The Zeitgeist Movement Defined 6 by 9

8/13/2019 The Zeitgeist Movement Defined 6 by 9

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THE ZEITGEIST MOVEMENTD E F I N E D

REALIZING A NEW TRAIN OF THOUGHT

The tremendous and st!! a""e!eratn# de$e!o%ment o& s"en"e andte"hno!o#' has not (een a""om%aned (' an e)ua! de$e!o%ment n so"a!*

e"onom"* and %o!t"a! %atterns+++We are no,+++on!' (e#nnn# to e-%!ore the%otenta!tes ,h"h t o&&ers &or de$e!o%ments n our "u!ture outsde te"hno!o#'*

%art"u!ar!' n the so"a!* %o!t"a! and e"onom" &e!ds+ It s sa&e to %red"tthat+++su"h so"a! n$entons as modern.t'%e /a%ta!sm* Fas"sm* and

/ommunsm ,!! (e re#arded as %rmt$e e-%erments dre"ted to,ard thead0ustment o& modern so"et' to modern te"hno!o#'

. Dr+ Ra!%h Lnton

,,,+the1et#estmo$ement+"om


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The Zet#est Mo$ement De&nedRea!1n# a Ne, Tran o& Thou#ht

2stEdton* 3anuar'* 4526

/reat$e /ommonsAttr(uton.Non/ommer"a!.ShareA!7e 6+5 Internatona!

8// 9:.N/.SA 6+5;

The "ontent n ths te-t ma' (e re%rodu"ed on!' &ornon."ommer"a! %ur%oses and ma' not (e reso!d n an' &orm+

An' other nterests re)ure dre"t a%%ro$a! (' TZM G!o(a!+/onta"t< meda=the1et#estmo$ement+"om

Ths s a 255> non.%ro&t te-t+An' %r"e %ad s on!' &or the %h's"a! %u(!shn#+

An' e-%!otaton o& ths ,or7 &or %ro&t ,!! not (e to!erated+

A"7no,!ed#mentsuman error3 models and management* 3ames Reason* 4555

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The Zet#est Mo$ement De&ned

s!o, and #enera!!' ne&&"ent+4

The more $a(!e so!uton n ths "r"umstan"e m#ht (e"omethe need &or a un&ed* nte#rated mass transt s'stem that "ann"rease s%eed* redu"e ener#' use* redu"e resour"e use* and redu"e

%o!!uton a!on# ,th man' other re!ated ssues to the e&&e"t that usn#automo(!es n su"h a "ondton then (e"omes %art o& an emer#n#problem+ I& the #oa! o& a so"et' s to do the K"orre"t and hen"esustana(!e thn#* redu"n# threats to humans and the ha(tat* e$ern"reasn# e&&"en"'* a d'nam"* se!&.#eneratn# !o#" un&o!ds ,thres%e"t to our te"hn"a! %oss(!t' and des#n a%%roa"hes+

Our Technical Realit+

O& "ourse* the a%%!"aton o& ths t'%e o& %ro(!em so!$n# s &ar &rom!mted to su"h %h's"a! e-am%!es+ Is %o!t"s as ,e 7no, t the (est

means to address our so"a! ,oes Does t address root "auses (' ts$er' des#n Is mone' and the mar7et s'stem the most o%tm1edmethod &or sustana(!e %ro#ress* %ro(!em reso!uton and theman&estn# o& e"onom" %otenta! What does our modern state o&s"en"e and te"hno!o#' ha$e to "ontr(ute n the rea!m o&understandn# "ause and %ur%ose on the so"eta! !e$e!

As &urther essa's ,!! denote n #reat deta!* theseunderstandn#s "reate a natura!* "!ear tran o& thou#ht ,th res%e"t toho, mu"h (etter our ,or!d "ou!d (e & ,e sm%!' &o!!o, the !o#""reated $a the scientific method o& thou#ht to &u!&!! our commongoal

o& human sustana(!t'+ The one (!!on %eo%!e star$n# on ths %!anetare not don# so (e"ause o& some mmuta(!e natura! "onse)uen"e o&our %h's"a! rea!t'+ There s %!ent' o& &ood to #o around+It s theso"a! s'stem* ,h"h has ts o,n outdated* "ontr$ed !o#"* that%er%etuates ths so"a! atro"t'* a!on# ,th "ount!ess others+

It s m%ortant to %ont out that TZM s not "on"erned ,th%romotn# K%at"hes as ts u!tmate #oa!* ,h"h* sad to sa'* s ,hat the$ast ma0ort' o& a"t$st nsttutons on the %!anet are "urrent!' don#+6

4 A s!o,* #enera! sh&t* e$en n modern "ommer"a! so"et'* &rom Ko,nersh%

to Ka""ess s (e#nnn# to &nd &a$or toda'+8htt%


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We ,ant to %romote the !ar#est order* h#hest e&&"en"' set o&so!utons a$a!a(!e at a #$en tme* a!#ned ,th natura! %ro"esses* tom%ro$e the !$es o& a!!* ,h!e se"urn# the nte#rt' o& our ha(tat+ We,ant e$er'one to understand ths Ktran o& thou#ht "!ear!' and

de$e!o% a valuedent&"aton ,th t+ In the end* there s no sn#!eso!uton J on!' the near em%r"a! natura! !a, reasonn# that arr$es atso!utons and %ur%ose+

,th and hen"e are not tru!' ,or7n# to reso!$e the root %ro(!em8s;+

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m%!"atons+++ho,e$er XthatY does not ma7e %h's"s a (ran"h o&%s'"ho!o#'+ The rea!1aton that !o#" "annot (e restr"ted to%s'"ho!o#"a! %henomenon ,!! he!% us to ds"rmnate (et,een ours"en"e and rhetor" . "on"e$n# the !atter as the art o& %ersuason or

o& ar#un# so as to %rodu"e the &ee!n# o& "ertant'+ Our emotona!ds%ostons ma7e t $er' d&&"u!t &or us to a""e%t "ertan %ro%ostons*no matter ho, stron# the e$den"e n ther &a$or+ And sn"e a!! %roo&de%ends u%on the a""e%tan"e o& "ertan %ro%ostons as true* no%ro%oston "an (e %ro$ed to (e true to one ,ho s su&&"ent!'determned not to (e!e$e t+

The term Kmnd !o"7has (een "oned (' some %h!oso%hers

,th res%e"t to ths %henomenon* de&ned as ?the "ondton ,hereone?s %ers%e"t$e (e"omes se!&.re&errn#* n a "!osed !oo% o&reasonn#?+ Seemn#!' em%r"a! %resu%%ostons &rame and se"ure

one?s ,or!d$e, and an'thn# "ontrad"tor' "omn# &rom the outsde"an (e (!o"7ed or re0e"ted* o&ten e$en su("ons"ous!'+ Ths rea"ton"ou!d (e !7ened to the "ommon %h's"a! re&!e- to %rote"t onese!& &roma &ore#n o(0e"t mo$n# to,ards 'our %erson J on!' n ths"r"umstan"e the Kre&!e- s to de&end one?s beliefs* not (od'+

Wh!e su"h %hrases as Kthn7n# outsde the (o- m#ht (e"ommon rhetor" toda' n the a"t$st "ommunt'* se!dom are the&oundatons o& our way of thin#ingand the nte#rt' o& our mostestablished institutions"ha!!en#ed+ The' are* more o&ten than not*"onsdered to (e K#$ens and assumed na!tera(!e+

For e-am%!e* n the so."a!!ed demo"ra"es o& the ,or!d* aK%resdent* or the e)u$a!ent* s a "ommon %ont o& &o"us ,th res%e"tto the )ua!t' o& a "ountr'?s #o$ernan"e+ A !ar#e amount o& attenton ss%ent to,ard su"h a ure* hs %ers%e"t$es and a"tons+ :et* se!domdoes one ste% (a"7 and as7< KWh' do ,e ha$e a %resdent to (e#n,th KHo, s hsher %o,er as an nsttutona! ure 0ust&ed as ano%tm1ed manner o& so"a! #o$ernan"e KIs t not a "ontrad"ton o&terms to "!am a demo"rat" so"et' ,hen the %u(!" has $rtua!!' norealsa' ,th res%e"t to the a"tons o& the %resdent on"e he or she se!e"ted

Su"h )uestons are se!dom "onsdered as %eo%!e tend* a#an*to ada%t to ther "u!ture ,thout o(0e"ton* assumn# t s K0ust the ,a't s+ Su"h stat" orentatons are a!most un$ersa!!' a resu!t o& culturaltraditionand* as /ohen and Na#e! %ont out*t s $er' d&&"u!t to"ommun"ate a ne,* "ha!!en#n# dea to those ,ho are@sufficientlydetermined not to believe it8*

Su"htradtona! %resu%%ostons* he!d as em%r"a!* are !7e!' aroot sour"e o& %ersona! and so"a! retardaton n the ,or!d toda'+ Ths%henomenon* "ou%!ed ,th an edu"atona! s'stem that "onstant!'ren&or"es su"h esta(!shed notons throu#h ts nsttutons o&

Ka"adema* &urther sea!s ths "u!tura! nh(ton and "om%ounds the

+ogic and The Scientific Method* /ohen and Na#e!* Har"ourt* 26* %+2 Re&eren"e< The ancer Stage of apitalism* 3ohn M"Murtr'* !uto ress*

2* /ha%ter 2

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hndran"e to re!e$ant "han#e+5

Wh!e the s"o%e o& ths tenden"' s ,de ,th res%e"t tode(ate* there are t,o "ommon argumentative fallacies,orth notn#here as the' "onstant!' "ome u% ,th res%e"t to the application$set

andtrain of thought %romoted (' TZM+ ut n "o!or&u! terms* theseta"t"s "om%rse ,hat "ou!d (e "a!!ed a K$a!ue ,ar2,h"h s ,a#ed*"ons"ous!' or not* (' those ,ho ha$e $ested emotona!matera!nterest n 7ee%n# thn#s the same* o%%osn# "han#e+

The 3Prima Facie4 Fallac+

The &rst s the K%rma &a"e asso"aton+ Ths sm%!' means Ku%on &rsta%%earan"e K(e&ore n$est#aton+4Ths s (' &ar the most "ommont'%e o& o(0e"ton+ A "!ass"a! "ase stud' s the "ommon "!am that theo(ser$atons and so!utons %resented (' TZM are sm%!' rehashed

KMar-st "ommunsm*Let?s (re&!' e-%!ore ths as an e-am%!e+ Re&eren"n# KThe/ommunst Man&estoMar- and En#e!s %resent $arous o(ser$atons,th res%e"t to the e$o!uton o& so"et'* s%e"&"a!!' K"!ass ,ar*nherent stru"tura! re!atonsh%s re#ardn# K"a%ta!* a!on# ,th a#enera! !o#" as to ho, the so"a! order ,!! transton throu#hKre$o!uton to a state!ess* "!ass!ess s'stem* n %art* ,h!e a!so notn#a seres o& dre"t so"a! "han#es* su"h as the K"entra!1aton o& themeans o& "ommun"aton and trans%ort n the hands o& the state*Ke)ua! !a(!t' o& a!! to !a(or+ and other s%e"&"s+ Mar- "reates %!a'ers

n the s"hema he su##ests !7e the on#on# (att!e (et,een theK(our#eose and %ro!etarans* e-%ressn# "ontem%t &or the nherente-%!otaton* ,h"h he sa's s essenta!!' rooted n the dea o& K%r$ate%ro%ert'+ In the end* the a""umu!ated #oa! n #enera! s n see7n# aKstate!ess and "!ass!ess so"et'+

On the sur&a"e* re&ormatons %ro%osed n TZM?s %romotedso!utons m#ht appearto mrror attr(utes o& KMar-sm & one ,as to"om%!ete!' #nore the under!'n# reasonn#+ The dea o& a so"et'K,thout "!asses* K,thout un$ersa! %ro%ert'* and the "om%!ete

5 /rt"sm here o& Ka"adema s not to (e "on&used ,th ts standardde&nton* meann# a ?"ommunt' o& students and s"ho!ars en#a#ed nh#her edu"aton and resear"h+? The "onte-t here s the nh(tn# nature o&Ks"hoo!s o& thou#ht ,h"h a!! too o&ten e$o!$e to "reate an e#o unto tse!&,here "on&!"tn# data s #nored or ha%ha1ard!' dsmssed+ A!so* there s ars7 "ommon to ths mode o& thou#ht ,here Ktheor' and Ktradton ta7e%romnen"e o$er Ke-%eren"e and Ke-%erment $er' o&ten* %er%etuatn#&a!se "on"!usons+

2 Re&eren"e< Value 7ars3 The ?lobal Mar#et Versus the +ife Economy3 MoralPhilosophy and >umanity,3ohn M"Murtr'* !uto ress* 4554

4 Sour"e< D"tonar'+"om

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rede&nton o& ,hat "om%rses the Kstate m#ht* on the sur&a"e* sho,"on&!uen"e (' the mere #estures themse!$es* es%e"a!!' sn"e ,esterna"adema "ommon!' %romotes a Kdua!t' (et,een K"ommunsm andK"a%ta!sm ,th the a&orementoned "hara"ter %onts noted as the

"ore d&&eren"es+ Ho,e$er* the a"tua!train of thoughtto su%%ort theseseeminglysm!ar "on"!usons s )ute d&&erent+TZM?s ad$o"ated (en"hmar7 &or de"son.ma7n# s not a Moral

Philosophy,6,h"h* ,hen e-amned at ts root* s essenta!!' ,hatMar-st %h!oso%h' ,as a man&estaton o&+ TZM s not nterested n the%oet"* su(0e"t$e and ar(trar' notons o& Ka &ar so"et'* #uaranteed&reedom* K,or!d %ea"e* or Kma7n# a (etter ,or!d sm%!' (e"ause tsounds Kr#ht* Khumane or K#ood+ Wthout atechnical framewor#that has a dre"t %h's"a! re&erent to su"h terms* su"h mora! re!at$smser$es !tt!e to no !on#.term %ur%ose+

