Unit 4 THE NEW REPUBLIC

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Chapter 8 REPUBLICAN ASCENDENCY: THE JEFFERSONIAN VISION

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Republican Identities In a New Republic

• An age of rapid population growth• 7.2 million in 1810; 2 million more than in 1800• 20% black slaves• Children under sixteen the largest single group

• Strong regional identities facilitated by transportation improvements and motivated by defensiveness

• Early secession movements threatened national unity

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North America in 1800

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Native American Resistance• Settlers bought land fraudulently

• Native Americans resisted• Tecumseh led Shawnee; defeated in War

of 1812• Creek defeated by Andrew Jackson at

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

• Jefferson wanted Native Americans moved west of Mississippi and to become yeoman farmers with help of federal Indian agents

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Commercial Life in the Cities

• U.S. economy based on agriculture and trade (84% of population in agriculture)

• American shipping prospered, 1793–1807

• Commerce preferred, manufacturing seen as too risky• Samuel Slater an exception - invented

the cotton mill

• Industrialization and mechanization just beginning to frighten skilled craftsmen• Why? 6

Jefferson as President• Jefferson’s personal style

• Despised ceremonies and formality• Dedicated to intellectual pursuits

• Jefferson’s goals as president• Reduce size and cost of government• Repeal Federalist legislation like the Sedition Act• Keep U.S. out of war

• REFORMS:• Cutting federal debt a priority

• Tax system re-structured, direct taxes eliminated, federal revenue from customs

• Military cut substantially

• Federalists fell apart!

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The Louisiana Purchase• Spain gave Louisiana to France, New

Orleans closed to American ships

• Jefferson saw New Orleans as vital to U.S.• Sent James Monroe to negotiate its purchase

• Importance: it would help make America a first-rank power

• Constitution vague on power to acquire land inhabited by foreigners

• Louisiana’s French and Spanish inhabitants unfamiliar with Republican principles

• Louisiana Government Act denied Louisiana self-rule• Another Jeffersonian departure from Republicanism

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The Lewis and Clark Expedition

• Lewis and Clark Expedition commissioned prior to purchase of Louisiana

• Goal to find if Missouri River goes to Pacific and to explore flora and fauna

• Sacagawea critical in helping expedition deal with nature and Native Americans whom they encountered

• Jefferson receives affirmation!9

Conflict with the Barbary States

• North African states demanded tribute from ships sailing in Mediterranean

• Jefferson refused and dispatched U.S. fleet to intimidate Barbary states

• U.S. finally forced negotiation with a blockade

• Jefferson won re-election overwhelmingly 10

The Election of 1804

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Attack on Judges• Judiciary Act of 1801 - created new circuit courts filled with loyal

Federalists• “Midnight judges”

• 1802—Jeffersonians repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 to abolish courts and save money

• Federalists charged violation of judges’ constitutional right of tenure

• Marbury v. Madison (1803) ruled Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional • Federalist Marbury denied his judgeship• Republicans claimed victory• Chief Justice John Marshall ensured Federalist influence through

JUDICIAL REVIEW

• People becoming concerned over Judicial impeachments

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Marbury v. Madison

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• Why did Jefferson not deliver the commissions?

• Why was the Supreme Court suspended for a year?

• What was John Marshall’s dilemma?

• What was the problem with the writ of mandamus?

• What is Judicial Review? Why is it so important?

The Curious Career of Aaron Burr

• 1804 - Burr sought Federalist support in New York governor’s race • Alexander Hamilton blocked Burr’s efforts

• Burr killed Hamilton in a duel

• Burr fled West after Hamilton duel

• Schemed to invade Spanish territory, separate Louisiana from U.S.

