Tabel21. Pendapatan dan Pengeluaran Lain Usahatani untuk Jenis Tanaman Ubi Kayu diKedaton,Sumatera Selatan


Asti Spontan

2) Luas rata-rata (ha) Produksi: 1,00 -a. Hasil setelah dikurangi Bawon

(rata-rata kg) 2.800 -b. nilai hasil (rata-2 Rp) 140.000 -c. Pengel.utk Bawon (rata-2 kg) - -

Hasil Total (a+c)(rata-2 kg) 2.800 -Nilai Hasil Total(rata-2 kg) 140.000 -

Penjualan Hasil :Jmlh yang dijual (rata-2 kg) - -Harga per Kg (rata-2 kg) 50 -Nilai Tebas (rata-2 Rp) - -

Biaya Sarana Produksi (Rp) - -Tenaga kerja :

a. Dalam Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 259 -Wanita (rata-2 JKW) - -Ternak/I'raktor (rata-2 JIa) - -

b. Luar Kel. Pria (rata-2 JKP) 181 -Wanita (rata-2 JKW) 71.000 -

Temak/traktor (rata-2 JKT) - -c. Nilai upah Tenaga Kerja (Rp) - -


Total Pengeluaran :Ten.Kerja+(a+b+c+d) (rata-2 Rp) - -Pendapatan bersih (Rp) 61.000 -

26

Pada tabel 21. dijelaskan bahwa luas areal rata-rata untuk kegitan usahatani ini relatip loas, yaitu 1hektar. Namun sama sepeni yang dikemukakansebelumnya bahwa hasil produksi usahatani ini tidak ditujukanuntuk komersial melainkan digunakan untuk konsumsi sendiri.

Apabila diperhatikan dari tenaga kerja yang digunakan, maka namapk jelas bahwa tenaga kerjanyaseluruhnya dikerjakan oleh tenaga kerja pria, baik itu yang berasal dari dalam keluarga dan luar keluarga.

27


REPUBLIQUE FRANCAISEORSTOM CNRS

avec la collaboratIon de. In coIlabora~on with


ENVIRONMENTAL

ASPECTS


Special Studies TRANS V Loan 2578 - !ND

1991

REPUBLIK INDONESIADEPARTEMEN TRANSMIGRAS)


avec la collaboration de· In collaboration with


AGRICULTURAL

SETTLEMENT AND

DEFORESTATION



1991

First Part

OBJECTIVES

Second Part

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEFORESTATION AND THE ROLE OF SPONTANEOUS MIGRANTS 3

1. METHODOLOGY 31.1 Selection of documents and the study zone 31.2 Elaboration of the 1969-1976 land use map 61.3 Elaboration of the 1986 land use map 7

2. TOWARDS A PROGRESSIVE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE FOREST? 82.1 The long history of deforestation 82.2 The dramatic reduction in primary forest area 102.3 Spontaneous migrants: a phenomenon outside of the Government's control Il2.4 Other causes of deforestation 14

3. THE RISK OF MAJOR DEFORESTATION 183.1 Ecological threats 183.2 The impact on regional economy 19

Third Part

THE FOREST: INADEQUACY OF STATUTES AND MANAGEMENTPRAC11CES

1. THE OFTEN INADEQUATE LEGAL STATUTES FOR FORESTS 211.1 The c1assificatory system for forests 211.2 Weakness of the system 221.3 Classifications that no longer reflect reality 23

2. THE PROBLEM OF DOCUMENT INACCURACY 25

3. THE LACK OF OVERALL POLICY AND PROBLEMS OF COMMUNICATION 25

Fourth Part

CONCLUSIONS - PROPOSITIONS

1. CONCLUSIONS

2. PROPOSITIONS2.1. A necessary revision of forest statutes and management2.2. Drawing-up and distributingaccurate documents

at the national and regionallevel2.3. Improvement of the field marking and surveillance

of borders between various categories of forest2.4. Improvement of dialogue between the authoritiesand the public2.5. The necessary recognition of the global nature of the problem

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

AGRICULnIRAL SErJU!MENI' AND DEFORESTA11ON

29

3030

31

313233

11111111111111111111

first part

OBJECTIVES

AGRJCUL11JRAL SEITLEMerT AND DEFORESTATION

11111111111111111111

SPONfANEOUS TRANSMIGRATION PROJECT

AGRICULTURAL SElTLEMENT AND DEFORESTAnON

For the last several decades, the forests of the intertropical zone, notably those of the

Republic of Indonesia, have been increasingly used for various and often conflicting ends, such

as the clearing of agricultural land, timber exploitation, faunal and floral protection, soil

conservation or regional watershed management.

This problem, which until recently was mainly Jimited in Indonesia to the island of Java l,

now touches vast regions of the so-called "outer"islands, particularly the south of the island of

Sumatra.

Deforestation was notable from the beginning of the XXth Century, due primarily to the

first colonial projects of population resettlement around 1905, and following Independence with

the development of the Transmigration program.

Until recently, however, this phenomenon was generally limited to the province of Lampung

and was more or less controlled by the State, which chose the settlement sites and determined

the number of migrants. These transmigrants were followed by a sprinkling of spontaneous

migrants.

The process has changed in the last few years. As the State has reduced its financial

support for the migrants, more and more migrants move on their own. Deforestation now

touches vast areas of South Sumatra and Bengkulu provinces, but until now it has not been

possible to evaluate its precise extent or the possible effects on the environment or the local

economy.

One of the main objectives of this study is to calculate this deforestation quantitativelyand

qualitatively.

One might note the exception, however, of the northeast coast of Sumatra, in the region of Medan and Deli, where thepresence of particularly fertile land enabled the creation of large plantations, mainly cultivating tobacco, rubber andcoffee, as carly as 1830.

AGRlCULnJRAL SEITLllMENT' AND DEFORESTATION

Nevertheless, spontaneous migrants are not the only ones involved in the reduction in the

area of climactic (primary) vegetation. In the same region, sometimes in direct competition in

the same place, one finds forest concessions, private agro-industrial plantations or official

transmigration projects.

Another major objective wil1 thus he to try to determine what was and what now is the

respective role of these various agents in the modification of forest cover and what types of

modifications they might have caused. Selective timher exploitation,transformation to secondary

forest, conversion to savannah or agriculturalland are some of these modifications which have

direct effects and consequences which must he appreciated.

Facing those who contribute to deforestation or forest transformation ,especial1y in Indonesia

and in the south of Sumatra, are groups which seek to favor its conservation: the international

organizations like UNESCO with the MAB (Man and Biosphere) programme, non-govemmental

organizationslike SKEPHI or Indonesian govemmentalorganizationslike the Ministry of Forestry

or the State Ministry for Population and Environment.

Their goals can, however, he quite variable or even contradictory,and inc1ude the aims of

preserving a genetic heritage, insuring the protection of soils or catchment areas, maintain the

productivityof the forest for the timher industries or guarantee the stability of the climate at

the regional or even global level.

_In order to try to reconcile this desire for conservation with the need to open new

agriculturalland and exploit forests for construction or plywood industries, we will need to look

at the current mode of forest management in an effort to identify deficiencies or problems and

make propositions to deal with them, thus moving towards a more rational management of

resources and of material as wel1 as human potentials.

AGRlCUL1lJRAL SEITLEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 2

second part

DEFORESTATION AND THE ROLEOF THE SPONTANEOUS MIGRANTS

AGRICULTURAL SEITLEMENT AND DEFORESTATION

2

3

1. METHODOWGY

t.L Selection of documents and the study zone

Without a doubt, the south of the island of Sumatra is one of the Indonesian region that

since the beginning of this century and especially over the last few decades has seen the most

profound changes in land use and forest cover.

Many recent documents demonstrate the extent of the transformations. It was therefore

decided to compare land use at two relatively close time intervals with the help of JANTOP

topographical maps (1969-1976) and SPOT imagery (1986-1987).

Three series of maps were also available to represent the situation in the 198O's:

- the vegetation map of Laumonier et. al., 1983 at 1:1,000,000;

~ the BAKOSURTANAUand use maps, 1985 at 1:2S0,OOO;

- the RePPProT2 maps, 1988 at 1:2S0,OOO.

The origin and the quality of the documents used varied greatly. Air photos, satellite

imagery and existing maps were sometimes compiled and assembled though an interval of up

to fen or more years separated them3• It was impossible to differentiate with precision these

sources and tell, for a given map, what year it represented.ln addition, these maps sometimes

exhibited significant differences that made them difficult to use to show an evolution over a

short period of time. A comparison of the four most recent sources for the Gunung Raya

region can demonstrate these differences (see Figure 1).

Of the four maps, the reduction of primary forest is clear, but it is much greater in the

SPOT and RePPProT documents than in the BAK()SURTANAland Laumonier maps. In the

latter case, it must be noted that this is an enlargement of a 1:1,OOO,OOOmap which cannot have

the same precision as the others, which were reduced.

These differences correspond in part to actual changes in forest cover between the end of

the 1970's and the beginning of the 198O's, but this is not enough to explain all the

discrepancies, some of which reflect problems of interpretation.

Thus, for the region situated to the northwest of Lake Lebak Datuk we note one serious

discrepancy (see Figure 2). The RePPProT map, which bears closest resemblance to the SPOT

Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration.

Notably for the BAKOSURTANAL maps: ·Peta Komoditi Perkebunan," 1:250,000, 1973-1983; Landsat imagery 19831984, and for the RePPProT maps: air photos 1:100,000, 1979; Landsat imagery 1983-1984; SPOT imagery 1986-1987.

AGR/CULTURAL 5IITI'LEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 3

Fig. 1 COMPARAlSON OF EXISTING SOURCES FOR TIlE FOREST SruDYCOMPARAISON DES SOURCES EXISTANTES POUR L'ETUDE DU COUVERT FORESTIER

fdlyw-1991

Primary forest remaining according 10 Laumonier el al 1 1983, at 1:500 000(original scale 1: 1 000 000) • Forêrs primaires reslanres d'après LAUMONIER elal, 1983, au 1:500 000 (èchelle d'origine: t:I 000 000)

Primary foresl remaining acco'ding 10 Pela Lipulan Lahan, BAKOSURTANAL.1985, n° 1010, 1011 au 1:500 000 (original scale: 1:250 000)' Forêts primairesreslanres d'après Pela Lipulan Lahan, BAKOSURTANAL, t985, n° lOtO, 1011 au1:500 000 (êche/le dorigine: t:25O 000)

\\

Ken81\

'---__---'-;__~1a Km

•

Primary fo,esl remaining acco,ding 10 RePPP,oT 1988, nO 1010, 1011 al 1:500 000(original scale: 1:250 000) . Forêls primaires reslanles d'après RePPProT 1988,n° lOlO, tOll au 1:500 000 (êchelle d'origine: 1:250 000)

·M

AGRICULTURAL SEITLEME!'IT AND DEFORESTATION 4

Fig,2 CONFLICTING INTERPRETATIONS OF THE SA ME PHENOMENON FROMDIFFERENT SOURCES 1 DIVERGENCES D'INTERPRETATION POUR LE MEME - +PHENOMENE ENTRE SOURCES D'ORIGINE DIFFERENTE

remaining forestlor~ls primaires res/an/es

Sources 1 Sources: from - d'après: BAKOSURTANAL, Pela Lipulan Lahan n° 1011, 1012,1985

fd/yw - 1991.

Sources 1 Sources: from - d'après: SPOT, 1986----_---.:_---,----------......

Sources 1 Sources:from - d'après: RePPProT,mapslcanes 1011 el 1012, Land use 1 forest Stalus1988

AGRICULTIJRAL SETI1.EMENT AND DEFORESTATION 5

photos in the example above, indicates a vast stretch of climactic forest to the west of the Ogan

River while the BAKOSURTANAlmap only represents a few scattered c1umps. This is actually

a zone of secondary forest associated with small rubher plantations found on the 1969 JANTOP

map which the RePPProT cartographers mistakenlytook for primary forest. On the other hand,

the forest to the east of the Ogan River still remained at the heginning of the 198O's as the

BAKOSURTANAlmap shows, but by the rime the 1986 SPOT photos were taken it had been

cleared to make way for agro-industrial plantations.

Full SPOT coverage of the south of Sumatra was not available,5O this study had to limit

itself to a zone falling hetween 3°S0' and SOlO' Latitude South and 103°40' and 104°30'

Longitude East.

The zone covers three provinces, the southwest of South Sumatra, the western part of

Lampung and the eastern extremityof Bengkulu (see the Illustration of SPOT, JANTOP and

administrative boundaries), an area which includes most forest types present in the region with

the exception of the swamp and mangrove forests of the eastern coast.

Twenty-oneJANTOP topographical maps at 1:S0,OOOand three SPOT photos from 1986 at

1:2S0,OOOwere thus prepared according to a common classification showing the major patterns

of land use divided into three main categories, formations of primary vegetation, degraded

formations and areas cultivated or under the process of heing settled4• An attempt was al50

maqe to account for the forest areas where clearing was most active. These preparations were

then reduced to 1:S00,000.

1.2. Elaboration of the 1969-1976 land use map

The precision of the JANTOP maps could he appreciated in the field, especially concerning

the toponymy,roads, waterwaysas weIl as the extent of rice fields. Edited in Indonesia with the

collaboration of the Australian Government, the maps unfortunatelywere drawn up based on

two series of air photos in 1969 and 1976 and do not cover the whole of the island of Sumatra.

ln the region chosen for this study, this problem is relatively limited because more than

7S% of the surface was mapped in 1969, and only one map is missing ("Pasar Banjit"no. 1011

22, left blank), situated to the east of Lake Ranau.

When the maps were assembled, it was impossible to join two important zones, one to the

southwest of Lake Ranau and the other to the northeast of Baturaja; this is marked by

transitional hachures. In the first case, it is the juxtaposition of a 1969 map with a 1976 map

For the formations of primary vegetation: dense humid forests, inundated or swampy forests; for degraded formations:secondary forests, mosaics, or fallows covered with Imperata cylindriçaj for cultivated areas: agro-industrial plantations,small plantations, dry field cultivation or irrigated rice fields.

AGRlCUL11JRAL SETI'LEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 6

s

6

7

which might have caused the problem, though in the second case the maps were from the same

period.

1.3. Elaboration of the 1986 land use map

Three SPOT photos of remarkablequalityS,were taken the same date (21 July 1986), which

gives a homogeneous view of the region. This period of the year, in the middle of the dry

season, also presents the advantage of corresponding to the moment when tree-elearing is the

most intense and when seasonal crops differentiate themselves most clearly from the natural

vegetation. As the region's crops are mostly perennials, this last advantage remains slight.

Also used were four other photos6 offering overlapping zones with the 3 above photos.

Taken on different dates, they provided a firm basis for analysis.

The interpretation was made based on the established classification on compositions colored

with false color at the scale of 1:250,000.lt was not possible to obtain 1:100,000 prints or

magnetic tapes for computer analysis.

Several difficulties arose during the course of the analysis:

- the limit hetween "primary"and "secondary"forest was sometimes difficult to discem with

certainty and generally corresponds in the field with a more or less large strip.

