THE STRUCTURAL SPACES AND BUILT FORMS OF KERALA...
Transcript of THE STRUCTURAL SPACES AND BUILT FORMS OF KERALA...
CHAPTER - 4
THE STRUCTURAL SPACES AND BUILT FORMS OF
KERALA TEMPLE áRIKOVILS
4.1 General
The structural spaces and forms of the ¿rikovils of Kerala are very distinct, exact
and unique. The plan shapes are restricted to square, rectangle, hexagon, octagon,
circle, ellipse and apsidal. The horizontal spaces (the area) are dictated by the
shape, space and interior arrangements. The three dimensional aspects of forms
are decided by the heights and number of storeys. The overall forms are dictated
by the shapes, spaces, the elevations, mouldings, nitches, alank¡ras, artifacts and
decorations. From the basic concepts of shapes, spaces and forms varieties are
created by antar¡las, mukhamandapas, adhis¶¡nas, upap¢tas, sop¡nas, pran¡las,
bhittialank¡ras like ghanadv¡ras, panjaras, ¿¡las, k£tas, n¡sikas, st£pis and the like
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in order to achieve uniqueness to each and every temple. Yet, in the diversity there
is unity in the concept and practices of Kerala temples.
4.2 The Concept of Structural Spaces and Forms.
The dictionary307 meaning of the key words are:
(a) Structural: having a certain structure.
(b) Space: that in which materialised bodies have extensions, an arrangement of
points in three-dimensional space.
(c) Form: space, model and mode of arrangement, style and arrangement.
(d) Structure: manner or act of putting together, construction, arrangement of
parts, a thing constructed.
As per World. Atlas of Architecture,308 "we take interest in a building to the
degree to which we see it", "The effects of volume, space, rhythm and colour that
307
Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, 1966.
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please us".309 Building first appears as a volume or more often, as a combination
of different volumes-horizontal or vertical, compact or spread out. Facades are
always admitted by openings, by recesses or projecting features or by contrast of
colour .. the numbers, shape and distributions of openings to a large degree
determines the character of a facade. Most of the facades are articulated by some
kind of membering, standing out either in relief or in colour. Ornament can be
geometric, coloured or relief consisting in mouldings.310
The main divisions of v¡stu are bh£mi, harmya, y¡na and ¿ayana. Of these
divisions bh£mi from v¡stu point of view, which provides an area for occupation is
two-dimensional and others are three dimensional, which occupy space, which
have volume and mass. Two-dimensional planes are defined by the areas occupied,
308
World Altus of Architecture, pp.12-14. 309
A text book of V¡stuvidya, Ch. 7, pp.81-84. 310
Katy¡yana¿ulbasutra, Introduction and Ch. 1,
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which are determined by the shapes and sizes. For solids (three-dimensional) one
more parameter of the third dimension is required. For solids, the parameters,
therefore, are the volumes and enveloping surface areas. In v¡stuvidya, perimeter
has been recognised to describe the enclosed plan area. The simplest geometrical
shape to enclose an area is a triangle. K¡ty¡yana áulbasutra describes the triangle
as the basic geometrical figure. The first part of áulbasutra is devoted to the
geometrical portions required in the construction of vedis, citis and pandals. The
development of square, rectangle, polygons, circle and apsidal shapes are from the
combination of triangles. The ground plan in v¡stu is determined by the
v¡stumandala. The area and the height of the structure define the space. The
elevation, mouldings, nitches, openings and decorations provide the form. The
rules and canons are specific in v¡stu¿¡stra, more so, in the temple architecture.
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From the engineering point of view, a structure is created to serve some
specific function in safe and economic way. It is an assemblage of elements, which
can resist the applied loads without appreciable deformations. Due considerations
are also given to the aesthetics and ecological aspects.311 The physical form of a
structure may be plane and space structures. The analysis of the structures is
simplified by considering various forms of structures to behave in a localised
manner, in two dimensional (2D) planes. When third dimension in addition to the
two-plane dimensions decides the space. These are denoted by 3 axes namely X
axis, Y axis and Z axis. The degrees of freedom or degrees of kinematics
indeterminacy are the number of displacements allowed at a joint of a structure. In
a plane frame for a joint the degrees of indeterminacy is three where as in the
space frame it is six which requires special methods of analysis. In the finite
311
Structural Analysis, L.S Negi, Tata MC Graw Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 2001, Ch. 1, pp.1-3, 17-18.
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element analysis, the prime element is a triangle. Any shape is formed by the
combination of small triangles.312
From the foregoing, it may appear that the structural space, from and
shape are closely linked with each other. For the purpose of the study certain
demarcations are assumed as under:
(a) Structural: Assemblage of elements and the order of arrangement of
elements.
(b) Shape: The plan shape. Plan shape is the one seen from top vertically
on the horizontal plane.
(c) Space: The extent in the horizontal plane and development in the
vertical direction leading to three dimensions.
312
Matrix , Finite Elements, Computer and Structural Analysis, M. Mukhopadhyaya, Oxford & 1BH Publications,
New Delhi-1, Ch.12.1.
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(d) Form: The mouldings, nitches, openings, solid artifacts and alank¡ras
(paintings and graphics are excluded), toranas, ghanadv¡ras, n¡sikas,
viÀkambhas and the like.
4.3 The Evolution of the Structural Spaces and Forms of Kerala Temple árikovils
(pr¡s¡das).
Temples were built and were existing in Kerala much before the Christian era. The
inscriptions were available from around 800 AD.313
H. Sarkar in his book, 'Archeological Survey of Temples of Kerala' gives three
distinct phases of the temple buildings viz. (i) early phase from 800 to 1000 AD (ii)
middle phase from 1001 to 1300 AD and
(iii) late phase from 1301 to 1800 AD. In each phase he has given certain
313
Archeological Survey of Temples of Kerala, H. Sarkar, Archeological Survey of India,
New Delhi, 1978, pp.97-101.
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characteristics of the structures of temples. Certain relevant extracts of interests
are given in the sub paragraphs below:
(a) Early phase. Early phase is represented by temples built on square, circular and
apsidal ground plans. Oblong or rectangular plan was also in vogue. Both
nirandh¡ra and sandh¡ra were in vogue. Sarvatobhadra (openings in all cardinal
directions) were existing. For decorations, generally Pandya method of providing
recesses and projections with false niches has been followed. The emphasis was on
the sanctum. In square temples, narrower mukhamandapa projects out of larger
sanctum. For circular and apsidal temples the space in front serves as
mukhamandapa. The temple building of this phase was patronised by the three
major ruling dynasties, the Ëys, the Ceras and the MuÀikas.
(b) The middle phase. The middle phase showed several developments especially in the
interior arrangements. Temples have been built on square, circular, aspidal and
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rectangular plans in the previous phase but there is a possibility of the elliptical
plan making its debut now. The antharabhitti stands for the wall of miniature
Dr¡vida vim¡na serving as the garbhag¤ha. Many temples of this phase reveal the
fusion of typical Dr¡vida tradition with indigenous Kerala style, the latter forming
as it were its outer cover. Generally, the inner shrine of a circular temple is square
on plan. In the case of square temple, the garbhag¤ha is invariably square, while
the apsidal temple houses only as apsidal garbhag¤ha. The practice of enshrining
the consort of god at the back of the garbhag¤ha must have received great phillip.
The most notable development in the construction of a temple similar to the idea
of m¡takkovil of Tamil country has been noticed during this phase.
(c) The late phase. The temple architecture of Kerala now reached its final stage of
evolution both in dimension and exterior embellishments. The emphasis got
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shifted to gopuras, dÅvajas, balikkalpura... and the external sub constructions.
