Theories of Juvenile Delinquency

What Causes Delinquency?

What propels youths to commit delinquency? Complex interplay of a variety of biological, genetic,

and environmental factors Further complicated by various reactions to

environmental factors– Why do only a few individuals who experience the

same environments as many others actually commit crime?

Criminological theories provide a scientific way to approach and understand why people commit crime

Criminological Paradigms

Classical School Theories– Focus on individual free will and our ability to make

choices as the central explanation for committing delinquency/crime

Positive School Theories– Embraces determinism and scientific method:

Recognizes the role of forces that individuals cannot control or may not be aware of on crime and the role of science to discover what these factors are

– The positive school has 3 basic approaches: biological, psychological, and sociological

Theories Within Classical School Deterrence Theory

– Certainty, severity, and celerity– General and specific

Rational Choice Theory– Decision to commit crime involves weighing the costs

and benefits associated with that crime– Bounded rationality

Routine Activities– Focuses on the opportunity for crime to occur– Interaction of the following: suitable targets, absence of

capable guardians, and presence of motivated offenders

Positive School—Biological Theories Genetic transmission of criminal

tendencies Hormonal imbalances Neurological dysfunction Developmental Theory (Biosocial

Theories)

Positive School—Psychological Theories Intelligence—IQCrime Personality types--Somatotypes Psychodynamic Theory (Freud & psychic

phenomenon)– Underdeveloped/Overdeveloped Superego– Basis for Antisocial Personalities & Impulsivity

Behavioral Theory (Skinner & measurable events)– Used as basis for Social Learning Theory

Positive School—Sociological Theories Social Structure Theories

– Social disorganization– Anomie/Strain

Social Process Theories– Differential Association/Learning Theory– Social Control Theory

Social Conflict – Labeling and Stigma

What Do We Know About Offenders?

Small group of offenders (6-25%) are responsible for majority of crime

There is a pattern of offending that ultimately defines subgroups of offenders – Serious: Commit serious property crime– Violent: Commit serious violent crime– Chronic: Commit 4 or more offenses of any type– Serious, Violent, Chronic Offenders

Patterns of offending in childhood and adolescence are related to adulthood offending

Patterns of offending can be identified through the identification of behaviors related to offending pathways

Developmental & Life Course Theories The Life-Course Perspective

– Human development viewed across the life span– Childhood, adolescent and adult experiences are continuous

process of change– Individuals progress within culturally defined roles and social

transitions that are age-graded• Trajectories or pathways=the avenue of development over time; long-

term patterns of development in social institutions (e.g., educational career)

• Transitions=short-term changes in social roles within long-term trajectories (e.g., divorce)

Developmental theories try to account for offender careers and their relationship with age

This area or research began in criminology during the late 1980s and began to grow over the 1990s

Life Trajectories

Life-course is a series of interlocking trajectories– Generally consistent– Impact all domains of life– Short-term transitions (or life events) interrupt

Transitions can be consistent or disruptive– “Off-age” transitions (e.g., teenage pregnancy) can produce disorder and

change the direction of a trajectory– Key: How individuals adapt to changes

• Person A may start a life of crime while person B doesn’t get involved in crime• Attempts to explain the onset, escalation, de-escalation, and desistence in

offending careers Various factors influence experience and change: individual factors,

family factors, school factors, peer groups, and community factors Research in this are requires longitudinal research and within-individual

changes– Previous research often relied on cross-sectional studies– Previous research largely defined by between-group differences

Different Theories

Many developmental/life course theories have been developed, only three will be highlighted for this class:– Moffitt’s Dual Taxonomy– Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory– Gottfredson & Hirschi’s General Theory of

Crime

Moffitt’s Developmental Theory

Close inspection of crime rate trends over the life-course indicate that there are two types of offenders:– Adolescent limited offenders: antisocial behavior is

temporary and situational– Life-course persistent offenders: antisocial

behavior is permanent and stable Timing and duration of offending is critical

aspect between the types of offenders—stable v. unstable antisocial behavior

Defining the Life-Course Persistent Offender Underlying trait that begins at very early age and

continues throughout life and underlies a variety of problem behaviors– Age 4: biting and hitting– Age 10: Truancy and shoplifting– Age 16: Sell drugs/steal cars– Age 22: Robbery and rape– Age 30: Fraud and child abuse

Persistence of other problem behaviors throughout life: Drug addiction, homelessness, unstable relationships, domestic violence, and mental illness

Factors Related to Life Course Persistence Difference exists in individual differences in neuropsychological

functions of infant nervous system What can cause these differences to occur?