- it is olten nearly impossible,without computer analysis7, to differentiate "pure"secondary forest

from secondary forests associated with bush or tree-crop plantations, especially rubher, in the

northem part of the zone.

- new clearings in the forest present the same appearance of more or less dense blue dots on

a red background as the slash-and-bum zones for the regeneration of old rubher plantations,

for example.

- on the contrary, rice fields might appear under different shades of blue or red depending on

the maturity of the plants and can he confused with flooded areas.

Out of the three photos, nos. 278/358, 278/359 and 278/360, only the last one presented several scattered douds whichpose<! no problems for the interpretation.

No. 278/357 of 21 July 1986, no. 277/357 of 20 August 1986, no. 277/358 of 20 August 1986 and no. 279/358 of 27November 1987.

Computer analysis cannot always iron out ail ambiguities. Deshayes et al. (1984), through cartography of vegetation inthe south of Sumatra with the aid of Landsat, found that forest formations (dense forest, degraded forest and mangroveforest) gave confused responses on the MSSS and MSS7 channels, white riec fields were a dispersed dass due to thedifferent aspects of the fields.

AGRlCULnIRAL SIrrI'LEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 7

These problems of intelpretation were resolved by taking into account the JANTOP data

(especially for the regeneration of plantations) and through field checks in the month of June

1990. This of course presented a new difficultybecause the SPOT photos were taken more than

four years earlier. It was therefore necessary to take into account possible modifications coming

about during this time lapse.

Finally, the boundaries of swampyand f100ded forests according to JANTOP did not exactly

correspond with that of SPOT. For this last point, the apparent extent of each of these

documentS was retained, the differences Iikely corresponding to different criteria as weil as actual

changes (drainage or extension of f100ded zones).

On Map no. 4, the data from the SPOT photos were added to the boundaries of protected

forest as shown on the 1988 RePPProT map which was chosen out of concern for homogeneity,

even though these boundaries did not always coincide perfectIy with those from other sources.

In the south of OKU district, for example (see figure 3), the overall form of the forest

classes is more or less identical in the documents of the Ministry of Forestry and on the

RePPProT maps used by the Ministry of Transmigration. Nevertheless, when these maps are

superimposed, one notes that there is a sizeable discrepancy which equals a distance of about

four kilometers in the field.

The observed hydrographie network was completed with the BAKOSURTANAL maps

(digital data base, 1:50,000)brought up to date with the administrativemaps of the Ministry of

Public Works (pU 1988, 1:500,000) and BCEOMIPU maps (Musi River Basin Study, 1989,

1:750,000).

These additional sources were used to better shed Iight on recent transformations and on

what is currentIy at stake in terms of the forest.

2 TOWARDS A PROGRESSIVE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE FOREST ?

2.1. The long history of deforestation

By the late 1960's, it became apparent based on the JANTOP land use map (1969/1976)

that the primary forest had been reduced substantially from its original state covering most of

the island. The zone covered by the SPOT imagery, for example, was already reduced to less

than 50% of the original surface.

It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that for the south of Sumatra, deforestation is not a

new phenomenon. It is the extension of clearings made in the 194O's in the large valleys, on

the western coast and around Lake Ranau (see the thematic map no. 2). These major

AGRlCULnJRAL SETrLEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 8

Fig. 3 THESTATUS OFTHEFORESTS IN THE SOUTH OF KABUPATENOKU (SUMATERA SELATAN)LE STATUT DES FORETS DANS LE SUD DUKABUPATEN OKU (SUMATERA SELATAN)

/" boundaries of Ihe zones according 10 RePPProT 1988limite des zones selon RePPProT 1988

)

J

0'----__5'--__1,,-0__.c.\;5 Km

Id 1yW·1991

r:::1 produclion /oresls zone found on bolh maps~ forêts destinées a la production commune aux deux cartes

LAMPUNGPROPIN

a..ocr:a..

,- ........../i '",..

J'/"

~,/

r"-'IND/4N

°0\<'"%

enz

KABUPATEN LlO T

" boundarles 01 the zones according 10 Oeparlemen,/ Kehulanan 1986 - 1987 / limile des zones selon

Departemen Kehutanan 1986 - 1987

production foresl zone lound only on·RePPProT 1988[llIJ]] zone de forêl destinée ala production ne figurant que

sur RePPProT 1988

1"7/'1 natural reserve found on both maps~ réserve narure/fe commune aux deux cartes

overlapping area having diflerenl slatus._. aire de recouvrement entre terres de statul différent

r7/l protecled foresls round on bolh maps~ forêts prof()gées commune aux deux cartes

Sources! Sources:

AGRICULTURAL SETI1.EMENT AND DEFORESTATION 9

transfonnations are partly the work of local populations and no doubt partly the work of

migrants originally from the first transmigration projects such as those around Belitang

(1937/1940), the western extremityof whicb is located at the northeast corner of the strip under

study.

By 1969, two main patterns of land utilization could he distinguished. On the one hand,

there were the settlements based on irrigated rice fields and coconut plantations along the

waterways,around Lake Ranau and on the coast of the Indian Ocean, and on the other hand,

the small robher plantations on the plains and coffee plantations in the bills and the bottom

slopes of the mountains. These two systems were practiced by autochtbonousgroups, the Ogan,

Komering, Semendo and Pesisir and were generally imitated by the new arrivaIs. It should he

noted however that these transfonnations did not mean the systematic disappearance of the

forest cover, especially in the case of robher, often planted in association with secondary forest.

By 1986, parallel to the developmentof small family plantations, there were two new actors,

forest concessions and agro-industrial plantations. Through the action of these various factors,

the South Sumatra landscape underwent major transformations.

2.2. The dramatic reduction in primary forest area

In the strip composed of the three SPOT photos, an area of about 9,250 kmZ (9% of the

province of South Sumatra), primary forest which represented less than 50% of the land surface

at the end of the 196O's was reduced further to only 16.5% of the land surface in 1986. This

corresponds to a loss of two thirds of its area (see the thematic maps and Table 1).

These dense forest re~icts are essentially high altitude vegetation formations, as most of the

plains forests have already heen exploited or converted to agriculture. One might speculate that

a limit has heen reached here, since most experts agree that a forest coyer of 15% to 20% is

a strict minimum in tropical regions.

Secondary forest area has increased somewhat. It lost area to more degraded formations

or plantations, but has extended to regions that before were covered by dense forest. As was

noted in the section on methodology,parts of this secondaryforest are zones of intense clearings

which are usually rapidly transfonned into small plantations. Probably a significant part of what

still appears today to he secondary forest is in fact traditional extensive robber cultivation.

The other degraded fonnations (mosaic and alang-alang) both have expanded to coyer more

than 10% of the study zone. The presence of plantations in sorne areas has Iimited their

extension.

AGRICULTURAL SEI11.EMENI' AND DEFORESTATION 10

Table 1: Proportion of various types of land utilization in the zone covered by the three SPOT

photos 2781358, 2781359, and 2781360 (in perce~tages)

Primary forest

Swamp forest

Secondary forest

Mosaic

Alang-alang

Ladang

Sawah

Small plantations

Large plantations

Total

196911976

48.4

0.3

36.7

1.0

3.20.7

0.9

8.8

100.0

1986

16.5

0.5

42.4

7.82.4

2.8

0.724.9

2.0

100.0

8

9

(0) These proportions were obtained by counting the various classes aCter transposing on graduated paper the two land

use maps from 1969/1976 and 1986.

Among the cultivated areas, the area of irrigated rice fields (sawah) has hardiy changed,

while that of cultivated dry fields (ladang)8 has slightly increased. Notable is the appearance of

agro-industrial domains under installation in 1986, and the striking increase in small plantations

which represented less than 10% of the surface in 196911976 and which now cover a quarter

of the region or more if part of the secondary forests are added.

2.3. Spontaneous migrants: a phenomenon outside of the Government's control

The principal cause of deforestation in the region under study remains small plantations

based essentiallyon coffee planted on slopes, mainly in the southem part of this region, on

rubber mainly on the plains and in a few areas on pepper.

As has been noted. the phenomenon is an ancient one. As early as the 1920's. a decree

was promulgated by the Forest Service forbidding non-irrigated agriculture in the forests reserved

by the State for watershed or for exploitation9.ln 1950. de Haan already spoke of large scale

forest destruction in the Musi river basin by small coffee and rubber planters.

IDdoD<SÏaDo uouaIIy distinguish IWO types 01 dl)' fieldo.lhe permaneDi dl)' field or teplan aDd .he c:Iearina or Iad.ng, The melhod 01 onoJyzÙlJ SPOI' ÏIIloFIJodopIed iDlhiI lIudy does DOl oIJow lor lhil distinctiolL The distinction io DOIoystemolically _; the MiDistl)' 01 T......migrotion oDly distiDpioba belwecnlhe~ aDd lhe "dong lor .....,..... culliYa1iolL

SUJaubladai no. 86, 1924.

AGRICULTURAL SEn1.EMENT AND DEFORESfATION 11

The clearing of land was stepped up over the last few decades, especially with the arrivai

of many new migrants. At the heginning of the 193O's, the population density of the CUTTent

province of South Sumatra was about 13 persons per square kilometer, which still allowed for

slash-and-bum system in association with rubher plantation with Iittle damage to the forest due

to the long cycle of rotation supervised by the Marga lo• In 1961, this density reached 27

inhabitants per kml only to attain 59 inhabitants per kml in 1988.

This evolution is weil iIIustrated by the strong demographic growth of the three main

districts of South Sumatra covered by the three SPOT photos as the following figures show:

- OKU (Ogan Komering Ulu)

- OK! (Ogan Komering Ilir)

- Lahat

381,524 inhabitants in 1961, 913,205 in 1988,

378,262 inhabitants in 1961, 764,080 in 1988,

310,000 inhabitants in 1961, 611,50S in 1988.

10

The average annuai growth rates are very high (see Table 2) and the period required for

a doubling of the population ranges from 22 to 29 yeaTS depending on the district.

Table 2: Average annuai population growth rates (in percentages)

1961/71 1971/80 1980/88 1961/88

OKU 3.5 3.8 2.5 3.3

OK! 1.7 2.6 3.9 2.6

Lahat 1.9 3.0 2.9 2.5

Sumatra Selatan 2.2 3.4 3.3 2.9

Source: Sensus Penduduk Sumatra Selatan

In South Sumatra, important regional differences can he found by comparing the districts

that were already weil populated in the 1960's (see Table 3) with, for example, Musi Banyuasin

or even OKU where the population density at the same period was still less than 25 per kml,

a figure generally considered to he the upper Iimit heyond which shifting agriculture can no

longer he practiced.

The Marga control was mainly excercised to guarantee rights over the c1eared parcels, and to set the duration of thecultivation period (Bongers, unpublished, 1924, in Forestry AbstraclS, 1982).

AGRlCULnJRAL SE11l.EMENT AND DEFORESTATION 12

11

Table 3: Population density for the province of South Sumatra (inhabitantslkmZ)

Provinces Percentage of Population Population

province's density density

land area in 1961 in 1988

Musi Banyuasin 23.5 7.7 21.7

OKI 9.5 38.8 78.4

OKU 19.8 18.8 50.0

Muara Enim 8.8 36.8 61.5

Lahat 3.7 81.7 161.2

Musi Rawas 19.7 9.2 25.8

Bangka 10.6 23.1 41.6

Belitung 4.2 23.8 42.3

Sumatra Selatan 99.8 27.0 58.7

Source: Sensus Penduduk Sumatra Selatan

According to the South Sumatra forest service11, there are more than 70,000 families

practicing land-elearing (petani perambah), of which at least 51,000 are in forests. It is said that

because of them, nearly haU of the 774,602 hectares of protected forest (hutan lindung) have

been eut down, while 40% of the forest reserves (hutan suaka alamlmargasatwa) covering

658,650 ha and 330,000 ha of production forests have been destroyed. Most affected for the time

being are the districts of Lahat, Muara Enim and Ogan Komering Ulu.

Aside from these forest clearings, the province is said to be suffering further from major

losses in timber production. The volume of illegally-eutwood seized in 1990 reached more than

50,000 cubic meters, or more than 5% of the official timber production of South Sumatra.

Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, the spontaneous migrants are not the only ones

responsible for deforestation and other factors play a role, such as forest concessions which aid

migrant penetration into forested areas.

Siswanto, PS, Kepala Kanwil Departemen Kehutanan and Rusdin Akase, Kepala Dinas Kehutanan Sumsel, during apress conference in February 1991 (Suara Pembaruan, 11 February 1991).

AGRICULnJRAL SEI11.EMENf AND DEFORESTATION 13

12

13

14

15

16

2.4. Other causes of deforestation

FOREST CONCESSIONS

Timber exploitationhas a long history in Indonesia. Ironwood12 has for centuries been used

for the construction of boats and pillars for local houses. Beginning in the 19th century, South

Sumatra's forests were exploited in a more intensive manner by the Dutch. Melabuai (Dyera

costulata) resin was harvested in Muara Enim in 186513, timber from the Musi delta mangroves

was exported to Singapore at the beginning of the 20th centuryl4, in the years from 1910 to

1920, tens of thousands of cubic meters of wood arrived in Palembang each year from the

interior. This exploitationwas mostly carried out by the local people who up until 1916 did not

need to obtain a permit for cutting or gathering wood.

In 1939, nine large forest companies were established outside of Java, but not in the

Palembang Residency.

In the province of South Sumatra, the first concessions were granted in 1969. In 1990,

twenty-fourforest concessions cover 2,274,300ha in South Sumatra (22% of the province) and

produce between 860,000 and 1,76O,OOOcubic meters of timber per year (see Table 4).

Only two concessions are located in the region covered by the three SPOT photos, P.T.

Great Amlalas (1974,53,000 ha) and P.T. Bina Lestari (1981,52,000 ha). The first extends partly

into the province of Lampung, where the area allotted to forest concessions is much smaller

(190,000 ha or 5.7% of the province divided into three concessions).

In Indonesia, most logging is carried out by private companies which practice the system

of selective felling (T.P.I.,or Tebang Pilih Indonesia). Refined in 1967, T.P.I.requires that only

trees with a diameter in excess of 50 centimeters be felled, theoreticallymeaning a removalof

8% of the forest volume with a rotation of 35 years between two felling periods. In practice,

this system seems to have overestimated the ability of ecosystems to regenerate themselves.

Professor Dr. Ahmad Sumitro admitted during a press conference in Jakartal5 that T.P.I.

was neither pragmatic nor realistic. Many trees, notably the merantil6 actually take between 50

and 60 years to reach the minimum felling diameter of 50 cm. This time lapse is much greater

Vlin or Eusideroxylon zwageri.

Demelot Moens, Natuur/amdig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-I1UÜl, XXVIII, 1865, in Forestry AbstraclS, 1982.

Doop, unpublished, 1921, in Foresay AbstraclS, 1982.

Kompas, 4 September 1990.

The meranli is a group of species which belong to the Shorea genus. Most of the Indonesian timber production cornesfrom this group.