• Burr arrested, tried for treason• Precedent made it difficult for

presidents to use charge of treason as a political tool, especially hearsay and circumstantial evidence

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The Slave Trade• Constitution had said Congress could consider banning

importation of slaves after 1808

• Jefferson asked for and Congress approved such a ban

• Sectional conflict over what to do with captured slaves• Northerners could not agree • Southerners demanded states regulate slavery• Law said states deal with captured smuggled slaves

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Embarrassments Overseas• 1803—England and France resumed war

• American ships subject to seizure

• Chesapeake vs. Leopard: public demanded war

• America ill-prepared for war

• EMBARGO of 1807 – EPIC FAIL• 1807—Congress prohibited U.S. ships from leaving port• Purpose: to win English, French respect for American rights• Embargo unpopular at home

• Detailed government oversight of commerce• Army suppressed smuggling • New England economy damaged

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Election of 1808

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A New Administration Goes to War

• 1808—James Madison elected president

• 1809—Embargo repealed in favor of Non-Intercourse Act• U.S. would resume trade with England and France on

promise to cease seizure of U.S. vessels

• British official promised to comply

• Napoleon promised to observe U.S. rights but reneged when trade re-opened

• Frontier people believed British were encouraging Tecumseh, but he was defeated at Battle of Tippecanoe, forcing him to turn to Britain

• Congressional War Hawks demanded war with England to preserve American honor• British repealed Orders-in-Council as Madison was asking

for declaration of war

• War aims somewhat vague

• Election of 1812 showed division over war

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Henry Clay John C. Calhoun

Election of 1812

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War of 1812• Americans unprepared for war

• Congress refused to raise wartime taxes• New England refused to support war effort • United States Army small• State militias inadequate

• Most attacks against Canada failed

• Two key exceptions in 1813:• Oliver Hazard Perry won control of Great Lakes for U.S. in Battle of

Put-In Bay• William Henry Harrison defeated British and Indians at Battle of

Thames20

Three-Pronged English Attack, 1814 • British invasion of New York from

Canada stopped at Lake Champlain

• Campaign in the Chesapeake• Washington, D.C. burned in retaliation for

American burning of York earlier• Baltimore saved by defense of Fort

McHenry

• Attempt to capture New Orleans thwarted by Andrew Jackson, January - 1815• War already over, communication lag• Gave Americans source of pride• Made Jackson a national hero

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War of 1812

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War Comes to an End• Hartford Convention• Federalists convened in December, 1814• Proposed constitutional changes to lessen power of South and West• Treaty of Ghent, victory of New Orleans made Convention

appear disloyal• Federalist party never recovered

• Treaty of Ghent – December 24, 1814• Most problems left unaddressed• Senate unanimously ratified Treaty of Ghent • Americans portrayed it as victory and it stimulated American

nationalism 23

Republican Legacy• Founders began to pass away in 1820s

• Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both died July 4, 1826

• James Madison died in 1836 despairing that slavery’s continuation undermined legacy of republican egalitarianism of Founders

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CHAPTER 9Nation Building and Nationalism

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Expansion and Migration• American perspective shifted from Europe to West after 1815

• Rush-Bagot Agreement, 1817 • U.S. recognized Canada as British; British agreed not to invade U.S.

• Anglo-American Convention of 1818• 49th parallel boundary between U.S. and Canada• Joint occupation of Oregon

• Continent held in part by the English, Spanish, and Indians

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Taking Spanish Lands• West Florida annexed, 1810–1812

• Secretary of State John Quincy Adams’ goal was reduction of Spanish holdings

• First Seminole War, 1818• Andrew Jackson occupied east Florida

• Weakened Spain accepted Adams-Onis Treaty• U.S. got all Florida• U.S.-Spanish boundary to Pacific• U.S. paid $5 million in Spanish debts to Americans

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The Oregon Country• John Jacob Astor and the American Fur Company in Oregon

and St. Louis

• “Mountain men” like Kit Carson and Jim Beckwourth roamed through Plains and Rockies, fueling romantic myths

• Military expeditions created impression that Plains were “great American desert” unfit for settlement

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North America, 1819

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Native American Societies Under Pressure

CHEROKEE• “Five Civilized Tribes” (60,000 strong)

controlled much of South• Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek,

and Seminole

• Cherokee largest of “Five Civilized Tribes”

• John Ross led move to accommodate Americans

• Cherokee became market economy farmers and plantation owners

• Adopted Constitution of Republican government

• Sequoyah created alphabet for Cherokee language

SEMINOLE• Seminole smallest of “Five Civilized

Tribes”

• Combination of Florida natives with Creeks and escaped slaves

• Seminole slavery was more payment of tribute than ownership of humans

• Second Seminole War was example of Seminole resistance• War described as “a negro and not

an Indian war”