Timber roofs were covered with copper sheets.
(d) From 1801 till date no major development in the pr¡s¡da architecture took place.
The materials like cement concrete, reinforced cement concrete, plaster of paris etc.
have been found used.
4.4 Antiquity of Kerala Temples. As per the legend, Kerala was believed to be the gift of
Para¿urama. He was responsible for consecrating 64 áiv¡layas and Durg¡layas.
Sri Subramaniaswami Temple at Haripad was installed 4000 years back.314 The
temples of grandeur existed from 2000 BC. áiva temples at Taliparambu, Trissur
and Visnu temple at Tiruvalla existed prior to Christian era,315 Cave temples
(Vizhinjam, Kottukkal, Trikkakudi, Thalappilly, Tiruvegappura and
314
District Gazetteers, Alleppy, A. Sreedhara Menon, p.603. 315
Temples of Kerala, Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala, p.11.
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Kunnathurpadi) had early origins.316 During Kulak¿ekara period (800-820 AD),
Cera empire (800-1102 AD) the temple constructions got big boost. It can be
presumed that several important temples found in Kerala existed at the close of
eleventh century AD.317 Vilvamangalam Swamiar (1575-1660) was responsible for
consecration of several temples in Kerala. Very prominent v¡stu texts were written
between 13-16 century AD, which guided temple constructions there on. The main
texts were Ì¿¡nagurudevapadhati, Tantrasamuccaya, SeÀasamuccaya.
Putayoorbh¡Àa and the like.318
4.4.1 Antiquities of temples in certain districts of Kerala.
316
Ibid., p.12. 317
Ibid., p.13. 318
Ibid., pp.24-25.
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The antiquities of the temples of certain districts of Kerala as extracted
from the Census Publications of various districts319 are given in the tabular
form below. The idea is not go into the antiquities of all temples in Kerala
but to indicate the antiquity to get an idea about the durability and
sustenance of the temple structures for a log period.
Table 4.1 Antiquities of temples in certain districts of Kerala.
No Antiquity
Districts
Tota
l
Perc
enta
ge
Kasa
rgod
Kann
ur
Vaya
nad
Kozh
ikod
e
Mal
appu
ram
Palg
hat
Triss
ur
1 Very ancient (More than
two thousand years old 15 40 10 34 37 48 63 247 3.3
2 Ancient (First to ninth
century AD
36 127 21 120 199 93 200 796 10.8
319
Temples of Kasargod District, Temples of Kannur District, Temples of Vayanad District, Temples of Malappuram
District, Temples of Trissur District, Temples of Palghat District and Temples of Kozhikode District etc
Published by the Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala.
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3 Tenth to thirteenth
century AD
103 147 27 146 105 184 290 1002 13.6
4 Fourteenth to sixteenth
century AD
179 206 63 147 251 341 412 1599 21.7
5 Seventeenth to nineteenth
century AD
174 385 83 155 377 868 418 2460 33.5
6 Twentieth century AD 53 103 65 57 123 344 117 862 11.8
7 Not known 12 175 39 28 28 84 13 379 5.3
Total 572 1183 308 687 1120 1962 1513 7345 100
Source: Temples of 7 districts published by Census of Operation, Kerala-details of only 7
districts are published so far.
Few inferences derived from the table given above are:
(a) Temples of very ancient and ancient origins existed which were 1000 years or
more to an extent of 14.1% of the temples in the districts.
(b) At most 69% of the temples were 300 to 800 years old.
(c) Very few temples were constructed during 20th century AD. Temples of age
about 100 years or less account for less than 12%.
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(d) Almost 83% of the temples withstood for more than 300 to 2000 years or more
indicating very high rate of durability and sustainability.
4.5 Horizontal Space of Temples in Square Plan Shapes.
Various classifications of the temples based on the plan shapes, number of
storeys, forms and decorations were discussed in the previous chapters.
Mayamata320 grouped the pr¡s¡da shapes into the broad categories of N¡gara
(square and rectangle), Ve¿ara (circle, ellipse and apsidal) and Dr¡vida
(polygonal). Samar¡nga¸asuthra-dh¡ra321 describes 36 types in the N¡gara category,
64 types in the Rucaka category, five thalacandas from one to 12 storeys under
Dr¡vida category. The mixed category of N¡gara-Dr¡vida category (Vir¡ta and
Bhumija types) include 16 types.
320
Mayamata, Ch.19, Sl. 1-4. 321
Samar¡nganasutradÅ¡ra, Ch.59-63.
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K¡¿yapiya,322 Tantrasamuccaya,323 Putayurbh¡Àa,324 Kuzhikk¡ttupacca,325
áilparatna,326 and áilpiratna327 describe the plan shapes only based on square plan
into basically alpapr¡s¡da and mah¡pr¡s¡das. There are jathi, ccanda, vikalpa and
¡bh¡sapr¡s¡das based on the size, number of storeys and uthama, madhyama and
adhama categories. The above pr¡s¡das are given in tabular forms below:
Table 4.2 Divisions of Alpapr¡s¡das
No. PariÀa Pr¡s¡da
(width (kol-viral) Remarks
1 3 kol 2-18, 3-2, 3-10
2-18 Ekayoni. Alternates are
Pancayonis.
13x3=39 types of alpapr¡s¡das.
2 4 kol 3-18, 4-2, 4-10
3 5 kol 4-18, 5-2, 5-10
322
K¡¿yapiya. Ch. XXVII -XXXIII. 323
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.1. 324
Putayurbh¡Àa, Patala.2, Sl. 46-47. 325
Kuzhikkattupacca, Patala. 2. pp. 35-36. 326
áilparatna, pp. 56-68. 327
áilpiratna, Sl. 289-304.
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4 6 kol 5-18, 6-2, 6-10
5 7 kol 6-18, 7-2, 7-10
6 8 kol 7-18, 8-2, 8-10
7 9 kol 8-18, 9-2, 9-10
8 10 kol 9-18, 10-2, 10-10
9 11 kol 10-18, 11-2, 11-10
10 12 kol 11-18, 12-2, 12-10
11 13 kol 12-18, 13-2, 13-10
12 14 kol 13-18, 14-2, 14-10
13 15 kol 14-18, 15-2, 15-10
The J¡thi, Ccanda, Vikalpa and Ëbh¡sapr¡s¡das have four criterias:
(i) the number of storeys, (ii) the width of pr¡s¡das, (iii) three categories of uthama,
madhyama and adhama and (iv) oja and yugma.
Table 4.3 Divisions of jatipr¡s¡das
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No.
No. of
storeys
Oja (kol) Yugma (kol)
Uthama Madhyama Adhama Uthama Madhyama Adhama
1 3 11 13 15 12 14 16
2 4 17 19 21 18 20 22
3 5 23 25 27 24 26 28
4 6 29 31 33 30 32 34
5 7 35 37 39 36 38 40
6 8 41 43 45 42 44 46
7 9 47 49 51 48 50 52
8 10 53 55 57 54 56 58
9 11 59 61 63 60 62 64
10 12 65 67 69 66 68 70
Table 4.4 Divisions of Ccandapr¡s¡das
Si. No
No. of
storeys
Oja (kol) Yugma (kol)
Uthama Madhyama Adhama Uthama Madhyama Adhama
1 4 13 15 17 14 16 28
2 5 19 21 23 20 22 34
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3 6 25 27 29 26 28 30
4 7 31 33 35 32 34 36
5 8 37 39 41 38 40 42
6 9 43 45 47 44 46 48
7 10 49 51 53 50 52 54
8 11 55 57 59 56 58 60
9 12 61 63 65 62 64 66
Table 4.5 Divisions of Vikalpapr¡s¡das
No.