AGRlCULnJRAL SIITI1.EMENT AND DEFORESTATION 14

than the 35 year rotation period caUed for by T.P./Y.This is all the more serious in the field

where unscrupulous concessionaires sometimes cause damage to more than 50% of the forest

cover.

Table 4: Forest concessions in South Sumatra in 1990(·)

Concessions Year of

attribution hectares

Size in

in US $

Investment

PT PADECO

PT WISMA LUKITA

PT PHALA WANA LESI'ARI

PT TUAII MEGOW

PT WAY HITAM

PT SINAR BEI.ANI1 JAYA

PT SWOODY LTD

PT GREAT ANDALAS TIMBER"

PT NITI REMAYA CONCERN

PT DAYA PENCA

PT KUMAIA MAS TIMBER

PT SRI BUNTAN TRADING CO

PT WIJAYA MURNI

PT BUMI RAYA UfAMA W. IND.

PT ANEKA MERCU SUAR CORP

PT RIWAYAT MUSI CORP

PT NINDITA BAGASKARI

PT SUKSES SUMATERA TIMBER

PT SYLVA

PT INWIHCO

PT KURNIA MUSI PLYWOOD

PT FAMILY JAYA

PT SENTOSA JAYA

PT FATMA BERSAUDARA

PT TAMBANG TIMAH

TOTAL

Source: Departemen Kehutanan, 1990.

1969

1970

1973

1974

1974

1974

1974

1974

1976

1978

1978

1979

1979

1979

1979

1979

1979

1979

1980

1980

1976/81/87

1985

1988

1988

1989

150,000

55,000

68,soo

40,000

143,000

1S8,OOO

66,soo

13,300

45,000

87,000

SO,OOO

75,000

52,000

130,000

55,000

8S,OOO

52,000

274,000

130,000

146,000

130,000

57,000

77,000

51,000

S4,OOO

2,274,300

4,soo,OOO

1,000,000

3,7SO,OOO

l,soo,OOO

2,520,000

1,400,000

1,400,000

1,700,000

l,soo,OOO

300,000

1,2S0,OOO

1,200,000

l,soo,OOO

l,soo,OOO

1,000,000

5,000,000

l,soo,OOO

4,300,000

l,soo,OOO

l,soo,OOO

1,750,000

2,380,300

3,234,000

2,142,000

4,374,000

52,000,300

17

(.) The figures gathered in September 1990 at the Ministry of Forestry in Palembang are

different for three concessions: PT Way Hitam: 186,000 ha; PT Sukses Sumatera Timber:

237,000 ha; PT Aneka Mercu Suar Corp: 45,000 ha.

Dr. Sumilro'. CDDclUIioDl, lbal lhil problem CDuId be IOlYed merely by reducing lhe aUlboriud le1hD& diameler la 3S or 40 cm, oeem a bil buly u lheir

applic:alioa would Iead la ......er baJvat and a latzer opeDÎ.DI of lhe forai CllDOp)' wilh DO doubl oeriolll CDDle<jueaca for lhe regeaenlioa of cIimaclic>egelalioa due la lhe Iacf lbal under CDDdilioDl of Itroag 11111lÏD01ily, lhe grawth of IeCDDdaJy forai tpecieI (of leaaer CDmmercial value) would be Ilimulaled10 lhe c!elrimeal of primaly forai opecieI.

AGRlCUL1lJRAL SIITIU:MENT AND DEFORESTATION 15

18

19

20

(**) The total area of the PT Great Andalas Timher concession is 53,000 ha, part of which is

situated in the province of Lampung.

For the whole of Indonesia in 1990, out of a total of 512 forest concessions,only 22

respected the current regulations. In the north of South Sumatra, several concessions were

recently suspended or annulled and given to the national company P.T. INHUTANIbecause of

negligence and failure to follow the programme of work. Such measures cannot he taken

systematicallydue to the large sums invested, olten reaching several million dollars.

Reforestation attempts are underway by the Government or by foreign concerns such as the

Iapanese International Cooperation Agency on a 3,100 ha parcel in the Benakat region of South

Sumatral8, but the species planted are usually rapid-growingspecies such as acacia or eucalyptus

which do not provide as much protection for the soil as natural forest, and which represent

c1ear depletion from a botanical point of view.

Concessions also encourage agricultural clearings through the opening of roads into the

remaining dense forestsl9• In the south of Sumatra, there is a strong danger that they will no

longer he exploitable in the next few years due to the uncontrolled disappearance of the forest

(see the figure of the reserves).

AGRO-INDUSTRlAL PLANTATIONS

In South Sumatra there are 96 private agro-industrial plantations officially covering more

than 870,000 ha or 8.5% of the province'sarea (see the Map of constraints). Their activitiesare

mainly concentrated on oil palm, rubher and coconut.

However, only a relatively small part of this figure, about 10%, is said to have been

converted into agro-industrial plantations. The rest is said to have heen acquired by speculators

who were waiting for real estate prices to rise in order to resell the land without developing

it. The authorities are now conscious of this problem and grant agricultural concessions with

more care.

As for forest concessions, they are a relatively new phenomenon in form and importance,

although several large plantations existed at the heginning of this century2O.

In the zone studied here, according to the SPOT photos, 7 companies varying in size from

1555 ha to 49,000 ha are operating. Many were still in the project or developmentstage in 1986.

Setiakawan, no. 3, November-December 1989, p. 12.

In South Sumatra, between 1984 and 1989, nearly 1600 km of forest roads were opened.

F.H. Endert (unpublished, 1920, in Forestry Abstracts, 1982) speaks of a 20,000 ha rubber and coconut plantation in thePalembang Residence near the Banteng River.

AGRlCULnJRAL SElTI.EMEl'-'T AND DEFORESTATION 16

21

22

23

Actually, the SPOT photos only allow us to see 2% of the large private and govemmentaJ

plantations.

It should he noted that these agro-industrial plantations were not always established in

forested zones.

As it can he seen on the 1969 and 1986 land use maps, sorne have even been set up on

land covered with alang-alang and genera1ly considered to he exhausted21 •

Others have hegun operations on land that had already been cultivated, like the company

P.T. Bumi Sawindo Permai in the Muara Enim district which received,among its parcels, 125 ha

of rubher trees already in the ground. They wiJJ cu1tivate oil palm. These 125 ha were seized

hom smal1holders who were compensated ten to twenty times less than the rate stipulated in

the regulations22•

OFF/CIAL TRANSMIGRATION PROGRAMS

Contrary to forest concessions and private agro-industrial plantations, transmigration is not

a recent phenomenon in South Sumatra province because as early as the 193O's the Dutch

carried out the Belitang project based on irrigated rice cropping. Transfers of population

continued into the 1950's and 1960's and have increased even more over the last two decades.

Currently, transmigration programs in South Sumatra coyer 975,000 ha or 9.5% of the province.

The projects of the colonial era or just after Independence were general1y based on vast

irrigation networks for rice farming23. Now these programmes are usual1y smaJJer in size and

tumed more towards perennial export crops which require less investment.

In the region covered by the SPOT photos, these projects are of smaJJ or medium size:

Bunga Mayang (1460 ha), Lubuk Batang Meraksa (1800 ha), Lubuk Batang (8000 ha). The

exception is Batumarta (65,000 ha) to the east of Baturaja which is based on rubher planting.

As in the case of agro-industrial plantations, transmigration projects are not always set up

in primary forest.

The fonnation of an aJang-aJang (/mperaJa cylindrica) savanna, generally a sign of soil fertility depletion, is notnecessarily irreversible. In certain cases, it appears that it could be the first stage in a forest vegetation regenerationcycle.

The Camai of Tanjung Agung set this indemnity at Rp 250,000 per hectare of productive rubber plantation andRp 125,000 per hectare if the trees had not yet reached maturity, while a teX! of the Govemor of South Sumatra datingfrom 1986 (No. 9ŒfIV/1986), set the amount of compensation (ganti-rugi) at Rp 700,000 for a hectare of land, to whichsum the value of the trees must be added (for a 15-year~ld rubber tree: Rp 46OO)(Pelila, 28 September 1990).

P. Tuyt (unpublished, 1939, in Forestry Abstracts, 1982), mentions the silviculture projects based on teak (Teelonagrandis), the lembesu (Fragraea fragrans) and the merawan (Hopea mellgarawan), with Javanese migrants. They wereset up in the 193O's, especially in the area of Martapura. The Second World War and the problems of acclimatizing teakto Sumatra seem to have halted the projects.

AGRlCULnJRAL SEITLEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 17

In the strip under study here, they are ohen set up on land covered with largely secondary

vegetation. This is not always the case for the whole province, notably for the center and the

north of South Sumatra where most of the programmes have been planned in the last vestiges

of almost untouched forest.

These important modifications of land use and particularly the uncontrolled extension of

forest clearing could have grave consequences in the near future for the environment and the

regional economy.

3. TIlE RISK OF MAJOR DEFORESTATION

3.1. Ecological threats

Given the increasing rarity of available land in the plains, new plantations are increasingly

heing opened in catchment areas, sometimes on sub-vertical slopes. Such practices have for many

years provoked floods and landslides in Lampung with dramatic consequences, including the

destruction of roads and homes and the loss of hundreds of hectares of land. This phenomenon

is accentuated by the precarious status of those who clear the forest, as they thus have no

inceÎttive to build terraces or take other measures to prevent erosion.

For the time heing, the damage still seems limited. During the field mission in June 1990,

the rivers of OKU district were relativelyclear, but this was during the short dry season when

erosion is generally less evident.

The risks of erosion, calculated in the upper basin of the Komering River can he up to 190

times greater under a young coffee plantation than under a dense forest (see Table 5).

Table 5: Risks of erosion as a function of the C-facto~ in the upper Komering region

C-factor Erosion risk

multiplied by

Dense forest

Secondary forest > 10 years old

Secondary forest 1-9 years old

Savanna

0.002

0.004

0.Q20

0.070

1

2

10

3.S

Tbe C·la<:lor io 0""' 01 lb< la<:Ion 01 lb< lOil IDa equation ~Ioped in lb< Uniled SIal.. (AmerÎClll UnM:nal Soil Loa Equation), cxpraKd ..

A-R'K'L'S'C'P, wb<reby

A - lb< quanlity olooil (in lOU/lia) canied nny lor a specilic raiDta1I duration;R - lb< e_ power 01 raiDta1I cxp.-cd in joula/m"/bDur,K- lOil erodibility la<:Ior, .. lb< erooion lIandard in lou per b<ctare per unil 01 erooivity R, lor a specitic lOil wilh a uni/orm .Iope 019'll> lleep..... and

a .Iope Jenllh 01 22.1 ID;

L- .Iope lleepneoola<:lor, or lb< ralio ollOillDa /rom a .Iope wilh a specilic Jenllh and lOillDa /rom a .Iope wilh a lIandard Jenllh 01 22.1 ID;

S - .Iope lleep..... la<:Ior, io lb< ratio olooil IDa /rom a given .Iope and lOil IDa /rom a .Iope ol9'll> lleepneor,C - ...getalion and managemenl factor, ÎI lb< ralio ollOillDa /rom a cropped area 10 lbal /rom an Îdenlical area in liJled CXlnliDuoUl laIJow;P - CXlDlel'Yalion practice la<:Ior, io lb< ratio olooil IDa /rom an area wilh anli-erooion managemenl 10 IIIaI larmed wilhoul arI'J precauliou lma.

AGRICULnJRAL SEITI..EMENT AND DEFORESTATION 18

Sawah

1.Admtg

Rubber plantation

Coffee plantation < 4 years okl

Coffee plantation 5-10 years old

Corree plantation > 20 years old

(Source Kooiman. 1987)

0.010

0.300

0.020

0.300

0.140

0.030

S

150

10

190

70

15

3.2. The impact on regional economy

Forest clearing also compromises timber exploitation tbrough the use of forest eannarked

for production. According to the RePPProT maps, for example, a large part of the PT Great

Andalas Timber concession (see figure 4) bas already been converted to agriculture. ln addition,

much iIIegal felling is taking place because the volume seized in the province of South Sumatra

in 1990 represented 54,452 cubic meters of raw timber and 1,044 cubic meters of lumber or

more than 5% of the province's production.

Fig. 4 CHANGING STATUS:FROM PRlMARY FORESTTOPRODUCTION FOREST 1 CHANGEMENT DE STATUT:FORETS PRIMAIRES DEVENUES FORETS DESTINEES A LAPRODUCTION

primary foreat remaining accordlng to SPOT• 1986/1987 • forêt primaire restante c/'apréa SPOT

1986/1987

boundary 01 thelormer reserve of SUBANJEAWI now,/-- classified as pro-ducIion foresl- fimitfl de rflX- résflrvflc...d dfl SUBANJERUJI devflnufi forêt d&6tinéfl Il la

production

l ...

10Km----~

901J1'œS - 8016œS:l_.L.. -=-__---==--- ---' RePPProTl988. SPOT 1966

AGRICULTURAL SIITI1.EMENr AND DEFORESTATION

fdlyw-1991

19

It should be noted that part of the damage can be caused by the concessionaires themselves

because the zone of primary forest exploited extends apparently beyond the legal limits which

can prevent their being attributed to other companies in the future. We might note also that

PT Great Andalas Timber is partially situated in protected forests, which carries other risks

The conservation of floral and faunal species within natural reserves and protected forests

is often imperiled.It is imperiled both by the lack of semples on the part of certain concession

officers and by real estate speculation which incites new arrivais and in certain cases the local

people to open restrieted areas without precautions for themselves or for quick resale of the

young plantations, sometimes with false ownership documents, to unsuspecting migrants. The

proliferation of false ownership certificates,especially in Java, Lampung and South Sumatra, has

even obliged the Badan Pertanahan Nasional (Agraria) to distribute certificates that are more

difficult to falsify, beginning on 1 September 199()2S.

The reserve of Gunung Raya, to the east of Lake Ranau, offers a sad example of the

extent of protection given these forests, which have been chosen to maintain the hydrological

balance of the region or for their botanical richness, the future value of which is priceless (see

Reserve map).

Jakarta Post, 14 Seplember 1990; Suara PembaJuan, 22 Seplember 1990.

AGRlCULnJRAL SIDTLEMENT AND DEFORESI'All0N 20

third part

THE FOREST: INADEQUACY OF STATUTES AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

AGRlCUL11JRAL SmTL.EMENT AND DEFORESrAnON

1 THE OFfEN INADEQUATE LEGAL STATUTES FOR FORESTS

1.1. The classificatory system for forests

In the face of these problems, even though the public is often at fault, much of the

responsibility falls on the authorities, especially due to regulatory deficiencies.

Since 1980, the forests have been divided into three main categories: forest reserves,

protected forests and production forests, the latter category itself being divided into three classes:

unlimited production, limited production and production before conversion for agriculture.

The determinationof these categories is principallybased on three criteria: slopes, soils and

rain intensity. Each of these criteria are attributed a value of 1 to 5 as a function of an existing

classification.

Table 6: Slope classification

Oass of slope

1

2

3

4

5

(Source: Departemen Kehutanan, 1982)

Table 7: Soil classification

Inclination of slope

0-8%

8-15%

15-25%

25-45%

> 45%

Oass of soi!