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Indian Removal• Federal government used deception, threats, and bribery to

get Native Americans to cede land

• State governments claimed jurisdiction over lands given to Native Americans by treaty

• Black Hawk’s War (1831–1832) was last stand of Native Americans north of Ohio River and east of Mississippi River

• By 1830s, idea that Native Americans should be moved West even if they assimilated was dominant view

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Mississippi and the Frontier• By 1840, over one-third of the U.S. population lived west of the

Appalachians

• New settlers engaged in commercial farming • Had to pay off debt• Allowed them to buy consumer goods they did not produce

• Settlers brought existing culture with them

• Myth: self-reliant family farms• Reality: cooperation and community efforts

• Many families moved frequently in West• Abraham Lincoln’s family moved three times between 1816–1830• Result was less attachment to land than other rural populations

• Easterners saw West as untamed• James Fennimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales

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Revolution and Transportation

• After the War of 1812, political leaders recognized the need to improve the country’s transportation network

• National leaders like Madison and Calhoun called for “internal improvements”

• National Road from Cumberland, Maryland, eventually to Vandalia, Illinois

• Turnpikes – what are they? What was the problem with them?

• Water most efficient for bulk cargo transportation

• Robert Fulton - Steamboats transported upriver after 1811• What were the positives? What were the

negatives?

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The Canal Boom• Canals needed to link West with

coast

• Erie Canal, 1825• New York Governor Dewitt

Clinton got state funding• Canal linked New York City to

Great Lakes at Buffalo, through Albany

• Canal cut east-west transportation costs dramatically

• Canal stimulated commercial growth of New York City

• Other states followed until 1840s, when canal deemed unprofitable, but useful

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The Beginning of Commercial Agriculture

• Market stimulated specialization • North produced wheat• Lower South produced cotton

• Increased cotton demand from New England textile factories

• Eli Whitney and the cotton gin• How did this effect southern agriculture

• New, fertile land available in old Southwest• Slavery permitted large-scale operation 35

Commerce and Banking• Old style farmer sold crop directly

• New style farmer sold to local merchant; local merchant sold to final market

• System required farmers and local merchants to have credit

• Use of credit stimulated banking

• Federal government issued too little money, private banks issued bank notes

• State banks increased after 1812

• 1816—Second Bank of the United States created to check state banks

• Bank’s easy credit sparked Panic of 1819

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Early Industrialism• “Putting-out” system

• What was this?

• After 1815, increased demand stimulated mass production

• Textile industry = development of factory system

• New England politicians support higher tariffs • Why?

• Other industries adopted factory model by 1840s and 1850s

• U.S. not yet an industrial country, but was evolving national market economy

• Lowell Mills – Lowell, Massachusetts

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• How did the dawn of the Industrial Revolution change wardrobes in America?

• What effect did this have on the women who worked in the Mills?

The Politics of Nation Building • “Era of Good Feelings,” 1816–1824

• Politics a one-party system

• Interest groups no longer took differences into the political arena; public interest in politics declined

• Common theme of public policy in this period: “awakening nationalism”

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Republicans in Power• Federalists died as national party after 1812, but

Republicans adopted some of their ideas

• Henry Clay’s American System, 1816• High tariffs to protect industries that sprang up in embargo and war• Second Bank of the U.S. • Federal aid for internal improvements

• Aid for internal improvements controversial• Sectional conflict over who benefited • Madison, Monroe saw constitutional conflicts

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Monroe as President• “Virginia Dynasty”

• Monroe sought national harmony, an “era of good feelings”

• Provided no leadership controversy over Missouri

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Missouri Compromise of 1820

What were the issues at hand? Why were these such important issues?

SOLUTION:Maine will be admitted as a free stateMissouri will be admitted as a slave state

This keeps the balance at 12:12. Southern Boundary of Missouri set as the northernmost boundary

of slavery True compromise: nobody very happy with result!

Despite conflict over slavery, NATIONALISM prevails, for now.

How does this show the growing abolition movement in the North?

