THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND

AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP IN NAVAL SPECIAL WARFARE LEADERSHIP

by

Peter D. Berardi

MICHAEL T. WEBB, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

JOHN HAWKINS, PhD, Committee Member

DEAN R. LARSON, PhD CAPT USN (Ret), Committee Member

Elizabeth Koenig, JD, Dean, School of Public Service Leadership

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

November 2015

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© Peter Berardi, 2015

Abstract

The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the strength of the relationship

between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare

leadership. Participants (N = 168) consisted of a sample population of retired, separated,

and active duty U.S. Navy SEALs. Participants self-administered the Mayer, Salovey, and

Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) from Multi-Health Systems, Inc., and the

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire by MindGarden, Inc. Using Likert-type scale

questions, both surveys had been previously validated. Four research questions provided

the basis of analysis: (a) What is the relationship between overall emotional intelligence

and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership? (b) Which dimensions of

emotional intelligence are most predictive of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare

leadership? (c) How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership among Naval

Special Warfare leadership? (d) How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership

among Naval Special Warfare leadership? A correlation and regression analysis was

performed for each question to determine the potential strength and direction of any

potential relationship that might exist between the independent and dependent variables. A

Pearson’s r, R2, and P-value were calculated for each potential relationship. Results

indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between overall emotional

intelligence or any particular dimension of emotional intelligence with authentic leadership.

Further analysis also indicated there was no statistically significant relationship between

age and emotional intelligence or between age and authentic leadership. Recommendations

are provided for further research into this area.

iii

Dedication

This research is dedicated to God Almighty, my grandfather Dominick and my

beautiful mother. I love you so much…you have made all that is good within me.

iv

Acknowledgments

No man is an island, and I would not have been able to accomplish this

educational endeavor without the motivation, support, and example given to me by my

family, friends, mentors, and associates. To my father: I am proud to be your son.

Admiral E. Olson and CDR Bo Bosiljevac: You exemplify positive leadership and set an

example for all to follow. If I become half of what you are I know I will be successful.

My fellow Frogs: I am proud to stand alongside each one of you. Not only do you run to

the sound of gunfire but also you fly to Brothers in need, and the support you give in all

situations is unparalleled. CAPT T. Chaby, my swim buddy at BUD/S, the friendship

and example you continue to give me has always provided me a solid and straight path to

follow. Mr. Pete Gleason: I can’t imagine growing up and enjoying life without a closer

friend or truer brother. CAPT T. Seniff: Your door has always been open to me and your

support unquestionable. I appreciate the time and insight you have always freely given

me. Senior Chief David Paaaina, you exemplify, fortitude, fraternity and focus, thank

you for what you taught me. Dr. Paul Lieber: Our discussions over coffee at Charly’s

and the perspective on analysis that you have given me enabled me to look at my work

from a broader perspective. Michael Hamm: Your efforts on my behalf saved me

countless hours and headaches, and you made it all seem so simple. Jeff Zuckerman:

Your editing and sense of humor through this process has made what would have been

very painful and enjoyable exercise in learning. You saved me from stumbling. Mr.

Ronald Fleisher: I can’t thank you enough for the mentorship and sage guidance that you

so selflessly provide me. From our first conversation you have made a difference in my

v

approach to life and work, my gratitude is immeasurable. Steve “Coach” Vacendak, you

started me out on this academic journey and have never failed to guide me in the right

direction, you are an amazing father and mentor. Don Hutchinson, your leadership skills

and the confidence and trust you both instilled and gave to me were and remain an

inspiration for me. My dissertation committee, Dr Michael Webb, Dr. Dean Larson, and

Dr. John Hawkins: You’ve taken this chunk of coal and made it a lot shinier. The

insights, direction, and perspective you have provided me gave me the incentive to work

harder, dig deeper, and communicate better than I could ever have done without your

efforts on my behalf. I am finally at my goal because of you. Finally, to my beautiful

Ann and my amazing children Dominick, Pierce, Isabella, and Bond: You have all

sacrificed time and opportunity because of me and put up with book-filled hours at home.

You are my reason for being, and I love you more than can ever be said.

vi

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments iv

List of Tables ix

List of Figures x

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction to the Problem 2

Background of the Study 5

Statement of the Problem 6

Purpose of the Study 6

Rationale 7

Research Questions 7

Significance of the Study 9

Definition of Terms 9

Assumptions 12

Limitations 18

Nature of the Study 18

Conclusion 19

Organization of Remainder of Study 20

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 21

Introduction to Literature Review 21

Theoretical Framework 24

Emotional Intelligence 27

vii

Authentic Leadership 31

Theoretical Synthesis 33

Current Literature 36

Methodological Literature 43

Conclusion 47

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 49

Research Design 49

Sample 49

Population 50

Setting 53

Instrumentation/Measures 53

Data Collection 56

Data Analysis 58

Assumptions and Limitations 63

Expected Findings 65

Ethical Considerations 66

Conclusion 69

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 71

Introduction 71

Description of Sample Data 73

Research Methodology and Data Analysis 77

Summary of Results 92

viii

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 95

Overview 95

Summary of Demographic Characteristics and Results 98

Results for Questions and Hypothesis 98

Results Within the Extant of Literature 101

Implications of Findings 104

Limitation of the Research 106

Recommendation for Further Study 107

Conclusion 112

REFERENCES 115

ix

List of Tables

Table 1. Leadership Theory Development 26

Table 2. Demographic Age Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 75

Table 3. Demographic Education Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 75

Table 4. Demographic Years in Service Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 75

Table 5. Demographic Highest Rank Achieved Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 76

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics: Emotional Intelligence (EI) Components (N = 7) 76

Table 7. Authentic Leadership Score Data 77

Table 8. Emotional Intelligence and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 78

Table 9. Emotional Intelligence Reasoning Area and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 80

Table 10. Emotional Intelligence Experience Area and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 82

Table 11. Emotional Intelligence B1 Perceiving and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 84

Table 12. Emotional Intelligence B2 Understanding and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 85

Table 13. Emotional Intelligence B3 Using and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 86

Table 14. Emotional Intelligence B4 Managing and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 87

Table 15. Age/Emotional Intelligence Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 88

Table 16. Age/AL Summary Output 90

Table 17. Regression and Correlation Data Summary (IV/DV) 91

x

List of Figures

Figure 1. Emotional Intelligence/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot. 79

Figure 2. Emotional Intelligence Reasoning Area/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot. 81

Figure 3. Emotional Intelligence Experience Area/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot. 83

Figure 4. Age/Emotional Intelligence regression analysis scatter plot. 89

Figure 5. Age/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot. 91

1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to examine the strength of the relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare (NSW)

leadership. Naval Special Warfare (also known as Navy SEALs) is the U.S. Navy

component of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). The

research problem addressed in this study was whether overall emotional intelligence is an

indicator of authentic leadership. The specific topic studied was the relationship between

emotional intelligence and the measures of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare

leadership.

Whether a person is born with leadership abilities or is made into a leader has

been addressed by a number of scholars. Kouzes and Posner (2007), for example, argued

there is nothing in a person’s genetic make-up that predisposes him or her to leadership.

Stephenson (2004) notes that the best leaders earn to lead and that positive leadership

behavioral traits are learned by communicating and working with others. Various models

and theories related to leadership suggest that a person’s ability to interact with others is

critical to being an effective leader. The characteristics of this interaction include a

leader’s interpersonal skill, an ability to convey ideas, engagement with followers, a

vision for the future, and the ability to set viable goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2007).

Leadership, as defined by Northouse (2014), is “a process whereby an individual

2

influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 6). Homrig (2001)

described leadership development as a process whereby gained experience and innate

aptitude come together in a cumulative and symbiotic manner to produce a leader capable

of guiding and influencing an organization. This guidance and influence entails having

the awareness, vision, and maturity (Goleman, 2004) to enable a synergy, growth, and

longevity that surpasses the sum of abilities within the organization. This description of

leadership also includes a level of self-awareness that enables a person to evaluate how

things can be done better and how one can self-improve in order to be a well-rounded

leader who is able to persuade others to set and accomplish goals (Dearborn, 2002).

Goleman (2004) described this as maturity, and Rosenstein (2012) noted that such

maturity and self-awareness are critical to authentic leadership and success in meeting the

challenges of current and future leadership.

Introduction to the Problem

The United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) is an organization

within the Department of Defense described as a Unified Combatant Command (UCC).

A UCC is identified as such when its organization consists of forces from at least two

military departments. USSOCOM consists of forces from the Department of the Navy,

the Department of the Army, and the Department of the Air Force, and is responsible for

the management and resourcing of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) organic to each

of those departments. This SOF community includes U.S. Army Rangers, U.S. Army

Special Forces, U.S. Air Force Combat Controllers, and U.S. Air Force Para-Rescue

personnel, and associate fixed-wing and rotary-wing-air organizations. Naval Special

3

Warfare (Navy SEALs), while a part of the U.S. Navy, falls into this SOF category, and

is also under the operational control of USSOCOM. Alongside these special operations

personnel are a variety of enablers that support special operations missions in positions

ranging from administrative to direct involvement in missions and that are essential for

mission success (HQUSSOCOM, 2012). The various military communities are

characterized by different organizational cultures. One unique culture, and one that has

faced troubles in recent times, is that of the Naval Special Warfare community

(Diffenauer, 2010). Snodgrass (2014) stated that 2013 “marked the worst in history [for

retention] for the special warfare community, with record numbers of lieutenant

commanders declining to stay for promotion to the next pay grade” (p. 64). A recent

organizational climate survey of Special Operations personnel, which included Naval

Special Warfare, indicated that leadership behavior negatively affects the organizational

climate and job satisfaction (USSOCOM, 2013). The issue of leadership behavior having

negative affects has both operational readiness and logistical implications. These

implications include retention of seasoned personnel who possess unique operational

experience, resource allocation for additional training because of the loss of corporate

knowledge, and the costs to family members and mental health associated with long-term

commitments to deployments (Snodgrass, 2014). This same organizational climate

survey also provided insight into areas that many members of the Special Operations

community members thought required improvement. Included in this insight were notes

regarding leadership and communication (USSOCOM, 2013). Northouse (2014)

discussed leadership traits and behavior in detail and suggested organizational strength

4

and those in leadership positions can affect loyalty and environmental conditions within

an organization. In the dynamic operating environment within which the members of

Naval Special Warfare exist, the leadership throughout the ranks is the key to

organizational success.

Authentic leadership, as defined by Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, and Wernsing

(2008), is

a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development. (p. 94) Emotional intelligence theory, as put forth by Goleman (1998), suggests areas of

social skills and self-awareness contribute to life success and fulfillment at home and

work. Goleman (1999) described effective leaders as being distinguished by a “high

degree of emotional intelligence, which includes self-awareness, self-regulation,

motivation, empathy, and social skill” (p. 9). Batool (2013) noted that emotional

intelligence is an effective measure for evaluating potential employees for future

leadership position, while Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, and Dickens(2011) stated that the

emotional intelligence of those in leadership positions may affect employee outcomes

within that organization. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) argued that leaders who

are high in emotional intelligence are key to organizational success and that leaders must

have an awareness of themselves and those with whom they work. Stella (2015) asserted

emotional intelligence consists of several attributes, including self-awareness. It is this

self-awareness and awareness of others that provide the link between emotional

5

intelligence and authentic leadership (Kiyani, Saher, Saleem & Iqbal, 2013; Rosenstein,

2012; Triola, 2007).

Background of the Study

Senior Naval Special Warfare personnel (personal communications, July, 2012)

have described a community attrition rate that is close to the personnel acquisition rate,

with minor fluctuations from year to year. The Naval Special Warfare community

comprises various support personnel in addition to those individuals with the U.S. Navy

SEAL qualification. In the U.S. Navy vernacular and for the purpose of this research

those personnel that have earned the SEAL qualification are known as operators. Naval

Special Warfare currently has an authorized manning of close to 6,000 operators, yet has

only been able to grow to approximately 3,000 operators (SOCOM document, 2013).

According to discussions with senior Naval Special Warfare personnel, the goal of 6,000

personnel may be obtainable over time if attrition rates are lowered (personal

communication, July 2012). Northouse (2014) discussed how organizational strength and

those in leadership positions affect loyalty within an organization. This perspective

provided by Northouse (2014), is also described by Laschinger, Wong, and Grau (2012),

who provided an analysis of the impact of authentic leadership on organizational

environment and employee retention.

The transitive nature of leadership traits and behaviors allow for them to apply to

various organizational disciplines. It is hoped that the perspectives and insights gained

from this research will apply to athletic, corporate, and other military communities and

contribute to stronger leadership development vehicles in those communities. This

6

research may also contribute to viable resource management assessments, particularly

fiscal resources, as the return on investment of leadership training may lower the variable

costs associated with recruitment and training of additional personnel.

Statement of the Problem

The research problem addressed in this study is whether overall emotional

intelligence is an indicator of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

This study is designed to add to the body of literature on emotional intelligence, authentic

leadership, and add to the variety of sample populations from which these theories are

applied. This study may also provide data that increases the predictability of emotional

intelligence as related to authentic leadership styles and enhance overall authentic

leadership research and viability (Gardner et al., 2011).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, correlational study is to

analyze the strength of how individual dimensions of emotional intelligence may

contribute to authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The specific

topic to be studied is the relationship between emotional intelligence and the measures of

authentic leadership of Naval Special Warfare leadership. A theme in the various

leadership models and theories has been the need for an awareness of the impact of

engagement and interaction in accomplishing organizational goals (McClesky, 2014).

Kouzes and Posner (2007) argued a leader’s interpersonal skill, ability to convey ideas,

and a vision for the future, as well as the ability to set viable goals, set the path for

successful leadership. Analyzing the strength of relationship between emotional

7

intelligence and authentic leadership may offer valuable insight into the acquisition of

these important skill sets.

Rationale

The quantitative method was most appropriate for the study. As noted by

Williams (2007), research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and

interpreting data in order to understand a phenomenon, and the process, from defining the

objective to making inferences from the data, follows established methodological

guidelines. Creswell (2003) stated there must be alignment between research questions

and research methodologies. Quantitative researchers can utilize objective evidence to

perform objective analysis (Levine, 2011). This research utilized data that were obtained

through the use of measurement scales consisting of data that is ordinal and continuous

(Levine, 2011). Qualitative and mixed methods were less appropriate because this

research examined a relationship between variables (Creswell, 2009; Levine, 2011;

Zikmund, 2009). The study examined the relationship between two known variables,

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.

Research Questions

The research questions for this study follow:

(RQ1) What is the relationship between overall emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership of leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Null hypothesis (Ho); No statistically significant relationship exists between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

8

Alternate hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

(RQ2) Which dimensions of emotional intelligence are most predictive of

authentic leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho. No dimensions of emotional intelligence are predictive of authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Ha. At least one dimension of emotional intelligence is predictive of authentic

leadership among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

(RQ3) How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership among

personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho. Emotional intelligence does not vary by age among personnel in Naval

Special Warfare leadership.

Ha. At least one dimension of emotional intelligence varies by age among

personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

(RQ4) How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership among personnel

in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho. Authentic leadership does not significantly vary by age among personnel in

Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Ha. Authentic leadership significantly varies by age among personnel in Naval

Special Warfare leadership.