Rather* TZM s nterested n scientific application* as a%%!ed tosocietal sustainability* (othphysical and cultural+As ,!! (ee-%ressed n #reater deta! n &urther essa's* the method o& s"en"e snot restr"ted n ts a%%!"aton ,thn the K%h's"a! ,or!dand hen"ethe so"a! s'stem* n&rastru"ture* edu"atona! re!e$an"e and e$enunderstandn# human (eha$or tse!&* a!! e-st ,thn the "on&nes o&s"ent&" "ausa!t'+ In turn* there s a natura! &eed(a"7 s'stem (u!tnto %h's"a! rea!t' ,h"h ,!! e-%ress tse!& $er' "!ear!' n the "onte-to& ,hat K,or7s and ,hat doesn?t o$er tme*#udn# our "ons"ousada%taton+

6 De&ned as ?the (ran"h o& %h!oso%h' dea!n# ,th (oth ar#ument a(out the"ontent o& mora!t' and meta.eth"a! ds"usson o& the nature o& mora!0ud#ment* !an#ua#e* ar#ument* and $a!ue+?8htt%


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Mar-sm s not (ased on ths K"a!"u!ated ,or!d$e, at a!!*e$en thou#h there m#ht (e some s"ent&"a!!' (ased "hara"terst"snherent+ For e-am%!e* the Mar-st noton o& a K"!ass!ess so"et' ,asto o$er"ome the "a%ta!st or#natn# Knhumant' m%osed on the

,or7n# "!ass or K%ro!etarat+TZM?s ad$o"ated tran o& thou#ht* on the other hand* sour"esad$an"ements n human studes+ It &nds* &or e-am%!e* that socialstratification* ,h"h s nherent to the "a%ta!stmar7et mode!* toa"tua!!' (e a &orm o& indirect violence a#anst the $ast ma0ort' as aresu!t o& the e$o!utonar' %s'"ho!o#' ,e humans natura!!' %osses+It#enerates an unne"essar' &orm o& human su&&ern# on man' !e$e!s*,h"h s destabili%ingand* (' m%!"aton* technically unsustainable+

Another e-am%!e s TZM?s nterest n remo$n# universalpropertyand settn# u% a s'stem o& Kshared a""ess+ Ths s o&ten

)u"7!' "ondemned to the Mar-st dea o& Ka(o!shn# %r$ate %ro%ert'+Ho,e$er* #enera!!' s%ea7n#* the Mar-st !o#" re!ates the e-sten"e o&%r$ate %ro%ert' to the %er%etuaton o& the K(our#eos and theron#on# e-%!otaton o& the K%ro!etarat+ He states n the Man&estoave you noticed***8, Vital Speeches of the =ay* Ro(ert Cr7oran*2* %+52

4 Sour"e< ?iving and Volunteering in the 9nited States3 (indings from a"ational Survey* Hod#7nson @ Wet1man* 24* %+4

Re&eren"e< =rive3 The Surprising Truth 4bout 7hat Motivates 9s* Dane!n7* R$erhead* 4522

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(en# nhumane* ,ou!dn?t ,or7+In order &or su"h a s'stem to ,or7* t needs to (e a""e%ted

,thout a"t$e state "oer"on+ There&ore* t s an ssue o& n$est#aton*edu"aton* and (road %ersona! a""e%tan"e n the "ommunt'+ In &a"t*

the $er' s%e"&"s o& so"a! ntera"ton and !&est'!e a"tua!!' demand a$ast ma0ort' a""e%tan"e o& the s'stem?s me"han"s and $a!ues+Sm!ar!'* and &na! e-am%!e here o& the Kstra,.man* s the

"on&uson a(out ho, a transitionto a ne, s'stem "ou!d ha%%en at a!!+In &a"t* man' tend to dsmss TZM?s %ro%osa!s on that (ass a!one*sm%!' (e"ause the' don?t understand ho, t "an ha%%en+ Thsar#ument* n %rn"%!e* s the same reasonn# as the e-am%!e o& a s"7man ,ho s see7n# treatment &or hs !!ness (ut does not 7no, ,herehe "an #et su"h treatment* ,hen t ,ou!d (e a$a!a(!e* or ,hat thetreatment s+ Does hs !a"7 o& 7no,n# ho, and ,hen sto% hs need to

see7 No . not & he ,ants to (e hea!th'+ G$en the dre state o& a&&arson ths %!anet* humant' must a!so 7ee% see7n# and a %ath ,!!ne$ta(!' "ome "!ear+6

In the end* t s ,orth reteratn# that the (att!e (et,een logicandpsychologys rea!!' a "entra! "on&!"t n the arena o& so"eta!"han#e+ There s no "onte-t more %ersona! and senst$e than the ,a',e or#an1e our !$es n so"et' and an m%ortant o(0e"t$e o& TZM* nman' ,a's* s to &nd te"hn)ues that "an edu"ate the %u(!" as to themert o& ths !o#"a! train of thought* o$er"omn# the (a##a#e o&outdated %s'"ho!o#"a! "om&orts ,h"h ser$e no %ro#ress$e* $a(!e

$a!ue ro!e n the modern ,or!d+

6 More on the su(0e"t o& transitionn %art IV+

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understandn# o&natural law and ho, t re!ates to our method o&e"onom'* Ths %remse s a sm%!e re&erenta! understandn# ,here the%h's"a! !a,s o& nature are "onsdered n the "onte-t o& e"onom"e&&"en"'* (oth on the human and ha(tat !e$e!s+ It s on!' !o#"a! that

an' s%e"es %resent n and re!ant on the ha(tat n ,h"h t e-stsshou!d "on&orm a!! "ondu"t to align,th the natura! orders nherent tothat ha(tat* as (est the' "an (e understood at the tme+ An' otherorentaton s sm%!' rratona! and "an on!' !ead to %ro(!ems+

Understandn# that Earth s a s'm(ot"s'ner#st" Ks'stem,th resour"es e-stn# n a!! areas* "ou%!ed ,th the %ro$a(!'nherent* under!'n# "ausa! s"ent&" order that e-sts* n man' ,a's*as a !o#"a! K#ude &or the human s%e"es to a!#n ,th &or the #reatestso"eta! e&&"a"'* ,e &nd that our !ar#er "onte-t as a global societytrans"ends a!! notons o& tradtona!"u!tura! d$son* n"!udn# ha$n#

no loyaltyto a "ountr'* "or%oraton or e$en K%o!t"a! tradton+I& an Ke"onom' s a(out increasing efficiency in meeting theneeds of the human population while wor#ing to further sustainabilityand prosperity* then our e"onom" o%eratons must ta7e ths ntoa""ount and a!#n ,th the !ar#est re!e$ant Ks'stem that ,e "anunderstand+ So a#an* &rom ths %ers%e"t$e* the naton.state enttesare "!ear!' &a!se* ar(trar' d$sons %er%etuated (' "u!tura! tradton*not !o#"a!* te"hn"a! e&&"en"'+

'alues

The (road or#an1aton o& so"et' toda' s (ased on mu!t.!e$e! human"om%etton+ Naton.states "om%ete a#anst ea"h other &ore"onom"%h's"a! resour"es "or%orate mar7et enttes "om%ete &or%ro&tmar7et.share and a$era#e ,or7ers "om%ete &or ,a#e %ro$dn#o""u%atonsn"ome and hen"e %ersona! sur$$a! tse!&+

Wthn ths "om%ett$e eth" s a (as" %s'"ho!o#"a! %ro%enst'to dsre#ard the ,e!!(en# o& others and the ha(tat+ The $er' natureo& "om%etton s a(out ha$n# advantageo$er others &or %ersona! #anand hen"e* need!ess to sa'* d$son and e-%!otaton are "ommonattr(utes o& the "urrent so"a! order+ Interestn#!'* $rtua!!' a!! so.

"a!!ed K"orru%ton ,h"h ,e ma' de&ne as K"rme n the ,or!d toda's (ased u%on the $er' same menta!t' assumed to #ude K%ro#ress nthe ,or!d throu#h the "om%ett$e nterest+

It s no ,onder* n &a"t* #$en ths &rame,or7* that $arousother detrmenta!* su%er&"a! so"a! d$sons are st!! %er$as$e su"h asra"e* re!#on* "reed* "!ass or -eno%ho(" (as+ Ths d$s$e (a##a#e&rom ear!'* &ear.orented sta#es o& our "u!tura! e$o!uton sm%!' has no,or7n# (ass n the %h's"a! rea!t' and ser$es no, on!' to hnder%ro#ress* sa&et' and sustana(!t'+

Toda'* as ,!! (e des"r(ed n !ater essa's* the %oss(!e

e&&"en"' and a(undan"e.%rodu"n# methods that "ou!d remo$e mosta!! human de%r$aton* n"rease the a$era#e standard o& !$n#enormous!' and %er&e"t %u(!" hea!th and e"o!o#"a! sustana(!t'#reat!' J #o unembraceddue to the o!der so"a! tradtons n %!a"e*n"!udn# the naton.state dea+ The &a"t s* there s te"hn"a!!' on!'

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one ra"e . the human ra"ethere s on!' one (as" ha(tat . Earthand there s on!' one ,or7n# manner o& o%eratona! thou#ht Js"ent&"+

Origins and $nfluenceLet?s )u"7!' "onsder the root or#ns o& the "om%ett$ed$s$emode!+ Wthout #on# nto too mu"h deta!* t s "!ear that the e$o!utono& so"et' has n"!uded a $ast hstor' o& "on&!"t* s"ar"t' andm(a!an"e+ Wh!e there s de(ate as to the nature o& so"et' durn# the%erod o& tme %re"edn# the Neo!th" Re$o!uton*the Earth sn"e thattme has (een a (att!e&e!d ,here "ount!ess !$es ha$e (een ta7en &orthe sa7e o& "om%etton* ,hether matera! or deo!o#"a!+

Ths re"o#n1ed %attern s so %er$as$e n &a"t that man' toda'attr(ute the %ro%enst' &or "on&!"t and domnaton to an

rre"on"!a(!e* m%u!s$e "hara"terst" o& our human nature ,th the"on"!uson that the human (en# s sm%!' una(!e to o%erate n a so"a!s'stem that s not (ased u%on ths "om%ett$e &rame,or7 and an'su"h attem%t ,!! "reate $u!nera(!t' that ,!! (e e-%!oted (' %o,era(use* e-%ressn# ths a%%arent "om%ett$edomnan"e trat+5

Wh!e the su(0e"t o& human nature tse!& s not the dre"t &o"uso& ths essa'*2!et t (e stated that the Kem%r"a! %o,er a(useassum%ton has (een a !ar#e %art o& the de&ense o& the"om%ett$ed$s$e mode!* usn# a #enera! (road $e, o& hstor' as ts(ass &or $a!dt'+ Ho,e$er* the s%e"&"s o& the conditionsn those

%erods* "ou%!ed ,th the 7no,n &!e-(!t' o& the human (en# areo&ten dsre#arded or #nored n these assessments+4

In the &e!d o& human #enet"s* KMto"hondra! E$e re&ers to thematr!nea!!' most re"ent "ommon an"estor 8MR/A; o& modern humans+ Inother ,ords* she ,as the most re"ent ,oman &rom ,hom a!! !$n# humanstoda' des"end* on ther mother?s sde+ We are one &am!'+ A!so* a!!"hara"terst"s o& ra"e d&&eren"e 8&a"a! &eaturess7n "o!or; ha$e (een &oundto (e !n7ed to the en$ronmenta! "ondtons ,here su"h su(.#rou%s o&humans !$ede$o!$ed+ Hen"e t s a &a!se dstn"ton as a means &orsu%er&"a! ds"rmnaton+

Sometmes a!so "a!!ed the A#r"u!tura! Re$o!uton* t ,as the ,or!d?s &rsthstor"a!!' $er&a(!e re$o!uton n a#r"u!ture+ It ,as the ,de.s"a!etranston o& man' human "u!tures &rom a !&est'!e o& huntn# and #athern#to one o& a#r"u!ture and sett!ement that su%%orted an n"reasn#!' !ar#e%o%u!aton and the (ass &or modern so"a! %atterns toda'+

In the 45th"entur' a!one* statst"ans %ut the human death to!! &rom ,ar(et,een 25 to 445 m!!on* ,th some "ha!!en#n# those num(ers ('"!amn# e$den"e %uts the to!! tmes h#her n man' re#ona! "ases o& the tme* sa(surd+ Ho,e$er* ,hat is possibles a dramat" m%ro$ement o& su"h%u(!" hea!th %ro(!ems (' sh&tn# the nature o& the so"oe"onom""ondton n the most strate#" manner ,e "an+ As ,e %ro"eed ,th the

%er "ase ana!'ss o& ma0or menta! and %h's"a! dsorders n the ,or!d*t ,!! (e &ound that the true m%erat$e &or %u(!" hea!th m%ro$ementrests a!most entre!' on ths so"oe"onom" %remse o& "ausa!t'+244

A""ordn# to Gernot Coh!er and Norman A!"o"7 n ther 2,or74n Empirical Table of Structural Violence* a dramat" 2 m!!on

22The term emotional lossre!ates to se$ere emotona! trauma e-%eren"ed*most!' as a "h!d* that %ersst n e&&e"t+ In the ,ords o& Dr+ Ga(or MatB KThe#reatest dama#e done (' ne#!e"t* trauma or emotional losss not themmedate %an the' n&!"t (ut the !on#.term dstortons the' ndu"e n the

,a' a de$e!o%n# "h!d ,!! "ontnue to nter%ret the ,or!d and her stuatonn t+ !n the 'ealm of >ungry ?hosts* North At!ant" 9oo7s* 4524* %+24