No. of
storeys
Oja (kol) Yugma (kol)
Uthama Madhyama Adhama Uthama Madhyama Adhama
1 5 9 11 13 10 12 14
2 6 15 17 19 16 18 20
3 7 21 23 25 22 24 26
4 8 27 29 31 28 30 32
5 9 33 35 37 34 36 38
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6 10 39 41 43 40 42 44
7 11 45 47 49 46 48 50
8 12 51 53 55 52 54 56
Table 4.6 Divisions of Ëbh¡sapr¡s¡das
No.
No. of
storeys
Oja (kol) Yugma (kol)
Uthama Madhyama Adhama Uthama Madhyama Adhama
1 4 11 - 13 12 - 14
2 5 15 - 17 16 - 18
3 6 19 - 21 20 - 22
4 7 23 - 25 24 - 26
5 8 27 - 29 28 - 30
6 9 31 - 33 32 - 34
7 10 35 - 37 36 - 38
8 11 39 - 41 40 - 42
9 12 43 45 47 44 46 48
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It can be seen from the above tables that there are 13 pariÀas (3 to 15) in
alpapr¡s¡das (3x13=39 divisions). Jati has 6x10=60 divisions, the pr¡s¡da width
starting from 11 kol and ending at 70 kols. The number of storeys ranges from 3 to
12. In ccandapr¡sadas there are 54 divisions with number of storeys ranging from
4 to 12. In vikalpapr¡sadas there are 48 divisions with number of storeys ranging
from 5 to 12. The ¡bh¡sapr¡s¡das have 38 divisions with the number of storeys
varying from 4 to 12. The plan shape is square in all cases as evident from the
calculation of yonis (yoni is the reminder (R) of perimeter (P) x 3/8). Here R of 2-
18x4x3/8=1(®kayoni). Here the perimeter is obtained by multiplying the side by 4.
The widths given in the table are for the ground plan. Any suitable/desirable
pr¡s¡da width can be selected.328 According to Mayamata,329 the widths at higher
storeys get reduced from the lower floor's width. The rules are given below:
328
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.1. 329
Mayamata, Ch.21.
100
(a) For three storeyed pr¡s¡das the width of the ground floor plan is divided by
7 or 8. The first floor width is 6 divisions and second floor width is 3
divisions.
(b) For 4 storeyed pr¡s¡das, divide the ground floor plan width into 9
divisions. Adopt 8, 6 and 5 divisions for the second, third and fourth
storey.
The rules are given for storeys upto 12 but, Kerala temples are not seen beyond 3
storeys. So the canons are restricted to 3 storeys.
4.5.1 Horizontal space of temples - other than square plan shapes.
The formulae and their verifications are given in brief as under:
(a) Rectangular plan shapes. As per Tantrasamuccaya330 the half perimeter of
the pr¡s¡da is divided into 10 and 6 parts are taken for the length and 4
parts for the width i.e. the length:breadth= 6:4. Hence the aspects ratio is
330
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.12-16.
101
1.5. (length ÷ breadth) No mukhamandapa is provided separately
projecting out. áilpiratna specifies proportions of 15:9, 6:4 and 6:3.
Therefore maximum aspect ratio is 2.
(b) Circular plan. The desired perimeter is divided by 710 and take 113 parts as
the radius to draw the circle. The aspect ratio is 1.
Verification: Let the perimeter be P, r the radius and D the diameter.
Then r=(Px113)/710 (as per formula given)
P=2πr, π = P/2r = (Px710)/2x113
π = 710/226=3.1416
Actual value of π upto 4 decimals =3.1423
Difference in the value of π = 0.038% (practically negligible)
(c) Apsidal plan. Divide the perimeter into 64. Take 63 divisions and again
divide by 18. The 4 parts will form the sides and the front. Take 2 parts as
102
the radius and draw half circle at the back. The length of the curve will be
approximately 6¼ part.
Verification: Let a be the length of the side and P the perimeter. As per
the formula given
a= P x (63/64) x(4/18) = 0.2188P.
Theoretically, P=3a + π x a/2 = a(3+π/2) = 4.5714 a
a= P/4.5714 = 0.2188P (agrees with the formula).
The curved length = 1.5714a = 4x1.5714a divisions
= 6.2856 divisions (approximately the error is 0.566%, practically
negligible)
(d) Elliptical plan. Draw the square and two half circles at the front and rear
as per apsidal plan. This is one form. The other is the improvement on the
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two sides. Take 3 divisions divide it by 21 and take 20 divisions. Take this
as radius and draw sectors on the sides. The aspect ratio is less than 2.
(e) Hexagonal plan. Divide the desired perimeter by six to get the length of a
side. Take out twice the side and divide by 15. Thirteen parts will be the
diameter of the hexagon.
Verification: Let side be S, perimeter be P. Then, S=P/6.
The diameter as per the formula given above is
(Px2/6) x 13/15 = (26/90)P=0.2889P = 1.7333S.
As per the geometry, the diameter is 3S=1.7320S. The difference is
0.058% (very small). The aspect ratio is 1.
(f) Octagon. Divide the desired perimeter by 10 and the 3 divisions will be the
diameter of the octagon. Divide the diameter by 12 and 5 parts will form
the length of the side. Aspect ratio is 1.
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Verification. S, the side is P/8.
The radius r/(s/2) =2r/s tan67½º = 2.4142.
r=2.4142s/2 = (2.4142 x P)/ 2x8 = 0.150398 P
Diameter = 2r = 0.30178P. As per the formula, it is (3/10) x P.
The difference is 0.589% (very small)
4.5.2 Mukhamandapa. The mukhamandapa is provided in front of the
garbhag¤ha, square or rectangular in plan shape. In certain square
¿rikovils the mukhamandapas project out. The width of mukhamandapas
is either ½, 3/5, 4/7, 6/10, or 5/12, of the pr¡s¡da width. The length
(projected portion) may be ½, ¾ or equal to the width of the pr¡s¡da.331
Mayamata332 also agrees more or less with the canons. The width of
mukhamandapa is equal, ¾ or ½ of the width of pr¡s¡da. Mayamata
331
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.19. 332
Mayamata, Ch.19.
105
insists that the width be equal to the pr¡s¡da if antar¡la is provided. For
square temple ¿rikovil with mukhamandapa, the maximum value of
aspect ratio is 2. The following table gives the plan shapes of temples of
certain districts of Kerala.
Table 4.7 Plan shapes of temple of 7 districts.
No Plan shape
Kasa
rgod
Kann
ur
Kozh
ikod
e
Mal
appu
ram
Way
nad
Pala
kkad
Triss
ur
1 Square 465 995 374 808 228 1469 1163
2 Rectangle 64 128 151 98 39 238 85
3 Circle 8 24 61 184 184 174 229
4 Apsidal 3 4 3 12 1 1 7
5 Octagon - 2 - 2 1 2 8
Total 540 1153 589 1104 454 1904 1482
Note : St¡nas, tharas, pa½½iyaras with out roof etc are not taken into consideration.
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Ayur áiva temple and Mankata á¡stha temple reported to be of apsidal
shapes (Temples of Malappuram District by Census Operations of Kerala) on the
site visit are found to be of square in plan shapes.
From the table given above representing seven districts of Kerala shows
that:
(a) Majority of temples are of square ground plan (75%)
(b) Square and rectangle ground plans account for about 88% of the temples.
(c) Circular plan shapes are popular and account for about 8%.