9

Significance of the Study

Much of the relevant research conducted over the past few decades has examined

the relationship of transformational leadership as an effective leadership style and how

emotional intelligence might be a predictor of that type of leadership (Gardner et al.,

2011). Thomas, (2011), Awadzi (2010), and Leigh (2012) provided research on

transformational leadership relative to emotional intelligence. This study is intended to

add to the body of knowledge regarding authentic leadership theory and to further

validate the concept of authentic leadership as being a key description of effective

leadership, and to support the construct validity and nomology as discussed by Gardner

(2011) and Walumbwa et al. (2008). This research is also intended to examine the

viability of the authentic leadership theory as a theory describing effective leadership

traits and behavior. Both Gardner at al (2011) and McClesky (2014) discuss the

probability that the amount of leadership studies performed previous to the development

of the authentic leadership theory may be skewed towards transformational leadership

behavior instead of authentic leadership behavior due to the relative newness of the

authentic leadership theory. The significance of this research is that it will add to the

body of literature pertaining to the relationship between emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership theory.

Definition of Terms

Balanced processing: The degree to which the leader solicits sufficient opinions

and viewpoints prior to making important decisions.

10

Empathy: The characteristic of considering others’ feelings when making

decisions. Empathetic people are good at leading teams, retaining talented employees,

and working with people from other cultures, all of which are vital skills in today's

marketplace (Goleman, 1999).

Internalized moral perspective: The degree to which the leader sets a high

standard for moral and ethical conduct.

Motivated people: Those who are driven not to acquire a large salary or a

prestigious title but to experience the joy that accompanies achievement. Like athletes,

they welcome challenges (Goleman, 1999).

Naval Special Warfare Leadership: Traits and behaviors demonstrated by any

member of the Naval Special Warfare community when interacting within a team

environment, peer group, or place of positional authority. Leadership in the Naval

Special Warfare community for the purposes of this research is not rank dependent but is

characterized by the actions, demeanor, and pragmatism of the individual.

Relational Transparency: The degree to which a leader reinforces a level of

openness with others and provides them with an opportunity to be forthcoming with their

ideas, challenges and opinions.

SEAL: An acronym for sea, air, land, to name the U.S. Navy maritime commando

force derived from the U.S. Navy Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT). This unit was

promulgated in 1961 and commissioned in 1962 by President Kennedy to conduct

clandestine and covert operations. Sea, air, and land also describe the operating

11

environment within and from which Navy SEALs operate. U.S. Navy SEALs are the

U.S. Navy component of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM).

Self-awareness: A description of a characteristic of people who understand and

are comfortable with their emotions, needs, weaknesses, strengths, and drives. This

understanding makes them self-confident (Goleman, 1999). Walumbwa et al. (2008)

described this as the degree to which a leader is aware of his or her strengths and

limitations.

Self-regulation: A description of a person’s ability to control his or her impulses,

including potentially destructive ones like anger and fear. Such people are often

described as mature (Goleman, 1999).

Socially skilled people: Those who are good at managing relationships. They

prize networking, knowing that few important jobs get done alone (Goleman, 1999).

Transactional leadership: A quid pro quo relationship between two entities.

Homrig (2001) suggested this type of leadership is “based on a transaction or exchange of

something of value the leader possesses or controls that the follower wants in return for

his/her services” (p. 1).

Transformational leadership: Leadership that develops followers into leaders by

elevating the followers concerns from personal safety and security to achievement and

self-actualization and that “increase[s] the followers’ awareness and consciousness of

what is important from a personal self-interest perspective to that of what is good for the

larger entity to which they belong” (Bass, 1995, p. 467).

12

Unified Combatant Command (UCC): An organization consisting of forces from

at least two military departments. USSOCOM consists of forces from the Department of

the Navy, the Department of the Army, and the Department of the Air Force, and is

responsible for managing and resourcing the Special Operations Commands (SOCs)

organic to each of those departments.

United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM): An organization

within the Department of Defense described as a Unified Combatant Command (UCC).

Value Congruence – Domain of research that attempts to capture “the

Congruence between the characteristics of individuals (e.g., goals, skills, values) and the

characteristics of organizations (e.g., goals, values, resources, and culture).” Congruence

takes on two forms—supplementary and complementary (Stazyk, 2009, p. 8)

Assumptions

Topical Assumptions

Emotional intelligence and authentic leadership were chosen as the research

variables for this study because of the perceived organizational benefits derived when

evidenced in leadership. In addition to the many articles and studies by renowned

psychologist by D. Goleman, researcher’s Davis and Humphrey (2014) noted several

studies in addition to their own suggesting that emotional intelligence mitigates various

stressors and encourages adaption (p. 55). Naval Special Warfare personnel operate in a

highly dynamic environment and must deal with stressors that include those related to

combat, family separations, and social interactions (personal communication,

USSOCOM Preservation of the Force and Family Directorate, 2015). Success in this

13

dynamic environment often depends on unconventional tactics and mindsets with ability

to think “outside the box” (McRaven, 1995). Noting this potential relationship between

emotional intelligence, personal resiliency, and interactions sparked keen interest on

other implications of emotional intelligence levels. Castro, Gomes, and de Sousa (2012)

found a positive relationship between a leader’s emotional intelligence and levels of

creativity amongst subordinates, leading to the consideration that this creativity

contributes to Navy SEALs’ high rate of mission success. Beyer (2010) stated that

authentic leadership is described as a root construct of leadership types premised on

attributes that positively influence subordinate intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Gardner,

Avolio, Luthans, May, and Walumbwa (2005) stated that outcomes of authentic leader–

follower relationships include heightened levels of follower trust in the leader,

engagement, workplace well-being and veritable, sustainable performance (p. 343).

Triola (2007) has described authentic leadership as starting with emotional intelligence

and linked the critical aspects of emotional intelligence directly with those of authentic

leadership. Ascertaining the strength of the relationship between these two areas of

interest was undertaken to increase the body and depth of knowledge related to each.

The topical assumption is that authentic leaders who can both relate to and enhance the

working environment of people will positively affect their organization. Northouse

(2010) provided an authentic leadership model delineating the attributes relative to this

positive form of leadership and how this type leadership affects an organization.

Sechelariu (2012) noted that emotions are a part of any human experience and a

14

psychological response to a variety of stimuli. How a person understands, controls, and

utilizes these emotions (Goleman, 1999) is a broadly defined as emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence attributed to Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (as cited in

Brannick, Wahi, & Goldin, 2011) and built on by Goleman (1999) suggested specific

aspects of social skills and self-awareness lead to life success and fulfillment at home and

at work. Giltinane (2013) noted, “A leader’s role is to elicit effective performance from

others. This involves leading and influencing the development of shared values, vision

and expectations to enhance their organization’s planned goals and overall effectiveness”

(p. 35). Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) suggested the most effective leaders are

also emotionally intelligent. Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough (2001) noted that

studies on emotional intelligence have found positive correlations between aspects of

emotional intelligence and leadership (p. 224) and that emotional intelligence has been a

viable predictor variable of transformational leadership.

Theoretical Assumptions

The key theoretical assumption is that leaders with higher emotional intelligence

exhibit behaviors that lead to increased departmental efficacy, retention, and overall

positive command environment. Kouzes and Posner (2007) posited that leaders who

engage their subordinates and peers and act with a positive form of behavior

characteristic are more effective leaders. According to Walumbwa et al. (2008),

authentic leadership is a leadership behavior that utilizes and encourages the development

of “positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate” (p. 94) to guide and

empower the organizational members to success. The assumptions of this theory follow:

15

1. Authentic leaders foster great self-awareness. Goleman (2004) stated that “a

primary task of leadership is to direct attention” (p. 52), which is only

accomplished if leaders can focus both on themselves and “listen to their

inner voice” (p. 52). Eriksen (2009) noted that self-awareness is based on

internally constructed values and beliefs, while Avolio and Gardner (2005)

suggested increased self-awareness “fosters the development of authenticity

in followers” (p. 317).

2. Authentic leaders are unbiased in the processing of information. Diddams

and Chang (2012) argued this balanced processing is necessary to

adequately reflect upon information regarding self. Gardner et al. (2005)

discussed the relevance of human bias in self-reflection, noting that

authentic leaders have optimal self-esteem that mitigates denials, distortions,

and biases (p. 356).

3. Authentic leaders allow for relational transparency between leaders and

followers. Diddams and Chang (2012) discussed authentic leadership as

emphasizing a transparently connected relationship between leaders and

followers, encompassing a high level of self-awareness with internalized

beliefs and moral values.

4. Authentic leaders promote positive self-development within the

organization. Gardner et al. (2005) discussed the aspects of authenticity to

include heightened levels of follower trust in the leader, engagement,

workplace well-being, and veritable, sustainable performance. Diddams and

16

Chang (2012) discussed organizational emulation of leadership that provides

positive modeling and positive environments, standards, and values (pp.

258-259).

According to Goleman (2004), emotional intelligence is defined as a person’s

ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of one’s self and those of others.

Goleman (2004) lists five theoretical assumptions of emotional intelligence and

suggested the following:

1. Emotionally intelligent leaders have a higher self-awareness with regard to

their emotions, strengths, weakness, goals, values, and so forth. Goleman

(2013) enhanced this assumption to include the ability to focus inward and

outward, which enables people to increase their cognizance of their

environment, how they are affected by it and how they influence it.

2. Emotionally intelligent leaders self-regulate such that they can manage their

emotions and impulses and can adapt to changing environments. Goleman

(1999) describes this as being mature and not succumbing to impulses such

as anger or fear.

3. Emotionally intelligent leaders have increased social skills in understanding

and managing the emotions of others, networking, and knowing that jobs

require more than one person (Goleman, 1999).

4. Emotionally intelligent leaders are empathetic and recognize, understand,

and consider the emotions of and impact on others when making decisions.

Constantine and Gainor (2001) provide research demonstrating a positive

17

correlation between emotional intelligence scores and the “interpersonal

strengths that enable [a person] to comprehend or be attuned to the

[experiences of others]” (p. 135).

Goleman (1999) also argued that emotionally intelligence leaders are self-

motivated and seek challenges for challenge sake, much like athletes are driven to

achieve. Hong, Catano, and Liao (2011) provided evidence that emotional intelligence is

positively related to a person’s motivation to lead and be proactive in guiding others.

Axiological Assumptions

The axiological assumptions that contributed to the selection of this methodology

are that analysis is not dependent on empirical evidence alone but is done in congress

with personal logic (Simons, 1998). The assumption of this aspect of the research is that

the logic of individuals who join the U.S. Navy SEALs do so for altruistic reasons,

including a sense of duty to family and country, and a clear distinction and personal view

of what is (ethically speaking) morally right and morally wrong. Others attempt to join

out of ego but it appears that ego alone is not enough to overcome the challenges faced in

becoming a part of the NSW community (SEAL-SWCC Official website, 2014).

Ontological Assumptions

Ontologically, the logical positivism perspective for this research problem

describes a world where intrinsic and extrinsic rewards need to be measured alongside

several behaviors exhibited by leaders within the NSW community. This is evidenced by

the unique relationships that exist within the culture of SEAL community. These

relationships are defined by a high level of trust, responsibility, and accountability

18

(Northouse, 2009) across the rank structure and typically exhibit high levels of loyalty

and commitment to the organization.

The personal and foundational philosophies of this study are derived from the

assumption that a quantitative, quasi-experimental approach will provide valid and

reliable data from which to conduct a statistical analysis. It is assumed that the

instruments utilized will provide insight on which aspects of emotional intelligence, if

any, may have on the leadership style of NSW leadership.

Limitations

This design is limited by the size of the sample population in a single community

within the Department of Defense, and by the potential bias due to the researcher being a

retired Navy SEAL. The potential for bias does exist; however, utilizing objectivity via

quantitative, voluntary, self-moderated surveys removed the potential for any responses

to be guided or interpretations to be skewed.

Nature of the Study

The theories of authentic leadership and emotional intelligence guided this study by

providing the potential leadership model and characteristics to which Naval Special

Warfare leadership might ascribe. The research was conducted using the existing

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) and Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional

Intelligence Survey (MSCEIT) survey instruments. As noted in Babbie (2012), the intent

of a survey is to provide an empirical portrayal of some opinions, attitudes, or trends of a

given population. Babbie (2012) suggested this portrayal is accomplished through the

use of a sample of the population. This study provides this empirical representation

19

through the use of the MSCEIT (Multi-Health Systems, 2002) and Authentic Leadership

Questionnaire (MindGardens,Inc., 2002).

This quantitative correlational study was conducted as a self-administered survey to

a spectrum of active duty, separated, and retired Navy SEALs of various ages and ranks.

Participants were solicited in aggregate through social media, and the data obtained were

analyzed using the Microsoft Office Excel Statistical Program (2009). If it could be

determined that NSW leadership with higher emotional intelligence scores have a

propensity for authentic leadership traits, future Naval Special Warfare leadership

training may attempt to amplify emotional intelligence training in future training doctrine

and policies as well as potentially using this measure for evaluating personnel for

potential leadership positions within the NSW community.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to provide a substantive quantitative analysis that

explored the strength of the relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. A recent organizational climate survey

of USSOCOM personnel indicates that leadership behavior within USSOCOM

negatively affects organizational climate and job satisfaction. The negative consequences

of poor organizational climate and low job satisfaction are decreased employee retention

levels (Saniewski, 2012), which in turn have a negative impact on resources and

readiness (Snodgrass, 2014).

Triola (2007) noted effective leadership begins with authentic leadership traits

and provided examples of how these traits are implemented in the health care industry.

20

More recently, Batool (2013) observed that emotional intelligence is a popular measure

for identifying potentially effective leaders. Kiyani et al. (2013) discussed the

relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and found a positive

relationship between emotional intelligence authentic leadership. A quantitative

correlational survey was performed on a sample population of Navy SEALs. It was

expected that there would be both a positive correlation between emotional intelligence

scores and higher authentic leadership scores and that SEALs greater in age would score

higher emotional intelligence scores than those of younger age. It was also expected that

the null hypothesis regarding both of these would be rejected.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter 2 provides an explanation of pervious and current literature relevant

to the studies of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. Chapter 3 discusses the

methodology utilized in conducting this research and includes a description of the

research design, population, sampling and survey distribution. Chapter 4 presents the

data acquired and the analysis of this data. Chapter 5 discusses insights and conclusions

drawn from data analysis, answers research questions, presents recommendations for

future research, recommendations to training curricula, and study conclusions.

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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction to the Literature Review

This literature review discusses the current studies and research regarding the

theoretical frameworks of emotional intelligence (Multi-Health Systems, 2002) and the

authentic leadership theory as described by Walumbwa et al. (2008). Much of the

material researched for this study was oriented to corporate organizations and athletic

teams, with several also focused on military organizations. Although this study is

directly related to a military organization, the theories and principles learned and applied

are transitive throughout leadership and organizational theory. There are many studies

relating emotional intelligence to effective leadership and authentic leadership as an

effective leadership style; yet there is a need for empirical data regarding the relationship

between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.

This study explored the strength of the relationship between emotional

intelligence and authentic leadership using a sample population from the Naval Special

Warfare community known also known as U.S. Navy SEALs. This group was selected

because of its anecdotal reputation for leadership, cohesiveness, and its unique

organizational culture oriented to small teams operating in divers and dynamic

environments. The steps taken to determine the need for this studied began with a

discussion with the Naval Special Warfare community manager (V. Dreager, personal

correspondence, July, 2012), discussing the personnel shortfalls within the Naval Special

Warfare community. The NSW community manager provides guidance on career

22

milestones to NSW personnel as well as internal community human resource information

and detailing assistance to NSW staff. This human resource information includes trends,

shortfalls, and pluses in the community population, and facilitates the recruiting and

billeting process (USSOCOM Staff, personal correspondence, August, 2015).