245As noted %ror* the ,or7 o& Ga(or MatB s h#h!' re"ommended on thesu(0e"t o& add"ton resu!tn# &rom emotona! !oss n "h!dhood and &ee!n#so& nse"urt'+ K!n the 'ealm of >ungry ?hosts* North At!ant" 9oo7s* 4524

242The ,or7Mental !llness and the Economy,(' M+H+ 9renner sre"ommended+ A(stra"t< K9' "orre!atn# e-tens$e e"onom" andnsttutona! data &rom Ne, :or7 State &or the %erod &rom 262 to 2*Har$e' 9renner "on"!udes that nsta(!tes n the natona! e"onom' are thesn#!e most m%ortant sour"e o& &!u"tuatons n menta!.hos%ta! admssonsor admsson rates+

244A stud' &or re&eren"e n the same (as" "onte-t s The Effect of 2nown 'is#(actors on the Excess Mortality of /lac# 4dults in the 9nited States, 3ourna!o& the Amer"an Med"a! Asso"aton* 48;


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deaths ,ere &ound to o""ur each yeardue to stru"tura! $o!en"e24andthat stud' ,as o$er 5 'ears a#o+ Sn"e that tme the #!o(a! #a%(et,een r"h and %oor has more than dou(!ed* su##estn# no, thatthe death to!! s e$en mu"h h#her toda'+ In e&&e"t* stru"tura! $o!en"e

s the most dead!' 7!!er on the %!anet+ The &o!!o,n# "hart sho,s rateso& death o& a s%e"&" demo#ra%h"* re$ea!n# the more (road"orre!aton o& !o,.n"ome and n"reased morta!t'+

8A(o$e; G+ D+ Smth* 3+ D+ Neaton* D+ Went,orth* R+ Stam!er and 3+ Stam!er*So"oe"onom" d&&erenta!s n morta!t' rs7 amon# men s"reened &or theMu!t%!e Rs7 Fa"tor Inter$enton Tra!< I+ Whte men*4merican &ournal of Public>ealth 82; 86;< 6.+

Ph+siological ealthThe "ore %h'so!o#"a! %ro(!ems o& the human %o%u!aton toda' n"!udemaormorta!t' %rodu"n# e%dem"s su"h as "an"er* heart dsease*stro7e* et"+ Re!at$e!' minor%ro(!ems that not on!' redu"e )ua!t' o&!&e* (ut a!so o&ten %re"ede those ma0or !!nesses n"!ude h#h (!ood

%ressure* o(est' and other ssues that* ,h!e !ess "rt"a! ('"om%arson* are st!! usua!!' a %art o& the %ro"ess that "an !ead toma0or !!nesses and death o$er tme+246

A#an* t s m%ortant to remem(er that the "ausa!t' o& theseK%h's"a! dseases s not str"t!' K%h's"a! n the narro, sense o& the,ord as modern stud' has &ound dee%psychosocial24stress

24Sour"e


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re!atonsh%s to seemn#!' deta"hed %h'so!o#"a! ssues+ A""ordn# tothe Wor!d Hea!th Or#an1aton* the most "ommon shared ma0or "auseso& death n !o,* mdd!e and h#h.n"ome "ountres are heart dsease*!o,er res%rator' n&e"tons* stro7e and "an"er+24Wh!e ea"h o& these

!!nesses 8and man' more; "an (e &ound re!ated to the "ausa! %ontsthat &o!!o,* &or sm%!"tes sa7e heart dsease ,!! (e a &o"us here+

Case Stud+% eart Disease

Wh!e the treatment o& heart dsease has !ed to a re"ent m!d #!o(a!de"!ne n heart atta"7s and deaths o$era!!*24the da#noss o& heartdsease has not su(sded and (' some re#ona! studes s on therse*24or on %a"e to n"reasn# su(stanta!!'+24/oronar' heart dseases st!! "onsdered (' the WHO as the K!eadn# "ause o& death#!o(a!!'25and t has (een &ound that ,h!e there are #enet" &a"tors n

%!a'* 5> o& those d'n# Kha$e rs7 &a"tors n&!uen"ed (' !&est'!e22

and o$era!! the dsease s ,de!' "onsderedpreventable& !&est'!ead0ustments are made+

In short* ,e!! esta(!shed re!atonsh%s to h#h &at dets*smo7n#* a!"oho!* o(est'* h#h "ho!estero!* da(etes and other rs7&a"tors a!!o, us to e-tend the "ausa!t' o& heart dsease and ,hen ,e&o!!o, the n&!uen"es* the most %ro&ound (road n&!uen"e &ound has todo not on!' ,th absoluteincome,(utrelativesocioeconomicstatus+

The WHO ma7es t #enera!!' "!ear that on the #!o(a! s"a!e*!o,er so"oe"onom" status (reeds more heart dsease and natura!!'

more o& the rs7 &a"tors that !ead to t+24

Ths* on one sde* de%"ts adirect economic relationshipto the o""urren"e o& dsease+ There s noe$den"e to sho, that #enet" d&&eren"es (et,een re#ona! #rou%s"ou!d (e res%ons(!e &or these $aratons and t s o($ous to see ho, a!a"7 o& %ur"hasn# %o,er !eads %eo%!e nto !&est'!es that n"!ude man'su"h rs7 &a"tors+

A 455 stud' n the Amer"an 3ourna! o& E%demo!o#' "a!!edKL&e./ourse So"oe"onom" oston and In"den"e o& /oronar' HeartDsease &ound that the !on#er a %erson remans n %o$ert'* the more

24The top ten causes of death, WHO* 4528htt%eart =isease, ancer, and Stro#e* o%u!aton Re&eren"e9ureau*8htt%eart disease to rise BGH by BCBC, 9e!&ast Te!e#ra%h* 45248htt%


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!7e!' he or she s to de$e!o% heart dsease+2eo%!e ,ho ,eree"onom"a!!' dsad$anta#ed throu#hout !&e ,ere more !7e!' to smo7e*(e o(ese* and ha$e %oor dets and the !7e+ In an ear!er stud' ('e%demo!o#st Dr+ Ra!%h R+ Frer"hs* &o"usn# s%e"&"a!!' on the

so"oe"onom" d$de n the "t' o& Los An#e!es* /A* &ound that thedeath rate &rom heart dsease ,as -C percent higher&or %oor meno$er a!! than &or ,ea!ther ones+26

G$en our or#na! thess to "onsder a !n7 &rom the so"a!s'stem tse!& to the %re$a!en"e o& dsease and ther asso"ated rs7&a"tors* ,e need to "onsder the dre"t re!atonsh% o& stress@purchasing power* 9e#nnn# ,th the !atter* ,h"h s more sm%!e*"!ear!' %oor hea!th ha(ts o""ur n !o,er n"ome en$ronments due tothe !a"7 o& &unds &or (etter nutrton*2med"a! attenton2andedu"aton+2For e-am%!e* man' o& the h#h &at* h#h sodum rs7

&a"tor &oods !eadn# to heart dsease tend to (e the most ne-%ens$e&ood &ound n stores+It s ,orth notn# that our so"oe"onom" mode! %rodu"es

#oods (ased u%on the %ur"hasn# %o,er o& tar#eted demo#ra%h"s+The de"son to %rodu"e %oor )ua!t' &ood #oods s made &or thenterest o&profitand sn"e the $ast ma0ort' o& the %!anet s re!at$e!'%oor* t s no sur%rse that n order to meet that mar7et* )ua!t' must(e redu"ed to a!!o, &or "om%ett$e (u'n#+

In other ,ords* there s a mar7et &or ea"h so"a! "!ass andnatura!!' the !o,er the "!ass* the !o,er the )ua!t'+ Ths rea!t' s an

e-am%!e o& adirect social system lin# to causality for heart disease+Wh!e edu"aton a(out the d&&eren"e (et,een )ua!t' &ood %rodu"ts"ou!d he!% the de"son %ro"ess o& a %oor %erson to eat (etter* the&nan"a! restr"tons nherent to ther "ondton "ou!d eas!' ma7e thatde"son d&&"u!t & not m%oss(!e as* a#an* su"h #oods are moree-%ens$e on a$era#e+

In an a#e ,here &ood %rodu"ton and human nutrton s a ,e!!

2+ife$ourse Socioeconomic Position and !ncidence of oronary >eart=isease* Amer"an 3ourna! o& E%demo!o#'* A%r! 2* 455+

8htt%


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understood s"ent&" %henomenon as &ar as ,hat ,or7s and ,hatdoesnt . ,hat s hea!th' and ,hat sn?t on the ,ho!e . ,e ha$e to,onder ,h' the a(undan"e o& de!(erate!' unhea!th' &oods anddetrmenta! ndustra! methods e-st at a!!+ The reasonn# s that

human hea!th s notthe %ursut o& ndustra! &ood %rodu"ton and ne$erhas (een due to the so!ated nterest to #enerate n"ome+ More on thsincentive disordernherent to the mar7et e"onom' n !ater essa's+

The Stress FactorLet?s no, "onsder the ro!e o&stress* Stress has more o& an e&&e"t onheart dsease than %re$ous!' thou#ht and ths sn?t 0ust re&errn# tothe statst"a! &a"t that !o,er n"ome %eo%!es tend to ha$e a %ro%enst'to "o%e (' smo7n# andor drn7n#* man&estn# h#h (!ood %ressureand hen"e dsre#ard ther (odes and ,e!!.(en# due to the on#on#

stru##!e &or n"ome and sur$$a!+ Wh!e those &a"tors are "!ear!'e$dent and* a#an* &ound ted to the ne$ta(!e strat&"aton &ound nthe mar7et e"onom'*2the most detrmenta! &orm o& stress "omes nthe &orm o&psychosocialstress* meann# stress re!ated to one?s%s'"ho!o#"a! "onne"ton ,th the so"a! en$ronment+

ro&essor M"hae! Marmot o& the De%artment o& E%demo!o#'and u(!" Hea!th at the Un$erst' /o!!e#e o& London dre"ted t,om%ortant studes re!atn# so"a! status to hea!th+2Usn# the 9rtsh"$! ser$"e s'stem as the su(0e"t #rou%* the' &ound that the #radento& hea!th )ua!t' n ndustra!1ed so"etes s not sm%!' 0ust a matter

o& %oor hea!th &or the &nan"a!!' dsad$anta#ed and #ood hea!th &ore$er'one e!se+ The' &ound that there ,as a!so a social distribution ofdisease as 'ou ,ent &rom the to% o& the so"oe"onom" !adder* to the(ottom and the t'%es o& dseases %eo%!e ,ou!d #et ,ou!d "han#e ona$era#e+

For e-am%!e the !o,est run#s o& the herar"h' had a fourfoldincrease o& heart dsease (ased morta!t'* "om%ared to the h#hestrun#s+ E$en n a "ountr' ,th un$ersa! hea!th "are* the ,orse a%erson?s &nan"a! status and %oston n the herar"h'* the ,orse therhea!th s #on# to (e on a$era#e+ The reason s essenta!!'

%s'"ho!o#"a! as t has (een &ound that the more strat&ed a #$enso"et'* the ,orse %u(!" hea!th s n #enera!* specifically&or the !o,er

2/!ass strat&"aton s an mmuta(!e %art o& the "urrent so"oe"onom" mode!due to (oth the n"ent$e s'stem #enerated that ds%ro%ortonate!'dstr(utes n"ome* strate#"a!!' &a$orn# the u%%er ters o& the herar"h' Jsu"h as n 455* /he& e-e"ut$es o& the !ar#est US "om%anes re"e$ed,e!! o$er GCC timesthe %a' o& the a$era#e em%!o'ee+ Ths "an (e "ou%!ed,th %ra"t"es o& ma"roe"onom" monetar' %o!"' that stru"tura!!' re,ardthe ,ea!th' and %unsh the %oor throu#h the interest system+ 8The ,ea!th'#an nterest n"ome o&& n$estment ,h!e the %oor* !a"7n# n$estment

"a%ta!* ta7e !oans &or the ma0ort' o& !ar#e %ur"hases* %a'n# nterest+ utn a(stra"ton* the %oor are &or"ed to #$e the r"h ther mone' throu#h thsme"hansm+;

2Whteha!! Stud' I @ II* 8htt%


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"!asses+265

Ths %attern has (een "orro(orated (' man' other studes o$erthe 'ears* n"!udn# a dee% "o!!e"ton o& resear"h or#an1ed (' R"hardW!7nson and Cate "7ett+ In ther ,or7* The Spirit +evel 1 7hy

E)uality is /etter for Everyone* the' sour"e hundreds o&e%demo!o#"a! studes on the ssue* out!nn# ho, more une)ua!so"etes %er%etuate a $ast arra' o& %u(!" hea!th %ro(!ems* (oth%h'so!o#"a! and %s'"ho!o#"a!+

Heart dsease asde* some "an"ers* "hron" !un# dsease*#astrontestna! dsease* (a"7 %an* o(est'* h#h (!ood %ressure* !o,!&e e-%e"tan"' and man' other %ro(!ems are a!so no, &ound to (e!n7ed to so"oe"onom" status n the (road $e,* not 0ust sn#u!ar rs7&a"tors+262There s a social gradient n hea!th )ua!t' a"ross so"et' and,here ,e are %!a"ed n re!aton to other %eo%!e has a %o,er&u!

psychosocial e&&e"t+ Those a(o$e us ha$e (etter hea!th on a$era#e,h!e those (e!o, us ha$e ,orse hea!th on a$era#e+264In &a"t* a statst"a! "om%arson o& %u(!" hea!th (et,een

"ountres ,th h#h !e$e!s o& n"ome ne)ua!t' 8su"h as the UntedStates; and those ,th !o,er !e$e!s o& n"ome ne)ua!t' 8su"h as3a%an; re$ea!s these truths )ute o($ous!'+26Ho,e$er* su"h #enera!!'deemed K%h's"a! !!nesses are on!' %art o& thepublic health crisis#enerated (' ne)ua!t' that* a#an* s 'et a "onse)uen"e unto tse!&or#natn# out o& the dre"t* immutablestrat&"aton nherent to our#!o(a! so"a! s'stem+

