Theories of Juvenile Delinquency
What Causes Delinquency?
What propels youths to commit delinquency? Complex interplay of a variety of biological, genetic,
and environmental factors Further complicated by various reactions to
environmental factors– Why do only a few individuals who experience the
same environments as many others actually commit crime?
Criminological theories provide a scientific way to approach and understand why people commit crime
Criminological Paradigms
Classical School Theories– Focus on individual free will and our ability to make
choices as the central explanation for committing delinquency/crime
Positive School Theories– Embraces determinism and scientific method:
Recognizes the role of forces that individuals cannot control or may not be aware of on crime and the role of science to discover what these factors are
– The positive school has 3 basic approaches: biological, psychological, and sociological
Theories Within Classical School Deterrence Theory
– Certainty, severity, and celerity– General and specific
Rational Choice Theory– Decision to commit crime involves weighing the costs
and benefits associated with that crime– Bounded rationality
Routine Activities– Focuses on the opportunity for crime to occur– Interaction of the following: suitable targets, absence of
capable guardians, and presence of motivated offenders
Positive School—Biological Theories Genetic transmission of criminal
tendencies Hormonal imbalances Neurological dysfunction Developmental Theory (Biosocial
Theories)
Positive School—Psychological Theories Intelligence—IQCrime Personality types--Somatotypes Psychodynamic Theory (Freud & psychic
phenomenon)– Underdeveloped/Overdeveloped Superego– Basis for Antisocial Personalities & Impulsivity
Behavioral Theory (Skinner & measurable events)– Used as basis for Social Learning Theory
Positive School—Sociological Theories Social Structure Theories
– Social disorganization– Anomie/Strain
Social Process Theories– Differential Association/Learning Theory– Social Control Theory
Social Conflict – Labeling and Stigma
What Do We Know About Offenders?
Small group of offenders (6-25%) are responsible for majority of crime
There is a pattern of offending that ultimately defines subgroups of offenders – Serious: Commit serious property crime– Violent: Commit serious violent crime– Chronic: Commit 4 or more offenses of any type– Serious, Violent, Chronic Offenders
Patterns of offending in childhood and adolescence are related to adulthood offending
Patterns of offending can be identified through the identification of behaviors related to offending pathways
Developmental & Life Course Theories The Life-Course Perspective
– Human development viewed across the life span– Childhood, adolescent and adult experiences are continuous
process of change– Individuals progress within culturally defined roles and social
transitions that are age-graded• Trajectories or pathways=the avenue of development over time; long-
term patterns of development in social institutions (e.g., educational career)
• Transitions=short-term changes in social roles within long-term trajectories (e.g., divorce)
Developmental theories try to account for offender careers and their relationship with age
This area or research began in criminology during the late 1980s and began to grow over the 1990s
Life Trajectories
Life-course is a series of interlocking trajectories– Generally consistent– Impact all domains of life– Short-term transitions (or life events) interrupt
Transitions can be consistent or disruptive– “Off-age” transitions (e.g., teenage pregnancy) can produce disorder and
change the direction of a trajectory– Key: How individuals adapt to changes
• Person A may start a life of crime while person B doesn’t get involved in crime• Attempts to explain the onset, escalation, de-escalation, and desistence in
offending careers Various factors influence experience and change: individual factors,
family factors, school factors, peer groups, and community factors Research in this are requires longitudinal research and within-individual
changes– Previous research often relied on cross-sectional studies– Previous research largely defined by between-group differences
Different Theories
Many developmental/life course theories have been developed, only three will be highlighted for this class:– Moffitt’s Dual Taxonomy– Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory– Gottfredson & Hirschi’s General Theory of
Crime
Moffitt’s Developmental Theory
Close inspection of crime rate trends over the life-course indicate that there are two types of offenders:– Adolescent limited offenders: antisocial behavior is
temporary and situational– Life-course persistent offenders: antisocial
behavior is permanent and stable Timing and duration of offending is critical
aspect between the types of offenders—stable v. unstable antisocial behavior
Defining the Life-Course Persistent Offender Underlying trait that begins at very early age and
continues throughout life and underlies a variety of problem behaviors– Age 4: biting and hitting– Age 10: Truancy and shoplifting– Age 16: Sell drugs/steal cars– Age 22: Robbery and rape– Age 30: Fraud and child abuse
Persistence of other problem behaviors throughout life: Drug addiction, homelessness, unstable relationships, domestic violence, and mental illness
Factors Related to Life Course Persistence Difference exists in individual differences in neuropsychological
functions of infant nervous system What can cause these differences to occur?