(d) Apsidal shapes are very few and accounts only 0.6%.
(e) Hexagonal shapes are not reported. Octagonal shaped temples are very
rare.
4.5.3 Horizontal spaces of adhis¶¡na and upapitha. The adhis¶¡na and
upap¢tha project out of the main walls of pr¡s¡da. The uttaradandu is
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considered to be uthama, jagati dandu as madhyama and p¡dukadandu
as adhama.333 It gives indications that the horizontal spaces provided by
all the three i.e. uthara, jagathi and p¡duka are to be reckoned with. The
projections/recesses are to be in proportion to the height of the elements or
to the appropriate yoni of the adhis¶¡na. The rules are given below:
(a) Adhis¶¡na. The projections shall be given in such a way as to obtain the
same yoni of the uttara. This can be achieved by giving the projections of
8A, 16a and 24A from the uttara. The projections of Jagati can be up to its
height and same projections are given for kumuda. For other elements like
gala, pati, etc shall have projections equal to its height, ¾th or ½ of its
height. The projection of p¡duka is to be taken from the jagati.334
333
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.12.
334
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.13.
108
(b) Upap¢tha. It is optional. Upap¢tha is provided to have elevated look and
grandeur. The rule for projections is as applicable to adhis¶¡na or the
dandu (the width of the top of the pillar).335 More details of adhis¶¡na and
upap¢tha will be given later.
4.5.4 Horizontal spaces of the interior of ¿rikovils.
The main arrangements with in the ¿rikovils are the garbhag¤ha, the
antar¡la, mukahmandapa, the positions of installation of the deity and the
interior walls. Varieties are created by different arrangements. Very small
temples have neither separate garbhag¤ha nor antar¡la. Except for square
plan shaped temples separate mukhamandapas are not provided. The
rules for garbhag¤ha, antar¡las and the walls are given in table form
below:
335
Ibid., Ch.2. Sl.11.
109
Table 4.8 Horizontal spaces of garbhag¤ha and wall thickness.
No Elements of
¿rikovil Canons/ rules Reference
1 Size of
Garbhag¤ha.
Square in plan
shape.
(a) Width of pr¡s¡da, w (2/3 3/5, 4/7, 5/9, 7/11,
8/13, 9/15, 5/8, 4/8): 9 types.
(b) W(1/3, 3/5, 4/5, 5/9, 6/11, 7/13, 8/15, 9/17, ½ )
(c) Divide the ¿rikovil into 5x5 grids of small
pr¡s¡das. The inner most cell (one cell) is for
the devap¢tÅa, the surrounding 8 cells are for
garbhag¤ha and the outer 16 cells are for the
garbhag¤ha wall. The outer most wall will
coincide with the wall of pr¡s¡da.
(d) If the pr¡s¡da is small divide the pr¡s¡da into
9x9 grids. The inner most one cell is for
devapitÅa, outer 8 cells for garbhag¤ha, the
outer 16 cells are for the garbhag¤ha wall,
outermost 32 cells are for the outer wall and
the intervening space is for antar¡la.
T.S.S 2-12
MM,19,13-15
T.S.S. 1,18-22
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2
Thickness of
garbhag¤ha
wall
(a) Pr¡s¡da width : Wx1/8 for larger pr¡s¡das.
(b) One of the above as given in 1(c) and 1(d)
(c) For 3 to 5 kol parisas, thick wall may be
provided with out antar¡la.
4.5.5 Position of the installation of the Idol.
The idol is installed in the garbhag¤ha. The position of the idol varies with
the god/goddess. Only mah¡linga having the height of the linga above the p¢tha
in one Hasta or more is installed at the centre.336 All other positions of
installations have shift to the back, shift to the side and to the North-East. The
rules are tabulated below:
Table 4.9 Position of Pratista-p¤stagamana
No Pada/KoÀta Position of installation of idol Reference
336
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.24.
111
1 7x7=49 divisions of garbhag¤ha.
Middle pada is Brahmapada,
outer 8 cells are Devapada, outer
16 cells are ManuÀyapada and
outer 24 cells are Pi¿aca pada
(a) Brahmapada is divided into
15 parts
(b) Devapada is divided into 13
parts
(c) Manusyapada is divided in
to 11 parts
(d) Pi¿¡capada is divided into 9
parts.
(i) Exactly at the middle for
Mah¡linga
(ii) Second division towards back
from the centre for Alpalinga
(iii) Third division-ViÀ¸u
(iv) Fourth division-Subramanya
and áankaran¡r¡yana
(v) Sixth division-Durga
(vi) Eight division- Sankaran¡r¡yana
(vii) Twentieth division-Ayyappa
(Viii)Twentieth and twenty
first division-Ganapati
T.S.S. 2.232337
2 7x7=49 divisions Exact centre-Mah¡linga
2nd division-alpalinga
3rd division-ViÀnu
4th division-áiva, P¡rvati,
áilpi. R338
337
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.23-27. 338
áilpiratna, Sl.528-533.
112
K¤À¸a & Subramanya
6th division-Narasimha
16th division-Gane¿a
20th division-á¡sta
3 7x7x=49. Brahmapada Centre-Mah¡linga
2nd division-Alpalinga
3rd division-ViÀnu
4th division-Subramanya
5th division-Vasudeva
6th division-Durga, K¡li
7thdivision-Murtis in Sukh¡sana
8th division-Sankaran¡r¡yana
T.S.S.339
4 Devapada Gane¿a, Var¡ha, V¡mana, á¡sta,
Rudra, Saptamurtis, Surya,
Ratnalinga etc
5 ManuÀyapada Lakshmi, Bh£mi, Gane¿a, Weapons
of ViÀnu.
339
Taccu¿¡stram-bh¡Àa, Sl.129-151.
113
Note: Further division into 21 and garbardÅada¿apadam (10 division) are also in vogue,
but seldom. The positions with shift to the back from the centre are given above.
The shift to the side (North to East) is 1/126th of the door width. The
i¿¡n¡gamana is 1/126th of the height of the idol. For bahureva bimba the rules are
slightly different from the above as given in Tantrasamuccaya.340
4.5.6 Sop¡na and pran¡la. Sop¡na consists of the steps to enter the main shrine ¿rikovil
and the decorated sides. It may be direct as can be seen in most of the temples or
from the sides (examples: Mannur áiva temple and Vazhapalli Mah¡deva temple).
Sop¡nas of combinations could be made (examples: Tiruvannur áiva temple and
Triprangod áiva temple). The rules are: 341,342
(a) Length is equal to the width of the main door.
(b) Width is equal to ½, 1 or 2 dandu (the stambhagra dandu)
(c) Number of steps, even numbers or odd numbers.
340
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.126-27. 341
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.3-11.
114
(d) Sides are decorated with lion's, crocodile's mouth and body.
Pran¡la is the decorated drain, which projects out from the ¿rikovil's adhis¶¡na.
The rules are as under:
(a) The projecting length is equal to the height of adhis¶¡na, 3/4th or 1½ times.
Half of its length has to be inserted into the wall.
(b) The projecting length is equal to width of srip¢tha, or 8A to 24A.
(c) The length is equal to 12A with increment of 3A upto 24A.
(d) The width at the supported end is L/5, L/4, or L/3 (L= length). The depth is
equal to ½, ¾ or equal to the width. At free end the width and depth may
be ½, ¾ or equal to the ones at the fixed end. The hole or grove may be 1 to
1½ A wide.
The pr¡nala is decorated with Vy¡limukha, Gomukha or Makara mukha. It
may be free standing in most of the cases or supported (example-Moozhikulam
342
áilpiratna, Sl.160-164.