Ps+chological ealth

erha%s more %ro&ound n ts %u(!" hea!th m%!"aton s the resu!t o&so"a! ne)ua!t' on our menta! or %s'"ho!o#"a! hea!th+ Ths e-tendsnto (eha$ora! rea"tons and tenden"es su"h as a"ts o& $o!en"e ora(use* a!on# ,th emotona! ssues !7e de%resson* an-et' and%ersona!t' dsorders+

A #enera! trend assessment o& de%resson and an-et' nde$e!o%ed "ountres* "ountres that man' ntut$e!' ,ou!d thn7 ,ou!dha$e more 0o' and ease due to the matera! ,ea!th a$a!a(!e* re$ea!s a

mu"h d&&erent rea!t'+26626A 9rtsh stud' e-amnn# de%resson

265I(d+262A )ua!&er here to note s that ths %henomenon re!ates more so to

re!at$e!' ,ea!th' so"etes n #enera! than t does to nherent!' %o$ert'str"7en so"etes+

264Re&eren"e< Social =eterminants of >ealth3 The Solid (acts* R+G+ W!7nson@ M+ Marmot* Wor!d Hea!th Or#an1aton* 455

26A summar' DF o& re#resson !ne "harts e-tra"ted &rom the ,or7 o& R+W!7nson and C+ "7ett "an (e &ound here &or re&eren"e (et,een 2J26 and 455J455+Antde%ressants ,ere the thrd most "ommon %res"r%ton med"atonta7en (' Amer"ans n 455J455+25

Wh!e a #enet" "om%onent &or de%resson ma' ha$e re!e$an"e*the trend rate "!ear!' sho,s an en$ronmenta! "ausa!t' as the dr$n#&or"e+ In the ,ords o& R"hard W!7nson< KXAY!thou#h %eo%!e ,thmenta! !!ness sometmes ha$e "han#es n the !e$e!s o& "ertan"hem"a!s n the (ran* no(od' has sho,n that these are causes o&de%resson* rather than changes"aused (' de%resson+++a!thou#h

some #enet" $u!nera(!t' ma' under!e some menta! !!ness* ths "an?t(' tse!& e-%!an the hu#e rses n !!ness n re"ent de"ades . our #enes"an not "han#e that &ast+K22

It a%%ears our re!at$e so"a! status has a %ro&ound e&&e"t onour menta! ,e!!(en# and ths tenden"' "an a!so (e &ound n ,hat"ou!d (e de"!ared as the evolutionary psychologyo& sm!ar %rmatesas ,e!!+ A 4554 stud' %er&ormed ,th ma"a)ue mon7e's &ound thatthose ,ho ,ere su(ordnate!o,er n a #$en so"a! herar"h' had !essdo%amne a"t$t' than the domnant ones and ths re!atonsh% ,ou!d

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"han#e as d&&erent sets ,ere re#rou%ed+ In other ,ords* t hadnothn# to do ,th ther s%e"&" (o!o#' J on!' the so"a! arran#ementthat redu"ed or e!e$ated ther do%amne !e$e!s+ It a!so &ound that!o,er herar"h' mon7e's ,ou!d use more "o"ane to "om%ensate+ Ths

s re$ea!n# as !o, do%amne !e$e!s n %rmates 8n"!udn# humans; are&ound to ha$e a direct correlation to depression+24

The %attern has (e"ome $er' "!ear and ,h!e dre"t stressorssu"h as 0o( se"urt'* de(t and other !ar#e!' e"onom" &a"tors nherentto the so"a! s'stem ma' %!a' a ma0or ro!e*2the re!e$an"e o&so"oe"onom" status tse!& s st!! domnant+ The &o!!o,n# "hart s a"om%arson o& o$era!! menta! hea!th and dru# use (' "ountr'+26Itn"!udes nne "ountres* sour"n# data &rom WHO sur$e's* n"!udn#an-et' dsorders* mood dsorders* m%u!s$e dsorders* add"tons andothers+ One "an "!ear!' see that the Unted States* ,h"h a!so has the

h#hest !e$e! o& ne)ua!t'* has an enormous !e$e! o& menta! hea!th anddru# dsorders as ,e!! n "om%arson to the !ess strat&ed "ountres*,th Ita!' (en# the !o,est n menta! hea!th dsorders o& the #rou%+

E$enperceivedso"a! status* su"h as thecastere!atonsh%s&ound n "ountres !7e Inda* "an ha$e a %ro&ound e&&e"t on "on&den"eand (eha$or+ A stud' %er&ormed n 4556 "om%ared the %ro(!em.so!$n# a(!tes o& 42 h#h "aste Indan (o's a#anst those o& 42 !o,"aste Indan (o's+ The resu!ts demonstrated that ,hen "aste ,as not%u(!"!' announ"ed (e&ore the %ro(!em so!$n# (e#an* (oth sets o&

24Social dominance in mon#eys3 dopamine =B receptors and cocaine self$administration* Mor#an @ Grant* Nature Neuros"en"e* 4554 84;< %+2.6

2Suicide rates roc#et in wa#e of economic downturn recession* Nna La7han*The Inde%endent* Au# 2 4524

26/hart &romThe Spirit +evel(' R"hard W!7nson and Cate "7ett* en#un*Mar"h 455* %+


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(o's a"he$ed sm!ar resu!ts+ The se"ond round* (e&ore ,h"h the"aste o& ea"h #rou% ,as %u(!"!' announ"ed* the !o,er "aste #rou%&ared mu"h ,orse* and the h#her "aste mu"h (etter* %rodu"n# $er'd$er#ent data "om%ared ,th the &rst round+2eo%!e are #reat!'

n&!uen"ed (' ther %er"e$ed status n ther so"et' and o&ten when weexpect to be viewed as inferior, very often we perform as such*

In "on"!uson to ths su(se"ton re#ardn# the %s'"hoso"a!*ne)ua!t'.(ased %henomenon that sho,s a "!ear re!atonsh% to%s'"ho!o#"a! ,e!!(en#* t s m%ortant to )u"7!' ma7e "!ear the $astrangeof issues&ound re!ated+ When t "omes to edu"aton* so"a!"a%ta! 8trust;* o(est'* !&e e-%e"tan"'* teen (rth* m%rsonment and%unshment* so"a! mo(!t'* o%%ortunt'* and e$en nno$aton J"ountres ,th !ess n"ome ne)ua!t' do (etter than those ,th moren"ome ne)ua!t'+ ut another ,a'* the' are more healthyso"etes+2

Case Stud+% *eha/ioral 'iolence/ou%!ed ,th the a(o$e ssues re!atn# to ne)ua!t' n so"et'* there sone that deser$es a dee%er !oo7


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rea"tons that or#nate &rom stress&u! e-%eren"es* (oth n the !on#and short term+

For e-am%!e* "h!d a(use* (oth %h's"a! and emotona!* a!on#,th n"reasn#!' d&&"u!t !e$e!s o& %ersona! stress* ha$e a dre"t

"orre!aton to (oth %remedtated and m%u!s$e a"ts o& $o!en"e and,h!e men ha$e a statst"a!!' h#her %ro%enst' to,ards $o!en"e dueto !ar#e!' endo"rno!o#"a! "hara"terst"s that* ,h!e not causing$o!ent rea"tons* "an exaggerate them u%on the stress n&!uen"e*2

the "ommon theme s the n&!uen"e o& the en$ronment and "u!ture+Ths s not to ds"ount the re!atonsh% o& hormones or e$en

%oss(!' #enet" %ro%enstes*2(ut to sho, that at the or#n o& ths(eha$or s "!ear!' not our (o!o#'* (ut the "ondton u%on ,h"h ahuman e-sts and the e-%eren"es endured+ Other "ommonassum%tons o& "ausa!t'* su"h as Knstn"t are a!so &ar too a(stra"t

and $a#ue to ho!d an' o%eratona! $a!dt'+2

Dr+ G!!#an states< KI am su##estn# that the on!' ,a' toe-%!an the "auses o& $o!en"e* so that ,e "an !earn ho, to %re$ent t*s to a%%roa"h $o!en"e as a %ro(!em n %u(!" hea!th and %re$ent$emed"ne* and to thn7 o& $o!en"e as a s'm%tom o& !&e.threatenn#%atho!o#'* ,h"h* !7e a!! &orm o& !!ness* has an eto!o#' or "ause* a%atho#en+25

In Dr+ G!!#an?s da#noss he ma7es t $er' "!ear that the#reatest "ause o& $o!ent (eha$or s social ine)uality* h#h!#htn# then&!uen"e o& shame and humiliation as an emotona! "hara"terst" o&

those ,ho en#a#e n $o!en"e+22

Thomas S"he&&* a emertus %ro&essoro& so"o!o#' n /a!&orna stated that Kshame ,as theso"a!emoton*24Shame and hum!aton"an(e e)uated ,th the &ee!n#so& stu%dt'* nade)ua"'* em(arrassment* &oo!shness* &ee!n# e-%osed*nse"urt' and the !7e J a!! !ar#e!' so"a! or "om%arat$e n ther or#n+

Need!ess to sa'* n a #!o(a! so"et' ,th not on!' #ro,n#n"ome ds%art' (ut ne$ta(!' Kse!&.,orth ds%art' . sn"e status s

2The hormone testosterone has (een "ommon!' K(!amed &or ma!ea##resson+ Ho,e$er t has (een &ound that nter.nd$dua! d&&eren"es n

!e$e!s o& testosterone do notresu!t n %ro%ortona! d&&eren"es n !e$e!s o&a##ress$e (eha$or ,hen tests on the #enera! %o%u!aton ,ere "ondu"ted+It has (een &ound that rather than testosterone "ausn# a##resson !e$e!s torse* t s essenta!!' the other ,a' around+ See The Trouble withTestosterone,Ro(ert M+ Sa%o!s7'* Smon @ S"huster* 2* %+26.2

2Re&eren"e< ViolenceJ4 noxious coc#tail of genes and the environment,Mariya Moosaee, & ' Soc Med* BCCK MayL F:G;3 B1B- N Notesa stud'n Ne, Zea!and ,here an a%%arent #enet" !n7 &ound to $o!ent (eha$or,ou!d onlyman&est & a #reat dea! o& a(use n "h!dhood too7 %!a"e totr##er an e-%resson o& that a%%arent #enet" %ro%enst'+8htt%


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touted as dre"t!' re!ated to our Ksu""ess n our 0o(s* (an7 a""ount!e$e!s and the !7e . t s no m'ster' that &ee!n#s o& n&erort'* shameand hum!aton are sta%!es o& the "u!ture toda'+ The "onse)uen"e o&those &ee!n#s ha$e $er' serous m%!"atons &or %u(!" hea!th* as

noted (e&ore* n"!udn# the e%dem" o& the (eha$ora! $o!en"e ,e no,see toda' n ts $arous "om%!e- &orms+ Terrorsm* !o"a! s"hoo! and"hur"h shootn#s* a!on# ,th other e-treme a"ts that sm%!' dd note-st (e&ore n the a(stra"tons the' &nd "onte-t toda'* re$ea!s aun)ue e$o!uton o& $o!en"e tse!&+ Dr+ G!!#an "on"!udes< KI& ,e ,shto %re$ent $o!en"e* then* our a#enda s %o!t"a! and e"onom"re&orm+2

The &o!!o,n# "hart sho,s rates o& hom"de a"ross ,ea!th'natons ,th $ar'n# states o& so"a! ne)ua!t'+ The Unted States*,h"h s !7e!' the !ar#est Kant.so"a!st ad$o"ate ,th !tt!e stru"tura!

sa&e#uards n %!a"e 8su"h as a !a"7 o& un$ersa! hea!th "are;* ,h!e a!so%ushn# the %s'"ho!o#"a! eth" that Knde%enden"e and K"om%ettonare the most m%ortant ethos . sho,s a mass$e !e$e! o& $o!en"e+Wh!e de(ates o$er #un "ontro! and the !7e st!! %ersst n theAmer"an %o!t"a! !ands"a%e ,th res%e"t to the e%dem"* "!ear!' thathas nothn# rea!!' to do ,th "ausa!t'+

$n ConclusionThs essa' has attem%ted to #$e a "on"se o$er$e, o& "ore "ausa!re!atonsh%s to human hea!th on (oth the %s'"ho!o#"a! !e$e! and the%h'so!o#"a! !e$e!+ The theme s ho, the so"oe"onom" "ondton n#enera! m%ro$es or ,orsens %u(!" hea!th o$era!!* a!!udn# to dea!"ondtons ,h"h ,ou!d m%ro$e ha%%ness* redu"e #enera! dsease anda!!e$ate e%dem" (eha$ora! %ro(!ems* su"h as $o!en"e+

Wh!e dre"t e"onom" re!atonsh%s are $er' "!ear n ho, the'redu"e human hea!th and ,e!!(en# n the &orm o& absolutedeprivation* su"h as an na(!t' to o(tan )ua!t' &ood* !a(or.re!ated

2Sour"e< Violence* 3ames G!!#an* Grossetutnam* Ne, :or7* 24* %+4


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tme restrants that redu"e emotona! and de$e!o%menta! su%%ort &or"h!dren* !oss o& edu"aton )ua!t' due to re#ona! &undn# %ro(!ems*a!on# ,th "ase (' "ase turmo! su"h as the &a"t that most marra#esend due to monetar' %ro(!ems*26the relative deprivationssue has

(een more o& a &o"us here due to the &a"t that t s !ess understoodand more re!e$ant than most understand+ut nto the stru"tura!* so"oe"onom" "onte-t* these rea!tes