Further discussions with Naval Special Warfare senior leadership pertained to increased

recruitment efforts and increasing retention levels. Leaders discussed policies such as

cash bonuses, shorter deployment, and variable training periods and education. During a

discussion on Special Operations leadership, then Major General (MG) B. Sacolick (U.S.

Army) of the United States Special Operations Command, Force Management

Directorate (personal communication, July 30, 2013) indicated that although U.S. Special

Operations Forces (SOF) are continually placed in leadership position, no formalized

leadership courses discuss or teach leadership behaviors, traits, or anything related to

leadership theory; moreover, most training in the realm of leadership came through on the

job experience and ad hoc mentorship. This absence of leadership development training

may be the genesis of the responses to a recent Special Operations organizational climate

survey, which indicated a need for leadership development training (USSOCOM, 2013).

Northouse (2009) discussed leadership traits and behavior and noted those in leadership

positions affect organizational strength and loyalty within an organization. As Naval

Special Warfare and public service organizations in general endeavor to perform more

tasks with limited resources, leadership skills and positive organizational environments

will be critical nodes of success (Batool, 2013; Snodgrass, 2014).

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The theories of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership are relatively new

theories developed within the past century, as social scientists have sought to analyze and

explain various leadership behaviors, styles, and traits (McLesky, 2014). The emotional

intelligence theory began gaining traction in the early 1990s with the research and writing

of Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso and then with the applications of the theory by Goleman

(as cited in Multi-Health Systems, 2002). Similarly, the authentic leadership theory is

also a relatively new leadership theory that has just begun being a part of leadership

research in the past decade (Gardner, 2011). In addition to a leader’s personality, the style

of leadership that guides an organization can become an overall trait of that organization.

Palmer et al. (2001) discuss a spectrum of leadership that runs from a task and standard

oriented transactional style to the transformational leadership style that promotes self-

consciousness and the value of outcome and an awareness of how leadership actions

affect others. Tucker and Russell (2004) defined the difference between the two styles as

transformational being a leader of innovation and transactional being a manager of

planning and policy (p. 103). These variables are relevant to the study of leadership

within the Naval Special Warfare community as leadership is derived from within the

group and maintain a close relationship with the group throughout an individual career.

Knowing the relation between emotional intelligence and leadership style will provide

important information related to Naval Special Warfare leadership training and Human

Resource Development decisions.

This literature review is divided into three sections: theoretical framework, review

of current literature, and finally, a review of methodological literature.

24

Theoretical Framework

The importance of effective leadership is evidenced by the historical depictions of

leadership throughout the millennia. Examples of leadership are noted throughout history

from Egyptian rulers, Greek heroes, and biblical patriarchs (Stone & Patterson, 2005)

through to members of today’s variety of private and public organizations. Whether

these leaders were effective or were for good or bad, all were able to successfully

influence those around them. As noted by Gardner (1990), leadership results are

produced by the combination of appropriate leadership qualities and context. The

academic analysis of leadership began in the early 19th century with the promulgation of

the so-called great man theory (Raelin, 2015), and continues today with a broad spectrum

of theories such as the transactional and transformational offered by Burns (1978) and the

authentic leadership theory offered by Walumbwa et al. (2008). This spectrum of

leadership is broken down into categories related to leadership attributes and developed

over a continuum of time and contexts: great man theory, trait theory, behavioral theories,

contingency theories, transactional theories, transformational theories, and authentic

leadership theory. The philosophical perspectives of the great man theory are based in

the belief that successful leaders are born and not made. Studies conducted in the early

19th focused on studying successful military leaders and were also influenced by

positions of power being handed down from father to son as well as the culture of women

not being in leadership positions (Bolden, Gosling, Marturano, & Dennison, 2003).

25

Although the great man theory is not applicable to NSW, it did provide a starting

point for studies in leadership. The following table promulgated by Bolden et al. (2003)

provides a succinct description of these leadership theories. These different broad scope

theories have provided the basis for additional theoretical models (Bolden et al., 2003)

and changed alongside the shifts of organizational structures and philosophies through

time. Leadership and leadership opportunities exist in a multitude of contexts and

experience levels. What makes a good leader is a subjective question as opinions of how

leaders should lead may vary from person to person. Gardner (1990) described a good

leader as one who produces a good result per a combination of context and personal

qualities, and also described leadership as a process of persuasion. No matter if an

organization is profit motivated or a public bureaucracy, the leaders should lead the same

way—a way that influences and motivates members to succeed in their organizational

and personal goals as well as to instill a pride in performance and desire to succeed. How

they do this is based on their behavior and traits (Ortmeier & Meese, 2010). The

theoretical foundations of this study are the emotional intelligence theory (Multi-Health

Systems, 2002) and the authentic leadership theory (Walumbwa et al., 2008). The topical

assumption of this research is that leaders who (a) are in better communication with their

organization and (b) can both relate to and enhance the working environment of people

will positively affect the climate within their organization.

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Table 1. Leadership Theory Development

Leadership Theory Description

Great Man Theory

(Evolved around the 1840s)

Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept that is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories.

Trait Theory

(1930s-1940s)

The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary that describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life.

Behaviorist Theories

(1940’s-1950’s)

These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers.

Contingency Theory

(1960s)

This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances.

Situational Leadership

(1970s)

This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization.

Transactional Theory

(1970’s)

This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers.

Transformational Theory

(1970s)

The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance.

Authentic Leadership Theory (Walumbwa et al. (2008)

(2000-2010)

Emphasizes building the leader’s legitimacy through honest relationships with followers which value their input and are built on an ethical foundation. Generally, authentic leaders are positive people with truthful self-concepts who promote openness. By building trust and generating enthusiastic support from their subordinates, authentic leaders are able to improve individual and team performance (Gardner et al., 2011).

Note. Adapted from Exeter University Report for Chase Consulting and the Management Standards Centre. P. 6, by R. Bolden, J. Gosling, A. Marturano, & P. Dennison, 2003, Centre for Leadership Studies.

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This research examines this assumption and provides potential impetus for

implementing specified leadership training curricula. The authentic leadership theory

guides this study by providing the potential model to which Naval Special Warfare

leadership might ascribe. If research provides evidence that those in Naval Special

Warfare leadership with higher levels of emotional intelligence also have higher levels of

authentic leadership then perhaps the relationship between these variables might be

further explored. The strength of the relationship between these variables may provide

reason for future Naval Special Warfare leadership training to try and amplify emotional

intelligence traits in Naval Special Warfare training policies and doctrine (USSOCOM,

2013). Batool (2013) noted emotional intelligence is an effective measure for evaluating

potential employees for future leadership positions, and Gardner et al. (2011) stated that

the emotional intelligence of those in leadership positions may affect employee outcomes

within that organization.

Emotional Intelligence

Current research on emotional intelligence is broader than what can be viably

addressed in this research, as the definitions, criticisms, and scope of usage is voluminous

(McLesky, 2014). Davis and Humphry (2014) note that emotional intelligence as

currently construed as either ability or a trait. Emotional intelligence as ability according

to Davis and Humphry (2014) is a “form of intelligence for reasoning about emotion and

emotions of others” (p. 54). Emotional intelligence as a trait is viewed as a “cluster of

emotion related self-perceptions and dispositions, partially determined by existing higher-

order personality dimensions (Davis & Humphry, 2014, p. 54). Mayer, Salovey, and

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Caruso recommended users of the emotional intelligence theory should use the abilities-

based model as promulgated in original emotional intelligence model McLesky (2014).

Stella (2015) wrote that emotional intelligence consists of (a) awareness of one’s own

emotions, (b) accurately express one’s own emotions, (c) awareness of others’ emotions,

(d) express others’ emotions accurately, and (e) empathy (p. 4). Goleman et al. (2002)

opined that leaders high in emotional intelligence are key to organizational success, and

leaders must have an awareness of themselves and those with whom they work. It is this

self-awareness that provides the link between emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership.

Although rooted in studies and discussions on leadership and behavior for many

years the concept of emotional intelligence as a theory began to coalesce in the early

1980s (McLesky, 2014). This gelling of a potential new leadership theory began with

various studies discussing alternate forms of measuring intelligence other than the IQ

measure (Gardner, 1983; Payne, 1983). Defined by Mayer et al. (2000) as “the ability to

perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with

emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others” (p. 396), emotional intelligence

theory has opened the door to expansive amounts of research into the leadership dynamic.

Earlier notes on emotional intelligence can be traced back to E. L. Thorndike (1920), who

discussed the notion of “social intelligence” (Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004)

and elaborated on alternate forms of intellectual intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is attributed to various life skills and social awareness that

are essential for life success and fulfillment of life at home and at work (Brannick, Wahi,

29

& Goldin, 2011). Giltinane (2013) noted “A leader’s role is to elicit effective

performance from others. This involves leading and influencing the development of

shared values, vision and expectations to enhance their organization’s planned goals and

overall effectiveness” (p. 35). Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) stated the most

effective leaders were also emotionally intelligent. Palmer et al. (2001, p. 224) noted,

“Studies on emotional intelligence have found positive correlations between aspects of

emotional intelligence and leadership,”, and that emotional intelligence has been a viable

predictor variable of transformational leadership. The current research may help identify

what variables required for effective leadership. Batool (2013) stated that emotional

intelligence is now one of the most applied constructs in the study of leadership and it is

within this category that a vast amount of current literature exists. Stella (2015)

elaborated on Goleman’s 1998 work regarding emotional intelligence and discusses that

the social skills inherent to emotional intelligence continue to be important to leadership

development and social research and supports the continued study into the applications of

emotional intelligence. Dearborn (2002) suggested all people have a profile of attributes

regarding emotional intelligence. Furthermore Dearborn (2002) notes,

Emotional intelligence capacities uniquely contribute to performance, and certain capacities may strongly interact and that these capacities build upon one another. That possessing underlying emotional intelligence capacities does not guarantee the competencies will be demonstrated; however, the organizational climate and stimulation derived from the work one does encourage the manifestation of the competencies. (p. 1)

Previously noted in this research was the fact that different organizational

communities within the Department of Defense also have unique cultures amongst

themselves (Snodgrass, 2014). The Dearborn (2002) study relates to this by noting,

30

“Each organization has its own emotional intelligence reality or ecology; so different jobs

may require strengths in different competencies” (p. 1).

Dearborn (2002) discussed the link between emotional intelligence and the return

on investment that organizations achieve as they work with performance enhancing

training programs. Asserting that traditional training that focuses on leadership and

communication skills fails to produce lasting changes, Dearborn believed that focusing

on the study and development of a person’s emotional intelligence via an individualized

plan will have a stronger impact and longer influence in the climate and performance of

an organization. The Dearborn (2002) study serves as a starting point for joining the

concepts of emotional intelligence with the leadership models discussed by Kouzes and

Posner (2007), who wrote an extensive analysis of what it takes to be a strong and viable

leader. Their work in this area presents a great context from which to understand what

credible and forward moving leadership can look like. Kouzes and Posner (2007) also

presented a venue that, when coupled with Dearborn’s emotional intelligence study,

offers a way for a leader to find the necessary steps to improve themselves. Kiyani et al.

(2013) provided an analysis and explanation of transformational leadership and discussed

the differences between transformational leadership and a variety of leadership styles.

Kiyani et al. concluded that emotional intelligence provides a significant impact on

employee outcomes and that a leaders’ authentic leadership impacts this emotional

intelligence.

Homrig (2001) held that as a leader progresses though his or her career, the skills

of that leader progress as well and utilizes the P. Kegan’s six-stage developmental theory

31

to describe this progression in leadership behavior. The Homrig (2001) discussion

suggests that people may develop higher-order leadership traits as they mature. The

stages Homrig (2001) utilized for this analogy are Stages 2, 3, and 4, which are

transactional, higher, transactional and transformational leadership traits respectfully.

The thoroughness of Homrig’s (2001) paper enables a viable opportunity to emplace the

emotional intelligence concept in the context of transactional and transformational

leadership that appear to lie along a continuum of leadership maturity. Gardner et al.

(2011) and Walumbwa et al. (2008) described similar traits but categorized them as

authentic leadership. This utilization of the Kegan model is also reflected in the Helsing

and Howell (2014) leadership study regarding leadership development and progression.

Additional current literature clarifying potential paths forward in the studies of

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership include Shepherd and Horner, Jr. (2010),

whose study closely aligned with the Sacolick (2013) discussion by delving into the

leadership training provided by undergraduate military institutions. Leigh (2012) found

that emotional intelligence is predictive of different leadership styles, echoed by Thomas

(2011), Awadzi (2010), and Batool (2013). This research notes the efficacy of additional

leadership development training and may provide an additional perspective to increasing

leadership development curricula.

Authentic Leadership

Authentic leadership as a theory unto itself is a relatively new theory that has been

insinuated by scholars for over 85 years (Gardner et al., 2011, p. 1121) and continues to

be researched. Gardner et al. (2011) noted that the paucity of research related to this

32

theory is due to the nascent characteristics of the theory. Kiyani et al. (2013) and

Gardner et al. are significant to this study by providing some of the theoretical links

between different leadership theories and authentic leadership theory. Gardner et al.

(2011), in their discussion of transformational leadership, stated:

These definitions [of transformational leadership] also encompass the core components of self-awareness, positive self-regulation, positive self-development, and/or a positive moral perspective that are often reflected, either explicitly or implicitly, in prior and subsequent conceptions of authentic leadership. (p. 1123) Bishop (2013) discussed how the definition of leadership is categorized into

various trait descriptions to include transactional and transformational and noted that the

term authentic has unique “connotations and innuendo” (p. 2). Bishop also wrote that

authentic leadership is rooted in positive organizational behavior and can also be

associated with other forms of positive leadership. The uniqueness of authentic

leadership that sets it apart from other leadership theories, according to Bishop (2013),

includes the aspects of greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors.

Authentic leadership theory, as defined by Walumbwa et al. (2008), is a

pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development. (p. 94) Walumbwa et al. (2008), who stated that authentic leaders identify their

understanding of their true self with self-awareness, studied culturally non-homogenous

groups and the multitude of research endeavors used as a basis for promulgating this

theory. Through the Walumbwa et al. (2008) research the preliminary construct validity

for the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire was promulgated. Northouse (2009)

33

discussed engagement and interpersonal connectivity, which raises levels of motivation

in both a leader and follower and in particular moves a follower to strive for personal

bests. Triola (2007) noted key characteristics of emotional intelligence theory can be

identified with characteristics of authentic leadership theory and summarized how the key

characteristics of Goleman’s (1997) emotional intelligence variables align with the

authentic leadership theory, “Self-confidence, accurate self-assessment, and emotional

awareness are competencies based on self-awareness and; trustworthiness,

conscientiousness, adaptability, self-control, and innovation are related to self-regulation”

(246). Triola adds to this alignment between variables noting, “achievement,

commitment, and optimism are core competencies based on motivation and

understanding others; developing others, service orientation, leveraging diversity, and

political awareness are derived from empathy” (p. 246). These various leadership

characteristics align with the respective authentic and emotional intelligence theories and

provide the building blocks of authentic leadership theory.