– Disruption in fetal brain development/brain injury– Maternal drug use– Poor nutrition– Exposure to toxic agents– Birth complications– Lack of stimulation and affection– Abuse/neglect

Results in neuropsychological deficits (temperament, behavior development, and cognitive abilities)

LCP Interaction in Environment

Reactive interaction-react to environment with their style Proactive interaction-select or create environment to

support style (e.g., selecting similar mate) Cumulative consequences-underlying trait sets downhill

path in motion Contemporary consequences-impact of trait on

environment Why do LCP fail to desist in their offending?

– Fail to learn conventional prosocial alternatives due to rejection and lack of opportunities

– Become ensnared in deviant lifestyle

Intervention

Underlying trait underlies deficiencies in temperament, developmental milestones, and cognitive abilities

Interaction with environment creates the antisocial personality and is fixed (according to Moffitt) before 18 years old

Therefore, treatment is difficult after this point

Adolescent Limited

Statistically, it is rare for individual to refrain from crime during adolescence

The defining characteristic for most adolescents, however, is the lack of consistency in their offending

Why do a few not get involved in delinquency during adolescence?– No maturity gap: Late puberty or access to

opportunities– Personal characteristics that exclude from networks

Few opportunities for mimicking

Explaining AL Behavior

Motivation: Duration of adolescence has lengthened, forcing those in the 13-18 age group to delay their entry into adulthood

Social mimicry: When one species adopts the social behavior of more successful species to obtain access to a valuable resource

– Valuable resource=Mature status and the power and privilege that comes with it

– LCP become influential in the peer structure—delinquency that was stigmatizing as a child is not normative group behavior because it provides an avenue to the valuable resource

Reinforcement: The negative consequences that result from delinquency “fit” with need and desire to rebel

Explaining AL Desistence

At the end of adolescence, motivation wanes because of the change in circumstance—entry into adulthood

Exempt from cumulative and contemporary continuity, so opportunities and acceptance is not an issue

Delinquency for these adolescents is considered normative rather than abnormal

Best adjusted adolescents appear to be those who have experimented and been responded to with consistent and reasonable discipline

Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory

Main proposition=an individual’s propensity to offend is dependent upon involvement in conventional activities

Informal social controls are the main focus of this theory Although trajectories are influenced by early experiences,

Sampson & Laub believe that social factors (specifically informal controls) can modify trajectories, reducing offending in adulthood—criminality is not solely defined by traits rooted in childhood

“Turning points”=the mechanisms that alter the life course, changing a risk pathway to a more adaptive one

Life-course development is dynamic regardless of age The role of transitions within life trajectories generates turning

points or changes in one’s pathway

Influencing Factors

Childhood: Family dynamics including erratic/harsh discipline, low levels of supervision, parental rejection

Adolescence: Association with delinquent peer groups, lack of attachment to school, involvement in the juvenile justice system

Young adulthood: Labor markets, marriage, prison, military

A General Theory of Crime

Low self-control is ultimately the cause of criminality Low self-control results from parents failing to:

– Monitor behavior– Recognizing problem behavior– Punishing problem behavior properly

People with low self-control will constantly be involved in delinquency and other problem behaviors

Low self-control becomes “locked” for individuals at a very young age (8 or 9 years old)

Developmental Pathways for Females Requires attention to the gender-specific patterns in

offender careers over the life course (e.g., victimization) Although factors influencing offending may be similar

across gender, the intensity and role of these factors may differ

Kempf-Leonard suggests the following “stepping stones” for females– 1st Stepping Stone: Child Abuse– 2nd Stepping Stone: Mental health problems– 3rd Stepping Stone: Running away – 4th Stepping Stone: Youth gang involvement– 5th Stepping Stone: Juvenile justice involvement & experiences

In sum…

Early intervention is needed to most effectively altering offending pathways

Identification of persistent offenders is difficult and subject to inaccuracies because a small proportion of individuals who exhibit signs of offending careers actually become chronic offenders

Evolution of Theories Turn of 20th Century

– Physical abnormalities (Lombroso)– Intelligence (Goddard--feeble-mindedness)

1920s-1930s– Psychoanalytic approaches to behavior– Body Types & Personalities– Social Disorganization (Beginning of Sociological)

1940s-1950s– Cognitive approaches to behavior– Differential Association & Subcultural Theories– Strain Theory

Evolution of Theories 1960s to 1970s

– Twin & Adoption Studies– Social Control Theory– Conflict & Labeling Theories– Critical Theories (Feminism, Marxist)

1980s– Social Learning (Differential Association Updated)– General Strain Theory (Strain Updated)– Deterrence (General to Specific)– Rational Choice/Routine Activities

Evolution of Theory 1990s

– Developmental Theory (Criminal Careers)– Life Course Theory (Criminal Careers)– General Theory of Crime (Twist on Control)

2000s– Continued theory testing—specific v.

general theories– Emphasis on Developmental Theory