&rm!' "ha!!en#es the ethos that "om%etton* "!ass and otherK"a%ta!st notons o& n"ent$e and %ro#ress are dr$ers o& so"a!%ro#ress and hea!th+ The more ,e !earn a(out ths %henomenon* thestron#er the ar#ument (e"omes that the nature o& our so"oe"onom"s'stem s some,hat (a"7,ards n ts &o"us and ntent+ Human%ro#ress* hea!th and su""ess are "!ear!' not de&ned (' the "onstantn&!u- o& mar7et #oods* #ad#ets and matera! "reatons &or %ur"hase+

u(!" hea!th and ,e!!(en# arebased on how we relate to each otherand the environment as a whole and mar7et ndu"ed strat&"aton se-treme!' "aust" to so"et'+

The resu!t s a hidden form of violencea#anst the %o%u!atonand hen"e the %u(!" hea!th ssues ,e see are rea!!'civil A humanrights issues, sn"e the' sm%!' do not need to e-st+ When ,e see"!ear #eno"de n the ,or!d ,e o(0e"t stron#!' on %ure!' mora!#rounds+ 9ut ,hat & there e-sted a "onstant #eno"de that s unseen(ut $er' rea!* %er%etuated not (' a s%e"&" %erson or #rou% (ut ('dsorder (orn out o& stresse&&e"ts #enerated (' the tradtona! method

o& human ntera"ton and e"onom" ordern# that has (een "reated and"od&ed

As ,!! (e ar#ued n the &o!!o,n# essa's* mere ad0ustments tothe "urrent so"oe"onom" s'stem are not enou#h n the !on#.term tosu(stanta!!' reso!$e these %ro(!ems+ The $er' &oundatona! %rn"%!eso& our "urrent mode! are (ound (' herar"h"a! e"onom" and"om%ett$e orentatons and to tru!' ,or7 to remo$e those attr(utesand "onse)uen"es s to "om%!ete!' trans&orm the entre so"a! s'stem+

26Re&eren"e


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-$STOR1 OF ECO"O21-

It s a te!!n# s'm%tom o& our "ondton that no esta(!shed s"hoo!* ds"%!neor #enera! theor' o& so"a! ana!'ss has #rounded tse!& n !&e re)urements+++Instead* some so"a! "onstru"t s n$ara(!' ado%ted as the u!tmate re&eren"e

(od'. set o& deas* the state* the mar7et* a "!ass* te"hno!o#"a! de$e!o%ment*or some other &a"tor than the

!&e.#round tse!&+2.3ohn M"Murtr'

O/er/iewE"onom"s s !7e!' the most "rt"a!* re!e$ant and n&!uenta! so"eta!"hara"terst" there s+ Vrtua!!' e$er' as%e"t o& our !$es* o&ten ,thout"ons"ous re"o#nton* has a re!atonsh% to the hstor"a! de$e!o%mentand %resent %ra"t"e o& e"onom" thou#ht on one !e$e! or another*

mo!dn# our most (as" so"a! nsttutons* "ore (e!e&s and $a!ues+ In&a"t* the $er' essen"e o& ho, ,e as a so"et' thn7 a(out ourrelationship to ea"h other and the ha(tat that su%%orts us s* n !ar#e%art* a dre"t resu!t o& the e"onom" theores and %ra"t"es ,e%er%etuate+

Thou#ht&u! re$e, o& hstor"a! re!#ous @ mora! %h!oso%hes*#o$ernmenta! de$e!o%ment* %o!t"a! %artes* !e#a! statutes and otherso"a! "ontra"ts and (e!e&s that "om%rse a #$en so"a! s'stem and ts"u!ture* re$ea! the dee% m%a"t e"onom" assum%tons ha$e and"ontnue to ha$e n sha%n# o& the K1et#est o& a tme+

S!a$er'* "!asssm* -eno%ho(a* ra"sm* se-sm* su(0u#atonand man' other d$s$e @ e-%!otat$e notons st!! "ommon to human"u!tura! hstor' ,!! (e &ound to ha$e 7erne!s o& or#n or %er%etuatonn man' #enera!!' a""e%tede"onom" %h!oso%hes to one de#ree oranother+ Hstor' s &ar!' "!ear ,th res%e"t to ho, the so"a! "ondtons #roomed (' the %re$a!n# e"onom" assum%tons o& a #$en %erodand ths (road so"o!o#"a! "onsderaton s sad!' not #$en mu"h#ra$t' n the ,or!d toda' ,hen thn7n# a(out ,h' the ,or!d s the,a' t s and ,h' ,e thn7 the ,a' ,e do+

As a %re!mnar' %ont* a %ont ,h"h ,!! reemer#e !ater n ths

essa'* there has "ommon!' (een a dua!t' noted n most moderne"onom" thou#ht ,here the K"a%ta!st &ree mar7et* meann# theK&ree a"tons o& nde%endent %rodu"ers* !a(orer and traders* ,or7n#n a##re#ate to (u'* se!! and em%!o'*2s to (e "ontrasted to that o&the Kstate* meann# a un&ed s'stem o& de!e#ated %o,er that has the"a%a"t' to set !e#a! %o!"' and e"onom" mandates that "an nh(t thea"tons o& the K&ree mar7et throu#h nter&eren"e+ Most e"onom"de(ates toda' re$o!$ed around ths dua!t' on one !e$e! or another,th the K!asse1.&are nterests* or those ,ho ,sh to ha$e a

2Sour"e< The ancer Stage of apitalism* 3ohn M"Murtr'* !uto ress* 2*%+$

2A !ess #enera!1ed de&nton o& the K&ree.mar7et s as &o!!o,s< KAne"onom" s'stem n ,h"h %r"es and ,a#es are determned (' unrestr"ted"om%etton (et,een (usnesses* ,thout #o$ernment re#u!aton or &ear o&mono%o!es+ 8htt%


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"om%!ete!' non.re#u!ated mar7et e"onom'* "onstant!' at ,ar ,th theKstatsts* or those ,ho thn7 some 7nd o& "entra!1ed #o$ernment"ontro! and de"son ma7n# o$er e"onom" %!annn# and %o!"' s (est+

The Zet#est Mo$ement ta7es nether sde* e$en thou#h man'

,ho hear TZM?s %ro%osa!s ha$e a 7nee.0er7 rea"ton to assume the!atter asso"aton 8Kstatsm;+2As ,th man' tradtona!1ed (e!e&s'stems* %o!ar1ed %ers%e"t$es and de&enses are "ommon and thedea that there s no other%oss(!eframe of reference ,th res%e"t toho, an e"onom" s'stem "an (e de$e!o%ed and admnstered* s to"!ose onese!& o&& do#mat"a!!' to man' re!e$ant and emer#n#"onsderatons+

The &o!!o,n#* (re& treatment s a(out the historicalde$e!o%ment o& e"onom"s+ We ,!! tra"e the #enera! hstor' o&e"onom" thou#ht &rom rou#h!' the 2th"entur' on,ard* h#h!#htn#

the "ore n&!uen"es that #a$e (rth to the modern* K&ree mar7et"a%ta!st s'stem+ Ho,e$er* as ,!! (e e-%anded u%on more so n %artIII* a d&&erent %ers%e"t$e ,!! a!so (e a!!uded to+ We ,!! "a!! ths theKme"hanst" $e,+ The me"hanst" %ers%e"t$e o& e"onom" &a"torn#ta7es a d&&erent !oo7 at the "ausa!* scientific rea!tes o& humane-sten"eand our ha(tat and (u!ds a mode! o& e"onom" theor' &romthe stand%ont o& strategic reason,not historical tradition+

The (ottom !ne s that modern e"onom" thou#ht s rea!!' notmodern at a!! and the $ast ma0ort' o& assum%tons st!! he!d as ?#$en?*su"h as K%ro%ert'* Kmone'* K"!asssm* theores o& K$a!ue* K"a%ta!

and other "on"e%ts that run throu#h $rtua!!' a!! "onte-tua!!' re!e$anthstor"a! ar#uments* are rea!!' outdatedn ther under!'n# %remses+Ra%d de$e!o%ment n the ndustra!* n&ormatona! and humans"en"es* ,h"h ha$e #one !ar#e!' #nored (' the esta(!shed e"onom"tradton* are %osn# "rt"a! re"onsderatons and ne, re!atonsh%s,h"h sm%!' do not existn the tradtona! mode!s+2

Wth res%e"t to the e$er mutatn# Ks"hoo!s o& thou#ht thatha$e (rou#ht the e"onom" de(ate to ,here t rests toda'* thea"adem"* o&ten &ormu!a" tradtona!1ed e$o!uton o& esta(!shede"onom" theor' 8and %ra"t"e; a%%ears to ha$e de$e!o%ed a self$

referringframe of reference*2

2As ,!! (e des"r(ed n !ater essa's* TZM?s o&ten &a!se "ate#or1aton o&(en# Kstatst s rooted n ts #enera! o%%oston to mar7et %rn"%!es* ,h"ht &nds to (e unsustana(!e and o&ten "ounter%rodu"t$e+ KStatsm* ,h"h"an ta7e man' &orms* su"h as "ommunst* &as"st or so"a!st* ad$o"ates aK"entra! authort' to de"de ho, the e"onom"%o!t"a! %ro"ess s to un&o!d*,th !tt!e to no re!e$ant n&!uen"e o""urrn# $a the #enera! %o%u!aton+ TZMsu%%orts an o%en de"son ma7n# %ro"ess n #enera!* under the m%ostono& (as"* %ro$en !a,s o& s"ent&" sustana(!t' and e&&"en"'+

2The noton o& an Ke-terna!t'* ,h"h ,!! (e noted !ater n ths essa'* s a

"ase n %ont+ Most en$ronmenta! and so"a! "osts s'stem" to the mar7eta%%roa"h* a!on# ,th ar#ua(!' the loss of efficiencyand hen"e %ros%ert'*are dsmssed n the theoret"a! e)uaton o& the mar7et* amon# man' otherre!e$ant ssues+

2E"onom" %h!oso%her 3ohn M"Murtr' stated #enera!!' on ths ssue< KThstenden"' %re$a!s &rom the /ontnenta! Ratona!sts on+ Le(n1* S%no1a*

4


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In other ,ords* the most "ommon Kmanstream e"onom""onsderatons ds"usseda""e%ted toda' those most %ro%a#ated nthe %rest#ous a"adem" s"hoo!s and #o$ernmenta! "on&eren"es* ,!!(e &ound to der$e ther m%ortan"e &rom the mere &a"t that the' ha$e

(een consideredm%ortant &or so !on#+ As a meta%hor* t s sm!ar to$e,n# the en#ne o& an automo(!e and assumn# the o$era!!stru"ture o& that en#ne s mmuta(!e and on!' $araton amon#e-stn# "om%onent %arts s %oss(!e* as o%%osed to the rad"a! dea o&redesigningthe entre en#ne stru"ture &rom the #round u%* %erha%s(ased u%on ne, te"hno!o#' and n&ormaton that ser$es the ut!t'more e&&"ent!' and su""ess&u!!'+

KModern e"onom" thou#ht and %ra"t"e s an o!d en#ne ,th#eneratons o& mmnent Ke-%erts ,or7n# to admnster o!d"om%onents %arts* re&usn# to a""e%t the %oss(!t' that the entre

en#ne s outdated and %erha%s n"reasn#!' detrmenta!+ The'"ontnue to %u(!sh ar#uments* theores and e)uatons that ren&or"ethe &a!se m%ortan"e o& that o!d en#ne 8o!d K&rame o& re&eren"e;*#norn# ne, ad$ents n s"en"e* te"hno!o#' and %u(!" hea!th that"ontrad"t ther tradtona!sm+ It s no d&&erent than the !on# hstor' o&other Kesta(!shed deas* su"h as a(0e"t human s!a$er'* ,here theso"et' at !ar#e rea!!' ddn?t )ueston the %ra"t"e* and "onsdered su"hestablished structures,m%osed and "od&ed* as Knatura! to thehuman "ondton+25

&nderl+ing ThemesTa7n# an hstor"a! %ers%e"t$e* Euro%e o& the Mdd!e A#es22s#enera!!' a de"ent deo!o#"a! startn# %ont as the most "entra! deas"hara"terst" o& modern "a%ta!sm* ,h"h !ater s%read a"ross the,or!d* a%%ear to ha$e ta7en ho!d durn# ths %erod+24It s &rom the2th"entur' on,ard that ,e &nd most o& the n&!uenta! %h!oso%hers

Des"artes* 9er7e!e'* Cant and He#e!* &or e-am%!e* more or !ess entre!'%resu%%osed the so"a! re#me o& ther da' and ts "onsttuent &orms as nsome ,a' the e-%resson o& the d$ne Mnd* ,h"h the' see t as therratona! dut' on!' to a""e%t or to 0ust&'+ The ancer Stage of apitalism,

!uto ress* 2* %+25Arstot!e 86 9/J 44 9/;* ,h!e "redted ,th e-tens$e s"ent&"* !o#"a!

and %h!oso%h"a! "ontr(uton* ,as a!so n &a$or o& s!a$er'* 0ust&'n# therea!t' ,th ,hat "ou!d (e ar#ued as bias* not reason+ He stated< K9ut sthere an' one thus ntended (' nature to (e a s!a$e* and &or ,hom su"h a"ondton s e-%edent and r#ht* or rather s not a!! s!a$er' a $o!aton o&nature There s no d&&"u!t' n ans,ern# ths )ueston* on #rounds (oth o&reason and o& &a"t+ For that some shou!d ru!e and others (e ru!ed s a thn#not on!' ne"essar'* (ut e-%edent &rom the hour o& ther (rth* some aremar7ed out &or su(0e"ton* others &or ru!e+ Politics,9oo7 I* /ha%ters IIIthrou#h VII

22The term KMdd!e A#es #enera!!' re&ers to the %erod o& Euro%ean hstor'that !asted &rom the th unt! the 2th "entures+