– Disruption in fetal brain development/brain injury– Maternal drug use– Poor nutrition– Exposure to toxic agents– Birth complications– Lack of stimulation and affection– Abuse/neglect
Results in neuropsychological deficits (temperament, behavior development, and cognitive abilities)
LCP Interaction in Environment
Reactive interaction-react to environment with their style Proactive interaction-select or create environment to
support style (e.g., selecting similar mate) Cumulative consequences-underlying trait sets downhill
path in motion Contemporary consequences-impact of trait on
environment Why do LCP fail to desist in their offending?
– Fail to learn conventional prosocial alternatives due to rejection and lack of opportunities
– Become ensnared in deviant lifestyle
Intervention
Underlying trait underlies deficiencies in temperament, developmental milestones, and cognitive abilities
Interaction with environment creates the antisocial personality and is fixed (according to Moffitt) before 18 years old
Therefore, treatment is difficult after this point
Adolescent Limited
Statistically, it is rare for individual to refrain from crime during adolescence
The defining characteristic for most adolescents, however, is the lack of consistency in their offending
Why do a few not get involved in delinquency during adolescence?– No maturity gap: Late puberty or access to
opportunities– Personal characteristics that exclude from networks
Few opportunities for mimicking
Explaining AL Behavior
Motivation: Duration of adolescence has lengthened, forcing those in the 13-18 age group to delay their entry into adulthood
Social mimicry: When one species adopts the social behavior of more successful species to obtain access to a valuable resource
– Valuable resource=Mature status and the power and privilege that comes with it
– LCP become influential in the peer structure—delinquency that was stigmatizing as a child is not normative group behavior because it provides an avenue to the valuable resource
Reinforcement: The negative consequences that result from delinquency “fit” with need and desire to rebel
Explaining AL Desistence
At the end of adolescence, motivation wanes because of the change in circumstance—entry into adulthood
Exempt from cumulative and contemporary continuity, so opportunities and acceptance is not an issue
Delinquency for these adolescents is considered normative rather than abnormal
Best adjusted adolescents appear to be those who have experimented and been responded to with consistent and reasonable discipline
Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory
Main proposition=an individual’s propensity to offend is dependent upon involvement in conventional activities
Informal social controls are the main focus of this theory Although trajectories are influenced by early experiences,
Sampson & Laub believe that social factors (specifically informal controls) can modify trajectories, reducing offending in adulthood—criminality is not solely defined by traits rooted in childhood
“Turning points”=the mechanisms that alter the life course, changing a risk pathway to a more adaptive one
Life-course development is dynamic regardless of age The role of transitions within life trajectories generates turning
points or changes in one’s pathway
Influencing Factors
Childhood: Family dynamics including erratic/harsh discipline, low levels of supervision, parental rejection
Adolescence: Association with delinquent peer groups, lack of attachment to school, involvement in the juvenile justice system
Young adulthood: Labor markets, marriage, prison, military
A General Theory of Crime
Low self-control is ultimately the cause of criminality Low self-control results from parents failing to:
– Monitor behavior– Recognizing problem behavior– Punishing problem behavior properly
People with low self-control will constantly be involved in delinquency and other problem behaviors
Low self-control becomes “locked” for individuals at a very young age (8 or 9 years old)
Developmental Pathways for Females Requires attention to the gender-specific patterns in
offender careers over the life course (e.g., victimization) Although factors influencing offending may be similar
across gender, the intensity and role of these factors may differ
Kempf-Leonard suggests the following “stepping stones” for females– 1st Stepping Stone: Child Abuse– 2nd Stepping Stone: Mental health problems– 3rd Stepping Stone: Running away – 4th Stepping Stone: Youth gang involvement– 5th Stepping Stone: Juvenile justice involvement & experiences
In sum…
Early intervention is needed to most effectively altering offending pathways
Identification of persistent offenders is difficult and subject to inaccuracies because a small proportion of individuals who exhibit signs of offending careers actually become chronic offenders
Evolution of Theories Turn of 20th Century
– Physical abnormalities (Lombroso)– Intelligence (Goddard--feeble-mindedness)
1920s-1930s– Psychoanalytic approaches to behavior– Body Types & Personalities– Social Disorganization (Beginning of Sociological)
1940s-1950s– Cognitive approaches to behavior– Differential Association & Subcultural Theories– Strain Theory
Evolution of Theories 1960s to 1970s
– Twin & Adoption Studies– Social Control Theory– Conflict & Labeling Theories– Critical Theories (Feminism, Marxist)
1980s– Social Learning (Differential Association Updated)– General Strain Theory (Strain Updated)– Deterrence (General to Specific)– Rational Choice/Routine Activities
Evolution of Theory 1990s
– Developmental Theory (Criminal Careers)– Life Course Theory (Criminal Careers)– General Theory of Crime (Twist on Control)
2000s– Continued theory testing—specific v.
general theories– Emphasis on Developmental Theory
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