115
Laksmana temple and Tripangod áiva temple) by dwarfs. The horizontal spaces of
certain temple ¿rikovil varieties are given in the diagram form 4.1 to 4.17. The
details are given below:
Table 4.10. Horizontal space (plan shapes) of certain temples, (Obligation to Book-
'Temples of Kerala').
No Diagram
Number Plan space Particulars
1 4.1 Square
ári Vi¿nu temple, Eramam, Kannur district. There is no
separate garbhag¤ha.
2 4.2 Square
ári Krishna Temple, Podiyil, Ernakulam District,
garbhag¤ha and antar¡la can be noticed.
3 4.3 Square
ári Rajarajeswara temple, Taliparambu, Kannur district.
Note the garbhag¤ha, two antar¡las and steps to
garbhag¤ha
4 4.4
Square with
mukhama-
ndapa
ári K¤À¸a Temple, Thichambaram, Kannur district. Note
the garbhag¤ha antar¡la and attached mukhamandapa.
116
5 4.5
Square with
mukhama-
ndapa
ári áiva temple, Kantiyur, Mavelikkara, Alleppy district.
Note the garbhag¤ha, antar¡la, mukhamandapa,
upap¢tha and sop¡nas.
6 4.6 Rectangle
ári Tirumandhamkunnu Bhgavati temple, Malappuram
district. Pr¡s¡da width is more than the length. No
separate garbhag¤ha.
7 4.7 Rectangle
ári Brahmashrine, Turuvallam, Thiruvanantapuram
district. Note the garbhag¤ha and mukhamandapa with
in the ¿rikovil.
8 4.8 Circle
ári áiva temple, Pulpalli, Palghat district. No separate
garbhag¤ha.
9 4.9 Circle
ári áiva temple, Pulpatta, Malappuram district. Note the
shape of garbhag¤ha, the bhitti and antar¡la.
10 4.10 Circle
ári áiva temple, Tirunellai, Palghat district. Note the form
of garbhag¤ha, antar¡la and sop¡na.
11 4.11 Circle
ári Karikkattu Subramanya temple, Malappuram district.
Note the garbhag¤ha and pillared antar¡la.
12 4.12 Circle with ári Para¿urama temple, Tiruvallam. Note the main
117
mukhaman-
dapa
shrine, mukhamandapa and sop¡na.
13 4.13 Ellipse
ári Mahadeva temple, Vaikom, Note the garbhag¤ha,
pillared antar¡las, steps to garbhag¤ha and partial
opening in the front.
14 4.14 Apsidal
ári Trikandiyoor Maha¿iva temple, Tirur. Note the
garbhag¤ha, mukhamandapa, upap¢tha and sop¡nas.
15 4.15 Apsidal
ári áiva temple, Tiruvannur, Kozhikode. Note the
garbhag¤ha, small mukhamandapa, bhitti, upap¢tha and
sop¡na.
16 4.16 Apsidal
ári Mah¡linge¿vara temple, Adoor, Kasargod district.
Note the garbhag¤ha, antar¡las, large space in front of
garbhag¤ha and attached mukhamandapa.
17 4.17 Apsidal
ári Subrama¸yaswami temple, Payyannur, Note the
garbhag¤ha, antar¡las, mukhamandapa and steps at
antar¡las.
118
Diagram No:4.1, Sri ViÀnu Temple, Eramam, Kannur District.
Diagram No:4.2, ári Krishna Temple, Podiyil, Ernakulam District,
Diagram No:4.3, ári Rajarajeswara temple, Taliparambu, Kannur District.
119
Diagram No:4.4, ári K¤À¸a Temple, Thichambaram, Kannur District.
Diagram No:4.5, ári áiva temple, Kantiyur, Mavelikkara, Alleppy District.
120
Diagram No:4.6, ári Tirumandhamkunnu Bhgavati temple, Malappuram Disctrict.
Diagram No:4.7, ári Brahmashrine, Turuvallam, Thiruvanantapuram District.
121
Diagram No:4.8, ári áiva temple, Pulpalli, Palghat District.
Diagram No:4.9, ári áiva temple, Pulpatta, Malappuram District.
122
Diagram No:4.10, ári áiva temple, Tirunellai, Palghat District.
Diagram No:4.11, ári Karikkattu Subramanya temple, Malappuram District.
123
Diagram No:4.12, ári Para¿urama Temple, Tiruvallam.
Diagram No:4.13, ári Mahadeva temple, Vaikom,
124
Diagram No:4.14, ári Trikandiyoor Maha¿iva temple, Tirur.
Diagram No:4.15, ári áiva temple, Tiruvannur, Kozhikode.
Diagram No:4.16, ári Mah¡linge¿vara temple, Adoor, Kasargod District.
125
Diagram No:4.17, ári Subrama¸ya Swami temple, Payyannur,
4.5.7 Creation of varieties in horizontal space with in the frame work of the
canon/rules. Varieties are created by various arrangements of horizontal
spaces as under:
(a) Garbhag¤ha. Garbhag¤ha may not be provided separately in very small
temples. The plan shapes of garbhag¤ha are mostly square. But the
shapes of the main ¿rikovils also exists.
126
(b) Mukhamandapa. In small ¿rikovils the mukhamandapas are not
provided. In larger temples mukhamandpas are provided with in the
¿rikovil or outside irrespective of the plan shapes of ¿rikovils.
(c) Antar¡las. In small temples no antar¡las exist. In large temples antar¡las
exist. In larger temples antar¡las with bhitti or pillars are provided.
(d) Sop¡nas. In most of the cases the sop¡nas provide direct entry. There are
sop¡nas from the sides or combinations of both.
(e) Upap¢tha. In most of the temples, the upap¢thas are not provided. In
certain temples, wide and elaborate upap¢thas are provided.
4.6 Vertical Spaces -The Three Dimensional Spaces.
The two dimensional horizontal spaces of ¿rikovils were discussed in brief. The
spacial effect comes from the third dimension in the vertical space, the
development in the Z axis. The discussions shall be directed towards the heights of
127
¿rikovils and various elements which give the three dimensional spaces. The rules
and canons are given in various texts in detail. Hence very brief details are given
in table form.
Table 4.11. The Three dimensional spaces of ¿rikovil.
No Horizontal depth of
Elements/part Rules
1 Foundation depth (a) Depth equal to the height of the owner or till rock or
water level is reached343 and refill upto ¾th depth.
(b) Either rock or clear water is reached,344 and fill up to
¾th depth.
(c) PuruÀapramana, till water or rock is reached345
and fill upto ¾th depth.
2 Sad¡dh¡ra
Refer diagram No.
(a) Adh¡ra¿ila346- ½ of srip¢tha¿ width taken as its
height.
343
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.1. Sl.20. 344
Mayamata, Ch.14, Sl. 1-8. 345
K¡¿yapiya. Ch.4. 346
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.1. Sl.21-22.
128
4.18 (b) Nidhikumbha-Bhitti height of pr¡s¡da 6 is the width.
The height is 9/8th of the width.
(c) Lotus width=1/8th of the height of wall.
(d) Tortoise-Height=11/12 x7/8th of the wall height.
Yoganala is given upto napumsaka¿ila.
3 Upap¢tÅa The height of upap¢tÅa may be 1/3, 2/5, ½. ¾ or equal to
the adhis¶¡na.347
4 Padmap¡duka. Height of Padmap¡duka may be ¼, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7, 1/8, or 1/9th
of the adhis¶¡na.348
5 Adhis¶¡na
(Main Height)
The height of adhis¶¡na as per Tantrasamuccaya,349 is half
of the height the wall (from the top of adhis¶¡na to the
bottom of the wall plate). Some texts differ from the above.