24For a deta!ed stud' o& the mede$a! e"onom" s'stem and so"et'* the&o!!o,n# ,or7 s su##ested< The 4grarian +ife of the Middle 4ges,3+H+/ha%man and E!een E+ o,ers* eds+* 4d ed+* The ambridge Economic>istory of Europe* $o!+ 2 London* /am(rd#e Un$erst' ress* 2


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h#h!' re#arded toda' n tradtona! hstor' (oo7s o& e"onom"s+ Wh!ehstorans ha$e &ound that the (as" #estures o& K%ro%ert' and the a"to& Ktradn# &or %ro&t #o (a"7 to the se"ond m!!ennum 9/*2ts "orede$e!o%menta! &oundaton and nsttutona!1aton a%%ears to rests

around the !ate &euda!ear!' mer"ant!st %erods+Rather than ds"uss the $arous d&&eren"es (et,een theso"oe"onom" s'stems that %re"eded modern "a%ta!sm* t s more,orth,h!e to note the #enera! sm!artes+ In ths (road "onte-t* the"a%ta!st s'stem a%%ears to (e a man&est e$o!uton o& ,hat aremost!' dee%!' n#raned historical assumptionso& human nature andhuman so"a! re!atons*26

Frst!'* t ,!! (e not"ed throu#hout ths e$o!uton that a classdivide has (een re"o#n1ed and em%!o'ed to one de#ree or another+eo%!e ha$e #enera!!' (een d$ded nto t,o #rou%s2. those that

produce &or mnma! re,ard and those ,ho gain&rom that %rodu"ton+From an"ent E#'%tan s!a$er'*2to the %easant &armer to!n# nsu(ssten"e &or hs !ord n mede$a! &euda!sm*2to the "od&edo%%resson o& the mar7et mer"hants (' the state mono%o!es o&mer"ant!sm*2the theme o& ine)ualityhas (een $er' "!ear and"onsstent+

A se"ond &eature he!d n "ommon to these domnant Westernso"oe"onom" %h!oso%hes s that o& a (as" dsre#ard 8or %erha%s#noran"e; o& "rt"a! re!atonsh%s (et,een the human s%e"es and ts#o$ernn#* su%%ort$e ha(tat+ Wh!e "ertan e-"e%tons "an (e &ound

,th nd#enous tr(es su"h as ,th %re."o!ona!* Nat$e Amer"anso"etes*2Western e"onom" thou#ht has (een a!most de$od o& su"h"onsderatons* a(sent the more re"ent and mountn# e"o!o#"a!%ro(!ems ,h"h ha$e &or"ed some %u(!"#o$ernment res%onse and a$er' #enera! nterest n Kre&orm+25

2Re&eren"eistorical Encyclopedia of 7orld Slavery* 3unus +Rodr#ue1* Vo! I* Se"ton E

2 Re&eren"e< Mediaeval (eudalism* /ar! Ste%henson* /orne!! Un$erst'

ress* 22 Re&eren"eistory of Economic Theory and Method* Ro(ert 9+ E7e!und

Ro(ert F+ HB(ert* Ne, :or7< M"Gra,JH!!* 22Re&eren"e< =efending Mother Earth3 "ative 4merican Perspectives on

Environmental &ustice* 3a"e Wea$er* Or(s 9oo7s* 225To !st the e"o!o#"a! %ro(!ems no, &a"n# humant'* &rom "!mate

6


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A thrd and &na! (road &eature to note s the #enera! dsmssa!o& the so"a! re"o#nton o& a %erson?s ,e!!(en# on the !e$e! o& humanneed and hen"epublic health+ Ad$an"ements n the human s"en"es*,h"h o""urred !ar#e!' a&ter the "ore do"trnes o& e"onom" thou#ht

,ere tradtona!!' "od&ed* ha$e &ound that human wantsand humanneeds22are not the same and the de%r$aton o& the !atter "an "reateman' ne#at$e "onse)uen"es not on!' &or the nd$dua! (ut &or theso"et' tse!&+ Ant.so"a!* K"rmna! and $o!ent (eha$or* &or e-am%!e*ha$e (een &ound sour"ed to man' &orms o& so"a! de%r$aton rooted nthe so"oe"onom" tradton+24ut more #enera!!'* the s'stem #noressu"h so"a! "onse)uen"es (' des#n* re!e#atn# these out"omes asmere Ke-terna!tes n most "ases+

Ths rea!t' ,as &urther "om%ounded n the 2th"entur' ,herethe Kso"a!!' Dar,nst"2undertone o& the K!a(or.&or.re,ard

%remse n"reasn#!' redu"ed the human (en# to an o(0e"t that ,as to(e de&ned and )ua!&ed (' hs or her "ontr(uton to the s'stem o&!a(or+ I& the a$era#e %erson s una(!e to o(tan !a(or or en#a#esu""ess&u!!' n the mar7et e"onom'* there e-sts no rea! sa&e#uard,th res%e"t to one?s sur$$a! or ,e!!(en#* e-"e%t &or Knter&eren"e"omn# &rom the Kstate n the &orm o& K,e!&are+ In the modern da'*ths rea!t' s o& #reat "ontro$ers' ,here the "!am o& Kso"a!sm has(e"ome a 7nee.0er7 "ondemnaton rea"ton ,hene$er #o$ernmenta!%o!"' attem%ts to %ro$de dre"t su%%ort &or a "t1enr' ,thout &u!! useo& the mar7et me"hansm+

Dawn of 2ar#et Ca,italism

Mede$a!Feuda!sm 8rou#h!' &rom the thto 2th "entures; ,as thedomnant so"oe"onom" s'stem that essenta!!' %re"eded K&ree mar7et"a%ta!sm n Western Euro%e* ,th ,hat ,as !ater to (e "a!!edKmer"ant!sm ser$n# as ,hat "ou!d (e "onsdered a transton sta#e+

Feuda!sm ,as (ased on a s'stem o& mutua! o(!#atons andser$"es #on# u% and do,n a set so"a! herar"h'* ,th the entreso"a! s'stem restn# essenta!!' on an a#r"u!tura! &oundaton+Mede$a! so"et' ,as most!' an a#raran so"et' and the so"a!

herar"h' ,as (ased essenta!!' on %eo%!es tes to !and+ The (as"

desta(!1aton* to %o!!uton* to resour"e de%!eton* to !oss o& (od$erst' andother n$ara(!'public healththreats* ,ou!d (e too e-tens$e to deta! here+In the $e, o& TZM* these ssues are !ar#e!' a resu!t o& the /a%ta!st%remse and ts a""e%ted a%%roa"hes and $a!ues +

22/onsum%ton %atterns n modern so"et' ha$e sho,n an ar(trar' nature,th res%e"t to KHuman Wants* su"h as the %o,er&u! sh&t n $a!ues ,h"ho""urred n the ear!' 45th"entur' ,th the a%%!"aton o& modern Westernad$ertsn#+ KHuman Needs* ho,e$er* are (as" ne"esstes* !ar#e!' shared(' a!! humans* ,h"h mantan %h's"a! and %s'"ho!o#"a! hea!th+

24See the essa' =efining Public >ealth+2KSo"a! Dar,nsm s a $er' #enera! deo!o#' that see7s to a%%!' (o!o#"a!

"on"e%ts o& Dar,nsm or o& Ksur$$a! o& the &ttest t'%e theor' to so"o!o#'and %o!t"s+ Hstoran R"hard Ho&stadter %o%u!ar1ed the term n the UntedStates n 266+ The ntuton o& ths "on"e%t* ho,e$er* a%%ears !on# (e&oreDar,n?s tme n %h!oso%h"a! thou#ht+


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e"onom" nsttutons ,ere the K#u!ds and & someone ,anted to%rodu"e or se!! a #ood or ser$"e* the' ,ou!d #enera!!' 0on a #u!d+ A#reat dea! "ou!d (e stated n deta! a(out ths e-tens$e %erod o&hstor' and as ,th most hstor' t s su(0e"t to $arous nter%retatons

and de(ate+ Ho,e$er* &or the sa7e o& ths essa'* ,e ,!! on!' %resent a$er' #enera! o$er$e, ,th res%e"t to the e"onom" transton tomar7et "a%ta!sm+26

As a#r"u!tura! and trans%ort te"hno!o#' m%ro$ed* thee-%anson o& trade o""urred and (' the 2th"entur'* ,th the ad$ent o&the &our.,hee!ed ,a#on* &or e-am%!e* the ran#e o& mar7et ntera"tonra%d!' n"reased+ L7e,se* n"reased !a(or s%e"a!1aton* ur(an"on"entratons and %o%u!aton #ro,th a!so o""urred+2These "han#es*"ou%!ed ,th the resu!tn#* n"reasn# %o,er o& the Kmer"hant"a%ta!sts* as the' "ou!d (e "a!!ed* s!o,!' ,ea7ened the tradtona!*

"ustomar' tes that he!d the &euda! so"a! stru"ture to#ether+O$er tme* more "om%!e- "tes (e#an to emer#e ,h"h ,eresu""ess&u! n o(tann# nde%enden"e &rom the &euda! !ords andn"reasn#!' "om%!e- s'stems o& e-"han#e* "redt and !a, (e#an toemer#e* man' o& ,h"h are &ound to mrror man' (as" as%e"ts o&modern "a%ta!sm+ In the "ustomar' &euda! s'stem* #enera!!' theKhand"ra&t %rodu"er ,as a!so the se!!er to the (u'er o& use+ Ho,e$er*as the e$o!uton o& the mar7et "ontnued around these ne, ur(an"enters* the "ra&tsman (e#an to se!! at a ds"ount n mass to non.%rodu"n# mer"hants ,ho ,ou!d rese!! n dstant mar7ets &or a K%ro&t.

another &eature !ater to (e he!d "ommon to mar7et "a%ta!sm+9' the 2th"entur'* the Khand"ra&t ndustr' "ommon to

&euda!sm had (een trans&ormed nto a "rude mrror o& ,hat ,e 7no,toda'* ,th the outsour"n# o& !a(or* sn#u!ar o,nersh% o& %rodu"ton*a!on# ,th man' &ndn# themse!$es more and more n the %oston o&(en# Kem%!o'ed rather than %rodu"n# themse!$es+ E$entua!!'* the!o#" surroundn# monetar'profit(e#an to (e the "ore* de"dn# &a"toro& o$era!! a"ton n a s'stem" ,a' and the true seeds o& "a%ta!smtoo7 root+2

Mer"ant!sm* ,h"h essenta!!' domnated Western Euro%ean

e"onom" %o!"' &rom the 2th to the !ate 2th "entures*2,as"hara"ter1ed (' state.dr$en trade mono%o!es to ensure a %ost$eK(a!an"e o& trade*2"ou%!ed ,th man' other e-tens$e re#u!atons&or %rodu"ton* ,a#es and "ommer"e emer#n# o$er tme* &urther

26Re&eren"e< Mediaeval (eudalism* /ar! Ste%henson* /orne!! Un$erst' ress*2

2Re&eren"e< The Economy of Early 'enaissance Europe* 255J265* Harr'A+ Ms7mn* En#!e,ood /!&&s* N3< rent"e.Ha!!* 2* %+45

2Re&eren"e< Studies in the =evelopment of apitalism* Maur"e H+ Do((*

London* Rout!ed#e and Ce#an au!* 26* /ha%ter 62Re&eren"e


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n"reasn# the %o,er o& the state+ /o!!uson (et,een the state andthese emer#n# ndustres ,ere "ommon and man' ,ars o""urred dueto these %ra"t"es sn"e t ,as (ased on trade restr"tons (et,eennatons that o&ten too7 the e&&e"t o& e"onom" ,ar&are+2

Adam Smth* ,ho ,!! (e ds"ussed !ater n ths essa'* ,rotean e-tens$e "rt"sm o& mer"ant!sm n hs "!ass" 2 te-t*4n!n)uiry into the "ature and auses of the 7ealth of "ations*25It shere ,here t "ou!d (e de"!ared that the deo!o#"a! (rth o& K&reemar7et "a%ta!sm rea!!' too7 root n theor'* ,th the re0e"ton o& ,hats o&ten "a!!ed Kstate "a%ta!sm n modern terms* ,here the stateKnter&eres ,th the K&reedom o& the mar7et . a de&nn# &eature o&mer"ant!sm+22

Toda'* K"a%ta!sm* as a sn#u!ar term* s #enera!!' de&ned"u!tura!!' n the theoret"a! "onte-t o& K&ree mar7et not Kstate

"a%ta!sm* a!thou#h man' ,!! ar#ue n #reat deta! as to ,h"h t'%e o&s'stem ,e rea!!' ha$e toda'* amon# other $aratons o& the term+ Inrea!t'* there s no %ure K&ree mar7et or Kstate (ased s'stem ne-sten"e (ut a "om%!e- &uson (et,een the t,o* #enera!!' s%ea7n#+A#an* as noted at the (e#nnn# o& ths essa'* the $ast ma0ort' o&e"onom" de(ates and (!ame re#ardn# e"onom" un&o!dn# o&tenre$o!$e around these %o!ar1ed deas+24

Ca,italism Defined/a%ta!sm2as ,e 7no, t n s%e"&"s toda'* n"!udn# not on!' ts

e"onom" theor' (ut %o,er&u! %o!t"a! and so"a! e&&e"ts* emer#ed n&orm* as noted* rather s!o,!' o$er a %erod o& se$era! "entures+ Itshou!d (e stated u%&ront that there s no "om%!ete a#reement amon#ste"onom" hstoranstheorsts as to ,hat the essenta! &eatures o&"a%ta!sm rea!!' are+ We ,!!* ho,e$er* redu"e ts hstor"a!"hara"ter1aton 8,h"h some ,!! !7e!' &nd de(ata(!e; to &our (as"&eatures+

2Re&eren"e< The ?rowth of Economic Thought, Henr' W!!am S%e#e!, Du7e

Un$erst' ress* rdEd* 22, %%+.22+25Re&eren"e< An !n)uiry into the "ature and auses of the 7ealth of "ations*