1

2

3

4

5

Nature of soils

alluvial, tanah g1ei planosol, hidroworf kelabu, laterita air tanah

latosol

brown forest soil, non calcis brown, mediteran

andosol, laterits, grumusol, podsol, padsolik

regosol, litosol, organosol, renzina


Table 8: Rainfall intensity

Rainfall class

1

2

3

4

5

Rainfall intensity

(mm per number of rainy days per year)

up to 13.6

13.6-20.7

20.7-27.7

27.7-34.8

greater than 34.8


AGRlCUL11JRAL SIITTLEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 21

For a given region, the figure of 1 to 5 which corresponds to each criteria is then

multiplied by a constant factor: 20 for sIopes, 15 for soils and 10 for rainfall intensity.The three

numhers thus obtained are then added together to give a score of hetween 45 and 225 for each

region reflecting its status.

If the value is greater than or equal to 175, the zone is automaticallyclassified as protected

forest (hutan lindung). If the score falls hetween 124 and 174, the region is placed in the

category of forest intended for limited production (hutan produksi terbatas). Below 124 points,

the forest can he used for unlimited production (hutan produksitetap) or he converted to other

uses (hutan produksi yang dtlpat dikonversi).

To these general conditions have heen added 6 exclusive clauses which can cause a forest

area to he directly c1assified as protected forest (hutan lindung):

1) if the slopes are greater than 45%

2) if fragile soils (c1ass 5) are associated with slopes in excess of 15%

3) if the zone is situated less than 100 m from a waterway

4) if the forest is situated within a radius of 200 m around a spring

5) if the altitude is greater than or equal to 2000 m

6) if a particular reason or necessity requires it to he protected.

Forest reserves (hutan suaka alam) are generally chosen among the protected forests due

to the richness of their ecological heritage and because of their role in the hydrological balance.

They are given a name, and theoreticallymore protection than mere "protected"forests (hutan

lindung).

1.2. Weaknesses of the system

This system contains two major weaknesses.

First of ail, it takes into account only factors related to nature and particularlysoil fragility.

These are actually important factors but they are far from sufficient for the establishment of a

rational and efficient system for forest protection.

There is no botanical criteria such as endemism, rare species or the type of forest of which

sorne are reputed to he fragile (heath forest, forest on Iimestone, Barringtonia formation).

Nor is there any specifically c1imatic criterion because the rainfall intensity criterion does

not take into account the duration of the dry season nor the annual rainfall and is mainly of

interest to pedologists. The figure for intensity would he the same if 3000 mm of rain fell in

200 days as if 600 mm fell in 40 days, while in the two cases the characteristics of the c1imate

and the forest would c1early he quite different.

AGR/CULTURAL SëITLEMe;r AND DEFORESTATION 22

26

28

Another criterion that would no doubt be helpful to introduce is the percentage of forest

remaining in the region. On fiat areas even with mediocre soils ail forests are considered apt

for conversion to agriculturalland or for exploitationwhile it might be advantageousto preserve,

while possible, at least 15 to 20% of the original forest cover to create recreational areas and

guarantee an evapotranspiration potentiaI. Even if the effects are still poorly understood, they

are a fundamental part of regional c1imatic mechanisms.

The other main weakness of this system is that it demands very precise knowledge of

topography, pedology and climate, often lacking for many of these regions.

In South Sumatra, for example, there are no good topographical maps available for the

whole province26 and the pedological maps are of rather mediocre qualityV. As for rainfall,

it is also poorly understood and is marked by wide variation from one year to the next.

This therefore means that quite a bit of approximation enters into judgements conceming

the status of given areas.

In addition, the system is no doubt somewhat rigid; the altitude forests are protected only

above 2,000 m which means that sorne mountains such as Gunung Raya (1843 m) to the east

of Lake Ranau do not benefit from any legal protection,while their interest for the hydrological

balance of the region is undeniable28• In fact, during the field work of June 1990, the slopes

of Qunung Raya were found to be largely covered with coffee plantations,sorne of which almost

reached the summit. The sixth exclusive clause is no doubt designed to make up for this

deficiency, but its vague wording prevents its effective application.

1.3. Classifications that no longer reflect reality

A further problem is that these categories often no longer correspond with actual land use.

They were applied to ail land coming under the management of the Ministry of Forestry, but

sometimes land has long been converted to agriculture.

According to the Ministry of Forestry, there are more than 51,000 km2 of forest in South

Sumatra. Based on the RePPProT maps, which as we have seen have a tendency to overestimate

Ar. mentioned in the section on methodology, the JANfOP maps do not COYer the entire province or South Sumatra.Along with Java, the island or Sumatra is however one or the best mapped regions or the Indonesian archipelago.

A team or Dutch consultants, Haskoning, is currently working on a series or pedological maps or Sumatra at 1:250,000,but ror the moment only halr or South Sumatra is covered.

The rorest reserve or Gunung Raya is round near that mountain but does not include it within its limits (sec the mapor reserve boundaries). However, as early as 1925, the Dutch rorester Steup called ror its protection (Forestry Abstracts,1982).

AGRlCULnJRAL 51IT1'LEMEl'IT AND DEFORESTATION 23

Id/yw-I991

forest area (see the SPOT comparisonlfigure 1), there were only 35,621 kml of primary forest

in the mid-198O's (including exploited primary forests).

Again according to RePPProT, out of 7140 kml of reserve forest (hutan suaka a/am) in

South Sumatra, only 64% is still in untouched forest while out of 9276 kml of protected forest

(hu/an /indung) only 50% is climax vegetation.

Inversely,sizeable forest areas are sometimes found outside of the protected zones (see fig.

1 of the Gunung Raya reserve).

For the last few yeaTS, the Ministry has made efforts to limit this type of inconsistency,but

the measures taken can he somewhat radical as in the case of the Subanjeruji forest reserve,

created in 1980. Though covering 65,000 ha, the cartographie documents of the Ministry of

Forestry show it stretching over 100,000 ha. It has just been entirely converted to production

forest despite the fact that there remained a small zone of barely touched forest (see fig. 5,

Subanjeruji reserve).

Fig.5 EXISTING FORESTINTHEAREAOFTHEFORESTCLAlM PT GREAT ANDALAS TIMBER / LES FORETS DE LACONCESSION FORESTIERE PT GREA T ANDALAS TlMBER

o 10

• primary forest 1forêt primaire

D primary forest under exploitation 1forêl primaire exploitt!e

V boundaries of forest claim 1limite de la concession

V boundaries of natural reserve and protected forest.,?-, limite des réserves naturelles et des forêts prolégées

sources - sources:primary forest and prolected fore st 1

forêt primali'e el forets protégées' RePPProT,1988foresl claim - concession fores/1ère: Departemen Kehutanan ,1990

AGRlCULlURAL SIITIl.EMENl' AND DEFORESTATION 24

2 THE PROBLEM OF DOCUMENT INACCURACY

In addition to their inadequacy, the situation often varies from one source to another both

in figures and in mapping (see Table 9 and the map of the Ministry of Forestry and RePPProT

boundaries).

This is ail the more serious because, as we have seen above, these boundaries are not yet

completely marked in the field, the result being that local officiais are not always capable of

recognizing them and, in turn, enforcing them.

In the case of the Gunung Raya reserve, uncertaintyas to the exact boundaries can attain

4 km either way (see Illustration of boundaries, fig. 3).

Table 9: The status of forests in South Sumatra (in km2)

Status of the forest

Forest reserves

Protected forests

Production forests

Limited production forests

Forests set aside for

conversion after exploitation

Total

According to the

Ministry of Forestry

8,225

7,746

21,910

3,310

10,683

51,874

According to

RePPProT

7,140

9,276

21,336

2,915

12,339

53,006

3 THE LACK OF OVERALL POLICY AND

COMMUNICATION

PROBLEMS OF

Furthermore, these classifications are subject to changes which do not always mean more

effective conservation of nature. For example, in February 1988, 49,000 ha of reserve forest in

southwest South Sumatra were reclassified as production forest to enable a private company to

exploit its timber. In September 1990, this modification was not yet apparent on most of the

maps used by the Ministry of Forestry.

These uncertainties,along with the lack of communicationwithin the Ministry of the Forest

or between ministries,also lead to the problem of certain parcels being attributed to two parties.

AGRlCULlURAL SIITl1.EMENT AND DEFORESTATION 25

Twelve out of twenty-five concessions in South Sumatra are situated partially within

protected forests or forest reserves, resulting in a total of 342,025 ha of overlap or more than

14% of the total concession area of 2,272,300ha. One example is the Bukit Barisan Selatan

National Park, founded in 1982 in the provincesof Lampung and Bengkulu,which was attributed

a strip of forest already granted to a logging company in 1981. The case is still unsettled as of

1990, and the concession has not yet been revoked.

There is also overlap between the transmigration programmes and non-eonvertibleforests.

In the Musi Banyuasin region, for example, a number of projects overlap extensively with

production forests and even protected forests (see fig. 6).

Even when these boundaries are respected, one might question the wisdom of planning

transmigration programmes on the fringes of forest reserves without allowing for buffer zones

which can prevent incursions.

Frequent use of force rather than dialogue with iIlegal occupants, as often reported by the

press, reinforces the precariousness of their position and is not necessarily the best way to put

an end to these incursions especially when most of the fertile lands are found in reserved zones

and the authorities are lacking manpower for the marking and surveillance of these areas.

This often means brutal expulsions from regions that have been already converted to

agriculture leaving the people hardly any other choice but to go c1ear forest elsewhere without

taking any precautions. They know that it is not worth the trouble to take major anti-erosions

measures on land in areas which at any moment they stand to be chased out of.

In 1990, the authorities of the province of South Sumatra were officiallyable to expel 1102

fami1ies, but that pushed more than 70,000 to adopt such careless behavior.

AGRlCULnJRAL SE:ITLEMe;I'AND DEFORESI'AnON 26

Fig. 6 OVERLAP BE1WEEN TRANSMIGRAnON PROJECT AND FOREST lN THE MUSI RIVER DELTACHEVAUCHEMENTS ENTRE PROJETS DE TRANSMIGRA nON ET FORETS DANS LE DELTA DE LA MUSI

productive forest ta be convecled ta other uses

forèts productives devant entre converties à d'autres usages

fd/yw·1991

rrTTInj nalural park. reserve

lLllW réserve forestière

PULAU ALANGGANTANG

l1

0 5 10 15Km.û'

~

<'-y

..À

~

"?

-t--

G

ï'-

"?

profected forest

forêts protégées

produclion forest

forêts destinées à la production

AGRICULTURAL SIITIl.EMENT AND DEFORESTATION

transmigration seltlement

projets de Transmigration

overlapping area having diflerent foresl starus

aire de recouvrement entre terres de statut différent

27

fourth part

CONCLUSIONS - PROPOSITIONS

AGRlCULTIlRAL SIITI'LEMENT AND DEFORESTATION

1. CONCLUSIONS

RECENTBUT INSUFFlCIENTEFFORTS IN THE FACE OF STRONG LOCAL PRESSURES

AND THE FUNDAMENTALlMPORTANCEFOR THE FUTURE OF INDONESIA

The forest is increasinglyunder often contradictorypressures. It is considered both as a land

reserve, as a source of natural resources for the timOOr industry, as a floral and faunal genetic

reserve and as an element of protection against erosion and c1imatic modifications at the

regional and global level.

It is also ohen perceived as a scourge, especial1y by Javanese migrants who consider it a

hostile universe inhabited by wild pigs and monkeys which roin their crops.

Official pronouncementsover the last few yeaTS suggest a trend toward increased protection.

President Suharto himself dec1ared in a SeptemOOr 1990 speech: "The Indonesian tropical forest

is an important factor which guarantees the stability of the c1imate and preserves our daily

environment and that of the planet. Our tropical forests, as wel1 as our vast seas and oceans,

play a major role in atmospheric mechanisms and limit global warming. Because of this, we

must have the oost possible exploitation and management of our forests in order to 00 able to

conserve them for the yeaTS to come."29

In the south of Sumatra, facts however tend to contradict or at least take insufficientlyinto

account these concerns.

Numerous transmigration projects are sti11 set up in primary forests which given their rarity

should 00 OOtter protected. The statutes and the measures for forest protection and exploitation

are ohen inadequate, moreover they are frequently circumventedor ignored. OfficiaIs bodies are

ohen unable to handle the situation or the consequences of their ambitious projects.

Efforts have OOen made these last few years to deal with the negligence and abuses. Forest

concessions have OOen suspended, interministerial commissions have OOen formed to discuss the

problems of overlap and many migrants have OOen expel1edor displaced from i11egal settlements.

But these measures often remain limited in scope and dialogue is rarely OOgun OOtween the

parties.

Suara Pembaruan, 11 September 1990.

AGRICULTURAL SETI'LEMENT AND DEFORESTATION 29

30

In the face of criticism over the disappearance of the Indonesian forests, the authorities

often refer to Western development history, particulaTly to the massive and uncontrolled

destruction of the European forest during the Industrial Revolution.

The image is correct enough, but the current conditions are not the same, notably because

of the greater fragility of tropical soils which can he leached in a few yeaTS once the forest is

gone and the massive investments Indonesia has made in the timher industry and particulaTly

the plywood industry.

Thus, it is neither a question of saving the forests "out of principle" nor of making

sacrifices, but instead of rational and long-terrn management which does not jeopardize the

future with destructive consequences simply for the sake of short-terrn gains.

If Indonesia is obliged over the next few decades to expand the costly and uncertain

reforestation programmes, to sharply increase its fertilizer use on exhaustedsoils or import wood

to drive its industry, the costs will he higher than if the country had put into effect a hetter

policy for the protection or the exploitation of its forests.

This can only he done through more concerted action by the public, the institutions and the

companies involved in the management of their environment.

2. .PROPOSITIONS

2.1. A necessary revision of forest statutes and management

RECT/FlCA T/ON OF THE AREA UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE MlNISTRY OF FORESTRY

The Ministry of Forestry is still the authority today over more than 143 million ha or close

to three quarteTS of the country's territory while many experts agree that the actual forested

area is much less.

In 1984, in a report for the FAO (Guppy) estimated the total at 113.6 million ha of which

only 38.9 million ha were in primary forest.

For the province of South Sumatra, the local Ministry officiaIs recognize that more than

40% of the land under their management are no longer forest30•

Given that the forest service personnel at the Ministry's disposaI is far from sufficient to

manage all this area, it would appear necessary for improved management to reduce its

jurisdiction to only those lands actually covered by forest or subject to reforestation.

Suara Pembaruan, 11 February 1991 and Part II.2.3.2.

AGRlClIL1lJRAL SIITI1.EMENI" AND DEFORESTATION 30

111111111111111111

An interministerial discussion group could he established in which ail the concemed

ministries would participate, including the Ministries of Forestry,Transmigration ,Agricultureand

Environment.

ln the short run, a Directorate under the Ministry of the Forest could he created in order

to manage land designed for a different use and for which responsibility would he transferred

to another ministry or to the regional authorities.