Theoretical Synthesis

Numerous researchers have described the positive relationship between emotional

intelligence and leadership effectiveness and transformational leadership (Gardner et al.,

2011; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006; Kerr, Garvin, Heaton & Boyle, 2006; McClesky, 2014;

Thomas, 2011; Tonkin, 2013; Triola, 2007; Webb, 2005). Dulewicz and Higgs (2003)

senior-level leadership are increasingly recognizing the importance of emotional

intelligence for effective leadership. Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) found a positive

relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. The use of

34

emotional intelligence as a popular measure for identifying potentially effective leaders is

also echoed by Batool (2013). The Batool (2013) study utilized a Pakistani banking

population to conduct their study adding diversity to the spectrum of populations in

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership studies. Kiyani et al. (2013) found a

direct relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and discusses

how a positive organizational environment and positive employee outcomes are a result

of a combination of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. The Kiyani et al.

study provided insight on the potential relationship between these two variables but did

not relay a causative relationship. Kiyani et al. noted several studies relating emotional

intelligence to authentic leadership all of which predate the authentic leadership

measurement instrument developed by Walumbwa, et al. (2008). Nichols and Erakovich

(2013) suggested ethics is a basic component of authentic leadership, which is a key

component of today’s desired leadership profile. This study by Nichols and Erakovich

(2013) demonstrates the efficacy of leadership that stimulates followers by encouraging

questions, debates, and finding creative solutions to problems. This is in contrast to the

inauthentic leader that is deceptive and manipulative (Nichols & Erakovich, 2013) and

who presents a facade of authenticity for personal gain.

This research will directly add to the research base exploring the strength of the

potential relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and in

particular to the knowledge base regarding authentic leadership theory. Much of the

leadership identified in the studies by Awadzi (2010), Leigh (2012), Sadri (2012), and

Thomas (2011) identify transformational leadership instead of authentic leadership as the

35

desirable form of leadership. This preponderance of research related to transformational

style is indicative of the newness of authentic leadership theory and demonstrates the gap

in research pertaining to authentic leadership (Awadzi, 2010; Batool, 2013; Dulewicz &

Higgs, 2003; Leigh, 2012; Rosete, & Ciarrochi, 2005; Thomas, 2011).

The Walumbwa (2008) study provided additional validity to the authentic

leadership concept and also added to the construct validity. It is anticipated that this

research study into Naval Special Warfare leadership will also add to that construct and

to the validity of the authentic leadership theory as well. Creswell (2009) discusses the

necessity to perform sufficient research to produce evidence of potential relationships,

and Thomas (2011) and Leigh (2012) call for additional research to be performed to

accomplish this as well.

Walumbwa et al. (2008) noted “there is some conceptual overlap between

authentic and transformational leadership” (p. 103) and that “authentic leadership is

closely related to the four behavioral dimensions of transformational leadership” (p. 104),

Triola (2007) provided a succinct summarization of how the key characteristics of

Goleman’s (1998) emotional intelligence variables align with and are parallel to the

authentic leadership tenants of self-awareness, transparency, ethical/moral, and balanced

processing (p. 246) thus demonstrating the alignment between the aforementioned

variables and the given theories. Northouse (2009) discussed engagement and

interpersonal connectivity that raises levels of motivation in both a leader and follower

and in particular moves a follower to strive for personal bests.

36

Current Literature

Much of the leadership discussed in the aforementioned research identifies

transformational leadership instead of authentic leadership as the desirable form of

leadership. This preponderance of research related to transformational style is indicative

of the newness of authentic leadership theory and the gap in research pertaining to

authentic leadership (Awadzi, 2010; Batool, 2013; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003 Leigh, 2012;

Rosete, & Ciarrochi, 2005; Thomas, 2011). Kiyani et al. (2013) stated “authentic

leadership shows some overlap with different modern perspectives like transformational,

charismatic, servant, and spiritual leadership” (p. 395). Zhang, Everett, Elkin, and Cone

(2012) noted that authentic leadership “still lacks sufficient understanding of how

authenticity works in the leadership process and of the validity” (p. 587) in regard to a

wider variety of contexts and transcends traditional leadership approaches.

Avolio and Gardner (2005) noted, “followers’ authenticity contributes to their

well-being and the attainment of sustainable and veritable performance” (p. 328). This is

a critical aspect of long-term professional training of Navy SEALs. As a Navy SEAL

progresses through his career it is expected that this level of expertise, personal

development, and maturity will increase as well. In discussions with a SEAL Team

Operations Officer, it was relayed (P. Gleason, personal communication, July, 2014) that

this overall development increases the corporate knowledge of the organization, provides

a deeper bench from which to build platoons, and retains valuable operational and

training resources for new less experienced. Avolio and Gardner (2005) suggested that

37

by focusing on the root construct that underlies all positive forms of leadership that

organizations will develop leaders that lead with “purpose, values, and integrity; and will

build enduring organizations, motivate their employees to provide superior customer

service, and create long-term value for shareholders” (p. 315). This type of leadership

parallels many of the attributes found to be desirable and noted as needing enhancement

throughout Special Operations (USSOCOM, 2013) and which is part of the genesis for

current leadership development endeavors within Naval Special Warfare.

Naval Special Warfare personnel exist in an operational and organizational

environment that consists of and engages a wide spectrum of personalities, cultures, and

decision-making opportunities. In addition to a leader’s personality, the style of

leadership that guides an organization can become an overall trait of that organization.

Palmer et al. (2001) discuss a spectrum of leadership that runs from a task and standard

oriented transactional style to the transformational leadership style that promotes self-

consciousness and the value of outcome and an awareness of how leadership actions

affect others. A core premise throughout the various leadership models and theories that

have been promulgated is the need to interact with others, for without followers there can

be no leader. The effectiveness of this interaction is also a topic of a great number of

discussions but common threads in these discussions often include a leader’s

interpersonal skill, an ability to convey ideas, engagement with followers, a vision for the

future, and the ability to set viable goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). Analyzing the

strength of relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership may lead

to valuable insight into the acquisition of these important skill sets.

38

Champy (2009) provided anecdotal examples of how authentic leadership must

pervade an organization in order for it to be truly authentic, and that authenticity must be

demonstrated by actions and not just mantras placarded on the walls offices (p. 39).

Technological advances have increased the velocity of information relevant to leadership

actions and decisions, and have increased the transparency by which leadership acts. As

organizations grow and become tangent to and relevant to more people, this authenticity

becomes even more important (Champy, 2009, p. 39). Champy (2009) addressed how

organizational stakeholders are more informed and well versed in products and leadership

actions than ever because of these advances in informational technologies (p. 39). This

discourse further identifies authentic leadership as being more relevant as technological

advances make organizations more transparent.

Batool (2013) and Houchin (2011) found a positive correlation between authentic

leadership and successful teams. Houchin (2011), in particular, noted that authentic

leadership behavior on the part of leadership leads to higher levels of trust, team

cohesion, and group performance (p. 23). Batool provided an example of the bridge

between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. Batool found that emotional

intelligence is an effective tool for evaluating potential employees for future leadership

positions. The effective leadership attributes Batool (2013) characterized as

transformational include the “generation of awareness . . . inspires a different outlook on

the work, generates an awareness of the goals of the organization, develops others to

higher level of ability and motivates others to consider the interests of the group over

their own interests” (p. 84). Randall (2006) provided a parallel example of both an

39

organization with a personnel crisis and the relationship between leadership behavior and

military member’s decisions to re-enlist in their selected unit. The difference between the

Randall (2006) study and present study of leadership behavior is that Randall analyzed a

conventional military unit that did not require an arduous screening process or receive

specialized training such as is unique to SOF. Randall (2006) showed how leadership

behaviors, skills, and traits could be transitive between different organizational cultures.

Shepherd and Horner (2010) provided a study that closely aligns with the MG Sacolick

(2013) interview by delving into the leadership training provided by undergraduate

military institutions. Shepherd and Horner (2010) provide a quantitative research

utilizing secondary data to investigate multiple collegiate experiences and peer rankings

on leadership development.

Browning (2007) did an ethnographic study a Division 1-A collegiate basketball

team and included an analysis of team cohesion when the team had a seasonal attrition

and acquisition of players due to incoming and outgoing student status. Browning (2007)

analyzed management techniques by the coaching staff, who attempted to facilitate team

cohesion in order to mitigate the negative team dynamic associated with this turnover.

This study is germane to the SOF endeavor as there is a similar transition of personnel

within the respective SOF units.

Clausen (2009) presented a qualitative analysis on the effects of relational

variables on why an individual decided to continue with an organization. Employees

who had decided to terminate their employment were interviewed, along with managers

who did not consider leaving the organization. Clausen found that leadership style was

40

the most influential factor influencing commitment and job satisfaction. This is a useful

study for the SOF Leader analysis in that it supports the premise that leadership behavior

is a factor in member retention and organizational climate.

Grandzol, Perlis, and Draina (2010) examined the development of student-athlete

and team captains at six private collegiate institutions. Sports included in this study

consisted of men’s and women’s soccer, woman’s tennis and field hockey, and both

men’s and woman’s cross-country. The researchers found that merely playing on a team

provided no leadership opportunities, but those placed in the position of team captain

were provided many. This closely resembles the Naval Special Warfare community,

where leadership opportunities exist regardless of rank.

In a phenomenological study, Gibbs (2011) researched the effect of leadership

behavior on three facets of employee existence: productivity, intrinsic rewards, and

retention. Gibbs found that managers behaving in an unprofessional manner were

contributing to this a rate of turnover. This unprofessional behavior as described by

Gibbs included verbal abuse, negative attitude towards subordinates, and a lack of ethics

as perceived by the employee. The unprofessional behavior was also noted as having

potential roots in the differences between employee and management work expectations.

The Gibbs (2011) study was of great interest to this research as anecdotal evidence has

relayed that this type of unprofessional behavior has at times influenced retention in

Naval Special Warfare (B. Dwyer, NSW SEAL Team Operations Officer, personal

communication 2012). This research by Gibbs is viable for this and any Special

Operations Forces leadership behavior study as there are transitive aspects of

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organizational cohesion across professions.

In a case study, Whitcomb (2012) explored tenured and skilled employees who

were part of the Vi retirement community, a successful organization with a very low

employee turnover rate. For those contemplating living in an assisted living facility or

senior living community, two key decision point factors are the tenure of employees and

the training and development that employees receive from their company (Whitcomb,

2014). The depiction of tangible success in this case study both as a company and as a

consumer provides a strong model. This study holds relevance for this leadership study

by demonstrating the effectiveness of investing in the professional development of

members and how that investment into human capital may decrease member turnover.

The United States Navy is comprised of a variety of functional (warfare specialty)

communities (Snodgrass, 2014). These communities include but are not limited to:

Surface Warfare (ships), Subsurface Warfare (submarines), Aviation (air operations), and

Naval Special Warfare (SEALs). Although all of these communities are part of the U.S.

Navy and work together, all have unique characteristics, cultures, and environmental

conditions in which they operate. One of the challenges the Naval Special Warfare

community has continued to address within its ranks is the issue of manning levels

(Office of the Undersecretary of Defense, 2006; Snodgrass, 2014). The Naval Special

Warfare community has an authorized manning of close to 6000 operators yet; it has only

been able to grow to approximately 3000 operators since its inception in 1962

(Quadrennial Defense Review, 2010). In addition to more aggressive recruitment efforts,

according to the Naval Special Warfare Community Manager, the goal of 6000 personnel

42

might be obtainable within the decade if attrition rates were lowered (Naval Special

Warfare Community Manager, personal communication July, 2012). The need for this

study is also exhibited by Snodgrass (2014) who discusses the looming human resource

crisis in the U.S. Navy. Snodgrass (2014) articulates that, “The perceived erosion of trust

in senior leadership is an incredibly powerful contributor to negative trends in retention”

(p. 75). Snodgrass (2014, p. 65) also notes that 2013 was the worst year for junior officer

retention in Naval Special Warfare.

Provencher (2014) provided an alternative perspective to the strength of

emotional intelligence by providing empirical data that indicates no significant

relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. By the same

token, Provencher noted:

Emotional intelligence self-management and social (relationship) management were significantly linked to those skills of core and adaptive leadership dealing with taking action and organizational justice. These subscales involve relationships, communications, and perceived fairness and they resonate strongly with subordinates. Higher emotional intelligence of COs (Commanding Officers), officers, and crew benefits all and contributes to mission effectiveness. (p. 76) The value of continued study into the relationship between leadership behavior

and employee retention for a wide variety of organizations is depicted by the multitude

of aforementioned studies. Saniewski’s (2013) call better understanding leadership’s

impact on employee retention is echoed within the Snodgrass (2014) discussion.

Giltinane (2013) noted, “A leader’s role is to elicit effective performance from others.

This involves leading and influencing the development of shared values, vision and

expectations to enhance their organization’s planned goals and overall effectiveness” (p.

35).

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This study will add to the existing and relatively new authentic leadership theory

as put forth by Gardner et al. (2011). Much of the research conducted over the past few

decades has explored the relationship of transformational leadership as an effective

leadership style and how emotional intelligence might be a predictor of that type

leadership (Gardner et al., 2011). Recent studies such as that conducted by Thomas,

(2011), Awadzi (2010), and Leigh (2012) have all performed their research on

transformational leadership relative to emotional intelligence. It is the intent of this study

to add to the body of knowledge regarding authentic leadership theory and also to further

validate the concept of authentic leadership as being a key description of effective

leadership and to support the construct validity and nomology as discussed by

Walumbwa et al. (2008).

Tonkin (2013) analyzed the efficacy of authentic leadership in comparison to

alternate leadership styles. Discovering and discussing the various leadership styles from

the perspective of authentic leadership will certainly strengthen the basis of further

studies. This research endeavor will hopefully entice other researchers to explore

effective leadership and the means by which to facilitate it.

Methodological Literature

Creswell (2009) described quantitative analysis as “a means for testing objective

theories by examining the relationship among variables” (p. 4). Quantitative analysis is

often the chosen method not only because of the inherently objective nature of this type

research and its ability to be complex or simple (Peterson, 2009). Peterson (2009)

discusses that although there is a multitude of complex and advanced quantitative

44

research methods, less complex approaches that are simple and straightforward can

provide the necessary answers to important questions. This broad spectrum of research

methods provides ample opportunity for the quantitative approach particularly when

objective evidence is readily obtainable. Ratnesar and Mackenzie (2006) noted that such

objectivity provides stronger results than those based on opinions or are overall

subjective in nature such as are found in qualitative research methods. Levine (2011)

suggested quantitative research provides the advantages of the potential to use numerous

sets of statistical tools for analysis, the ability to verify internal and external validity by

other researchers, and an easier dissemination of data due to the clarity and objectivity of

quantitative research (p. 1). Quantitative methods should be used when examining

known variables and when comparing the relationships between variables (Creswell,

2009; Zikmund, 2009). The study examined the relationship between two known

variables, emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.

Regardless of what research approach was used, the structure of the research must

form an appropriate basis for the research objective. In short, the processes and factors

must align with the subject. Hoadley (2004) defined this alignment as, “ensuring that the

research methods we use actually test what we think they are testing” (p. 203). This

alignment must exist in order to provide rigor and strength validity reliability to the

research as well as to ensure that economies of effort and resources are realized

(Hoadley, 2004). Hoadley discussed how empirical research strives to model and predict

and that design-based research methods not only help do this effectively but also

facilitate the methodological alignment of a research endeavor (p. 203). Proper

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alignment of all factors tangent to a chosen research methodology will ensure that the

research effort appropriately tests what it sets to (Hoadley, 2004).