Adam Smth* 2* 9oo7 IV< O& S'stems o& o!t"a! E"onom'22Murra' Roth(ard* a &eatured e"onomst o& the modern Austran S"hoo!*

summar1ed the Statst %ers%e"t$e and "rt"sm< Mer"ant!sm* ,h"hrea"hed ts he#ht n the Euro%e o& the se$enteenth and e#hteenth"entures* ,as a s'stem o& statsm ,h"h em%!o'ed e"onom" &a!!a"' to (u!du% a stru"ture o& m%era! state %o,er* as ,e!! as s%e"a! su(sd' andmono%o!st" %r$!e#e to nd$dua!s or #rou%s &a$ored (' the state+ Thus*mer"ant!sm he!d e-%orts shou!d (e en"oura#ed (' the #o$ernment andm%orts ds"oura#ed+ 8Mercantilism3 4 +esson for


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2; Mar7et.(ased %rodu"tondstr(uton< /ommodt' %rodu"ton s(ased around rather "om%!e- nterre!atonsh%s and de%enden"es thatdo not n$o!$e direct %ersona! ntera"tons (et,een %rodu"ers and"onsumers+ Su%%!' and demand s medated (' the mar7et s'stem+

4; r$ate o,nersh% o& %rodu"ton means< Ths means that so"et'#rants to %r$ate %ersons the r#ht to d"tate ho, the ra, matera!s*too!s* ma"hner'* and (u!dn#s ne"essar' &or %rodu"ton "an (e used+

; De"ou%!n# o& o,nersh% and !a(or< In short* a "onstant "!ass d$des nherent ,here on the to% !e$e!* K"a%ta!sts*26(' hstor"a!de&nton* o,n the means o& %rodu"ton* (ut 'et ha$e no o(!#aton to"ontr(ute to %rodu"ton tse!&+ The "a%ta!st o,ns e$er'thn# %rodu"ed(' the !a(orers* ,ho on!' o,n ther o,n !a(or* (' !e#a! authort'+

6; Se!&.ma-m1n# n"ent$e assumed< Ind$dua!st"* "om%ett$e anda")ust$e nterests are ne"essar' &or the su""ess&u! &un"tonn# o&"a%ta!sm sn"e a "onstant %ressure to "onsume and e-%and s neededto a$od re"essons* de%ressons and other ne#at$es+ In man' ,a's*ths s the Kratona! (eha$ora! $e, he!d ,here & a!! humans a"ted na "ertan assumed ,a'* the s'stem ,ou!d &un"ton ,thoutnh(ton+2

(oc#e% E/olution of 3Pro,ert+4

A dee% %h!oso%h"a! under"urrent to the "a%ta!st s'stem s the notono& K%ro%ert'+ En#!sh %h!oso%her 3ohn Lo"7e 824.256; s a %$ota!ure+ A!so sour"ed n Adam Smth?s more n&!uenta! 7ealth of"ations* Lo"7e not on!' de&nes the dea n #enera!* he %resents asu(t!e 'et %o,er&u! "ontrad"ton+

In /ha%ter V* entt!ed K%ro%ert'* o& Lo"7e?s Second Treatise of?overnment%u(!shed n 2* he %oses an ar#ument ,th res%e"t tothe nature o& %ro%ert' and ts a%%ro%raton+ He states< KThe !a(our o&hs (od' and the ,or7 o& hs hands* ,e ma' sa'* are str"t!' hs+ So,hen he ta7es somethn# &rom the state that nature has %ro$ded and

!e&t t n* he mixes his labour with it* thus 0onn# to t somethn# thats hs o,n and n that ,a' he ma7es t hs %ro%ert'+2Ths statement8su%%ortn# n #esture ,hat ,as !ater to asso"ate ,th the K!a(ortheor' o& $a!ue;* %ro%oses the !o#" that sn"e !a(or s Ko,ned (' the

26Wh!e a K"a%ta!st "an (e "onsdered a %erson n &a$or o& ths a%%roa"h toe"onom'* a more a""urate de&nton denotes Ka %erson ,ho has "a%ta!*es%e"a!!' e-tens$e "a%ta!* n$ested n (usness enter%rses+Xhtt%


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!a(orer 8sn"e he o,ns hmse!&;* an' ener#' e-%e!!ed throu#h hs !a(ortransfersthat o,nersh% to the %rodu"t made+

Hs %h!oso%h"a! ds%oston s essenta!!' der$ed &rom a/hrstan %ers%e"t$e* statn#< KGod #a$e the ,or!d to men n

"ommon (ut sn"e he #a$e t to them &or ther (ene&t and &or the#reatest "on$enen"es o& !&e the' "ou!d #et &rom t* he "ant ha$emeant t a!,a's to reman "ommon and un"u!t$ated+2

G$en ths de"!araton o& the K"ommon nature o& the earth andts &ruts to a!! o& humant' (e&ore ts K"u!t$aton $a a%%ro%raton nthe &orm %ro%ert'* he a!so der$es that o,ners are re)ured to nota!!o, an'thn# to spoil 8KNothn# ,as made (' God &or man to s%o! ordestro'+;2and the' must !ea$e enou#h &or others 8KThsa%%ro%raton o& a %!ot o& !and (' m%ro$n# t ,asnt done at thee-%ense o& an' other man* (e"ause there ,as st!! enou#h Xand as

#oodY !e&t &or others+++;+2

These $a!ues* n sm%!st" &orm* seem so"a!!' 0ust&a(!e n#enera!+ He ma7es t "!ear u% unt! ths %ont that the o,nersh%"onte-t s re!e$ant on!' n so &ar as the o,ner?s needs and a(!t' tocultivate* or %rodu"e+455Ho,e$er* n Se"ton * he re$ea!s a un)uerea!t'* the m%!"atons o& ,h"h Lo"7e !7e!' dd not ant"%ate and* nman' ,a's* nu!!&es a!! %ror ar#uments n hs de&ense o& %r$ate%ro%ert'+ He states< KThe one thn# that (!o"7s ths s the n$enton o&mone'* and mens ta"t a#reement to %ut a $a!ue on t ths made t%oss(!e* ,th mens "onsent* to ha$e !ar#er %ossessons and to ha$e a

r#ht to them+452

No,* n e&&e"t* hs or#na! %remse* summar1ed n %art here*that< KAn'one "an throu#h hs !a(our "ome to o,n as mu"h as he "anuse in a beneficial way(e&ore t s%o!s an'thn# (e'ond ths s morethan hisshare and (e!on#s to others454(e"omes $er' d&&"u!t to de&end as mone' no, not on!' a!!o,sKXmenY to ha$e !ar#er %ossessons* m%!"t!' $odn# n "onte-t thedea that Kan'thn# (e'ond ths s more than hisshare and (e!on#s toothers* t a!so &urther m%!es that mone' "an buy labor* ,h"h $odsthe dea that Khe Xn ths "ase the (u'erY mixes his labour with it* thus

0onn# to t somethn# that s hs o,n and n that ,a' he ma7es t hs%ro%ert'+45

Fna!!'* the %ro$so KNothn# ,as made (' God &or man to s%o!

2 I(d*/ha%ter V* Se"ton 6* 22 I(d*/ha%ter V* Se"ton 2* 22 I(d* /ha%ter V* Se"ton * 2455Lo"7e States< KNature dd ,e!! n settn# !mts to %r$ate %ro%ert' throu#h

!mts to ho, mu"h men "an ,or7 and !mts to ho, mu"h the' need+ Nomans !a(our "ou!d tame or a%%ro%rate a!! the !and no mans en0o'ment"ou!d "onsume more than a sma!! %art so that t ,as m%oss(!e &or an'

man n ths ,a' to n&rn#e on the r#ht o& another* or a")ure a %ro%ert' tothe dsad$anta#e o& hs ne#h(or+++ 8Second Treatise of ?overnment* 3ohnLo"7e* /ha%ter V* Se"ton * 2;

452 I(d* /ha%ter V* Se"ton * 2454 I(d* /ha%ter V* Se"ton 2* 245 I(d* /ha%ter V* Se"ton 4* 2


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or destro'456s nu!!&ed ,th a ne, asso"aton that mone'* (en# #o!dor s!$er at that tme* sm%!' cannots%o!+ KThat s ho, mone' "amento use . as a dura(!e thn# that men "ou!d 7ee% ,thout ts s%o!n#*and that (' mutua! "onsent men ,ou!d ta7e n e-"han#e &or the tru!'

use&u! (ut %ersha(!e su%%orts o& !&e+

45

It s here ,here ,e &nd* at !east n the medum o& !terar'ds"ourse* the true seed o& "a%ta!st ownership ustification,here theuse o& mone'* treated as an a(stra"t "ommodt' n and o& tse!& 8ne&&e"t* an assumed em(odment o& K!a(or;* a!!o,ed an e$o!uton o&thou#ht and %ra"t"e to emer#e ,h"h n"reasn#!' sh&ted the &o"us&rom re!e$ant %rodu"ton 8Lo"7e?s K"u!t$aton; to mere o,nersh%me"han"s and the %ursut o& %ro&t+45

Adam Smith

Adam Smth 824.25; s o&ten "redted as one o& the mostn&!uenta! e"onom" %h!oso%hers n modern hstor'+ Hs ,or7* ,h!enatura!!' (ased on the %h!oso%h"a! ,rtn#s o& man' (e&ore hm* so&ten "onsdered a startn# %ont &or e"onom" thou#ht n the "onte-to& modern "a%ta!sm+ Rea"hn# maturt' at the da,n o& the Industra!Re$o!uton*45Smth !$ed at a tme ,here t "ou!d (e ar#ued that thenherent &eatures o& the "a%ta!st Kmode o& %rodu"ton ,ere (e"omn#e$er more str7n#* #$en the ntrodu"ton o& "on"entrated* "entra!1ed%rodu"ton &a"tores and mar7ets+

As noted* n 2 Smth %u(!shed hs no, ,or!d &amous4n

!n)uiry into the "ature and auses of the 7ealth of "ations*Amon#man' re!e$ant o(ser$atons* he a%%ears to (e the &rst to re"o#n1e thethree %rn"%a! "ate#ores o& n"ome at the tme . 8a; %ro&ts* 8(; rentsand 8"; ,a#es . and ho, the' re!ated to the man so"a! "!asses o& the%erod . 8a; "a%ta!sts* 8(; !and!ords* and 8"; !a(orers+ It s ,orthnotn# that the ro!e o& landlords.rent* ,h"h s se!dom ds"ussed toda'n modern e"onom" treatments* ,as a "ommon %ont o& &o"us thensn"e the %re.ndustra! s'stems ,here st!! !ar#e!' a#raran*h#h!#htn# the landlords8,h"h !ater dsso!$ed nto the "!ass&"atono& sm%!' ownersn &uture mar7et theores;+

Smth?s most noted "ontr(uton to the %h!oso%h' o& "a%ta!sm,as hs #enera! ad$o"aton that e$en thou#h nd$dua!s m#ht a"t n anarro,* se!&sh manner on ther %ersona! (eha!& or on the (eha!& o& the"!ass or #rou% to ,h"h the' are a %art* and e$en thou#h "on&!"t* (oth

456 I(d* /ha%ter V* Se"ton 2* 245 I(d* /ha%ter V* Se"ton 6* 245The Sto"7 Mar7et and n"reasn# %o,er o& the n$estment&nan"a! %o,ers

around the ,or!d n the 42st"entur' re&!e"ts ths "u!mnaton ,e!!+ It a%%earsthat the mere a"t o& o,nersh% and trade $a mone' a!one* ,thout an'

need &or %rodu"ton "u!t$aton and human ser$"e* has (e"ome the most%ro&ta(!e ndustr' n the ,or!d toda'+

45The Industra! Re$o!uton o""urred &rom a(out 25 to some tme (et,een245 and 265 startn# n Euro%e* a""ordn# to $arous hstorans* and ,asessenta!!' the transtona%%!"aton to ne,* te"hno!o#' (asedmanu&a"turn# %ro"esses+

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nd$dua! or "!ass (ased* seemed to (e the resu!t o& these a"tons*there ,as ,hat he "a!!ed an Kn$s(!e hand that se"ured a %ost$eso"a! out"ome &rom sn#u!ar* se!&sh* non.so"a! ntents+ Ths "on"e%t,as %resented (oth n hs ,or7s The Theory of Moral Sentiments45

andThe7ealth of "ations*He stated n the !atter< KAs e$er' nd$dua!* there&ore*endea$ors as mu"h as he "an (oth to em%!o' hs "a%ta! n the su%%orto& domest" ndustr'* and so to dre"t that ndustr' that ts %rodu"ema' (e o& the #reatest $a!ue e$er' nd$dua! ne"essar!' !a(ors torender the annua! re$enue o& the so"et' as #reat as he "an+ He#enera!!'* ndeed* nether ntends to %romote the %u(!" nterest* nor7no,s ho, mu"h he s %romotn# t+++he ntends on!' hs o,n #an* andhe s n ths* as n man' other "ases* !ed (' an n$s(!e hand to%romote an end ,h"h ,as no %art o& hs ntenton+ Nor s t a!,a's the

,orse &or the so"et' that t ,as no %art o& t+ 9' %ursun# hs o,nnterest he &re)uent!' %romotes that o& the so"et' more e&&e"tua!!'than ,hen he rea!!' ntends to %romote t+45

Ths near!' re!#ous dea! had a %o,er&u! e&&e"t on the %ost.Smth era* #$n# a $er' social $nd"aton &or the nherent!' se!&.ma-m1n#* anti$social(eha$or "ommon to "a%ta!st %s'"ho!o#'+ Ths(as" %h!oso%h' ,as to de$e!o%* n %art* as the &oundaton o&Kneo"!ass"a!425e"onom"s (e#nnn# n the !ate nneteenth "entur'+