Some differences are:-
(a) 3 kol pariÀa pr¡s¡das shall have the wall's height of 2
Hastas. The height of adhis¶¡na shall be 1 Hasta. An
increment of 4 Angulas will be given for each pariÀa
from 2 Hasta (wall height). Hence the 15 kol pariÀa
347
áilpiratna, Sl.43. 348
Ibid., Sl.44. 349
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.13-16.
129
will have the height of adhis¶¡na as 2 Hasta (half of 4
Hastas). The height of adhis¶¡na may be reduced or
increased by one division by dividing the height by 6,
7, 8, 9, 10 or 11.
(b) As per K¡¿yapiya,350 the height of base is to he
considered depending on the height of the temple. The
uthama category is more than 3 Hastas, 2 Hastas
madhyama and 1 Hasta is adhama. Minimum height
is 1 Hasta.
(c) As per Mayamata,351 the maximum height of
adhis¶¡na is 4 Hastas (for 12 storeys) and by
successively reducing it by 4 Angulas per storey, the
minimum height of adhis¶¡na is 1¾ Hastas.
(d) áilparatna, áilpiratna, Kuzhikattupacca, Kriyadipika.
etc agree with Tantrasamuccaya.
6 Adhis¶¡na (Elements
of Adhis¶¡na)
Tantrasamuccaya352 has given mainly 14 types of adhis¶¡na,
K¡¿yapiya353 12 types, Mayamata354 14 types, M¡nas¡ra355 19
350
K¡¿yapiya. Ch.5. 351
Mayamata, Ch.14, Sl. 11-18. 352
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabhaga), Ch.2. Sl.13-16.
130
types, Ì¿¡nagurudeva padhati356 8 types. Kriy¡dipika and
kuzhikattapacca agree with tantrasamuccaya. Basically the
adhis¶¡nas are divided into dvivarga, trivargand
pancavarga. The main elements are P¡duka, Jagati,
Kumuda, Gala, Kampa, Pati, V¡jana etc. Various
combinations and measurements make varieties of
adhis¶¡nas. áilpiratna357 gives elaborate details of
adhis¶¡na. V¡stuvidya358 gives more details about
mancakas.
Refer diagram 4.19 to4.29 to see some varieties of
adhis¶¡nas.
7 Height of the temple
¿rikovil
The height of ¿rikovil from p¡duka to the top of st£pi H=1
3/7 W, 1½ W, 1¾ W, or 2W (where W= width of pr¡s¡da) as
per Tantrasamuccaya.359 Ì¿¡nagurudevapadhati360 gave the
353
K¡¿yapiya. Ch.5. 354
Mayamata, Ch.14, Sl. 19-35. 355
M¡nas¡ra, XIV. 356
Ì¿¡nagurudevapadhati, Kriyapada, Vol.I, Sl.31. 357
áilpiratna, Sl.49-66. 358
V¡stuvidya, Ch.9 359
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.7.
131
names as ¿antika, paus¶ika, sarvak¡mika and adbÅuta
respectively. M¡nas¡ra361 give H=1W, 1¼ W,1½ W and 2W,
(¿antika, paus¶ika, jayada and adbÅuta). However, the
height varies from 1W to 2W. For storeyed temples the
width gets reduced by 6/7 or 6/8 and the height also gets
reduced accordingly.362 The numbers of storeys based on
pariÀas are as under:-
(a) For pariÀas of 3 and 4 kol - 1 storey
(b) For pariÀas of 5 and 6 kol - 1 or 2 storeys
(c) For parisas of 7 to 10 kol - 1, 2 or 3 storeys
(d) For pariÀas of 11 and 12 kol - 2 or 3 storeys
(e) For parisas of 13 to 15 kol - 3 storeys
Temples of Kerala do not have more than three storeys.
Hence details of further storeys are omitted.
8 Height of the wall For alpapr¡s¡da the height varies from 2 Hastas to 4 Hastas (
3 kols pariÀa to 15 kol pariÀa with 2 Hastas as minimum
and with increment of 4 Angulas for each additional
360
¢¿¡nagurudevapadhati, Patala. XXX, Sl.22-23. 361
M¡nas¡ra, XXXV, Sl. 11-13. 362
Mayamata, Ch.21, Sl. 4,5.
132
pariÀa) Option are given to increase or decrease the height
of the wall by one division by dividing the wall height or wall
height + adhis¶¡na by any number from 6 to 11. For upper
storeys the height can be ½, 2/3, ¾, 4/5, 5/6, 6/7, 7/8, 8/9,
9/10, 10/11, 11/12, 6/10, 5/7, 5/9, 9/11 etc. of the lower storeys.
9 Division of the wall
height
Vedika - 1/8th of wall height H, kaluyara - 4/8H, 1/16H
kallutara, 1/16H valaru, 1/8H Kapota and 1/8H as
g¤hapindi.
10 Height of roof
(áikhara)
Generally the slope of roof is 45º. Hence the height will be
half of the width of Pr¡s¡da. Dip up to 2 Angulas (equal to
12 Angulas per 24 Angulas of half span). Making the height
to half span ratio of 1:2 can be considered.
11 St£pi The height may be equal ¾, ½ of adhis¶¡na by Hasta or by
giving appropriate yoni.
12 Height of
Garbhag¤ha
5/4, 6/5, 7/6, or 8/7th of exterior wall shall be the height of
garbhag¤ha. The adhis¶¡na shall be ¼, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7 or 1/8th
of the height of garbhag¤ha
13 Height (thickness of Equal, 3/4th or ½ of the width of the wall (uthama,
133
wall plate) madhyama and adhama - known as khandottara,
patrottara, r£pottara)
14 Ceiling May be flat ceiling or turavu
15 Griva The height between the prastara and wall plate is griva. The
height depends on the overall height of the ¿rikovil.
16 Two storeyed pr¡s¡d¡s
and three storyed
pr¡s¡d¡s
Rise the arudÅabhitti, place sambharappati and give lean to
roof to outside. Provide gala (2,3,5,7,8,9 part of the wall
when it is divided by the numbers from 3 to 11). Similarly
the heights for the third storey also be taken a per 2nd
storey.363
363
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.3-4.
134
1. ADHARASILA2. DHANYA PITA
3. NIDHI KUMBHA
4. PAMA
5. KURMA
6. YOGANALA
7. NAPUMSAKA SILA
Diagram No:4.18, âadadh¡ra
A. EKAVARGA B. DVIVARGA C. TRIVARGA
D. CHATUR VARGA E. PANCHA VARGA
135
Diagram No:4.19, Vargas of Adhis¶¡nas
Diagram No:4.20, Mancaka Types of adhis¶¡nas
136
4
4
1
10.5
1 PATIPATTAGALA
KUMUDA
PATI
KUMUDA
JAGATHI
Diagram No:4.21, P¡dabandha (12 divisions)
2
4
4
2
2 PATI
GALA
KUMUDA
JAGATI
PADUKA
Diagram No:4.22, P¡dabandha (14 divisions)
3
7
6
5
137
Diagram No:4.23, Adhis¶¡na of 21 divisions.
Diagram No:4.24, Adhis¶¡na of 24 Am¿as.
2
6
1
2
1
2 GALA PATI
MEL-PATTA
GALA
PATTA
JAGATI
PADUKA
Diagram No:4.25, Galamancaka (14 divisions).
138
4
4
1111
JAGATI
KUMUDA
PATIVAJANA
GALAKUMUDA PATTA
Diagram No:4.26, Pratikrama Type of Adhis¶¡na (12 divisions).