MODIFICA TIaN OF mE CLASSIFICATORY SYSTEM

This system, as described in the first paragraph of Part III, does not permit effective

management of the Indonesian forest. The criteria on which it is based include little other than

a consideration of soil fragility without taking into account botanical and climatic factors. Tt

would therefore appear necessary to define a more elaborate system of classification that would

at least integrate botanical richness (endemism, rare species), fragility of certain ecosystems

(heath forest, Barringtonia formation, forest on Iimestone), and precise climatic data (duration

of the dry season, annual rainfall).

2.2. Drawing-up and distributing accurate documents at the national and

regional level

As this report shows, there is often a serious lack of information which makes decision

making a difficult and hazardous undertaking. Documents, when they exist, are too often of

mediocre qualityand are most often poorly distributed at the regional, sub-district and especially

village leveI. Tt is therefore urgent to establish a critical synthesis which could serve as a tool

both for govemment officiaIs and for the personnel in charge of enforcîng regulations in the

field.

2.3. Improvement of the field marking and surveillance of borders between

various categories of forest

An effort was undertaken by the Ministry of Forestry to mark the established boundaries

in the field. This was made difficult by the lack of personnel and accurate documents, the large

amount of territory under the Ministry's control, overlapping of zones or changes of status in

the absence of an overall policy as was described in Part II, paragraph 3. It is hoped that the

suggestions offered here will help to correct this problem by unburdening the Ministry of

Forestry of what has hecome useless surveillance in many zones.

ln addition, it would seem necessary to develop a system of buffer zones, especiallyhetween

transmigration projects and forest reserves in order to limit the possibilityof incursions,voluntary

or otherwise.

11

AGRJCULTURAL SIITTLEMe;r AND DEFORESTATION 31

11i1

111111111

2.4. Improvement of dialogue between the authorities and the public

In the face of growing and uncontrollablespontaneous migration, the use of force to enforce

the Government'sdecisions appears increasinglyunreasonable.Accordingto the authorities,only

15% of the spontaneous migrants have been displaced in 199<YI• Forced expulsions without any

real alternative solution for the people concerned, local as well as migrant, can only lead them

to go c1ear forest elsewhere, without inciting them to take the least precaution for the protection

of fragile soils.

Dialogue is therefore necessary, with the defining of concrete propositions for the people

that have settled iIIegally. These propositions could for example consist of offering land in the

framework of Local Transmigration or establishing cultivation systems inspired by the

Tumpangsari system while assuming responsibility for the control of the adjoining reserves.

2.5. The necessary recognition of the global nature of the problem

The stakes are not only regional or national, they are also global given the need to

conserve sufficient forest cover for the planet in order to Iimit the greenhouse effect which leads

to global warming.

On this point, it is necessary for the international community to shoulder the responsibility

to work for a new world ecological order.

-Like cultural heritage, ecological resources traverse frontiers; it is not right that the countries

on which they are found assume alone the burden of their conservation.

While respecting the sovereigntyof States, these countries, of which Indonesian is one of

the most important representatives by virtue of its possessing the world's second largest tropical

forest following that of Brazil, could thus receive technical and financial aid for better

management of their environment, a heritage for all humanity.

If wc reCer to the evaluation of 70,000 families given by Ihe Kepala Kanwil Kehutanan Sumatra Selatan, in SuaraPembaruan, 11 February 1991.

111

31

AGRICULTURAL SIITnEMENI' AND DEFORESTATION 32

SELECfED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Center for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. Inoonesian Forestry Abstracts, Dutch

Literatureuntil about 1960. Wageningen, 1982, xviii+658 p.

Departemen Kehutanan. Himpunan peraturan perundangan dibidang kehutanan Inoonesia (revisi

II). Jakarta, 1982, Volume m, xii+214 p.

Departemen Kehutanan. Sejarah kehutanan Inoonesia, buku 1, periode pra-sejarah-tahun 1942

Jakarta, 1986, xxiii+229 p.

Deshayes, M., D. Ducros-Gambart and T. Le Toan. Utilisation des données Landsat pour la

cartographie des formations végétales tropicales dans le sud de Sumatra. L'Espace Géographique

3, 1984, pp. 205-214.

Kooiman, A. "The factor C, relations between landcover and land use and aspects of erosion,

specifically for the Upper Koering catchment, South Sumatra, Indonesia."ITC, Rural and land

ecology course, Enschede (The Netherlands), July 1987, vit12 p.

Pain, M. (ed.), D. Benoit, P. Levang and O. Sevin. Transmigrationand spontaneous migrations

in Inoonesia, Propinsi Lampung, Sumatera. ORSTOM/Departemem Transmigrasi, Jakarta, 1989,

444 pp., maps.

Whitten, A., et al. The Ecologyof Sumatra. Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta, 1984,

xx+583 pp.

AGRJCULTURAL SETTLEMENI' AND DEFORESTATION 33

SOIL

REPUBLIK INDONESIAOEPARTEMEN TRANSMIGRASI


avec la coliaborallon de· In coIlaboral"m wMINDECO - INTERSYS J PPT-UPI

CONSERVATION

AND

RURAL MANAGEMENT



1991

TABLE OF CONTENTS

First Part

OBJECTIVES

Second Part

TECHNICAL REPORT

1. MORPHO-PEDOLOGICALLANDSCAPES

1.1. Coastal Area1.2. Plains1.3. Hills1.4. VolcanicArea1.5. Mountains

2. EROSION PHENOMENA COUNTERBALANCEDBY THE NATURE OF THE SOIL

2.1. In Plains Landscapes2.2. In Hill Landscapes2.3. Volcanic Landscapes

3. RECOMMENDATIONS3.1. Plains Landscapes3.2. Hilly Landscapes3.3. Volcanic Landscapes

Selected Bibliography

Definitions

Third Part

PHOTOGRAPHS

SOIL CONSERVA1l0N AND RURAL MANAGEMENT

Page

555778

88

1215

20212121

23

24

26

tirst part

OBJECTIVES

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMENT

SPONTANEOUS TRANSMIGRATION PROJECf

1) Survey the geomorphologicallandscapes and the soils that are associated with them in the

principal region studiesd by the Spontaneous Transmigration Project, Kabupaten Ogan Komering

lnu and Lahat, in the province of South Sumatra.

2) Provide succinct definitions of the principal soil types, according to the criteria of the Soil

Taxonomy, based on the new documents drawn up by the Land Resources Evaluation and

Planning Project (pPT dan Agro-climat,Bogor) and field observationscarried out in 1990-1991.

3) Survey of the major forms of erosion in relation with the observed morphopedological

landscapes and systems of production.

4) Consideration of the risks of erosion as functions of, on the one hand, the nature of the soil

and the type of slope, and on the other hand, the systems of cultivation and population density.

5) Provide recommendations.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMENT 2

second part

TECHNICAL REPORT

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMENT

The creation of the field or plantation causes a momentary disappearance of the vegetation.

Once the land has been cleared, the slope and the type of soil will determine whether or not

erosion occurs, unless certain cultivation techniques are used. Among the elements that must be

taken into account are the length of the slope and its steepness and, most important of the soil

characteristics, the thickness of the humic layer, the nature of clayey minerais and the texture.

The dangers are almost always present when the land is worked. At the landscape level, where

development operations are carried out, it is possible to consider these risks as functions of

certain criteria, most particularlyamong them the nature of the soil.

Field observations have shown that these two factors, slope and the nature of the soil, can

counterbalanceeach other. A steep slope does not automaticallysuffer from heavyeTOsion, even

if it is cultivated without classical anti-eTOsive works. Conversely,slight slopes sometimes show

signs of major erosion. As a result of these facts, the accent will be put here on the

relationship between morpho-pedology and risk of erosion as a function of production systems

and human impact.

The presentation of morpho-pedologicallandscapes will therefore he taken up not only

through the aspects of landform and soils, but also through those of spatial occupation--system

of production, intensity of clearing, population density--and the analysis of observed forms of

erosion, in each case placed in their context.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEME!'IT 3

'.

Fig. SKEfŒ OF MAIN MORPHO·PEDOLOGICAL LANDSCAPES (SUMATERA SELATAN PROVINCE)ESQUISSE DES PRINCIPAUX GROUPES MORPHO·PEDOLOGIQUES (PROVINCE DE SUMATERA SELATAN)

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: .:::::::::: :::Â: ::::Ramb8;,g .::::::. . ................................ - ,- , ,............. .... .. . .

sources. sources: agb/lz·1991Center for Soil Aesearch. Land Resource Evaluation and Planmng Project (LREP). SOlI Data Base Management. SUMATRA,Bogor.1989.

L.


1 MORPHO-PEDOWGICAL LANDSCAPES

Very schematically,the region studied is characterizedby the presence of five main morpho

pedologicallandscapes, certain of which can he subdivided into several types (see Figure ***:sketch of morpho-pedological1andscapes). The sketch is the result of a bibliographicalanalysis

completed by field observations in the southwest of South Sumatra province, along a cross

section stretching nom the Prabumulih plains to Lake Ranau on the border with Lampung

province. Among the documents used, special mention must he made of the LREP (Land

Resource Evaluation and Planning Project) documents, the most recent available. This program

for the pedological mapping of Sumatra and the setting up of a Geographical Information

System was completed in 1990, but the publication of the maps and their legends is still

continuing.

A numher of pedological terms might he unfamiliar to nonspecialists of soil science. To

remedy this, extremelysimplified definitionsof the principal notions of pedologywill he indicated

each time that this is necessary. The soils are descrihed using the terms and principles of the

American Soil Taxonomy classification. A simplified lexicon can he found in the Appendix.

1.1. Coastal Area

On the coast, there is the group of marine terraces of the west coast of Sumatra. This

landscape is little represented in the region studied. Its old coastal levels, uplifted, eroded and

dissected, are olten horizontal and sometimes have very slight slopes. The soils most frequently

encountered are of the large Inceptisols group, rather thin soils for tropical regions. They are

characterized by the presence of alterable mineraIs, but most of the soluble elements present

in the original rocks have already heen displaced and have accumulated in certain spots or have

even heen eliminated from the soil.

1.2. Plains

A large area is characterized by landforms of moderate amplitude and relatively slight

slopes, inferior to 8-15%, which can he subdivided into three groups:


VALLEYS AND ALLUVIAL PlAINS.

These are recent landscapes developed on holocene and pleistocene sediments, un-folded,

represented by lake and fluvial al1uvion deposits (old meanders, anastomotic deltas, terraces) and

col1uviums. These are usual1y plains landscapes where the degree of slope is less than 3% and

the maximum extension is found in coastal zones and downstream of large rivers. These plains

are much less extended along rivers such as the Ogan River which cuts through a more hilly

region. The soils are classified among two large groups of the Soil Taxonomy, Inceptisols and

Entisols. The latter are soils in which the pedologicallayers are stiJl poorly differentiated and

where the nature of the original matter is often recognizable.

PLAINS ON ACID TUFFS

Situated principaIJyat the north of the study region, these are vast stretches formed on

material of volcanic origin, the Tuffs. The Tuffs are deposits of fine and friable volcanic

material,often in a shal10w marine environment, which subsequently consolidated. The main

formations are those of Palembang, Ranau and Lampung. Quite often these tuffs are cal1ed

"Ignimbrites. 'The slope can he rather marked and reach values in excess of 8%. The degree

of dissection of this landscape, the general aspect of which can he assimilated to a plains

landscape, is variable, sometimes giving birth to rather evident convex landforms, though always

of slight unevenness. The main types of soils encountered can he c1assified among the major

Incêptisols, Oxisols and Ultisols groups. Oxisols are red or yeIJow soils, rich in quartz, kaolinite,

and iron and aluminum oxides. The layers are thick and little differentiated.Ultisols, in tropical

regions, are also red or yeIJow. They present numerous similarities with Oxisols. The main

difference lies in the fact that they are leached and have very poor upper layers contrasted with

one or more deeper layers in which are accumulated sorne of the elements that have

disappeared from the surface.

PLAINS ON SEDIMENTARY MATERlAL

The landscapes grouped under this classification,found in the region of Baturaja and Muara

Enim, are very close to those on acid tuffs both in terms of landforms and soi] types. In a

landscape with uniform slope, the dissection causes the appearance of more convex forms with

slopes sometimes reaching 15%. The amplitudes are always inferior to 50 m. These are in fact

old landscapes, eroded and dissected, and made up for the most part by folded pre-quatemary

matter of variable nature but dominated by an acidic chemical character. Like the plains

landscapes on acidic tuffs, these soils can he classified among the major Inceptisols, Oxisols and

Ultisols groups.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEME!'IT 6

111111111111111111

1.3. Hills

A region of bills, well-represented in the region of Muaradua, is characterized by convex

and plane-convex fonns. This landscape results from orogenic and erosive processes. The

differences in level range on the one hand from 10 to 50 m and on the other from 50 to

300 m. The original matter, of varied nature, is not volcanic. The slopes can be pronounced.

They vary hetween 15 and 25/35%. The soils encountered are c1assified among the Inceptisols

and the Ultisols.

1.4. VoJcanic Area

A group of landscapes result from volcanic activity, of acid to average basic quatemary or

tertiary type. In these landscapes, Iinked to the Barisan Range which runs Iike a sash from

southeast to northwest, we find more or less eroded stratovolcanoes)ava f1ows, volcanic plateaus

and lahars. The landfonns are thus varied and can he cIassified into three main groups.

HIILS ON VOLCAN/C MATERlAL

This landscape have strong resemblance to the hill landscape on nonvolcanic matter. The

slopes are relativelypronounced and their value varies hetween 15 and 25/35%. The differences

in level are also on the order of about 100 m. The soils are c1assified among the Inceptisols

and the Ultisols. However, the nature of the original material can differentiate, usually to a

slight degree, these Inceptisols from the Inceptisols of nonvolcanic landscapes.

PLATEAUS

They are more or less sharply dissected and offer a rather pronounced overaIl slope

measuring between 8 and 15/25%. The edges of the plateaus have steep, very steep or even

sometimes subvertical slopes. When the dissection is greater, convex or plane-convexlandfonns

appear with slopes in excess of 25/35%. The soils are Inceptisols, sorne of which have andic

characteristics, the Oxisols. Soils with andic characteristics are typical of volcanic regions. They

are characterized by the presence of a very humic surface layer, sometimes very thick, as weIl

as by the existence of allophanes, c1ayey minerais which result from the rapid transformation of

volcanic glass. They are most often dark colored soils, almost black, of low density and high

absorbent capacity fonned under conditions of moderate temperature, reduced insolation and

constant humidity.

STRATOVOLCANOES

These volcanoes are characterized by steep siopes, always exceeding 35%, covered by soils

with andic characteristics (Andepts),other Inceptisols sometimes associated with rocky outcrops.

11


The Andepts possess very thick black humic layers. The sides of these stratovolcanoes are

intensively cultivated.

1.5. Mountains

A mountainous ridge associating steep and very steep slopes with altitude plateaus, with less

pronounced slopes. Generally in this region slopes vary hetween 2S and 75%. Various soils are

encountered but they usually can he c1assified among the Inceptisols and the Vltisols.