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/lincolns/politics/es_shift.html#

Jefferson’s Reaction

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• “...but this momentous question, like a fire bell in the night, awakened and filled me with terror. I considered it at once as the knell of the Union. it is hushed indeed for the moment. but this is a reprieve only, not a final sentence. a geographical line, coinciding with a marked principle, moral and political, once conceived and held up to the angry passions of men, will never be obliterated; and every new irritation will mark it deeper and deeper.”

Postwar Nationalism and the Supreme Court• John Marshall, Chief Justice, 1801–1835

• Most dominant chief justice ever

• Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 1819• What did this case say?

• McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819• Implied powers doctrine• States cannot tax or regulate federal agencies

• “Power to tax is power to destroy”!

• Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824• Federal regulation of interstate commerce trumps state regulation

• Summary of Marshall’s Court actions• Broadened powers of federal government at the expense of

states• Encouraged growth of a national economy

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Monroe Doctrine• U.S. sympathized with Latin American revolts

• “Grand Alliance” of Europe saw Latin American revolts as democratic challenges to authoritarianism

• Monroe persuaded by John Quincy Adams that U.S. alone must protect Latin American independence• Why?

• Monroe Doctrine, 1823• U.S. opposed European expansion to the Western Hemisphere• U.S. would not interfere in European affairs

• Largely dismissed by Europeans• Signified America’s new sense of independence and self-confidence

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Chapter 10 The Triumph of White Men’s Democracy

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Democracy and Society• Egalitarian expectations despite growing economic inequality

• No distinctive domestic servant class• No class distinctions in dress

• Economic gap widened between propertied and labor classes; this was overlooked because legal equality of all white men still radical by European standards

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Politics of Universal Male Suffrage• Most states adopted universal white male suffrage by the 1820s

• Many appointed offices made elective

• Democracy spread to presidency• Most presidential electors chosen by popular vote rather state

legislature by 1828 • Participation rates rose from 27% in early 1820s to high of 78%

in 1840

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Economic Issues and Labor Radicalism

• Interest in government economic policy intensified after 1819

• Political activity and debate around economic issues foreshadowed rise of parties based around economic programs

• Jacksonians fear of “the money power” • Working men’s parties and trade unions emerged in the 1820s and

1830s to protect equal rights that appeared to be eroding because of low wages• They advocated public education reform, a ten-hour workday, an end

to debtors’ prisons, and hard currency

• They made some gains but were set back by the Depression of 1837

• The women’s rights movement and abolitionists made little progress

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Jackson and the Politics of Democracy

• Jackson became a symbol of democracy’s triumph

• Actions of Jackson and his party refashioned national politics in a democratic mold

• Era known as “Jacksonian Democracy”

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Election of 1824 and JQA’s Administration• Jackson appealed to slaveholders and

rural people opposed to Clay’s economic nationalism

• Jackson got plurality of popular and electoral vote, but not a majority

• Adams won in House of Representatives with Henry Clay’s support

• CORRUPT BARGAIN!• Clay supports JQA, Clay becomes

Secretary of State

• “Tariff of Abominations” in 182851

Jackson comes to power• “Corrupt Bargain” set motivation for

1828 election

• These efforts led to formation of Democratic party, first modern American party

• Campaign dominated by personal attacks and mudslinging

• Jackson = Man of the people!

• Jackson’s democratic stamp on his administration• Defended “spoils system” as democratic• Replaced most of cabinet because of Peggy

Eaton affair

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TRAIL OF TEARS• Jackson agreed with state complaints that

federal government had not removed Indians quickly enough

• Some southern states asserted authority over Indians in their borders

• Jackson got federal government approval for state removal initiatives with Indian Removal Act of 1830

• 1838—U.S. Army forced Cherokee west along the Trail of Tears 53

Nullification Crisis• South opposed Tariff of Abominations because it increased prices for

manufactured goods and endangered their access to foreign markets

• Doctrine of Nullification - John C. Calhoun• right of an individual state to set aside state law

• 1830—Jefferson Day Dinner• Jackson “to the union—it must be preserved”• Calhoun “to the union—next to our liberty, the most dear”

• 1832—tariff passed, South Carolina nullified

• Compromise• Force Bill authorized Jackson to use military to enforce federal law• Clay’s Compromise Tariff of 1833 lowered rates

• IMPORTANT: Nullification foreshadowed state sovereignty positions of the South in slavery debates