Although complex designs and state-of-the-art methods are sometimes necessary

to address research questions effectively, simpler classical approaches often can provide

elegant and sufficient answers to important questions (Peterson, 2009). The two

quantitative research methodologies relevant to this research are a descriptive correlation

analysis and a non-experimental causal-comparative analysis. Mertens and McLaughlin

(2004) described the main difference between these two methods of analysis as the way

the independent variable is operationalized as well as what types of analyses are

performed with the data (p. 4). A correlational analysis provides a magnitude and

direction of the relationship between independent and dependent variables; the causal

comparative analysis compares the groups formed by independent variables and uses

statistics to describe whether a significant difference exists between them and the

dependent variable. Both of these quantitative methodologies provide a strong venue for

alignment within the research, and, when looked at together, can provide a valuable

insight into Naval Special Warfare. These quantitative methodologies were used by

Randall (2006), Awadzi (2010), and Nagy (2008), who demonstrated the alignment of

these type research methodologies with similar research questions. The benefit of this

studies research question is that it expands the knowledge base regarding both authentic

leadership and emotional leadership and diversifies the type populations engaged in

emotional intelligence studies. Key to successful discovery is a viable research question

that aligns with and provides impetus for and input to the methodology.

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Correlational research is used when a determination of the relationship between

two or more variables is desired (Mertens & McLaughlin, 2004). Williams (2007, p. 67)

stated that correlational study establishes whether two or more variables are related and

Creswell (2003) defined correlation as a statistical test to establish patterns for two

variables. The spectrum of correlational analysis runs from simple bivariate analysis

utilizing an independent variable and an dependent variable (Warner, 2008) to a more

intricate multivariable analysis, such as structural equation modeling, which can

incorporate any number and varieties of variables (Mueller, 1996). When utilizing the

correlational methodology, there are three possible results: a positive correlation, a

negative correlation, and no correlation, with the coefficients falling within the spectrum

of -1.0 to +1.0 Warner (2008).

A correlational analysis is best suited for this study. Others (Bryson, 2005; Leigh,

2012; Lewis 2010; Meredith, 2008) have used this methodology and demonstrated a

positive correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership style. Two studies

(Leigh, 2012; Thomas, 2011) recommended further correlational research be performed

to increase the predictability of emotional intelligence and leadership style. Additionally

as noted by Levine (2011), results of similar quantitative studies can be synthesized and

analyzed by the meta-analysis technique to shed new light on research” (p. 1) and create

an overall impression on the research conducted (Meta-analysis, 2006).

All of the variables within this study are directly related to Naval Special Warfare

community leadership and are within the overall context of leadership issues. This

alignment is important in order to keep the research process within the context of the

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study objective and to discover significant information relative to specific attributes. If

no consequential data points were to be utilized in the analysis, the knowledge acquired

by the research would lack validity and decrease the rigor of the research design

(Hoadley, 2004). This multivariable correlation analysis increases the validity and rigor

of the research by including a variety of attributes that make up the independent variable.

This apparent broadening of the independent variable may provide information that

denotes particular attributes as being more closely related to authentic leadership style

than others.

Conclusion

A review of the current literature regarding the relationship between emotional

intelligence and authentic leadership discloses a great deal of discussion regarding the

roles and definitions of these two areas of leadership theory. Different schools of

thought have described emotional intelligence as a trait, a competency, or ability

(McClesky, 2014). The generally accepted definition is provided by Mayer, Salovey,

and Caruso’s who state that ability model should be used in research (McClesky, 2014).

Authentic leadership as an even more nascent character than emotional intelligence has

also experienced a myriad of ambiguity in it definitions and use (Gardner et al., 2011).

Much like the diversity of emotional intelligence descriptions, the definition and use of

authentic leadership is primarily based on the model promulgated by Walumbwa et al.

(2008). Gardner et al. (2011) proposed that variables of emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership impact authentic leadership behavior, and stated, “More empirical

research is also needed to explore the relationships of specific components of authentic

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leadership and various antecedents” (p. 1140). These studies regarding emotional

intelligence and leadership are germane to the Naval Special Warfare leadership profile

because nobody can expect a junior member to be able to make the kind of decisions or

provide the visionary guidance that a seasoned Naval Special Warfare operator or staff

member is able to. This seasoning is a function of the various experiences that a Naval

Special Warfare member is involved with throughout his career and of which builds a

repertoire of leadership skills and decision reference points within him. This “seasoning”

is also a function of increased maturity (Goleman, 2004). A Naval Special Warfare

member broadens their professional and personal perspectives with each additional tour

of duty. If this individual has an adequate emotional intelligence then perhaps, as he

progresses, his emotional intelligence will increase and he will move up through

Kegan’s (Homrig, 2001) descriptions of leadership levels with a commensurate broad

scope vision on where to lead his organization.

Regardless of what theory one applies, the essence of leadership belies a

relationship with others; the more deeply this relationship is understood the better social

scientists can enhance leadership development.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, correlational study was to

examine how overall emotional intelligence and individual dimensions of emotional

intelligence may contribute to authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

The independent variables consisted of the branch scores, area scores, and overall score

of Emotional Intelligence as measured by the MultiHealth System MSCEIT v 1.1. The

dependent variable of this study was the overall authentic leadership score as measured

by the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire provided by MindGarden Inc. Additional

analysis was performed to determine if age, rank, or time in service was related to

emotional intelligence or authentic scores.

Sample

Tabachnick and Fidell (2006) suggested the use of a sampling formula (N ≥ 50 +

8m), where m is the number of predictor variables to determine the appropriate sample

size of a population. Utilizing this formula, a sample population of only 90 participants

from the Naval Special Warfare population would have been required. This was a

smaller size population than was determined by utilizing the Sample Size Calculator from

Creative Research Systems (2012). That calculator determined that a sample of 168

participants from the population of approximately 10,000 SEALs would be needed to

provide a confidence level of 95% and confidence interval of 7.5.

Strong consideration was given for not incurring the costs of performing

additional and unnecessary pilot tests or field studies, based, in part, on previous

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MSCEIT research performed by Awadzi (2010), Leigh (2012), and Thomas (2011), who

utilized military populations and found this instrument to be well suited for the research.

Study and analysis conducted by Beyer (2010) and Tucker (2004) utilizing the Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire and military populations both demonstrated the viability of this

instrument for use with military populations as well.

The inclusion criterion for the opportunity to participate in the study was that a

participant needed to be an active duty, retired, or separated Navy SEAL. This was an

effective sampling as the population of Navy SEALs has been relatively homogeneous

throughout Naval Special Warfare history with differences being confined to geography

rather than mission types or personal profiles. Previous surveys performed by this

population have provided high numbers of responses with commensurate levels of

confidence and lower margins of error (USSOCOM document, 2013). These population

figures coincide with similar research provided by Thomas (2011), Leigh (2012), and

Nagy (2008).

Population

Often noted as the United States’ most elite special operations force (Baillergeon,

2015), the Naval Special Warfare population (SEALs) is often tasked with the most

arduous and politically sensitive combat missions around the world regardless of

environmental harshness or level of danger (Dockery, 2003). The legacy of this

population’s success is rooted in a culture dating back World War II with the founding of

the Amphibious Scout and Raiders, the Navy Combat Demolition Units, the Operational

Swimmers of the Office of Strategic Services, and the Underwater Demolition Teams

51

(UDT) (Baillergeon, 2015). From the inception of these organizations through to the

1962 commissioning of the first SEAL Team by President Kennedy onto today, the

culture of the Navy SEALs has remained consistent in its selection and training, approach

to mission, and cohesion (http://navyseals.com/nsw/navy-seal-history/). Navy SEAL

training (also known as Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL [BUD/S]) currently takes

place at the Phil H. Bucklew Center for Naval Special Warfare in Coronado, California.

Each trainee who enters this BUD/S training has successfully met strict physical and

mental aptitude standards before being allowed to start. However, even with a strict

adherence to screening standards, classes typically have an attrition rate of 50%-80%

(U.S. Navy official website). The training pipeline of a SEAL trainee consists of: 8-week

Naval Special Warfare Prep School, 24-week Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL

(BUD/S) Training, 3-week Parachute Jump School, 26-week SEAL Qualification

Training (SQT) (U.S. Navy official website). Those who successfully complete this

training continue on to advanced training after which they are awarded the SEAL

designation and assignment to a SEAL Team. Of note is that the instructors who run and

teach the BUD/S training curriculum are themselves Navy SEALs who leave operational

units to train prospective SEALs and who then rejoin the operational units, they train

their own leaders and peers, their future teammates. Among the unique attributes of this

training, is that unlike any other military school, Officer and Enlisted SEAL trainees train

together from the first day of training to the last creating a level of interaction and

cohesion that are unique in military organizations (U.S. Navy Official website). This

familial aspect of the SEAL community and focused approach to mission success are

52

embedded within the SEAL culture and has pervaded Naval Special Warfare throughout

its history as a root construct of the organization

(http://www.public.navy.mil/nsw/Pages/Mission.aspx).

The missions tasked to Navy SEALs are performed in all environments regardless

of the harshness or dangers present and are performed with a precision and effectiveness

that is noted in a legacy of successful missions throughout SEAL history. Though

advances in technology now allow SEALs to perform missions utilizing equipment such

as hand launched drones, satellite communications, and advanced armor and weaponry,

the culture of Navy SEALs has remained constant and recruitment, selection and training

remains the same today as it did in the early 1960’s (Dockery, 2003).

The sample population for this research consisted of current or former members

of the Naval Special Warfare community. The eligibility requirement was that a person

must have successfully earned the Navy SEAL designation. The current population of

those that have this designation is approximately 10,000 SEALs located in various

locations around the globe. Naval Special Warfare is a very close-knit community that

allows limited access to members for safety and security issues. Participants were invited

to participate in this research via open source social media such as Linked-In, Facebook,

and the researcher’s professional and personal network of Naval Special Warfare

personnel. Those interested in participating were able to anonymously engage in the

survey via a provided web link. The invitation included a consent form and all relevant

information pertaining to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) (1979)

Belmont Report standards of informed and ethical research. Limiting the research to only

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those currently in uniform might have skewed the number of relatively junior personnel

engaged in the research. If the research surveys were promoted or administered at an

active-duty organization, some respondents may have felt coerced into participating.

Using social media allowed for a more diversified population and assured that all

participants engaged in the research in a completely voluntary basis. As noted in the

acknowledgements this research would not have been possible without the fraternal

idiosyncrasies of the Naval Special Warfare community.

Setting

The surveys were computer based and were completed at a location convenient to

the participant. Only publicly available/accessible site resources were used for this

research.

Instrumentation/Measures

Two survey instruments, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

(MSCEIT) v 1.1 authorized by MultiHealth Systems, Inc., (MHS) and the Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire authorized by MindGarden, Inc., were used to measure the

relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Authentic Leadership respectively. A third

instrument developed by the researcher was used to capture demographic information

regarding the participants. This last instrument was used to capture age and time in

service. The MSCEIT and ALQ instruments were selected for this research, as because

both the MSCEIT and ALQ have strong validity and reliability scores and were deemed

suitable for the depth and profile of this research. These instruments were also chosen

54

based on the popularity of their use amongst fellow researchers and also for their ease of

administration and easy to comprehend feedback mechanisms.

Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) v 1.1

The MSCEIT v 1.1 is a performance test of emotional intelligence (Mayer,

Salovey & Caruso, 2002) and provides a variety of scores. These scores are based on two

broad ‘Areas’ of emotion and then further broken down into four related dimensions

defined as ‘branches’ (p.2). These “branches” are further broken down into emotional

type tasks but are not considered viable for research purposes such as this study. The

questions within the MSCEIT are structured to provide scores in each of these tasks,

branches and areas. The scores achieved indicate a propensity or strength within that

heading. All scores are eventually combined to promulgate an overall emotional

intelligence score. The two Areas are identified as; Experiential that focuses on emotion

and the productive use of thought (Mayer et al, 2002) and, Strategic that focuses on

understanding and managing emotions.

The four branches are identified as:

1. Perceiving and Identifying Emotions - the ability to recognize how you and

those around you are feeling.

2. Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought - the ability to generate emotion, and

then reason with this emotion.

3. Understanding Emotions - the ability to understand complex emotions and

emotional “chains,” and how emotions transition from one stage to another.

4. Managing Emotions - the ability to manage emotions in yourself and in

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others (Mayer et al., 2002, p. 3)

The branches are further broken down into eight tasks consist of: Faces Task,

Pictures Task, Facilitation Task, Sensations Task, Changes Task, Blends Task, Emotion

Management Task and Remember Task (Mayer et al. 2002). Mayer et al. (2002) note

that the score reflected in the tasks often have greater variability and recommend that the

these tasks be used to better understand branch and area scores rather than used as

individual scores.

The scoring of the MSCEIT coincides with traditional intelligence scores whereby

the average score is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. Thus if a participant scores a

115 they are one standard deviation above the mean or 84th percentile, a score of 85

would be one standard deviation below or at the 16th percentile. The test compares

participants against the normative sample and not the general population (Mayer et al.

2002).

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire

The Authentic Leadership Questionnaire is an instrument comprised of scales to

measure the four components of authentic leadership: Self-Awareness, Transparency,

Ethical/Moral, and Balance Processing. The Authentic Leadership Questionnaire scales

are based on a measure between 1 and 5 for each of these components and then are

combined to form an overall authentic leadership score.

1. Self-Awareness: To what degree is the leader aware of his or her strengths,

limitations.

56

2. Transparency: To what degree does the leader reinforce a level of openness

with others that provides them with an opportunity to be forthcoming with

their ideas, challenges and opinions?

3. Ethical/Moral: To what degree does the leader set a high standard for moral

and ethical conduct.

4. Balanced Processing: To what degree does the leader solicit sufficient

opinions and viewpoints prior to making important decisions. (Walumbwa

et al., 2008)

Data Collection

The researcher used an internet-based survey made accessible to each participant.

Potential participants were first contacted via social media. The social media posts

contained all pertinent research information including: research purpose, consent forms,

research contact information, and access to surveys. There was no reason to contact any

participants following the study. The researcher used qualified and complete surveys for

the sample and destroyed any surveys that did not qualify for use in the study. Research

participants have remained anonymous at all times.

The following process was followed for participation in this research study and

for data collection. Data collection was accomplished through the use of an online

survey instrument created by combining the MSCEIT v 1.1 (Mayer et al., 2002) test and

the Avolio et al. (2007) Authentic Leadership Questionnaire along with several

demographic questions.

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The data collection process began shortly after IRB approval. After IRB approval

was received, an announcement regarding the commencement of research was posted on

the aforementioned social media pages. This posting included; a detail of research being

performed, contact information for Peter Berardi and Dr. Michael Webb, research

participation inclusion/exclusion criteria, consent forms, and access to web-based survey.

The survey itself was hosted by MindGarden, Inc., which provided appropriate security

and which did not tie unique identities to responses in any way. The survey was

accessible for a pre-determined length of time that provided opportunity for an adequate

sample population to participate. Participants voluntarily agreed to participate in the

survey and proceeded to the survey instrument that took approximately 1 hour to

complete. Emphasis that participation was voluntary and that the participant could

withdraw at any time was included throughout the survey process (Creswell, 2009). Data

was collected beyond the required sample size to account for improperly filled out

surveys or for any reason that would disqualify a participant. MindGarden, Inc.

combined the MSCEIT, the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, and demographic query

onto one survey for ease of access, distribution, and data assimilation. MindGarden, Inc.

collected data in a non- attribution manner such that the email or any identifying

information was not collected with the data. Once the appropriate number of survey

responses had been obtained, MindGarden, Inc. forwarded raw data to researcher for

analysis.