For this study of the Ogan Komering Vlu and Lahat region where the field observations were

concentrated, we have only retained three major types of landscape and land use which are

spread out over a sequence linking the plains landscapes where ,Oxisols and Ultisols dominate

to the volcanic landscapes of the Barisan Range where Inceptisols and andic soils are largely

represented.

2 EROSION PHENOMENA COUNTERBAIANCED BY THE

NATURE OF THE SOIL

The landscapes observed were intensely cultivated by indigenous peasants and spontaneous

migrants. In certain cases, the risks of overexploitation and overpopulation are critical. The

environmental hazards merit analysis and careful evaluation with special consideration of the

direct relationship hetween certain essential characteristic of the milieu, soil and slope, its

exploitation and its degradation, which is manifest in certain situations but much less evident in

others.

2.1. In plains landscapes

Vnder this name are grouped the alluvial valleys and plains, the plains on acid tuffs, and

the plains on sedimentarymatter. Only the last two types will he studied. These landscapes are

characterized by a generally fiat landform, with moderate slope of a few percent. These plains,

however,are more or less deeplydissected by the hydrographicnetwork. Thus convexand plane

convex landforms appear with slopes ranging from 8 to 15120%, values which are notably higher

that those of the principal geomorphologicalstructure. The existence of such secondary landforms

can ohen give the impression, during a field survey, that one is no longer in a plain.

According to the criteria used by the LREP, plains are distinguished first of all by the

nature of the underlying geological matter. In fact, the various materials heing essentiallyof


Ll ,

r •

l _

[

l

o

111

1

acidic nature and of fine to average texture, this distinction is not represented in a marked

fashion at the soil or landscape level. The second criterion concems the importance of the

secondary landforrns. In this way, it perrnits distinction between various types of landscapes:

• plains with regular or slightly undulating slopes.

• undulating plains with slopes varying between 3 and 8%.

• undulating plains presenting a hiJJy landforrn with slopes of between 8 and 15120%.

This distinction, which is based on the forrn of the secondary landforrns, is directly related

to the degree of dissection of the general landscape. In this way, plains which are slightly

undulated correspond with a slight degree of dissection, while slightly hilly undulated plains are

associated with a dense or very dense hydrographie network which gives the landscape a

dissected or even very dissected appearance.

mE SO/LS

In this region, there are relatively few types of soils given the nature of the original

materials which are always acidic. The soils present in these landscapes are distributed as

follows:

• Inceptisols (35-75%)

• Oxisols (25-50%)

• Ultisols (10-25%)

Inceptisols

They are present both in environmentsaturated in water and reducing,as weil as in drained

environment. The soil surface is composed of an organic layer that is generally quite visible.

Depending on the degree of water saturation, the characteristics of this level approach those of

more or less transforrned peat or those of a common humic level, mixture of minerai matter

(clays, alluviums, sand) and organic matter (fulvic and humic acids). Mineral and humic matter

are closely connected. It is the presence of this organic matter that is responsible for the brown

coloring of the surface humic layeTS. When the surface layer is of peaty type, its coloring is

much darker, almost black. The thickness of this level varies, generally between 20 and 60 cm.

Under this surface layer exists a layer that is more strictly minerai in color, granulometry and

level of variable saturation. The coloring of this minerai layer is not very bright, being of beige

or ochre tint.

Here two principal types of Inceptisols are found:

Tropaquepts, usually located on lower siopes, and rather thin.

Dystropepts, present on median and upper slopes. They are distinguished from the preceding

by their greater thickness and a saturation rate of over 50%.


111111111111111111

These two types of soils, which we find in other landscapes, have a rather low level of

chemical fertility. The pH is generally acidic or very acidic and the content of nutritive elements

(exchangeable bases, phosphorus) very low.

Oxisols

The soils observed are red or yellow, characterized by the presence of silica, Si02 (quartz),

clay (kaolinite) and metallic oxides (predominantlyiron sesquioxides - hematite, goethite - and

aluminum sesquioxides - gibbsite -. These soils have good permeability and are generally weil

drained. They have inconspicuoushumic layers that are rather poor in organic matter. They are

subject to erosion, even on slight slopes. Risk of erosion increases when the surface humic layers

disappear following a land clearing followed by the buming of debris or careless cultivation.The

essential characteristic of this soil is its oxy layer. This is a layer of at least 30 cm in thickness

of sandy silt-Iaden to c1ayey texture, having an effective cationic exchange capacity (ECEC) that

is weak or very weak, with very little or no alterable minerais from the mother rock.

Morphologically,layers of oxisols are Iittle differentiated within the same soil. The pedological

profiles are relativelyhomogeneouswith regard to COlOT, texture and structure. Althoughwe have

not observed them directly, oxisols often contain continuous hardened layers forming plates or

shells. When these layers are near the surface, they constitute an important constraint for

agricultural development (inability of roots to penetrate, accumulation of water, etc.). However,

we have encountered gravelly levels, level of "ferruginousgravel" accumulation. Only an excess

of tJtis gravel can pose a limitation to agricultural development (due to diminishing exchange

capacity, the small amount of fine soil, and the almost inexistent chemical fertility).

In this plains landscape, one type of oxisols c1early dominates:

Hapludox, present mainly on the highest parts of the inter-river uplands and on the upper part

of slopes. These are hydric régime oxisols of "udic"type. In other words, such oxisols are not

saturated in water, though evapotranspiration is inferiOT to precipitation, except for occasional

short periods. There is thus no hydric deficiency in these soils. Their COlOT is red or yellow.

They are poor in organic matter and have acidic or very acidic pH.

As a general rule, leaving aside these two types of constraints which are rare in the regions

studied, oxisols are excellent physical supports, and are easy to work due to the uniformity of

the soil. On the other hand, they are very poor chemically,have an acidic or very acidic pH

and thus need the addition of enriching agents and fertilizers.

Vltisols

The ultisols observed in these landscapes present a certain number of morphological traits

close to those of oxisols (kaolinite,metallic oxides). Generallyred or yellow, they can also have

layers that are Iighter in hue. They are composed of the same minerais as are the oxisols. They

are differentiated from them essentially by the presence of leached layers and layers of clay

11


111111111111111111

accumulation (argillaceousand kandic layers). The pedological is thus rather clearlydifferentiated

and the boundaries hetween the various layers are distinct. The vertical distribution curve of the

clay shows what is called a "clayeystomach" which corresponds to the levels of accumulation.

ln oxisols, this curve presents a uniform profile revealing either a practically constant clay

content or a very progressive increase in their quantity depending on the depth.

They also possess morphological charaeteristics associated with the existence of dry periods

(speckled layers, manganese concretions, etc.) which correspond to segregation, departure and

accumulation of elements. In these soils, water circulates, but during certain periods of the year

evapotranspirationexceeds the quantity of water present in the soil and that leads to the deposit

of particles of clay or other elements such as iron or manganese. These movements imply an

impoverishment of the upper part of the soil and only the humic layers, generally rather thin,

contain sorne nutritive reserves. This very superficial location of nutriments results in shallow

rooting of the natural vegetation. This remark, which also applies to oxisols, is even more

important here.

These soils are chemically very poor and they lack reserves. Their pH is acidic or very

acidic. Cultivation on such soils poses the same problems as does agriculture on oxisols. It is

absolutely necessary to add enriching agents and fertilizers in large quantities. As a general mie,

they are not as good physical supports as oxisols due to the greater heterogeneityof the soil.

_Two types of ultisols should he mentioned:

Hapludults, present essentially in sedimentary plains landscapes.

Kandiudults, observed in the plains formed on acid tuffs.

Both are located at the upper part of the landforms. On the one hand, the hapludults do

not have the excessive clay accumulation layer (argillaceous layer) and it is rare to find speckled

layers in lower levels. The kandiudults,on the other hand have layers of clay accumulation that

are more clearly differentiated (kandic layer) from the rest of the soil. Undergoing the same

hydric régime as the hapludox, they do not have a hydric deficit. The content of organic matter

is low or very low, the humic layers are thin and the pH is acidic. All of these characteristics

put together make their utilization difficult.

mE CONSEQUENCES OF LAND USE AND CULTWATION

These landscapes, relatively extensive in the sector studied, are generally near wide valleys.

Along the valleys which were the first lines of settlement, these landscapes have heen occupied

since ancient times. In these valleys, subject to regular flooding, other types of soils and others

modes of land use exist which have not heen studied here. This is a sector which is still

sparsely populated (Iess than 30 to 50 people per kJn2). Population density tends to increase

near the transmigration centers and along the principle lines of communication (Muara Enim

Prabumulih, Prabumulih-Baturaja,etc.).

11

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMEHl' 11

Land use can be broken down into two categories. The first is the family type, sometimes

including plantations covering rather vast areas, the second is the large industrial plantation type.

At the village level, we remark in addition to food crops, plantations of fruit trees, pineapple

and rubber or Jungle Rubher (photo 2). The family plantations, whatever their size, generally

are Jocated along the roads. Aside from these, vast areas are cleared to pJant mainly Jarge

rubher and oil palm plantations (photo 3). Outside of the cultivated zones there exist large

expanses covered with lmperata whieh are regions that were formerly cultivated, sometimes

recentJy.The saJvage of this Jand, chemicallyvery poor, is a major probJem. Nevertheless,certain

agro-industrial plantations are doing just that.

Despite the slight sJopes, field observations confirmed the reality of erosion risk in such

landscapes, whatever the type of cultivation, be it familial or industrial. It is due to a great

extent to the thinness of the humic layer whieh disappears very rapidly following planting,

especially if the buming of vegetational debris is a cornmon practice. The disappearance of

humie Jayers accelerates the appearance of rill or gully erosion, ail the more marked if soil

coyer is limited and discontinuous(photo 2). Ali the same, even with relativelydense soil coyer,

this rill erosion sets in as soon as the first traces of topsoil loss appear. In the zones of slope

breaks, one also observes a few landslides as Photo 3 shows. These forms of erosion are

particularly marked in pedological covers of the oxisols type and especially ultisols type in whieh

the texturaJ differences are sometimes quite pronounced.

Jt is actually at the Jevel of texturaI differences that the process of erosion preferentially

begins. The marks of erosion are perhaps less visible on inceptisols whieh possess thieker and

chemically richer humie JeveJs. However, they are also very sensitive to erosion if the cultivation

techniques used do not attempt to conserve as much as possible the organic layer of soil. In

zones with marked slopes, following recent clearing, under somewhat dense village food and tree

crop plantations whieh reproduce relativelycontinuous vegetationalcover, the erosion that occurs

is mainJy sheet erosion. It provokes the uncoveringof roots and dead vegetationaldebris present

at the surface of the soil and the appearance of irregular soil roughness. Traces of particle

transport (zones of departure and deposit) are also very clearly observable (photo 1). On these

sJopes one can aJso observe several smaIJ landslides.

2.2. In hill landscapes

In the general presentation of morphopedologieal landscapes, in order to follow the

geological division of space, hills strictly derived from recent volcanie matter have been

differentiated from hills formed from varied nonvolcanie geoJogicaJ matter. A more precise

pedological analysis illuminates the similarities of the soils present in these two landscapes whieh

aJso have similar landforms. They will therefore he presented together.

In the majorityof cases, the cases of hills having height differences of less than 300 mare

distributed at random between the links of a dendritie hydrographie network. In a few rare


places, however, one can observe a tendency towards the alignment of these hilly landforms. In

ail cases, the value of the slopes is never inferior to 15%. Field observations have shown that

they are generally situated around 30%. The forms are of a very clear convex type at the

summit of the inter-river uplands while many sIopes have a more rectilinear landfonn.

THE SOILS

This unity,derived from varied geological material, has rather great homogeneityconceming

the soils. With reference to the Soil Taxonomy, they can be classified among two large groups:

• Inceptisols

• Ultisols

Each is as fTequently encountered as the other. Contrary to the plains landscapes, it must

be noted that in the hills there is more soil diversity among these two groups.

Among the Inceptisols, it is necessary to note the presence of:

- Dystropepts, the most abundant,

- Tropaquepts, the least abundant.

Dystropepts and Tropaquepts have already been defined in the study of plains landscapes.

- Humitropepts, of moderate abundance,

- Eutropepts, notably less abundant.

Among the Ultisols:

- Hapludults, rather frequently encountered, which have also been described in the plains

landscapes.

- Haplohumults, rarer,

- Rhodudults, also rather infrequentlyencountered.

Only the Humitropepts, Eutropepts, Haplohumults and Rhodudults will be presented here.

Inceptisols

The inceptisols of these regions are practicallyall Tropepts, rather characteristic inceptisols

of the hilly landforms of tropical regions. When amorphous materials (or allophanes) are present

in the fine part of the soil, they are never in the majority. Unaltered volcanic matter can also

be present in the soils, but in reduced quantities.

- Eutropepts are soils, often of limited thickness, which high basic saturation either due to the

moderate alteration of primary mineraIs or to the arrivaI of cations coming from higher layers.

The COlOT of these soils is rather dull (beige-brown). They were called lithosols or gray brown

podzolic soils.

SOll CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMEm' 13

- Humitropepts, formerly cal1ed humic latosols, are characterized by their high organic content.

Both in humid zones and in altitude zones, they appear fresher. The saturation ratio of these

soils is often fairly low. The minerallayers are of a reddish beige or yel10wish beige COlOT.

Ultisols

The first type of ultisols are classified among the Humults, soils rich in humic matter and

having a dark color. Cultivation without precautions often provokes the more or less complete

disappearanceof the humic layers and brings the clayeyaccumulationlayer closer to the surface,

which can have important consequences for erosion.

- Haplohumults are Humults which contain alterable mineraIs, general1y of slight thickness in

the clayey accumulation layer. Organic content is high. The non organic layers are reddish brown

or yellowish brown. These colors formerly gave it the name reddish and yellowish brown lateritic

soils.

The second type of ultisols are classified among the Udults, soils with lightly colored surface

layers poor in organic matter. Their characteristics limit cultivation to a short period (where

there is no fertilizer use), followed by long fallow periods in order to rebuild the nutritive stock.

- Rhodudults are generally well-drained soils poor in organic matter and characterized by the

inte!1se coloration of the minerai layer. The clayey accumulation layer is general1y deep red. It

can contain sorne alterable minerais. The humic layer is rather thin. In the former classification

systems, these were called reddish brown lateritic soils.

Ali these soils, with the exception of the tropaquepts, are found on the summits and slopes

of interfluvial areas. Most of them have sorne potential due to either the presence of large

quantities of organic matter, the presence of alterable minerais, or both. The ultisols found in

hilly regions do not have very marked texturai differentiation. However, if they are found on

steep slopes, they pose problems for cultivation.

CONSEQUENCES OF LAND USE AND CULTWATION

Hilly landscapes have been occupied for quite sometime, either in intermittent or continuous

fashion along the lines of penetration. We are witness to major spatial colonization, and

population density, which is not yet excessive, ranges between 50 and 100 people per km2•

Deforestation is a major problem. It affects mainly the zones that have already been transformed

to secondary forest.