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THE BANK WAR• “The Bank War” a symbolic defense of

Jacksonian concept of democracy

• Led to two important results:• Formation of opposition party to

Jackson— the Whigs• Economic disruption

• Jeffersonians unconstitutional and a preserve of corrupt special privilege

• Bank possessed great power and privilege with no public accountability 57

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BANK VETO AND ELECTION OF 1832• On advice of Clay, Biddle sought

new charter four years early in 1832

• Congress passed, but Jackson vetoed• Claimed the bank was

unconstitutional• Defended veto as a blow for

equality

• Jacksonian victory in 1832 spelled bank’s doom 58

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KILLING THE BANK• Jackson destroyed bank

by removing federal deposits • Funds transferred to

state (“pet”) banks

• Biddle used his powers to cause recession, attempted to blame Jackson

• Destruction of bank provoked fears of dictatorship, cost Jackson support in Congress

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THE WHIGS• Whig party a coalition of forces, first

united in censure of Jackson• Clay and National Republicans• Webster and New England ex-Federalists• States-rights southerners• Anti-Masonic party

• Democrats weakened by• Defection of Loco-Focos faction upset over pet

banks• Specie Circular led to the Panic of 1837

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© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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MARTIN VAN BUREN

• Term began with Panic of 1837

• Panic caused more by complex changes in global economy than Jackson’s fiscal policy

• Laissez-faire philosophy prevented Van Buren from helping to solve the problems of economic distress• Why?

• Van Buren attempted to save government funds with independent sub-treasuries

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© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON• Whigs fully organized by 1840

• Whig candidate William Henry Harrison• Why did they pick him over Clay?• Image built of a common man who had

been born in a log cabin• Running mate John Tyler chosen to

attract votes from states-rights Democrats

• They wanted to revive the American System!

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“Tippecanoe and Tyler too!”

© 2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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SECOND PARTY SYSTEM• Election of 1840 marked rise of permanent two-party system in the

U.S.

• Whigs and Democrats evenly divided the electorate for next two decades

• Whigs• Industrialists, merchants, successful farmers, more likely

Protestant

• Democrats• Small farmers, manufacturing, more likely Catholic

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CHAPTER 11Slaves and Masters

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Life of Southern Blacks• Constant resistance of Southern ideology, repression

• Constant aspiration to freedom

• 90% of slaves lived on plantations or farms• Most slaves on cotton plantations worked sun up to sun down, 6 days

a week

• About 75% of slaves were field workers, about 5% worked in industry

• Urban slaves had more autonomy than rural slaves 69

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Family and Religion• Normal family life difficult for slaves

• Fathers cannot always protect children • Families vulnerable to breakup by

masters

• Extended families provide nurture, support amid horror of slavery

• Slave culture a family culture that provided a sense of community

• Black Christianity the cornerstone of an emerging African American culture

• Slave religion kept secret from whites • Reaffirmed the inherent joy of life • Preached the inevitable day of

liberation

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Resistance and Rebellion• 1822: Denmark Vesey – Free black man

• Well-planned conspiracy for slaves to seize armory and then take Charleston slaves

• 1831: Nat Turner led bloodiest and most terrifying slave revolt

• Runaways often aided by the Underground Railroad

• Work-related:• Work slowdowns• Sabotage• Poison masters

• Stories, songs asserting equality

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FREE BLACKS IN THE SOUTH:

• Southern free blacks severely restricted

• Sense of solidarity with slaves

• Generally unable to help

• By 1860, some state legislatures were proposing laws to force free blacks to emigrate or be enslaved

Slave Rebellions and Uprisings, 1800–1831

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Southern Planters• Only a small percentage of slave owners lived in

aristocratic mansions• Less than 1% of the white population owned 50 or

more slaves

• Planter wealth based on:• Commerce• Land speculation• Slave trading• Cotton planting

• Planters prided themselves on paternalism • Better living standard for Southern slaves than others

in Western Hemisphere• Relatively decent treatment due in part to their

increasing economic value after 1808

• Planters actually dealt little with slaves• Slaves managed by overseers • Violent coercion accepted by all planters

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Small Slaveholders/Yeoman Farmers