Data Analysis

A linear regression analysis and correlational analysis was conducted to develop an

58

understanding of the relationships between the emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership of Naval Special Warfare leadership. This study was a non-experimental

cross-sectional design using a survey as the data collection instrument. The use of a fixed

design in this research is based on the studied phenomenon not being manipulated or

changed in the course of the study (Robson, 2002). The study is considered to be of a

cross-sectional design due to the data being collected at some fixed period of time as

opposed to a longitudinal study where the data is collected at different time intervals

(Robson, 2002). This research relates the Navy Special Warfare leaders’ emotional

intelligence quotient and authentic leadership level through the correlation of the

independent and dependent variables associated with these concepts. The surveys used

were previously validated instruments. Demographic information was presented first; the

MSCEIT branch data and overall general emotional intelligence scores are presented

followed by authentic leadership scores. Each of the hypotheses test results is presented.

The research conducted was premised on four research questions. Each of these

four research questions were related to the analysis of the relationship between aspects of

emotional intelligence as described by Daniel Goleman (2004) and Mayer et al. (2003)

and authentic leadership as described by Walumbwa et al. (2008). The survey instrument

for this research consisted of the MSCEIT v 1.1 (Mayer et al., 2002), the Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio et al., 2007) that included demographic questions. The

data pertaining to emotional intelligence consists of one overall emotional intelligence

score, two area scores and four emotional intelligence branch sub-scores from the

MSCEIT. This emotional intelligence performance test provides consisted of 141

59

questions that provided, “an estimate of a person’s ability to solve problems (which

require] the use of emotions” (Mayer et al., 2002, p. 2). The Authentic Leadership

Questionnaire is a 16-question instrument that was answered on a Likert Scale between

1-5 whereby 1 equals “strongly disagree” and 5 equals “strongly agree.” The data

obtained pertaining to authentic leadership consisted of a score based upon four scales of

measurement: self-awareness, transparency, ethical/moral, and balanced processing. This

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire provides a measure of leadership behavior that

utilizes and encourages the development of “positive psychological capacities and a

positive ethical climate” (p. 94), to guide and empower their organizational members to

success (Walumbwa, 2008).

MindGarden, Inc. captured raw Authentic Leadership Questionnaire data acquired

through the web-based survey. This data was tabulated into authentic leadership scores

before being imported into a Microsoft Excel data file format. There was a web link

added to the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire that provided access the MSCEIT.

Data from the MSCEIT was linked to the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and the

data sent directly to the researcher. This data was tabulated into an overall emotional

intelligence score, two area scores and four emotional intelligence branch scores.

Participant identifiers accompanied both the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and the

MSCEIT to coincide the data set with each other but these identifiers were not able to

personally identify the participant. Once the requisite numbers of surveys had been

appropriately qualified, the data sets were sent to the researcher for analysis. Data

analysis was conducted using Microsoft Office Excel (2009) as the analysis software.

60

During the research period and at any time data had been collected, all such data was

stored in a password-protected computer. Although no personally identifying information

was collected, all collected data relevant to this research were deleted upon completion of

research to ensure anonymity of participants (Creswell, 2009).

Research Question 1 asked: What is the relationship, between the research

participants overall emotional intelligence score and authentic leadership score among

personnel in the Naval Special Warfare community as measured by MSCEIT and

Authentic Leadership Questionnaire survey instruments, respectively? A Pearson

product-moment analysis was used to identify the strength of correlations between the

overall emotional intelligence and the overall score of authentic leadership score should

such a relationship exist. Pearson’s r provided information regarding the characteristic of

the correlation should one exists. This characteristic is in the form of a coefficient

between -1 and +1 inclusive where +1 is a total positive correlation and -1 is a total

negative correlation. A simple linear regression between these variables was also

performed to further determine what relationship may exist between these two variables

((Hoadley, 2004; Mertens, & McLaughlin, 2004). A scatter-plot diagram was

promulgated for a visual representation of the relationship between variables.

Research Question 2 asked: Which dimensions of emotional intelligence are most

predictive of authentic leadership of leadership among personnel in the Naval Special

Warfare community? These data indicated if there is a potential statistical significant

between dimensions of emotional intelligence and overall authentic leadership scores.

The data used for question 2 consisted of the two area scores pertaining to reasoning and

61

experience as well as four individual emotional intelligence branch scores: perceiving

emotion, facilitating thought, understanding emotion, and managing emotion. These

variables were all considered as the independent variables and the overall Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire score as the dependent variable. A simple linear regression

analysis between each area score and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire score was

performed to determine potential individual relationships between emotional intelligence

area score and authentic leadership score. This part of the research provided information

regarding the relationship strength of each of two emotional intelligence area scores to

determine if perhaps one emotional intelligence area outweighs another in relational

strength to the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire score or perhaps indicates a

propensity to have a lower authentic leadership score. A Pearson’s coefficient was

determined for this aspect to the data analysis to facilitate this analysis. These data

provided insight regarding the relationship between these two broad dimensions of

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and described which area may be more

predictive of a causal relationship than another (Hoadley, 2004; Mertens, & McLaughlin,

2004). A scatter-plot diagram was promulgated for a visual representation of the

relationship between variables. A simple linear regression analysis between each branch

score of emotional intelligence and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire score was

performed to determine potential individual relationships between emotional intelligence

branch score and authentic leadership score. This part of the research provided

information regarding the relationship strength of individual branches to determine if

perhaps one branch outweighs another in relational strength to the Authentic Leadership

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Questionnaire score or indicates a propensity to have a lower authentic leadership score.

A Pearson’s coefficient was determined for this aspect to the data analysis to facilitate

this analysis. This data provided insight regarding the relationship between each branch

of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and described which branch may be

more predictive of a causal relationship than another (Hoadley, 2004; Mertens, &

McLaughlin, 2004). A scatter-plot diagram was promulgated for a visual representation

of the relationship between variables.

Research Question 3 asked: How does emotional intelligence vary by age of

leadership among personnel in the Naval Special Warfare community? The data from this

aspect of the study were examined with simple linear regression. These data indicated if

there was a potential statistical significant between emotional intelligence and the age

level of a study participant. A scatter-plot diagram was promulgated for a visual

representation of the relationship between variables.

Research Question 4 asked: How does authentic leadership vary by age of

leadership among personnel in the Naval Special Warfare community? The data from

this aspect of the study were examined with simple linear regression. This data indicated

if there is a potential statistical significant between authentic leadership and the age level

of a study participant. A scatter-plot diagram was promulgated for a visual representation

of the relationship between variables.

Data were securely stored at all times in a password protected knowledge

management system and destroyed at the conclusion of the research period. All data

collected were non-attributable.

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Assumptions and Limitations

Methodological Assumptions

This research assumed that Navy SEALs chosen for participation in this study

were truthful when answering questions about their leadership thoughts and decisions and

would not employ an outside source to answer the survey for them or ask advice from

others when answering the survey. Methodological assumptions also included that

survey research can provide the empirical data that supports a generalization of a

population. Creswell (2009) noted that sample populations can depict “trends, attitudes,

and opinions” (p. 12) of particular populations. The research methodology selected is

appropriate for the research questions based on the aforementioned axiological,

ontological, and epistemological assumptions of the researcher.

Methodological Limitations

A limitation of correlation analysis includes the inability to determine cause and

effect, potential misinterpretation of data and outside variables influencing the

relationship (Waring, 2006). This limitation was overcome by relaying the results of the

empirical research in nontechnical language and by simply describing what the data mean

to the end user, considering potential extraneous variables in limitations, and increasing

the number of variables in the correlation analysis. A risk to using correlation research is

that there may be a tendency to view a positive relationship between variables as a

predicator of causality. Although the data may provide valuable information for

inference, this type of analysis does not take into account potential influences such as

biases, and cannot be used to denote causation (Waring, 2006).

64

Validity and Reliability

The Authentic Leadership Questionnaire is used to measure 4 areas of Authentic

Leadership. The Cronbach’s alpha value for this dataset administered by Walumbwa et

al. (2008) was .793 with a standardized alpha of .799. The inter-item correlation had an

average value of 154. Walumbwa et al. (2008) note that this positive average of inter-

item correlation demonstrated that the items in the scale are correlated and that all items

consistently measure authentic leadership.

The estimated internal consistency alphas (Cronbach’s alpha) for each of the

measures were also at acceptable levels: self-awareness, .92; relational transparency, .87;

internalized moral perspective, .76; and balanced processing, .81. The standardized factor

loadings of the second-order factor authentic leadership model with factor loadings range

from .66 to .93. (Walumbwa et al., 2008, p.98).

Consideration was given for the use of a 360-degree based study of which several

validated instruments were available. Although the 360-degree offered an in-depth

analysis it would not have been appropriate for this particular study because of the

openness of this type analysis and the need to acquire data particular to an individual.

The characteristics of the 360-degree analysis would diminish the privacy of the survey

and also take away the anonymous aspect of the research (Ghorpade, 2000). The 360-

degree assessment is a potential recommendation as a follow on course of action for those

participants who wish to increase their level of self-awareness in the pursuit of leadership

performance, assessment, and development.

The MSCEIT version 1.1 is used to “measure the capacity to reason using feelings

65

and the capacity of feeling to enhance thought” Multi-Health Systems (MHS), 2014, p.

17). The standardization sample used for the MSCEIT norming consisted of data

collected from across the U.S. and from a multitude of international locations with a total

of 5000 respondents (MHS, 2014). This sample was also used to assess the internal

consistency of the MSCEIT and resulted in r-values of .91 for the total emotional

intelligence score and .90 and .85 for the branch scores of Experiential and Strategic

respectfully (MHS, 2014).

MHS (2014) provides a broad and sound description of the validation measures

relevant to the MSCEIT. The face validity of the test is measured at r = .83 and readily

appears to test that which it is supposed to as evidenced by the tasks employed in the test.

The Content validity is viable as the test provides solid representation of the Four –

Branch Model of emotional intelligence (perceiving emotions, facilitating thought.

understanding emotion, and managing emotion). Factorial validity was established via a

confirmatory factor analysis to provide support for the validity of the MSCEIT structure.

Mayer et al. (2004) stated that the MSCEIT v 1.1 has good face validity, sound construct

validity, and that the content validity is indicative of good model representation.

Expected Findings

Many other researchers have found positive correlations between emotional

intelligence and leadership styles (Adwazi, 2011;Batool, 2013; Dulewicz & Higgs,

2003); Leigh, 2012; Thomas, 2011; Palmer et al., 2001;Triola, 2007). It was expected

that research would reveal that there is a positive correlation between emotional

intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. It was also

66

expected that there would be a positive correlation between emotional intelligence branch

scores and authentic leadership scores as well. Additionally it was expected that no

matter what the correlational findings were, that the study would be of value to the

scientific body of knowledge by providing an additional sample population from which to

study the theories of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. The study was also

anticipated to provide Naval Special Leadership a glimpse into its own leadership and

perhaps facilitate leadership studies and development in that community.

Ethical Considerations

The study was both ethical and legal and sample populations did not consist of or

represent a vulnerable population. Sieber (2012) discussed the Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct as given by the American Psychological Association.

These principles align with those promulgated by the HHS (1979) Belmont Report. This

research study follows this Code of Conduct. The U.S. Federal Regulations of Human

Research (DHHS, 2005, 45 C.F.R. § 46) has delineated populations specified as

vulnerable and in need of special protection (Sieber, 2012). Although this list is not

exhaustive, those participants engaged in his research did not represent any population

requiring additional or special protection and are not considered vulnerable. Although

the study is not more than a minimal risk study, this does not preclude the possibility of

bias towards junior members of the community if less than favorable information is

discovered regarding community leadership. This is not a high-risk scenario and it is a

very unlikely occurrence. Nonetheless all surveys were taken in a non-attribution format

with complete anonymity and no questions are such that the survey responder might be

67

identified. The use of a survey methodology is a more secure form of data collection

than other forms of inquiry (Robson, 2002). Any information provided to the researcher

for the purposes of this study was safeguarded and only used for the study it was

intended. All necessary precautions were taken to ensure no personally identifiable

information was collected for the study and an informed consent form was attached to the

survey instructions.

This research is focused on understanding human behavior, and emotions in

reaching a particular decision point. Ethical considerations for this study included those

concerned with voluntary participation, informed consent, respect for persons, relaying of

complete and accurate information, beneficence, justice and the implementation of a

viable notes/recorded data destruction plan and are all an integral part of every aspect of

the research. Those participating in the interview process were autonomous individuals

capable of making informed consent and with each being given complete and accurate

information so that they could decide to participate, not participate, or stop participation.

The ethical issues related to consent present themselves within the mental

competency of the person providing consent, the truthfulness and completeness of

information provided. The HHS (1979) Belmont Report delineated three elements that

complete the consent process: information, comprehension, and voluntariness. The

critical aspect of information is that it is as complete and factual as is practical and

possible in the given research. Information must be relayed in a manner and context that

is understandable to the target audience. In order for an agreement to partake in research

to be valid, such an agreement must be given freely and without any undue influence,

68

coercion, or duress.

Utilizing a sample population that was germane to the study and the recruitment

of which is nonjudgmental in the decisions of potential subjects to participate or not in

the research ensured the adherence to the principle of beneficence. Additionally, tying

the research results into broader Naval Special Warfare issues and exploring how this

affects the Naval Special Warfare organizational climate is applicable.

Recruiting in a nondiscriminatory manner followed the principle of justice. All

participants were made aware of whom the recipients of the research benefits would be.

The subjects also received accurate assurance that the burdens and benefits of the

research were equal and justified. This study may apply to a broader population base, as

leadership issues are relevant to more than just Naval Special Warfare personnel. Results

will be shared with other services in regards to associated studies and Department of

Defense trends may also be explored in addition to Naval Special Warfare.

A complete and accurate disclosure of the possible risks was given in addition to

the anticipated benefits. Potential risks of this study may have been the ill feelings or

potential retribution by senior officers if poor leadership traits are noted and identifiable

to an individual. This risk was mitigated or prevented through the use of anonymity, not

transcribing names from recordings or notes, non-attribution, and the destruction of notes

and recorded materials after data has been entered into software. The risk of researcher

bias and quality of data were other relevant concerns. Utilizing a previously approved

survey instrument mitigates researcher bias due to the researcher being a retired Navy

SEAL.

69

Additional considerations regarding this research include resolving potential

conflicts of interest. Conflict of interest occurs when there is a risk that secondary

interest will unduly influence professional judgment (Lo & Field, 2009). When a

researcher has the potential to provide or receive an unfair of advantage over others due

to their role in the research outcomes a conflict of interest may be present. Conflicts of

interest can be eliminated or mitigated by full disclosure to the subjects and recipients of

data of any relationships or potential interests in the research outside of the conducting of

the research itself.

Conclusion

The quantitative research approach utilized for this discussion was a descriptive

non-experimental correlation analysis. This design aligned with the research questions

by utilizing variables that were significant to the objective of the study and that were

objectively germane to the context of the study. Although this design could be used to

garner objective knowledge regarding leadership characteristics in the Naval Special

Warfare community, this correlational study described the strength and direction of the

relationship between variables. The direct benefit of this research design is the

compilation of empirical data that can be used for important resourcing decisions. These

resources included those pertinent to doctrine, organization, training, manning and policy.