Family-typeland use predominates.The main crop is coffee. In addition, there are of course

food crops (rice, either dry or valley type) and fruit trees (banana, durian and others). Truck

farming is also practiced (with beans, peppers, and other crops). The soils, as noted, have rather

interesting chemical and morphological characteristics,with however the limiting factor of slope.

SOIL COf'lSI!RVA1l0f'l AND RURAL MANAGEMENI' 14

Cultivationwithout taking the necessary precautionscan have important consequencesfor erosion.

Photo 4 iIIustrates the dangers of gully erosion when the humic layers of a ultisol have

disappeared in old coffee plantations (perhaps following too-frequent or too-deep weedings). This

happens despite soil cover that is still significant. As the soil loses fertility, the density of coffee

trees decreases and this provokes increased erosion. Photos 5 and 6 also show that inceptisols

are not free from serious erosion risk after clearing and planting. These images reveal the

existence of two processes, landslide and gully erosion.

2.3. Volcanic Landscapes

This is a complex landscape, covering a large area (40% of the study area), which includes

recent volcaniccones, "plateaus"and oIder volcaniccones. These are two very different landfonns

which are olten related. The old or new vo1canic edifices are characterized by steep slopes

ranging from 15/20% at the foot of the volcanoes, to 20-60nO on the slopes. Approachingthe

summits, slopes are always greater than 30/40%. On the plateaus, on the other hand, the overall

slope is much less, from a few percent to 15/25%. The connection between the rim of the

plateaus and the valleys is made by rectilinear or slightly convex and concave slopes that are

rather irregular and have steep or very steep slopes. While plateau soils are sometimes similar

to those found on young volcanic cones, the soils of old volcanic cones are quite different from

those of younger volcanic cones, despite the similarity in fonn.

SOILS

To this landscape is associated a great variety of soils. Many of them have already been

observed in the preceding landscapes, but a group of special soils must be treated here. This

is a particular group of inceptisols, the Andepts. Another group is also observed for the first

rime, the Orthents. Among the oxisols, we must note the presence of Kandiudox.

Inceptisols:

Ali the groups of inceptisols observed in the preceding landscapes are represented

(humitropepts, eutropepts, dystropepts, tropaquepts). The Andepts group and especially the

dystrandepts subgroup are added here. These soils have been called andosols. Now they are

classified among the Andisols (dystric haplustands). However, for reasons of unifonnityit seems

logical to keep to the tenninology used by the LREP in its various documents.

Dystrandepts and aIl the andepts are characteristic soils of young volcanic regions under

conditions of wann climate, constant humidity and limited sunshine. Under these conditions,

volcanic products, especially volcanic glass, are rapidly altered and transfonned into allophanes.

Allophaneshave special qualities including very strong water, phosphorus and nutriment retention


properties. However, these properties disappear if the pedoclimatic conditions change, especially

in the direction of higher temperatures and lower humidity. When these changes occur, they are

irreversible. This is therefore an important factor to take into consideration when planning

development.

These are soils with apparently low density «0.85) and which contain high quantities of

allophanes. The very thick (about one meter or more) humic layers are also very rich in organic

matter. Their color is almost black. The mineraI layers have brown or reddish brown colors.

Exchange capacity is particularly high. Ali the same, the pH is acid or very acid which

sometimes poses the danger of aluminum toxicity for soils having the lowest pH values. Rich

in carbon, dystrandepts are often poor in bases, but they possess a very high fixation rate,

especially for phosphorus. Permeability is high and thus limits the risks of runoff.

Andisols are generally reputed for their fertility. A certain numher of limits are perceived,

however, for dystrandepts (acidic or very acidic pH with risks of aluminum toxicity, poor

nutriment reserves). Yet, other characteristics compensate for these limits (very thiclç humic

layers, very rich in organic matter, very good permeability,strong retention capacity for water,

phosphorus and other nutriments, very high exchange capacity).To thÎs may he added their very

high resistance to erosion.

Entisols:

The term cornes from the English word "recent"and denotes soils which are characterized

by weak differentiation hetween pedological layers. These are often "young"soils in which the

structures of the original geological material are still recognizable. In this landscape they

represented by the Troporthentr,frequently encountered in recent and accentuated erosion zones.

They are found on material that is more or less acid and always recent. They are very similar

to lithosols or regosols (very thin soils in which rock is predominant). The use and cultivation

of this type of soil is limited, due to their slight or very slight thickness and their strong

susceptibility to erosion.

Oxisols:

Besides the hapludox,already described above, there is a new type of oxisol, the Kandiudox.

These are oxisols with high clay content (more than 40%) from the surface down. The effective

exchange capacity is very weak. Clay content increases progressively with depth, but there is no

clay accumulation "sump.wrhese are soils which have low chemical potential and need fertilizer

application. The high clay content can also pose sorne problems when the land is cultivated

(increased risk of packing down, reduced permeability,which can he at the origin of runoff and

gully erosion), especially if the top humic layer has disappeared.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMEl'n' 16

mE CONSEQUENCES OF LAND USE AND CUL17VAl1ON

Volcanic landscapes reveal the existence of long occupation, but presents the colonization

of these areas with their steep relief bas been intensifying.The current population density varies

between 50 and 100 per km2 (ncar Danau Ranau). It couId still inerease, as bas been observed

in Lampung. This sbarp population increase wu of course accompanied by major deforestation.

Legitimate fears have been raised conceming the desirability of cultivating these hills. AU the

same, these fcars can he largely tempered by taking inta account the nature of the soils.

Deforestation is mainly caused by indigenous people and spontaneousmigrants. Familial land

use predominatesin this region. The main crop is coffee. In many cases, however,coffee is not

planted in pure stands but is accompanied by fruit trees (mainly durian) and, of course, sbade

trees which contribute to protecting the soil surface. In addition to coffee, clove, cinnamon, and

banana trees and many food crops (dry rice, vegetables,higb altitude irrigated rice; sec Photos

11-14, 17-18) are also cultivated.

Before analyzing the effects of land use in this zone, it appears necessary ta distinguisb

between two main types of landscape, that directly linked to recent volcanism and that dependent

on older volcanism. The main types of soils can then he put into these two landscapes (Figure

2 and 3). It sbould he noted, however, that in ail these volcanic landscapes field observations

have shown that the dominant form of erosion is landslide. Guily erosion is rare, found mainly

on land made bare by landslide.

- On old volcanic 14ndfonns very steep slopes are cleared and cultivated (photos 7-10).

Depending on the type of soil, the history of cultivation on the site, and the techniques used,

consequences can he quite different (fig. 2)

sIopes -pentes : fiO.9O%soils • sols : dystropepIs.humitropepts. eutropepts. ullisolspholograp/ls -photos : 7.8.9. 10

1 ~

VOLCANIC PLATEAUPLA TEAU VOLCAN/OUE

OlD VOlCANOEANCIEN VOt.CAN

-: sIopes - pentessoils - sols

: > 10%; 60-70%: al the junclion Wllh valleys - raccord avec les vaO,jes: dystrandepls. dystropepls.humilropepts

tropaquents (' in the valleys - dans /es vallées)oxisols. uIlisoIs ( no! very irr1poI1ant - moins bien œpresentëS)

:11.12 1

agb/jz-1991

Fig. 2 LANDSCAPE CROSS SEcnON OF VOLCANlC PLATEA~S AND OLD VOLeANOESCOUPE SCHEMA nOUE DU PA YSAGE DE PLATEAUX VOLCANIOUES ET D'ANCIENS VOLCANS

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMENI' 17

1

Photo 7 shows an important landslide on a steep slope (50-60%), under an old coffee plantation.

The plantation was quite varied, associating coffee, shade trees, durian and sorne other fruit

trees. The degree of soil coyer is high but does not exceed 60%, based on estimates it is

possible to make from photographs. The soils are dystropepts and ultisols. The humic layer is

thin. Besides the landslide there is clear gully erosion. As in the hilly landscapes, with similar

soils and slopes, the risks of erosion are high, despite a rather dense vegetational coyer. The

thin humic layer which even disappears in spots is· perhaps due to careless cultivation praetices

or overextendedcultivation.

Photo 8 shows recent land clearing in a zone of secondary forest on a very steep slope (70

90%). The clearing is limited. The soils are inceptisols (eutropepts, humitropepts) associated with

rocky outcrops, but there are no andosols. The humic layers are relatively thick. Following the

clearing, there was a first rice crop, and the stalks were used to coyer the soil and proteet weIl

against erosion during the rainy season. Young coffee trees are already in the ground. Below

the young plants, several rocks are placed in a semicircle in order to artificially create a flatter

area where vegetable debris and transported particles can accumulate, thus preventing root

exposure at the base of the plants. Apparently, despite the steep slope, erosion is not very

active. Nevertheless, more detailed analysis (photo 9) reveals the presence of rill erosion which

increases the irregularity of soil roughness, despite the soil protection and the recent date of

clearing (one year ago). From this example, one should keep in mind the very slight erosion.

Thi~ is principally due to the presence of thick humic layers and certain very simple cultural

practices for the protection of the soil surface, at least during the rainy season.

In another case where soil and slope were identical to the above, but where the humic layer

had completelydisappeared, either hecause it was thin to start with due to a short fallow period,

or because it was camed away by runoff on subverticle slopes, the marks of erosion are

significant with ravines and exposure of coffee trees, which here are three years of age (photo

10)

- On the very steep slopes which provide the transition trom volcanic plateaus to the valleys that

run through them, landslides are quite frequent (photos 11-12). They occur almost exclusively

at the slope break. Because of this, their impact is limited but should not he discounted. These

plateaus are generally covered by inceptisols (dystropepts, dystrandepts, humitropepts), soils

having good agricultural potential and heing hardly susceptible to erosion, except at the slope

break. Susceptibilityto erosion declines as the humic layer increases in thickness and the andic

characteristicsare more marked. These inceptisols are associated with oxisols and ultisols, having

much less resistance to erosion (little or no humic layer, wide texturaI differentiation, slight

water retention capacity).

1 SOIL CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMENT 18

- Landscapes of young vo/canoes:

The s10pes of volcanicedifices (Gunung Raya, 1643 m; G. Pesagi, 2232 m; G. Sigugut, 1779 m;

G. Nanti, 1618 m; G. Seminung,I881 m) are intensivelycultivated. They are charaeterized by

steep and even very steep s10pes (~70%), and soils with very marked andic charaeteristics, the

dystrandepts (andosols). Photos 13 and 14 reveal the almost total absence of erosion on these

s1opes, even when they are almost completelycleared and planted. Smallholder coffee and food

crop plantation are the main forms of agriculture present. A correlation between the nature of

the soil and the absence of erosion is necessary.1bese andisols which possess very thick organic

layers (one meter or more), good penneability and strong water retention capacity seem

praetically immune to erosion despite the very steep s10pes and the absence of any antierosive

practices, aside from the use of tree trunks eut down during the clearing stage (photo 19). It

is frequently noticed tbat food crops are planted with the s10pe (photo 14). This praetice is a

way of figbting against diseases which appear during the rainy season when the soils are

drenched with water,accordingto Dr. Sukardi (personal communication).Plantingwith the s10pe

facilitates surface drainage and evacuates the surplus water rapidly.lt is interesting to note that

this praetice does not cause any gully erosion. This procedure also prevents rapid saturation of

humic and lower layers thus avoiding heavy percolation that could lead to massive landslide (fig.

3).

slc4Jes -pentessoifs· solspholograp/ls -photos

! :

sIopes -pentes :30 - 90 0/.soils • sols : IJopor1hents

1 1; 1

1

STRATO VOLCANOESTRATO VOLCAN

30-90%dyslrandepls, dystropepts, humrtropepls11,12.13.14

slopes - pentes : > 15 %soiIs - sols : dystropepls

~ents ( in the valleys - dans les vallées')o.iSols. uttisols ( no! very important - moins bien repmsentés)

1•

agbljl-t991

Fig. 3· LANDSCAPE CROSS SEcnON OF STRATO VOLCANOESCOUPE SCHEMAnoUE DES PA YSAGES DE VOLCANS RECENTS ( STRA TO VOLCAN)

SOIL CONSERVAnON AND RURAL MANAGEMEIn' 19

3. RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1. Plains Landscapes

In these plains landscapes where gully erosion dominates despite the slight or moderate

slopes, cultivation can therefore have grave consequences if a certain numher of precautions are

not taken and principles adhered to.

- The maintenance of a humic layer on the soil surface is indispensable. In fact, all the field

observationsrevealed the close relationshipwhich exists hetween the presence of this humic layer

and the degree of gully erosion. This maintenance implies not only clearings without buming,

which is contrary to local customs, and without brutal uprooting of trees, but also refraining

from buming crop residues hefore a new planting. It is advised to bury organic residues. For

ultisols, adherence to this principle is even more important than it is for other types of soils

due to their very thin topsoil layers and their fragility, which is accentuated by the texturaI

differentiation of this type of soil. Packing down of surface layers due to the use of heavy

agricultural machinery is also to he avoided.

- Classical anti-erosive agricultural techniques should he used (development of terraces,

altemating strips, etc.).

- Almost all of these soils are extremelypoor chemically.They are characterized by low or very

low pH values and by a very low capacity of cationic exchange. That implies the need for

enriching agents in order to bring up the pH values and frequent application of fertilizers due

to the very good perrneability and the poor water retention capability of these soils. To this

must he added a judicious choice of crops in order to put their low potential to the best use

(this means the choice of varieties adapted to acidityor not too demanding of nutriments). This

also means there is a need for preliminary economic studies in order to deterrnine the degree

of profitabilityof the projected development and the agricultural techniques to he used.

- In the relationship hetween environmental conservation and population density, it is evident

that such landscapes will not support heavy demographic overload in the traditional production

systems. The situation is different in the large irrigated perimeters of the Transmigration.

Massive investments are injected in order to completely modify the landscape and artificially

create a new type of soil to support the higher population densities. Conversely, low oost

extensiveexploitation,of the "JungleRubher"type, to the extent that it allows for the installation

of much secondary vegetation providing good coyer of the soil surface, does not cause too much

degradation in these landscapes, so long as the quantity, the area, and the location of these


plantations are controlled. As for industrial plantations, it is necessary to recreate, as rapidly as

possible, a continuous coyer of the soi! surface, in order to Iimit as much as possible the ever

present risks of erosion (see Photo 3). Techniques of land clearing are often too brutal to

preserve the conservation of superficial layers.

These landscapes of chemically poor pedological cover, of low potentiality,and of moderate

or slight slope, are landscapes having high risks of erosion. They do not seem apt to support

high pOpulation densities without major anti-erosive measures, which would naturally rule out

any intensive use of the soil. The techniques of cultivation,as weil as the area, the numher and

the locations of the zones to he cleared must he the subject of precise recommendations and

continued study of landscape evolution.

3.2. Hilly landscapes

In the hilly landscapes, as in the plains, a number of precautions must he taken when

slopes are heing developed. These precautions concem both the conservation of soi! potential

and the prevention of erosion. It is therefore necessary:

- to preserve the humic layers as much as possible (avoid buming off ground coyer and

removing topsoil through deep and repeated weeding).