KAPOTA PATIKAPOTAVALARU
UTTARA PATI
GALA PATI
KUMUDA
JAGATI
PADUKA
Diagram No:4.27, Adhis¶¡na (19 Am¿as).
6
2
5
4
4
3
PATI
KAMBA
GALA
GALA
KAPOTHA
VALARUUTHARAGALAPATIGALAKUMUDA PATI
KUMUDA
JAGATI
PADUKA
Diagram No:4.28, Adhis¶¡na (24 Am¿as).
139
2
5
4
4
3 KAPOTA
VALARU
PATI
UTHARAGALAPATI
GALAPATIGALA
KUMUDA
JAGATI
PADUKA
Diagram No:4.29, Adhis¶¡na (18 Am¿as).
A typical sectional elevation of a ¿rikovil showing the vertical spaces is given in
diagram No-4.30.
140
1
2
3
4567
8
9
10 11
12
13
14
151617
18
19 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
PARTS
1. PADUKA
2. JAGATI
3. KUMUDA
4. PATI
5. GALA
6. PATI
7. VEDIKA
8. BHITTISTAMBHA
9. ADHARA SILA
10. DHANYA PITA
11. NIDHI KUMBHA
12. PADMA
13. KURMA
14. YOGANALA
15. NAPUMSAKA SILA
16. PITA
17. PANJARA
18. GHANA DUARA
19.GARBHAGRHA DUARA
20. MAIN DOOR
21. TURAVU
22. SOPANA
23. VALARU KAPOTA
24. CEILING
25. RAFTER
26. BALA KUTA
27. COLLA PIN
28. UTHARA (WALL PLATE)
29. COLLAR
30. KUTA
31. MANDI PHALAKA
32. STUPI
Diagram No:4.30, Main parts of árikovil.
The number of storeys of temples in certain districts of the state are given in
tabular forms below:
141
Table 4.12 Number of temple with ®katala, dvitala and tritala
No District
Tal¡s of ¿rikovils
Remarks Ókatala Dvitala Tritala
S R C A O S R C A O S R C A O
1 Kasar-
god
378 61 8 - - 85 3 - 1 - 2 - - 2 - S:square
R:rectangle
C:circle
A:Apsidal
O:Others
2 Kannur 887 124 22 2 2 97 4 1 2 - 1 - - - -
3 Kozhi-
kode
374 144 48 1 - 54 3 13 1 - 4 - - - -
4 Wynad 216 37 19 2 1 8 1 2 - - 1 1 - - -
5 Malap-
puram
693 95 152 8 1 95 1 32 4 1 1 1 - - -
6 Palakk-
ad
1304 150 1 2 100 9 23 - - - - - - - -
7 Trissur 976 81 195 6 7 157 2 34 1 1 4 1 - - -
Total 4228 787 634 20 13 596 23 105 9 2 13 3 - 2 - 6435
Perc
enta
ge
65.7
12.2
9.9
0.3
0.2
9.3
0.4 1.6
0.1 - 0.2 - 1
100%
4.7 Structural Forms. The moulding, the projection, niches, openings, decorations of
various categories, (except graphics and paintings) and elevations constitute the
forms considered for the study. Canons/rules are described in various texts. In
order to make it compact and comprehensive the structural elements/parts, which
142
contribute to the forms, are given in tabular form. There are several elements which
contribute towards not only the forms, but also towards the structural strength,
stability and sustainability of the structure as a sub system and system as a whole.
Table 4.13 structural forms of árikovils
No Elements Particulars
1 Padmap¡duka
Refer Diagram
No. 4.31
The moulding is provided above the foundation.364 The height of
adhis¶¡na desired is divided by any number from 4 to 9 and one
part is provided for padmap¡duka. The decorative monldings
are: 1/6 lower, patta, 3/6 dala, 2/6 upper karnika, giving shapes
of the petals of lotus.365
2 Upap¢tÅa
Refer Diagram
No. 4.32
Optional below the adhis¶¡na, if provided, the height shall be
1/3, 2/5, ½ , ¾ or equal to the height of adhis¶¡na and
projection from ½ the height of adhis¶¡na or 1 to 3 uttara
dandu.366 The moulding may be of manjaka, padabandha or
364
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.12. 365
áilpiratna, Sl.47. 366
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.11.
143
pratibandha type.367 K¡¿yapiya gives details of kampa, gala,
pati,368 etc.
3 Adhis¶¡na The various mouldings are provided by means of p¡duka, jagati,
kumuda, gala and pati. The pati may be plain or kapota type.
The gala may be provided with decoration like lotus, flowers,
legs, etc.369 The kumuda may be rounded or square with exterior
two edges cut to form a polygonal shape. The projections are
am¿a based or yoni based.370
4 Vedika
Refer Diagram
No. 4.33
The vedika is provided above the adhis¶¡na and at the base of
the wall around the pr¡s¡da. The openings cut the vedika. The
vedika is highly decorated mould. The vedika is divided into two
and the top half can be given 3 mekhalas and the bottom half
can be the gala. Or else, the height can be divided by 6, 7 or 8
and from top to bottom kampa, padma, kampa and gala are
provided. The kampa and padma may be decorated with square
khandas.371 K¡¿yapiya (Ch.10) gives detailed account of vedika.
367
áilpiratna, Sl.42-48. 368
K¡¿yapiya, Ch.5. 369
áilpiratna, Sl.70. 370
K¡¿yapiya, Ch.6. 371
áilpiratna, Sl.93-98.
144
5 Openings
(a) Doors
Let the door height be DH and door width DW.
(a) The garbhag¤hadv¡ra
DH = garbhag¤ha width x 7/11; DW=10/21 or 7/17 of the
garbhag¤ha width or 5/8 and 7/17 as DH and DW
respectively or 4/7 and 6/13 of DH as DW.372
(b) DH = Padocca x 7/10, 8/10 or 9/10; DW=½DH.373
(c) DH= ½ of garbhag¤ha width and DW - 1/4th.374
(Garudapur¡na gives same rules as B¤hatsamhita)
(d) Same rules are applicable for the outer door of pr¡s¡da, with
the measurements of pr¡s¡da.
May be provided by am¿akrama or yonikrama (yoni can be
arrived by Hasta or Angula).375 There are special rules for
various gods.376 Decorated door frames, shutters with
s£trapattika, phalaka, etc be provided. Only one door opening is
provided for garbhag¤ha. It may be 1, 2, 3 or 4 for ¿rikovils.
(b) GÅanadv¡ras It is provided when the door openings are not provided in the
372
áilpiratna, Sl.121-130. 373
K¡¿yapiya, Ch.17. 374
B¤hatsamhita, Ch. 56, Sl. 12. 375
áilpiratna, Sl.131. 376
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.7-9.
145
cardinal directions except for the main door, gÅanadv¡ras are
provided. The width of gÅanadv¡ra is 5/8th of the main door and
its height is 3 or 2½ times its width.377 All elements of door
frame and shelters shall be moulded/engraved. Gamana as per
cardinal directions in clockwise directions is to be provided.
(c) Windows The width of the window may be 1 to 4 dandu and height may be
equal to the width or incremented by one dandu upto twice the
width. Can be provided upto the wall plate. The kÅanda
pÅalikas have different decorations, viz. square holed,
rectangular holed flower like, flowers and holes at corners and
sakarnaka.378
(d) N¡sikas The roof of pr¡s¡das shall have n¡sika(s). N¡sika is for breathing
in and out and has openings in small size(s). Small pr¡s¡das
shall have at least one n¡sika in front, big ones have up to four.