Finally, alignment between research methodology and research questions is also critical

for conducting ethical research. Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice are based

on honest an open research methods (HHS, 1979). If variables, research questions and

context do not align with the objective of the study, the methodology used and the data

70

obtained will be skewed and potentially biased with resultant research being ineffectual.

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS

71

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to analyze the strength of the relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare Leadership. In

addition to the overall emotional intelligence and authentic leadership scores, I also

explored the relationships of subset scores within the emotional intelligence construct to

authentic leadership in order to determine the strength of the relationships of those

independent variables and overall authentic leadership. Participant demographic

information was also examined in relationship to both emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership. To answer the four research questions, a cross-sectional regression

analysis was performed to describe the data and provide measure of the strength between

variables. The instruments used for data collection/analysis for the study consisted of the

Multi-Health Systems, Inc. MSCEIT Version 1.1 for emotional intelligence, and the

MindGarden, Inc., Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (MindGarden, 2002)

The third instrument to capture demographics information on participants was self-

prepared to elicit age, level of education, military rank, and years in service. Tables and

graphs are included to relay and enhance the research findings. Data analysis was

performed utilizing Microsoft Excel. After receiving IRB approval and written

permission from the respective social media website page managers, I submitted research

information, a web link, and consent form to websites for dissemination. A sample of

233 participants responded to and voluntarily partook in the research. From this initial

sample, a conclusive group of 168 participants successfully completed both the MSCEIT

and Authentic Leadership Questionnaire. The research data were collected by Multi-

72

Health Systems, Inc., and MindGarden, Inc., and were provided to the researcher. Once

the surveys were completed and received, the researcher aligned scores by pseudonyms

created by participants. The surveys were accessible until the requisite number of

correctly filled out surveys were completed. These surveys were then entered into Excel.

This study was primarily guided by the query regarding the strength of the

relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. Secondary research

explored the relationship of emotional intelligence subcomponents to authentic

leadership, and tertiary research explored demographics associated with authentic

leadership.

The four research questions explored in this study follow:

(RQ1) What is the relationship between overall emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership of leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Null hypothesis (Ho): No statistically significant relationship exists between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Alternate hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership of leadership personnel in Naval Special

Warfare leadership.

(RQ2) Which dimensions of emotional intelligence are most predictive of

authentic leadership of leadership among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho: No dimensions of emotional intelligence are predictive of authentic

leadership of leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

73

Ha: At least one dimension of emotional is predictive of authentic leadership

among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

(RQ3) How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership among

personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho: Emotional intelligence does not vary by age among personnel in Naval

Special Warfare leadership.

Ha: At least one dimension of emotional intelligence varies by age among

personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

(RQ4) How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership among personnel

in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho: Authentic leadership does not significantly vary by age among personnel in

Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Ha: Authentic leadership significantly varies by age among personnel in Naval

Special Warfare leadership.

Chapter 4 is organized by a description of the sampled data, research methodology

and data analysis, the hypothesis, the presentation of data and data analysis, hypothesis

data analysis, and a summary.

Description of the Sampled Data

The participants from this study were recruited from the population of U.S. Navy

SEALs, which included current active duty personnel (those still in uniform), retired

personnel (those who had left the U.S. Navy after at least 20 years of service), and

separated personnel (those individuals who had served as a SEAL but left the Navy

74

before 20 years of service). This population consists of approximately 10,000 people

located in various locations around the globe. The SEAL community represents a

diversified population with a broad spectrum of educational and experiential backgrounds

(USSOCOM, 2014), but all share the commonality of being a part of the Naval Special

Warfare fraternal organization. Data from a total of 168 participants were analyzed.

Ages of participants in this study ranged from 21 years of age to 81 years. Individuals

were solicited via social media announcements and self-selected to participate in the

research. Those personnel who self-selected to participate and met inclusionary criteria

(needed to have obtained the Navy SEAL designation) were directed to a web link to

complete online surveys. All participants were provided instructions for completing the

respective surveys and a consent form, which included the voluntary nature of the study,

risks, and benefits of taking part in the study, and confidentiality.

Research data were analyzed on 168 participants. All participants in this research

were male, and the demographic profiles showed the largest age groups as being between

the ages of 40-49 (43.5 %, n = 73). The age demographic variables are presented in Table

2.

75

Table 2. Demographic Age Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) _____________________________________________ Characteristic Number Percentage Age 60+ 29 17 50-59 45 28 40-49 73 43 30-39 17 10 24-29 4 2 Note. The mean age was 49.3 years.

Table 3 highlights the education level distribution by highest level obtained per

participant. The largest grouping in this characteristic was the Master’s level (39%, n =

65).

Table 3. Demographic Education Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) ___________________________________________ Education Number Percentage High School 22 13 Associates Degree 23 13 Bachelors Degree 45 27 Master’s Degree 65 39 Doctorate 13 8 Table 4 shows the years in service distribution by length of time in service per

participant. The largest grouping in this characteristic was 20-25 years (27%, n = 45).

Table 4. Demographic Years in Service Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168)

___________________________________________ Characteristic Number Percentage Years in Service 1-5 15 9 6-10 30 18 11-19 37 22 20-25 45 27 26+ 41 24

76

Table 5 outlines the participant rank level distribution by highest level obtained.

The largest grouping in this characteristic was the O-4-O6 level (30%, n = 51).

Table 5. Demographic Highest Rank Achieved Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) Characteristic Number Percentage

Rank E4-E6 50 29 E7-E9 47 28 Warrant Officer 9 5 O1-O3 9 5 O4-O6 51 30 O7 and above 2 1

Independent Variables

The purpose of the study was to examine how the overall emotional intelligence

score as well as the individual dimensions of emotional intelligence contribute to

authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. These individual dimensions

of emotional intelligence consist of the two Area Scores of Emotional Experiencing and

Emotional Reasoning, and the four Branch scores of Perceiving Emotions, Using

Emotions, Understanding Emotions, and Managing Emotions, and comprise the

independent variables utilized in this research. The independent variables from emotional

intelligence are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics: Emotional Intelligence (EI) Components (n = 7)

Independent Variable Min Max M SD

Total Score 70.97 117.92 96.26 11.03 Biased Positive/Negative Score 83.57 139.85 107.88 11.88 Experiencing Area 65.53 124.46 94.56 13.75 Reasoning Area 74.99 117.89 98.29 7.9 B1 Perceiving 56.01 132.4 95.37 15.13 B2 Using 65.86 126.6 96.32 12.74 B3 Understanding 77.7 121.5 99.33 9.19 B4 Managing 70.52 117.31 96.9 98.83

77

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable for this research was the overall authentic leadership

score as measured by the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire. The authentic leadership

scores are presented in Table 7.

Table 7. Authentic Leadership Score Data ________________________________________________________________________ Independent Variable Min Max M SD

Total Score 1.8 4.0 3.3 .4

Research Methodology and Data Analysis

A linear regression and ANOVA was conducted to develop an understanding of

the relationships between the emotional intelligence and authentic leadership of Naval

Special Warfare leadership. All research questions pertained to whether there were

significant relationships between the independent variables and dependent variable

(Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). The strengths and direction of these relationships were

explored by determining a Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s

r) for each set of variables tested. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient

determines the strength of the relationship by attempting to draw a straight line of best fit

through the data of two variables. The closer the data points are to a straight line, the

stronger the relationship between variables. The coefficient of determination, R2, is used

in determining the predictive value of a variable. R2 also provides a goodness of fit of the

data to the statistical model by measuring how closely the model replicates data P-value

denotes the probability of achieving the research results given that the null hypothesis is

78

true (Rumsey, 2011).

The hypothesis germane to Research Question 1 predicted that there was a

significant relationship between overall emotional and authentic leadership in Naval

Special Warfare leadership. A Pearson’s r was determined to be .102, indicating a weak

and statistically insignificant relationship between variables, (R2 value = .0104, or 1% of

the variation from the mean is explained by the repressor). The P-value was .1882,

because .188 > .05 at significance level .05 the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall,

emotional intelligence was not found to have a significant relationship to overall

authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. Thus, the data suggest

emotional intelligence is not a good predictor for authentic leadership. Data related to the

emotional intelligence/authentic leadership correlation and regression analysis are

presented in Table 8.

Table 8. Emotional Intelligence and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.102002429 0.010404495 0.004443077 0.399691439 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 0.278818182 0.278818182 1.745305263 0.188286167

Residual 166 26.51903896 0.159753247

Total 167 26.79785714

Coefficients

SE

t Stat

P-value

Lwr 95%

Upr 95%

Intercept 2.9471 0.2715 10.854 4.41E-21 2.411 3.4832

SS_TOT (EI) 0.0037 0.0028 1.321 0.1882 -0.0018 0.0092

79

A scatter plot depiction of the relationship between emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership is provided in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Emotional Intelligence/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot.

Research Question 2: Which dimensions of emotional intelligence are most

predictive of authentic leadership of leadership among personnel in Naval Special

Warfare leadership?

The hypothesis germane to Research Question 2 predicted that there was a

significant relationship between a dimension of emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare Leadership. Emotional intelligence is broken down

into two area scores: Reasoning and Experience that are further broken down into four

Branch scores B1 Perceiving, B2 Understanding, B3 Using, and B4 Managing.

y = 0.0037x + 2.9472

R² = 0.0104

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ALQ

EI

AL'

Linear (AL')

80

Performing a regression and ANOVA between emotional intelligence and

reasoning area (EI_REA) and authentic leadership determined Pearson’s r to be .071,

indicating a weak and statistically insignificant relationship between variables, R2 value =

.005 (or .5% of the variation from the mean is explained by the regressor). The P-value =

.361, because .361 > .05 at significance level .05 the null hypothesis was not rejected.

Overall EI_REA was not found to have a significant relationship to overall authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare Leadership. EI_REA is not a good predictor for

authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. Data related to the EI_REA

authentic leadership correlation and regression analysis are presented in Table 9.

Table 9: Emotional Intelligence Reasoning Area and Authentic Leadership

Correlation/Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.070831571 0.005017111 -0.000976761 0.400777928 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 0.134447837 0.134447837 0.837040031 0.361571751

Residual 166 26.66340931 0.160622948

Total 167 26.79785714

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 2.950 0. 3867 7.6308 1.73E-12 2.1874 3.7144

X Variable 1 0.0035 0.0039 0.9148 0.3615 0.0041 0.0113

A scatter plot depiction of the relationship between emotional intelligence

reasoning branch score and authentic leadership is provided in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Emotional Intelligence Reasoning Area/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot.

Performing a regression and ANOVA between emotional intelligence area branch

experience score (EI_EXP) and authentic leadership determined Pearson’s r to be .086,

indicating a weak and statistically insignificant relationship between variables, R2

squared value = .008 (or .8% of the variation from the mean is explained by the

regressor). The P-value = .263, because .263 > .05 at significance level .05 we do not

reject the null hypothesis. Overall EI_EXP was not found to have a statistically

significant relationship to overall authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare

Leadership. EI_EXP is not a good predictor for authentic in Naval Special Warfare

y = 0.0036x + 2.9509

R² = 0.005

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ALQ

SSREA

ALQ

Linear (ALQ)

82

leadership. The R2 value is very low (not near 1). The relationship between EI_EXP is

very weak. Data related to the EI_EXP/authentic leadership correlation and regression

analysis is presented in Table 10.

Table 10. Emotional Intelligence Experience Area and Authentic Leadership Correlation/

Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.086782278 0.007531164 0.001552436 0.400271279 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 0.201819053 0.201819053 1.259659903 0.263336218

Residual 166 26.59603809 0.160217097

Total 167 26.79785714

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 3.0646 0.2151 14.245 1.35E-30 2.6398 3.4893

X Variable 1 0.0025 0.0022 1.1223 0.2633 -0.0019 0.0069

A scatter plot depiction of the relationship between emotional intelligence

experience branch score and authentic leadership is provided in Figure 3.

83

Figure 3. Emotional Intelligence Experience Area/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot.

Performing a regression and ANOVA between EI_B1 Perceiving and authentic

leadership determined Pearson’s r to be .066, indicating a weak and statistically

insignificant relationship between variables, R2 value = .0004 (or .04% of the variation

from the mean is explained by the regressor). The P-value = .808, because .808 > .05 at

significance level .05 we do not reject the null hypothesis. Overall, EI_B1 Perceiving

was not found to have a statistically significant relationship to overall authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare Leadership. EI_B1 Perceiving is not a good

predictor for authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The R2 value is

very low (not near 1). The relationship between EI_B1 Perceiving and authentic

y = 0.0025x + 3.0646

R² = 0.0075

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ALQ

SSEXP

ALQ

Linear (ALQ)

84

leadership is very weak. Data related to the EI_B1/AL correlation and regression

analysis is presented in Table 11.

Table 11. Emotional Intelligence B1 Perceiving and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.018862052 0.000355777 -0.005666176

0.240896199 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 0.00342847 0.00342847 0.059080002 0.808256075

Residual 166 9.633142478 0.058030979

Total 167 9.636570949

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 0.7546 0.1548 4.8732 2.54E-06 0.4488 1.0603

X Variable 1 0.0113 0.0465 0.2430 0.8082 -0.0805 0.1031

Performing a regression and ANOVA between EI_B2 Understanding and

authentic leadership determined Pearson’s r to be .085, indicating a weak and statistically

insignificant relationship between variables, R2 value = .012 (or 1.2% of the variation

from the mean is explained by the regressor). The P-value = .155, because .155 > .05 at

significance level .05 we do not reject the null hypothesis. Overall EI_B2 Understanding

was not found to have a statistically significant relationship to overall authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. EI_B2 Understanding is not a good

85

predictor for authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The R2 value is

very low (not near 1). The relationship between EI_B2 Understanding and authentic

leadership is very weak. Data related to the EI_B2 Understanding/authentic leadership

appear in Table 12.

Table 12. Emotional Intelligence B2 Understanding and Authentic Leadership Correlation/ Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.110138164 0.012130415 .0.006179393 0.264168625 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 0.1422 0.1422 2.0383 0.1552

Residual 166 11.584 0.0697

Total 167 11.726

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 0.9279 0.1698 5.4647 1.67E-07 0.5927 1.2632

ALQ -0.0728 0.0510 -1.4277 0.1552 -0.1736 0.0278

Performing a regression and ANOVA between EI_B3 Using and authentic

leadership determined Pearson’s r to be .065, indicating a weak and statistically

insignificant relationship between variables, R2 value = .002 (or .2% of the variation from

the mean is explained by the regressor). The P-value = .495, because .495 > .05 at

significance level .05 we do not reject the null hypothesis. Overall, EI_B3 Using was not

found to have a statistically significant relationship to overall authentic leadership in

Naval Special Warfare leadership. EI_B3 is not a good predictor for authentic leadership

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in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The R2 value is very low (not near 1). The

relationship between EI_B3 Using and authentic leadership is very weak. Data related to

the EI_B3 Using/authentic leadership correlation and regression analysis represented in

Table 13.