• Masters often worked alongside the slaves

• Most slaves would have preferred the economic and cultural stability of the plantation

• Small farmers resented large planters

• Many saw slavery as guaranteeing their own liberty and independence• Slavery viewed as a system for keeping blacks “in

their place”

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A Closed Mind and a Closed Society• Planters feared growth of abolitionism

• Planters encouraged closing of ranks

• Slavery defended as a positive good• “The Blessings of Slavery” and “The Stability of the Union”• Africans depicted as inferior • Slavery defended with Bible• Slavery a humane asylum to improve Africans • Slavery superior to Northern wage labor

• Contrary points of view suppressed75

Slave Concentration, 1820

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“King Cotton”• “Short-staple” cotton drove cotton boom

• Cotton gin made seed extraction easy – Eli Whitney

• Year-round requirements suited to slave labor

• Cotton in Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, east Texas

• Large planters dominated cotton production

• 1850: South produced 75% of world’s cotton, cotton the most important U.S. business

• UNDERGROUND RAILROAD

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Harriet Tubman

Slave Concentration, 1860

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Worlds in Conflict• Slavery not profitable for South as a whole

• Slave system resulted in waste of human resources, Southern underdevelopment

• Separate Southern worlds• Planters• Slaves• Less affluent whites• Free blacks

• Held together by plantation economy, web of customary relationships 79

CHAPTER 12The Pursuit of Perfection

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The Second Great AwakeningThe Frontier

• Camp meetings contributed to frontier life• Provided emotional

religion • Offered opportunity for

social life

• Camp meeting revivals conveyed intensely personal religious message

• Camp meetings rarely led to social reform

North• Charles G. Finney

• “Rochester Revival”• Departed radically

from Calvinist doctrine

• Appeal based in emotion, not reason

• Lyman Beecher and others were disturbed by the emotionalism of Finney’s methods

• Revivals led to organization of more churches

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From Revivalism to Reform• Northern revivals stimulated reform

• Middle-class participants adapted evangelical religion to preserve traditional values

• “The benevolent empire” of evangelical reform movements altered American life• For example, temperance movement cut alcohol consumption by

more than 50%

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The Cult of Domesticity

• The Cult of True Womanhood” • Placed women in the home• Glorified home as center of all efforts

to civilize and “Christianize” society

• Middle- and upper-class women became increasingly dedicated to the home as mothers

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The Extension of Education• Public schools expanded rapidly from 1820 to 1850

• Means of advancement for working class

• Means of inculcating values of hard work, responsibility to middle-class reformers

• Horace Mann argued that schools saved immigrants, poor children from parents’ bad influence

• Many parents believed public schools alienated children from their parents

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Divisions in the Benevolent Empire• Radical perfectionists impatient by 1830s, split from

moderate reform• Temperance movement • Peace movement• Antislavery movement

• FULL CITIZENSHIP

American Colonization Society

• Radicals like William Lloyd Garrison demanded immediate emancipation• Constitution is a “pact with the devil”• 1831: Garrison founded The Liberator

• 1833: American Anti-Slavery Society 85

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Black Abolitionists• Former slaves related the horrible

realities of bondage• Prominent figures included Frederick

Douglass, Sojourner Truth and David Walker

• Black newspapers, books, and pamphlets publicized abolitionism to a wider audience

• Blacks were also active in the Underground Railroad

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Women’s Rights• Second Great Awakening leads to

increased roles in society

• Seneca Falls Convention in 1848• Organized by Lucretia Mott,

Elizabeth Cady Stanton • Prompted by experience of inequality

in abolition movement• Began movement for women’s rights

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Utopian Communities

• Utopian socialism • Inspired by Robert Owen, Charles Fourier• New Harmony, Indiana—Owenite• Fourierite phalanxes

• Religious utopianism• Shakers• Oneida Community

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Transcendentalism• Ralph Waldo Emerson• Margaret Fuller• George Ripley

• Founded cooperative community at Brook Farm• Henry David Thoreau and Walden

• COUNTERPOINT:• Reform encountered perceptive critics

• Nathaniel Hawthorne allegorically refuted perfectionist movements, suggesting the world was inherently an imperfect place

• Reform prompted necessary changes in American life89

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