There are mah¡n¡sika, bhadran¡sika and kÀudran¡sika by name.
Mah¡n¡sika, shall have the width equal to half width of the roof.
Bhadran¡sika shall have its width equal to 1/3, ¼, or 1/5 of the
377
Tantrasamuccaya (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.14. 378
áilpiratna, Sl.152-159.
146
width of the roof and projection equal to ½, ¾ or equal to its
width. Kimparimukha (kimpuruÀa) is provided up to 1/3rd its
height.379 The n¡sikas are provided with decorated galas,
pÅalakas, carvings of creepers, k£ta, koÀta, lakÀmi, bells, etc to
make the n¡sika elegant and beautiful.380 A typical n¡sika is
depicted in diagram No. 4.34.
6 StambÅas StambÅas are provided one each at corners of pr¡s¡da and two
each in cardinal directions counting it to 12. It may be 16 or 20
depending on the size of the ¿rikovil. K¡¿yapiya,381 áilpiratna,382
Tantrasamuccaya,383 etc give detailed account of the stambha
and the mode of decorations. The pillars can be square, round,
hexagonal or octagonal shaped. The top portion, the pothika
(bodhika) connects the pillar with uttara. The middle portions
can be provided with decorations like kumbha, virakanda,
garlands, etc. the bottom width of pillar is 1/6 to 1/11th of the
379
áilpiratna, Sl.277-284. 380
K¡¿yapiya, Ch.23. 381
K¡¿yapiya, Ch.14. 382
áilpiratna, Sl.95-120. 383
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.3-5.
147
height of the pillar with top width reduced by 1/8th. The width of
the top of the pillar is taken as the 'dandu'. The projection
(moulding) from the pr¡s¡da wall may be from Angula to the
half the width of the pillar.
7 Bhitti Alank¡ras The main bhitti alank¡ras (decorations) can be broadly divided
into stambhas (given above), ghanadv¡ras (given above),
panjaras, ¿¡las, k£tas, prastaras, gr¢vas, uttaras, toranas, valaru-
kapotha, viÀkhambhas and the like. All pr¡s¡das shall have at
least the stambhas, toranas, openings/ghanadv¡ras. For ¿rikovils
of 5 kol pariÀa and upwards, there can be decorated pillars and
panjaras. For bigger pr¡s¡das the corners may be provided with
k£tas. For very big pr¡s¡das (mahapr¡s¡das) there can be ¿¡las,
mah¡n¡sikas, decorated j¡lakas-panjaras, etc in addition. The
bhitti alank¡ras are explained in brief in Tantrasamuccaya.384 It
is explained in great details in áilpiratna385 K¡¿yapiya386 and
áilparatna.387 For small pr¡s¡das the alank¡ras are simple. The
384
Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.18-23. 385
áilpiratna, Sl.92-136. 386
K¡¿yapiya, Ch.9-20. 387
áilparatna, pp.130-144.
148
wall height is divided by 8 and given 1 division for vedika, 4
divisions for the wall, ½ division for stone uttara, ½ division for
valaru, 1 division for kapota and 1 division for g¤hapindi.
The projections of these mouldings range from ¼, ½, ¾
dandu (dandu taken here is the top width of the pillar/wall).
There can be separately projecting adhis¶¡nas for the k£ta,
¿¡la, panjara, j¡laka, etc as can be seen in several big temples. The
mouldings provide additional thickness to the exterior walls and
serve as sorts of pilasters giving additional stiffness and strength
to the walls.
8 Ceiling/Turavu The garbhag¤ha is provided either with the ceiling or Turavu.
The ceiling is flat. Turavu is octagonal or combination of
octagon and circle. The height above door's top level is half the
span of the garbhag¤ha. The ceilings can be of wood or stone.
The turavu is made by corbelling in stones/bricks. The
mukhamandapas are provided with ceilings with highly
149
decorated beams and planks (phalaka) divided into segments of
9 or 25. The details are given in áilpiratna388 and
Tantrasamuccaya.389
9 K£tas K£ta is a solid timber element, which takes the hip rafters and
slanting rafters and also connects the ridge. The k£ta is highly
decorated with pattas, v¡janas and mukula or like lotus. It can
be circular, octagonal or sextagonal in shape.390 B¡lak£tas are
of same shape but smaller in sizes and are provided at the ends
of ridges and at the centre. B¡lak£tas are provided at the eves
end with the leveling plate at the bottom.
10 Rafters Rafters can be decorative. It can be decorated with ¿ukan¡sika,
cuttings, vala, tips covered with copper or brass plates, decorated
nails with 'st¡na' or mukula.
11 V¡mata It has the function of joining the rafters at the free end and
support the roofing material. The v¡mata is decorated with
v¡janas. It provides stability to the space frame.
12 ViÀkambhas These are the decorated struts and function like slanting struts.
388
áilparatna, Sl.87-90. 389
Tantrasamuccaya (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.26-27. 390
ManuÀy¡layacandrika, Ch.6, Sl.9-11.
150
It can be highly decorative, decorated in the shapes of lion,
horse, crocodile, some idols, etc to give varieties and decorum.
13 Roof Sloping roofs are provided in most of the temples. Tiles of
various varieties and sizes provide uniqueness. Copper sheeted
roofs are provided in several temples. Rarely, RCC roofs are also
seen provided during last few decades.
14 St£pis St£pi (Th¡zhikakuta) is important part of ¿rikovil. Some temples
are provided with gold plated st£pis, copper st£pis, brass, silver
and terracotta st£pis. The height of the st£pi can be
proportional to the pr¡s¡da. It may be ½ , ¾ or equal to the
high of adhis¶¡na, to the appropriate yoni and to have proper
padayoni of the total height. The st£pikalank¡ras are: padma,
kumbha, pati, gala, pattas, n¡la and lotus bud.391 Mayamata
(Ch.19, Sl.15-17) gives details of the finials.
15 Inside if
¿rikovil
Garbhag¤ha, antar¡la, bhittis or pillars, uttaras, turavu/ ceiling
are inside the ¿rikovils. Except for garbhag¤ha no bhitti
alank¡ras are provided inside the
¿rikovil. In most of the ¿rikovils plastering with lime mortar is
391
áilpiratna, Sl.261.
151
provided.
Diagram No:4.31, Padmapaduka.
UPAPITA
Diagram No:4.32, Upap¢ta.
152
6
1
1
1
1
1
1 PATTA
KARNIKA
PADMA
PATTA
GALA
PATTA
Diagram No:4.33, Parts of Vedika ( 6 Divisions)
Diagram No:4.34, N¡sika.
4.7.1 Floor levels of garbhag¤ha. Generally the level of garbhag¤ha is the same as
of the level of ¿rikovil (as can be seen in small temples). In certain cases it
is below the level of the surrounding floor level. The examples are
153
Kadampuzha bhagavati temple, Chalisseri Bhagavati temple, Mankata
Svar£pam áasta temple and Kiliyanadu áasta temple. In certain cases the
garbhag¤ha's floor is higher than the antar¡las or mukhamandapa. The
examples are: Taliparambu Rajarajeswara temple, Payyannr Subramania
temple, Trissur Mahadeva temple, Vazhapally Mahadeva temple and
Trikandiyoor áiva temple. There are Matathappan temples where the
pratiÀta is at an elevated floor. Example is áiva Temple, Peruvanam.
The variations in the levels of pratiÀta create not only the varieties
but also uniqueness to the individual temples.
4.8 Discussions. Detailed discussions are reserved to be carried out in separate chapter
in order to contain this chapter and to have more facts and figures from other
chapters.