- implement antierosive techniques such as the construction of terraces (photo 16), the use of

residues from weeding in summit zones with slight slope (photo 17), which is sometimes done

spontaneously.

- Iimit the current population density and control the number of new clearings, their location

and their area.

The principles and the precautions suggested are thus similar to those proposed for the

plains. Here, however, the population density factor is much more important. In these regions,

where soils have many characteristics that are favorable for agriculture, the relationship hetween

population density/risk of soil impoverishment and erosion is especially important as Photos 4,

5 and 6 illustrate.

3.3. Volcanic landscapes

ON THE OW VOLCANIC lANDFORMS

Photos 7-10 iIIustrate c1early enough the risks of erosion in this type of landscape and the

necessity of carrying out certain antierosive techniques. Nevertheless, it also appears that on

slopes as steep as these, the investments that must he made in time and money are extremely


high. The cost is clearly more than the financial means of the indigenous people or the

spontaneous migrants. It would seem indispensable to avoid land clearing on sharp slopes with

inceptisols, of eutropepts and humitropepts type. We have already underlined the danger

presented by cultivation without precautions heing taken on these soils in hilly regions (photos

5-6). If cultivationis unavoidable,it must he limited as much as possible in numher and in area.

The inhabitants of this region are currently practicing forms of agriculture that demand the least

effort and the least expense. FoIlowing the clearing, rice is cultivated for two years (with a

spectacular drop in yield after the first year), without any fertilizer application. The coffee is

planted at the same time in association with many other trees (durian, jackfruit, pete, rubher

and others). The growth of aIl these trees is very irregular. The coffee trees produce from the

third year on with a maximum level of production during the 4th and 5th yeaTS. As early as

the 6th year, the plantation is abandoned as coffee yield becomes insufficient. The fruit trees

then become the most profitable. In fact, this is a sort of gamble. If the slope is not carried

away by landslide, if the coffee plants can take root hefore heing exposed and uprooted, one

can, after three years, eam enough to compensate the years of waiting. Otherwise, there is

nothing else to do except look for another plot of land. If we refer to Photo 10, it appears

clear that this type of land use does almost irremediable damage to the soils. The period

necessary for reconstituting the top humie layers is extremely long. This blow to the environment

will he ail the more catastrophie as population density increases since this means the shortening

of "waiting periods." ln such regions, despite the satisfactory soil potential, land use must he

absolutely controlled, or even prohibited, especially when the practiees are so expeditious.

ON mE STEEP SLOPES WH/CH CONNECT VOLCAN/C PLATEAUS AND VALLEYS

For ail of these landscapes whieh present much similarity with volcanic hill landscapes, the

preceding remarks apply without restriction.

ON mE STEEP SLOPES OF YOUNG VOLCANOES

The characteristicsof soils in the stratovoJcaniclandscapes are therefore extremelyinteresting

from the point of view of agricultural development. In regions where the soils possess clear

agriculturaJ potential and would not seem to need costly antierosivesystems, it is stilllogical to

consider using them, despite the steep slopes. AIso, steep spatial occupation appears possible,

as field observations have shown. It should he rememhered, however, that this soil must remain

in pedoclimatic conditions that correspond closely with their natural balance; otherwise,

irreversible transformations can effect their agronomie potential and their resistance to erosion

(disappearance of allophanes,loss of water retention capability,decrease in organic content, for

example). Consequently, excessive clearing whieh runs the risk of modifying the current local

pedoclimatic status (temperature rise and drop in soil humidity) are to he avoided. The

modifications which total deforestation could force on this environment are still poorly

understood. Nevertheless, field observations suggest that these soils can he used, but only under

certain conditions whieh only a specific and more detailed study could identify. Such a study

would have to he based on continuous observation of representative slopes with systematic


measurements taken of erosion as functions of various agricultural systems which could be

implemented.

Selected Bibliography

1 - Soil Taxonomy- 1975 - A basic system of soil classification for makingand interpretingsoil

surveys. Soil conservation service, USDA, Agriculture handbook No. 436, 754 pp.

2 - Keys to Soil Taxonomy - 1990 - SMSS Technical Monograph No. 19, Fourth Edition, 420

pp.

3 - Explanatorysoil map of the Baturaja sheet, Lahat and Bengkulu sheets, Sumatera, - Printing

under process. LREP (Land Resource Evaluation and Planning Project), Soil data base

management. Center for Soil Research, Agency for Agricultural Research and Development.

4 - KOOIMAN (A) - 1987 - "The factor C," Relations between land coyer and land use and

aspect of soil erosion especially for the upper Komering catchment, South Sumatra, Indonesia.

rrc, Rural and Land ecology course, Enschede (The Netherlands), VI, 122 pp.


Definitions

Exchongeable acidity: determination of the quantities of exchangeable aluminum and of

exchangeablehydrogen. This value is used for the identificationof the effective cations exchange

capacity (ECEC) of a soil, a horizon (layer).

Effective cations exchonge capacity (ECEC), or Permanent chorge (PC): measure of the total

quantity of cations (CA ++, Mg++, K+, Na+, AI+++, H+) or S+AI++++H) of a soil, a layer.

Saturation Ratio (S/T): This ratio shows the chemical fertility of the soil. This fertility

determines the biological activity,the qualityof the structure, the reserves of fertilizing elements,

etc.).

Exchongeablecations, or Exchangeablebases: These are the cations Ca, Mg, K, and Na existing

in the soil and absorbed on the surface of clays and easily available to the plants.

Sum of bases (S): This is the sum of the exchangeable bases.

Cations exchonge capacity (CEC, or T): This is the total quantityof cations that the soil can

retain on its base exchange complex at a defined pH.

Absorbingcomplex (base exchonge complex): Phyllite (clays, allophanes, silt loam) and organic

matter, negativelycharged on the surface, fix temporarily the cations existing in the soil solution.

These cations can become free again in the soil solution; they are called "exchangeable."

pH: shows the H+ concentration of a solution. The soil solution is obtained by shaking soil and

distilled water. The pH values are hetween 0 and 14. Values <7 indicate acidity, values >7

basicity.

Soil moisture regime: refers to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held

at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (15 bars). Water held at a tension of 1500 kPa or more is

not available to keep most plants alive. We consider a horizon (layer) to he dry when the

moisture tension is 1500 kPa or more, if the water is held at a tension less than 1500 kPa but

more than 0, we consider the layer to he moist. Three main types exist in this area:

- Aquic moisture regime. Implies a reducing regime and the soil is continuouslywater saturated.

- Udic moisture regime. Soils with an udic moisture regime are moist during the most important

part of the year; The water moves through the soil in aH months and induces the leaching of

cations such as Ca, K, Mg, Na and others.

- Ustic moisture regime. Soils with this moisture regime are not leached. The water moves

through the soil during the wet season. During the dry season, the evapotranspirationis higher


than the water quantity in the soil and sorne parts of the soil are dry. Sorne elements are

settled.

Allophanes:These result from the weathering in a humid c1imate of volcanic material (volcanic

glass, vitric volcanic ashes and other pyroclastic materials). Allophanes are sometimes included

in the term "amOlphousmaterial."These allophanes have high or very high exchange capacity.

The values are c1early pH-induced. They also have high anio-exchange capacity. They have

enormous surface area and retain much water against 1500 kPa, commonly 50 or 100% or more.

Soils with allophanes have very low bulk density «0.85).

Texture: This concept is directly connected with the idea of granulometric composition and

granulometric classes. The texture shows the value of different classes of particle size existing

in the soil. Five classes exist: clay (O-2I1m), fine loam (2-20 IJ.m), coarse loam (20-50 I1m), fine

sand (50-200 IJ.m) and coarse sand «200-2000 IJ.m). This concept is essential, especiallythe clay

ratio. The c1ays are associated with organic matter and/or iron, and are responsible for

aggregates cohesion, holding water, cations and anions. Generally, the results are expressed by

way of a texturai triangle.

SOIL CONSERVA110N AND RURAL MANAGEMENT 25

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third part

PHOTOGRAPHS

SOIt CONSERVATION AND RURAL MANAGEMEl'IT

~ 'JI>.. _ -=.Nor1h of the Ogan River . Nord de la rivière Ogan, Kecamatan Pengandonan

1. Hillside suffering : following clearing to plant, sheet erosion under treeand food crop , evidence of erosion around roots andof topsoil, transportof fine particles and depos~. Inceptisols, slight slopes (10-15%) -Erosionsuperlicielle en nappe sous pantation arbustive et vivrière hètérogèneaprès délrichement récent, déchaussement des racines et des matériauxde sur/ace,transport de particules lines et dépât.lnceptisols, laiblespentes (10-15 % ).

2. Guily erosion in plantation partiaJ/y covered w~h pineapple. Oxisols.gently slopes (10-15 %). - Erosion ravinante dans pantationclairsemée d'ananas. Oxisols, laibles pentes (10-15%)

3. Ravine and beginning of landslide process al lhe slope break in a young oiJ-palm plantation desp~e dense cover vegetation. Oxisols of a genllysloping plain. slope <10%.• Ravine et début d'éboulement au niveau d'une rupture de pente dans une jeune pantation de palmiers à huile malgré uncouvert végétal assez dense. Oxisols, région de paine, pentes < 10%.

Road lram Prabumulih to Batufaja - Route de Prabumulih ê\ 8aturaja. Kecamaran Rambang 1Lubai.Peninjauan

4. Ravine caused by erosion of oxiso/s wilhout apparent humiclayer: old coHee plantation, broken soil cover, plane convex land·

form, gentle slopes (10'15%) _Erosion ravinante sur oxisols sanshorizon humifère apparent .. vieille caféière, recouvrement du soldiscontinu, modelé plan convexe, faibles pentes (10-15%),

Sukorejo - Sukorejo Kecamalan Pengandonan

5. Guily erosion following the disappearan<:e of topsoil ; inceptisolsoxisols, average slopes (20-25%) -Installation d'une érosion ravnanreaprés disparition des horizons de surface .. inceptisols-oxisols, pentesmoyennes ( 20-25%)

6. Landslide and ravine formation; young coHee plantation, recent clearing, average slope (25-35%) - Loupes de glissement et ravinement .. jeuneplantation de café, défrichement récent, pentes moyennes ( 25-35% )

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7. Ravine formation and landslide which has carried away ccHee and shade trees despitedense soil cover ; ultisols derived from volcanic rocks, sleep slopes (40-50%) •Ravinement et glissement de terrain ayant emporté caféiers et arbres d'ombre malgréune couverture du sol importf}J)te ; ultisols dérivés de roches volcaniques, pentes fortes(40-50%)

8. An example of a recent clearing in very sleep volcanic regions (80-90%) ; absence of marked erosion. inceptisols with lhick humic layerassocialed wilh rocky outcrops. Note lhe fence prolecting againsl wild animais - Un exemple de défrichement récent dans des régionsvolcaniques à trés fortes pentes (80-90%) ; absence d'érosion marquée, ince,xisols à horizon huml1ére épais, associés à des affleurementsrocheux. Noter la cloture de protection pour les animaux sauvages.

West bank of Ihe Ogan River. rive droite de la riv. Ogan. Pedataran, Kecamatan Peng~ndonan

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11 § 12. Deeply dissected plaleau landscape 01 volcanic origin, valley f100r occupied byrice fields and selliements, steep valley slopes (60-70%) are cu~ivated ; landslide onplateau edge is the predominant lorm of erosion of the andic soilswhich have a thin humiclayer - Paysage de plateau d'origine volcanique profondément entaillé, fond de vallée

occupé par les rizières et les habitations, versant à très fortes pentes (60-70%) portantcultures et plantations; au n ileau des rebords de plateaux, glissement de terrain: lormedérosion prédominante dans des sols à caractère andique et à couche humifère /imitée.

...j._~s~,,~~tJE..:A.""'''''''''ln the Danau Ranau region, the slopes of th e Gunung Raya (1643 ml . Région du Danau Ranau, penres du Gunung Raya (1 643m) , Kec.Banding Agung

13. Large clearings at high ahrtude in a young volcanic landscape near the Barisan Range: young coffee plants. burned out trees Irunks.remain of a former forest, a small hut in the middle of a plantaliori. These sleep slopes rich in andosols show no evidence of erosion .Délrichements importants en altitude dans un paysage volcanique récent de la chaine des Barisan; jeunes caléiers, restes de troncsd'arbres brulés de la lorêt pré-existante, construction légère du panteur au milieu de son champ. Sur ces pentes lortes à andosols,absence de traces d'érosion visibles.

14. In a similarlandscape of the Barisan Range, these very steep slopes (30-60%) rich in andosols with a thick humic layer, show fewIraces of erosion desprte intense agricuhural cuhivation intersperced whh rows of vegetables, lines of coHee plants are grown at rightangles ta the slope of the hill ( as seen in the leh corner of the photo). Bananas trees. shade trees and a few fruh trees can also be seen. Dans un paysage semblable (chaÎne des Barisan), sur des pentes très lortes (30-60%) portant des andosols aux horizons humifèresépais, les traces d'érosion sont pratiquement absentes malgré l'intensité de la mise en valeur agricole: caléiers pantés en ligne enassociation avec des légumes cultivés sur des banquettes paeées à intervalles réguliers dans le sens contraire de la pente (à gauche de laphoto), bananiers, arbres d'ombre et quelques arbres Iruitiers.

CULTIVATION PRACTICES AND ANTI-EROSION SYSTEMS - PRATIQUES CULTURALES ET SYSTEMES ANTl-EROSIFS.

15. Weeding a young coHee plantation and placing the organic debris across the slope to Iim~ runoH. Gently sloping landscape in a hillyvolcanic region - Sarclage cfune jeune plantation de caléiers av~ disposition des débris vegétaux selon les courbes de niveaux pour limiterles effets du ruissellement. Paysage coflinaire en region vofcanique. pentes laibles.

16. Terracing of a convex moderally sloping valley slope in a landscape w~h a high risk of erosion (see Pholo 4): coHee planted undershade trees. the laMer supporting pepper vines - FEÇonnement en teflasses cfun versant convexe à pente modérée dans un paysage àrisque cférosion élevée (cl.cliché 4) ; plantation de caleiers sous ombriére, les arbres cfombre servant de support à des poivriers.

Region of Oanau Ranau - Région du Danau Ranau, Kecamatan Banding Agung

17. Use of felled Irunks as rudimentary protection against erosion on steep slopes : andosols (see Photos 13 and 14) . Utilisation des troncsabaltus comme protection élémentaire contre l'érosion sur de fortes pentes .. andosols (cf. clichés 13 et 14).

18. Hillside of terraced rice fields developed by Javanese under the supervision of the Department of Public Works. near Danau Ranau in aregion where this technique is uncommon. S1eep slopes, andosols (see Photos 13 and 14) . Découpage dun versant en riziéres étagées, ledécoupage réalisé par des javanais sous fe contrôle des Travaux Publics, à proximité du DanBU Ranau dans une région où celte techniqueest inhabituelle, Fortes pentes, andosols (cf. clichés 13 et 14 ).

Region of Oanau Ranau . Rëgion du Danau Ranau. Kecamatan Banding Agung

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