Smth* 7no,n# )ute ,e!! the "!ass "on&!"ts nherent to"a%ta!sm* #oes on to ds"uss the nature o& ho, some men #an

K+++su%erort' o$er the #reater %art o& ther (rethren*422

ren&or"n#,hat ,as to n"reasn#!' (e "onsdered a K!a, o& nature re#ardn#human %o,er and su(0u#aton (' &urther theorsts+ Hs $e, o&%ro%ert' ,as n harmon' ,th 3ohn Lo"7e* e!a(oratn# on ho, so"et'tse!& s man&est around t+ He stated K/$! #o$ernment* so &ar as t s

45KThe r"h on!' se!e"t &rom the hea% ,hat s most %re"ous and a#reea(!e+The' "onsume !tt!e more than the %oor* and n s%te o& ther natura!se!&shness and ra%a"t'* thou#h the' mean on!' ther o,n "on$enen"'*thou#h the so!e end ,h"h the' %ro%ose &rom the !a(ours o& a!! thethousands ,hom the' em%!o'* (e the #rat&"aton o& ther o,n $an and

nsata(!e desres* the' d$de ,th the %oor the %rodu"e o& a!! therm%ro$ements+ The' are !ed (' an n$s(!e hand to ma7e near!' the samedstr(uton o& the ne"essares o& !&e* ,h"h ,ou!d ha$e (een made* had theearth (een d$ded nto e)ua! %ortons amon# a!! ts nha(tants* and thus,thout ntendn# t* ,thout 7no,n# t* ad$an"e the nterest o& the so"et'*and a&&ord means to the mu!t%!"aton o& the s%e"es+ XThe Theory of MoralSentiments%ar+ IV+I+25* 25Y

45Sour"e


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nsttuted &or the se"urt' o& %ro%ert'* s n rea!t' nsttuted &or thede&ense o& the r"h a#anst the %oor* or o& those ,ho ha$e some%ro%ert' a#anst those ,ho ha$e none at a!!+424

ro%ert'* as an nsttuton* a!so re)ures a means to 0ust&'

res%e"t$e value+ To ths end* $arous Ktheores o& $a!ue ha$e (eenand "ontnue to (e %ostu!ated+ O&ten sour"ed n or#n (a"7 toArstot!e?s Politics, Smth?s "ontr(uton s st!! ,de!' re&eren"ed as a%$ota! n&!uen"e+ In e&&e"t* Smth (u!ds u%on Lo"7e?s Km-n# !a(or%remse o& %rodu"tono,nersh% and e-tends &rom there* "reatn# aK!a(or theor' o& $a!ue+

He states KLa(our ,as the &rst %r"e* the or#na! %ur"hasemone' that ,as %ad &or a!! thn#s+ It ,as not (' #o!d or (' s!$er* (ut(' !a(our* that a!! the ,ea!th o& the ,or!d ,as or#na!!' %ur"hasedand ts $a!ue* to those ,ho %ossess t* and ,ho ,ant to e-"han#e t &or

some ne, %rodu"tons* s %re"se!' e)ua! to the )uantt' o& !a(our,h"h t "an ena(!e them to %ur"hase or "ommand+42Man' "ha%terso& 9oo7 I o& 7ealth of "ations,or7 to e-%!an the nature o&%r"es$a!ues res%e"t$e to hs denoted n"ome"!ass "ate#ores o&K,a#es* Krents* and K%ro&ts+ Ho,e$er* t ,!! (e &ound that hs !o#"s rather "r"u!ar n s%e"&"s as the %r"e assessments are &ound toor#nate mere!' &rom other %r"e assessments n a "han ,th no rea!startn# %ont* other than the !oose dstn"ton o& a%%!ed !a(or* ,h"hhas* o& "ourse* no ntrns"* stat" monetar' )ua!&"aton+ Ths %ro(!emo& am(#ut' n (oth the domnant K!a(or and Kut!t' theores o&

$a!ue "ommon to "a%ta!st mar7et theor' ,!! (e addressed n deta!!ater n ths essa'+

O$era!!* Smths e"onom" theor' su%%orted K!asse1.&are"a%ta!sm as the h#hest mode o& so"oe"onom" o%eraton* statn#that< t ,as a Ks'stem o& natura! !(ert' and KE$er' man* as !on# ashe does not $o!ate the !a,s o& 0ust"e* s !e&t %er&e"t!' &ree to %ursuehs o,n nterest hs o,n ,a'* and to (rn# (oth hs ndustr' and"a%ta! nto "om%etton ,th those o& an' other man* or order o&men+426Ths !ater "on"e%t*as ,!! (e ar#ued n the essa'* ValueSystem =isorder,s a rather na$e assum%ton o& human (eha$or and*

n e&&e"t* a "ontrad"ton n terms+

2althus and RicardoThomas Ma!thus 82.26; and Da$d R"ardo 824.24; ,eret,o ,e!! a"7no,!ed#ed* !eadn# theorsts o& %o!t"a! e"onom' o& theear!' 2th"entur'+ The' ,ere K&rend!' r$a!s (' some "om%arson (ut&rom the (road $e, o& hstor' the' shared $rtua!!' the same%ers%e"t$e* "!ose!' ted to Adam Smth?s+

The !ate Industra! Re$o!uton n Euro%e and Amer"a ,as a%erod o& e-tens$e "on&!"t (et,een !a(orers and "a%ta!st o,ners+

Numerous re$o!ts and str7es n res%onse to a(horrent and a(us$e,or7n# "ondtons &or not on!' men* (ut a!so ,omen and "h!dren*

424I(d+42I(d+426 I(d+* %ar+ IV++2

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,ere "ommon+ Ths #a$e ra%d rse to the no, "ommon !a(or unonsand a #enera! (att!e (et,een K,or7ers and o,ners has "ontnuede$er sn"e+ To em%has1e the e-tent o& ths "!ass ,ar&are* n En#!and*the ombination 4ct of OFF,as m%osed ,h"h (as"a!!' out!a,ed

an' "om(naton o& ,or7ers to #rou% to#ether &or %o,er n order to* ne&&e"t* e-ert n&!uen"e or nh(t the nterests o& ther em%!o'ers+42

Hstoran au! Mantou-* ,rtn# o& ths %erod* "ommented onthe a(so!ute and un"ontro!!ed %o,er o& the "a%ta!st+ In ths* thehero" a#e o& #reat underta7n#s* t ,as a"7no,!ed#ed* admtted ande$en %ro"!amed ,th (ruta! "andor+ It ,as the em%!o'ers o,n(usness* he dd as he "hose and dd not "onsder that an' other0ust&"aton o& hs "ondu"t ,as ne"essar'+ He o,ed hs em%!o'ees,a#es and on"e those ,ere %ad the men had no &urther "!am onhm+42It ,as n the mdst o& a!! ths that Ma!thus and R"ardo

n$ara(!' "onte-tua!1ed ther e"onom" and so"a! $e,s+9e#nnn# ,th Ma!thus* hs "!ass" ,or74n Essay on thePrinciple of Populationorents around essenta!!' t,o assum%tons+ The&rst s that the "!ass stru"ture o& ,ea!th' %ro%retors and %oor !a(orers,ou!d ne$ta(!' reemer#e no matter ,hat re&orms ,hereattem%ted+42He "onsdered t alaw of nature+ The se"ond dea*somethn# o& a "oro!!ar' to &rst* ,as sm%!' that %o$ert' and su&&ern#and hen"e e"onom" d$des ,ere ne$ta(!e "onse)uen"es o& natura!!a,+42

Hs thess on %o%u!aton rests u%on the $er' sm%!e assum%ton

that Ko%u!aton* ,hen un"he"7ed* n"reases n a #eometr"a! rato+Su(ssten"e n"reases on!' n an arthmet"a! rato+42There&ore* & thestandard o& !$n# o& e$er'one n so"et' ,ere n"reased* the $astma0ort' ,ou!d res%ond (' n"reasn# the amount o& "h!dren the'ha$e+ In turn* %o%u!aton out%a"n# su(ssten"e ,ou!d $er' soon %ushthe %o%u!aton (a"7 to %o$ert'+ It ,as on!' throu#h Kmora!restrant*445a so"a! )ua!t' that he m%!es to (e!on# to the moreu%standn# u%%er "!ass* that ths %ro(!em s "he"7ed (' (eha$or+

42Ths %o,er o& "a%ta!st nterests to en#a#e and* n man' ,a's* becomethe

#o$ernment to ser$e ther o,n "om%ett$e ad$anta#e ,!! a!so (e ds"ussedn the essa'< KVa!ue S'stem Dsorder

42Sour"e< The !ndustrial 'evolution in the Eighteenth entury* au! Mantou-*Har"ourt 9ra"e 3o$ano$"h* Ne, :or7* 24* %+62

42He states< KNo %oss(!e sa"r&"es o& the r"h* %art"u!ar!' n mone'* "ou!d&or an' tme %re$ent the re"urren"e o& dstress amon# the !o,er mem(erso& so"et'* ,hoe$er the' ,ere 84n Essay on the Principle of Population,Thomas Ma!thus* 2* /ha%ter ;

42He states< It has a%%eared* that &rom the ne$ta(!e !a,s o& our naturesome human (en#s must su&&er &rom ,ant+ These are the unha%%' %ersons,ho* n the #reat !otter' o& !&e* ha$e dra,n a (!an7+ 84n Essay on the

Principle of Population, Thomas Ma!thus* 2* /ha%ter 25;42Sour"e


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E$dent!'* the d&&eren"e (et,een the ,ea!th' and the %oor ,as theh#h mora! "hara"ter o& the &ormer and the (ase mora!t' o& the!atter+442

A#an* as noted %ror n ths essa'* the intuitive cultural

conditionhas had a #reat dea! to do ,th the %re$a!n# %remses o&thou#ht that ha$e #uded e"onom" o%eratons nto the modern da'+Wh!e man' toda' m#ht dsmss Ma!thus and these "!ear!' outdateddeas* the seeds ,ere dee%!' %!anted n the e"onom" do"trnes* $a!uesand "!ass re!atonsh%s that o""urred durn# and a&ter hs tme+ In &a"t*those o& a more K"onser$at$e mndset st!! "ommon!' "te $aratonso& hs %o%u!aton theor' ,hen dea!n# ,th e"onom"a!!' !ess.de$e!o%ed "ountres+

Ma!thus* a!on# ,th Lo"7e and Smth* a!so he!d dee%!'/hrstan "on$"tons n ther &rames o& re&eren"e* ,hether dre"t!'

e-tra"ted &rom s"r%ture or (ased on %ersona! nter%retaton+ Ma!thus&rames hs Kmora! restrant ,th the m%!"aton that a true /hrstan,ou!d r#hteous!' denoun"e su"h (ase $"es and a!so a""e%t theinevitablemser' ne"essar' to 7ee% %o%u!aton &rom outstr%%n#resour"e su(ssten"e+ L7e,se* 0ust as there s enormous de(ate toda',th res%e"t to !a,s %ertann# to the noton and use o& K,e!&are orK%u(!" ad %ro#rams to he!% the %oor*444Ma!thus* natura!!'* ,as a (#%ro%onent o& the a(o!ton o& ,hat ,ere then "a!!ed the K%oor !a,s* as,as Da$d R"ardo+

Mo$n# on to R"ardo* he essenta!!' a""e%ted Ma!thus

%o%u!aton theor' and "on"!usons re#ardn# the nature and "auses o&%o$ert'* (ut dsa#reed ,th "ertan e"onom" theores* su"h ase!ements o& Ma!thus? theory of value* theory of glutsand "ertan "!assassum%tons+ Sn"e most o& these dsa#reements n deta! aresu%er&!uous to ths (road ds"usson at hand 8and ar#ua(!' outdated n#enera!;* R"ardo?s most nota(!e "ontr(utons to e"onom" thou#ht ,!!(e the %ont o& &o"us+

In 242* R"ardo &nshed the thrd edton o& hs n&!uenta!Principles of Political Economy and Taxation+ In the %re&a"e* he stateshs nterest< The %rodu"e o& the earth+++a!! that s der$ed &rom ts

sur&a"e (' the unted a%%!"aton o& !a(our* ma"hner'* and "a%ta!* sd$ded amon# three "!asses o& the "ommunt'* name!'* the %ro%retoro& the !and* the o,ner o& the sto"7 o& "a%ta! ne"essar' &or ts"u!t$aton* and the !a(orers (' ,hose ndustr' t s "u!t$ated+ To

442It s ,orth notn# that the Ma!thusan o%u!aton Theor' s a"tua!!' $er'na""urate ,th res%e"t to &a"tors %ertann# to %o%u!aton #ro,th* (ased onstatst"a! understandn#s toda'+ A%art &rom the e&&e"t te"hno!o#' has%!a'ed n e-%andn# %rodu"ton "a%a"t' and e&&"en"' e-%onenta!!'*%art"u!ar!' ,th res%e"t to &ood %rodu"ton* the #enera!1aton that h#herstandards o& !$n# n"rease %o%u!aton %ro%ortona!!' s not su%%orted ('

re#ona! "om%arson+ oor "ountres statst"a!!' re%rodu"e &aster toda' than,ea!th' "ountres+ The ssue a%%ears to (e a "u!tura!* re!#ous andedu"atona! %henomenon* not a r#d K!a, o& nature as Ma!thus "on"!uded+

444Re&eren"e


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under!'n# these $e,s rest assum%tons o& human (eha$or* so"a!8"!ass; re!atonsh%s* "ou%!ed ,th a Kmeta%h's"a! mar7et !o#" ,heree$er'thn# ,!! ,or7 out 0ust &ne & "ertan $a!ues and a #enera!!'Kse!&sh %ers%e"t$e s ta7en (' the %!a'ers o& the mar7et #ame*

The Zeitgeist Movement Defined 6 by 9

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