Table 13. Emotional Intelligence B3 Using and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.05290051 0.002798464

-0.003208774 0.271887134 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 0.0344 0.0344 0.4958 0.808256075

Residual 166 12.27 0.0739

Total 167 12.305

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 0.8694 0.1747 4.9747 1.62E-06 0.5243 1.2145

ALQ -0.035 0.0525 -0.6825 0.4958 -0.139 0.067

Performing a regression and ANOVA between EI_B4 Managing and authentic

leadership determined Pearson’s r to be .054, indicating a weak and statistically

insignificant relationship between variables, R2 value = 4.93 -.05 (or .0% of the variation

from the mean is explained by the regressor). The P-value = .927, because .927, at

significance level .05 the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall, EI_B4 Managing

was not found to have a statistically significant relationship to overall authentic

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leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. EI_B4 Managing is not a good predictor

for authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The R2 value is very low

(not near 1). The relationship between EI_B4 Managing and authentic leadership is very

weak. Data related to the EI_B4 Managing/authentic leadership correlation and

regression analysis are presented in Table 14.

Table 14. Emotional Intelligence B4 Managing and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.007027733 4.9389E-05 -0.00597441 0.077059461 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 4.868E-05 4.868E-05 0.0082 0.9279

Residual 166 0.9857 0.0059

Total 167 0.9857

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 0.2481 0.0495 5.0090 1.38E-06 0.150 0.3459

ALQ 0.0013 0.0148 0.0905 0.927 -0.0280 0.0307

Research Question 3: How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership

among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Performing a regression and ANOVA between participant age and emotional

intelligence determined Pearson’s r to be .147, indicating a weak and statistically

insignificant relationship between variables, R2 value = .0001 (or .01% of the variation

from the mean is explained by the regressor). The P-value = .894, because .894 > .05 at

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significance level .05 the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overall age was not found to

have a statistically significant relationship to overall emotional intelligence in Naval

Special Warfare leadership. Age is not a good predictor for emotional intelligence in

Naval Special Warfare leadership. The R2 value is very low (not near 1). The

relationship between age and emotional intelligence is very weak. Data related to the

age/emotional intelligence correlation and regression analysis are presented in Table 15.

Table 15. Age/Emotional Intelligence Correlation/Regression Analysis Data

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.251715061 0.063360472 0.057718065 10.56128193 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 1252.5 1252.5 11.229 0.0009

Residual 166 18515.75 111.54

Total 167 19768.27

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 73.202 7.1745 10.202 2.79E 59.036 87.367

SS_TOT (EQ) -0.2481 0.0740 -3.3510 0.0009 -0.394 -0.1019

A scatter plot depiction of the relationship between age and emotional intelligence

is provided in Figure 4.

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Figure 4. Age/Emotional Intelligence regression analysis scatter plot

Research Question 4: How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership

among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Performing a regression and ANOVA between age and authentic leadership

determined Pearson’s r to be .231, indicating a mild and statistically insignificant

relationship between variables, R2 value = .063 (or 6.3% of the variation from the mean is

explained by the regressor). The P-value = .0009, because .0009 < .05 at significance

level .05 we do not reject the alternate hypothesis. Overall, age was not found to have a

statistically significant relationship to overall authentic in Naval Special Warfare

leadership. Age is not a good predictor for authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare

R² = 0.0634

0.00

20.00

40.00

60.00

80.00

100.00

120.00

140.00

0 20 40 60 80 100

EQ

Age

SS_TOT (EQ)

Linear (SS_TOT (EQ))

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leadership. The R2 value is very low (not near 1). The relationship between age and

authentic leadership is very weak. Data related to the age/Authentic leadership (AL)

correlation and regression analysis are presented in Table 16.

Table 16. Age/AL Summary Output

Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE Observations

0.010289776

0.000105879

0.005917579

10.91207652 168

df SS MS F Significance F

Regression 1 2.093 2.0930 0.0175 0.8946

Residual 166 19766.19 119.07

Total 167 19768.28

Coefficients SE t Stat P-value Lwr 95% Upr 95%

Intercept 50.238 7.0144 7.1622 2.45E-11 36.389 64.087

X Variable 1 -0.2794 2.1079 -0.1325 0.8946 -4.4412 3.8823

A scatter plot depiction of the relationship between age and authentic leadership is

provided in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. Age/Authentic Leadership regression analysis scatter plot.

Table 17. Regression and Correlation Data Summary (IV/DV)

Variable R2 Pearson’s r (IV/DV) P-value

Overall EI .0104 .102 .188

Area Experience .008 .086 .263

Area Reasoning .005 .071 .361

Perceiving .0003 .066 .808

Understanding .0121 .084 .155

Using .0027 .065 .495

Managing 4.938-05 .054 .927

Age/AL .0001 .147 .894

Age/EI .063 .231 .0009

________________________________________________________________________

R² = 0.0001

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

0 20 40 60 80 100

ALQ

Age

ALQ

Linear (ALQ)

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Summary of the Results

Research findings have been presented in Chapter 4 to examine the strength of the

relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special

Warfare leadership. It was hypothesized that there is a significant relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and that particular dimensions of

emotional intelligence would also be significantly related to authentic leadership.

Overall, emotional intelligence was not found to have a statistically significant

relationship with authentic leadership scores in Naval Special Warfare leadership, nor

were any dimensions of emotional intelligence found to have statistically significant

relationships with authentic leadership. Mild but weak relationships were found between

age and emotional intelligence and between age and authentic leadership; these

relationships were also not statistically significant. Responses to the MSCEIT had a

positive bias response rate, which indicated that participants generally answered survey

questions in a more positive manner than negative. None of the independent variables

used in this research depicted any tendency towards predictability. Finding revealed that

none of the hypotheses were supported by this research, and the null hypotheses could

not be rejected.

The research problem addressed in this study was whether overall emotional

intelligence is an indicator of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

In an attempt to include a broader population of Naval Special Warfare personnel with a

wider variety of perspectives, participation was offered to any person who had qualified

as a Navy SEAL. This population included current active duty personnel (those still in

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uniform), retired personnel (those who had left the U.S. Navy after at least 20 years of

service), and separated personnel (those individuals who had served as a SEAL but left

the Navy before 20 years of service). This worldwide population consists of

approximately 10,000 personnel. The research demographics regarding age represented a

60-year differential with the mean age of a participant being 49.3 years old. According to

the United States Special Operations Command (2014), the average age of a current

NSW operator is 32.3 years of age, with two sub-organizations having a median age of

39 and each having a 50-year-old Task-Unit leader. The four respondents in the age

group under 30 would not adequately represent the NSW population had the research

been oriented solely toward the active duty population, and even less so were it oriented

to SEAL trainees. Looking at the broader population of potential participants, the 2%

between 24-29 years appeared to be a viable representation. The population sample size

can be noted as a design limitation to this study.

A number of past studies have provided data representing a significantly

significant relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.

This researcher’s interest in authentic leadership is based on the nascent characteristic of

authentic leadership as a theory and the minimal amount of research that has been

perform analyzing the relationship between these two variables. The results of this

research indicated that there is no significant relationship between these two variables.

This in itself may give thought to emotional intelligence being a skill set and authentic

leadership being an unrelated trait or characteristic attributable to something else, which

opens the door to further research in this area of interest.

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Though there were limitations inherent to this study, these results provide evidence

that higher levels of emotional intelligence do not necessarily mean a person will have

strong authentic leadership attributes. Results of this research are discussed in Chapter 5,

in addition to the implications of the research and recommendations for future research.

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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Overview

The importance of developing and maintaining appropriate leadership skills and

talent is not trivial. Forbes, Inc., estimated the cost of these endeavors in the United

States in 2013 was in the range of $70 billion and that worldwide this cost was $130

billion (Leonard, 2014). Developing leadership is relevant across the spectrum of human

interaction, from family dynamics to academia, sports, corporations, and more.

What makes a good leader is a subjective question. Leadership and leadership

opportunities exist in a multitude of contexts and experience levels—for example, skills

needed to guide a high school organization differ from those needed to keep a corporation

relevant into the future. Wong et al. (2003) discussed the variety of leadership types and

leadership opportunities that exists and noted that it is the context within which

leadership takes place that dictates what type of leadership and what leadership skills are

needed to be most to be effective. Gardner (1990) described a good leader as one who

produces a good result in terms of a combination of context and personal qualities.

Northouse (2009) suggested that those in leadership positions affect organizational

strength, organizational climate, and loyalty within an organization.

An elite special operations force, the U.S. Navy SEAL community provides a

unique perspective into leadership traits and behaviors. Rooted in a legacy of success,

cohesion and mission accomplishment, Navy SEALs trace their ancestry to the

clandestine and special operations organizations or World War II (Baillergeon, 2015).

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Throughout its existence, Naval Special Warfare has maintained a strict adherence to its

recruitment and selection standards and has an established warfighting culture that

continues from generation to generation. The organizational structure of the Navy SEAL

community is one oriented around the 'team ' concept and is demonstrated by the unique

relationship that exists between officers and enlisted personnel (U.S. Navy official

website). Though advances in technology now allow SEALs to perform missions

utilizing modernized equipment and weaponry, the culture of Navy SEALs has remained

constant and recruitment, selection and training remains the same today as it did in the

early 1960’s (Dockery, 2003).

As Naval Special Warfare and public service organizations in general endeavor to

perform more tasks with limited resources, leadership skills and positive organizational

environments re critical nodes of success (Batool, 2013). A recent survey of all Special

Operations personnel across the United States Special Operations Command

(USSOCOM, 2013) provided insight in to areas many of its members felt required

improvement. Included in this description of required improvement were leadership and

communication. USSOCOM personnel also conducted an organizational climate survey.

This climate survey indicated that leadership behavior affected organizational climate and

job satisfaction, which in turn has both operational readiness and logistical implications

(USSOCOM, 2013). These implications include retention of seasoned personnel who

possess unique operational experience, resource allocation for additional training because

of the loss of corporate knowledge, and the costs to family members and mental health

associated with long-term commitments to deployments (Snodgrass, 2014). Senior Naval

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Special Warfare personnel have described a community attrition rate that is close to the

personnel acquisition rate with minor fluctuations from year to year (V. Draeger, personal

communications, July, 2012). As noted by Snodgrass (2014), the year 2013 “marked the

worst in history [for retention] for the Naval Special Warfare community, with record

numbers of lieutenant commanders declining to stay for promotion to the next pay grade”

(p. 64). Naval Special Warfare currently has been authorized to employ 6,000 operators,

yet the NSW has been able to grow only to approximately 3,000 operators (SOCOM

document, 2013). These figures may be affected by leadership behavior and

organizational climate.

The current study was conducted to provide a quantitative analysis of the strength

of the relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval

Special Warfare leadership. The specific problem addressed was whether overall

emotional intelligence is an indicator of authentic. It was hypothesized that there would

be a statistically significant relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership in the Naval Special Warfare leadership, that at least one dimension of

emotional intelligence is predictive of authentic in Naval Special Warfare leadership, and

that authentic leadership and at least one dimension of emotional intelligence would vary

by age among age of Naval Special Warfare personnel. Earlier research by Rosete and

Ciarrochi (2005) showed a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and

leadership effectiveness. Results of the Rosete and Ciarrochi study were echoed by

Batool (2013), who noted that emotional intelligence has become a popular measure for

identifying potentially effective leaders. Additional researchers also noted a positive

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relationship between emotional intelligence and different leadership styles (Awadzi,

2010; Thomas (2011) and effective leadership in the military (Leigh, 2012). Although

myriad studies have been performed on the relationship between emotional intelligence

and leadership, only a few researchers have explored the relationship between emotional

intelligence and authentic leadership. Kiyani et al. (2013) noted several studies as

relating emotional intelligence to authentic leadership all of which predate the authentic

leadership measurement instrument developed by Walumbwa et al. (2008). This study

was designed to fill some of the gap in on authentic leadership theory.

Summary of Demographic Characteristics and Results

One hundred sixty-eight from the population of approximately 10,000 SEALs took

part in the study, based on the Sample Size Calculator determination a sufficient number

of participants for a confidence level of 95% and confidence interval of 7.5 respectively.

The mean age was 49.3, with 43% in the highest age range of 40-49 years. Most

members had achieved a master’s degree, 65 (39%). Forty-five participants had

dedicated 20-25 years in service (27%), and 51 participants had achieved the rank of O4-

06 (30%), followed closely by E4-E6 at 50 participants (29%). All survey participants

were male (100%).

Results for Questions and Hypothesis

It was hypothesized that there would be a statistically significant relationship

between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in the Naval Special Warfare

leadership, that at least one dimension of emotional intelligence is predictive of authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership, and that at least one dimension of

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emotional intelligence and authentic leadership would vary by age among age of Naval

Special Warfare personnel. The results of the study indicated that there was a weak

correlation overall emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special

Warfare leadership. Data analyses were conducted to answer the following four research

questions:

(RQ1) What is the relationship between overall emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership of leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Null hypothesis (Ho); No statistically significant relationship exists between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Alternate hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

This null hypothesis was not rejected. No statistically significant relationship was

found between the overall emotional intelligence scores of Naval Special Warfare

personnel and authentic leadership scores (see Table 7).

(RQ2) Which dimensions of emotional intelligence are most predictive of

authentic leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho. No dimensions of emotional intelligence are predictive of authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Ha. At least one dimension of emotional intelligence is predictive of authentic

leadership among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

This null hypothesis was not rejected. No statistically significant relationship was

found between any dimensions of emotional intelligence scores of Naval Special Warfare

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personnel and authentic leadership scores (see Tables 8-14).

(RQ3) How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership among

personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho. Emotional intelligence does not vary by age among personnel in Naval

Special Warfare leadership.

Ha. At least one dimension of emotional intelligence varies by age among

personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.

This null hypothesis was not rejected. No statistically significant relationship was

found between any dimension of emotional intelligence of Naval Special Warfare

personnel and authentic leadership scores (see Table 14).

(RQ4) How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership among personnel

in Naval Special Warfare leadership?

Ho. Authentic leadership does not significantly vary by age among personnel in

Naval Special Warfare leadership.

Ha. Authentic leadership significantly varies by age among personnel in Naval

Special Warfare leadership.

This hypothesis was not rejected. No statistically significant relationship was

found between the age of Naval Special Warfare personnel and authentic leadership

scores (see Table 15).

Regression analysis was performed between the overall emotional intelligence

score, individual dimensions of emotional intelligence and age with participants’

authentic leadership score. These regression analyses indicated that none of the variables

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were significant. Pearson’s r-values ranged from .054 to .231 and R2 scores ranged from

.000 to .063 (see Table 16).

Results Within the Extant of Literature

The primary finding of this study was that no statistically significant relationship

exists between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare

leadership. The findings correlating the different dimensions of emotional intelligence

and age of participants with authentic leadership suggest a weak correlation as well.

These findings are in alignment with many current emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership studies that discuss authentic leadership as an attribute of effective leadership,

but not those that lend towards a predictive or causative relationship. Much of the current

research regarding emotional intelligence discusses the relationship between effective

leadership and levels of emotional intelligence. This research study regarding the

relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special

Warfare leadership relates to current literature further defined emotional intelligence as a

skill set and authentic leadership as a behavior or trait. As indicated in previous studies,

emotional intelligence may be an effective means for identifying leaders (Batool, 2013)

but it does not denote what kind of leader or what leadership styles a high or low

emotional intelligence score may lean toward (Cummings, 2013). The results of this

research also support Dearborne (2002), who indirectly segregated emotional intelligence

from other leadership characteristics, noting, “Emotional intelligence capacities uniquely

contribute to performance…that possessing underlying emotional intelligence capacities

does not guarantee the competencies will be demonstrated” (p. 1). The current findings

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support Dearborne (2002), with no significant relation between the level of emotional

intelligence and a participant’s level of authentic leadership. The results of this research

also align with the finding of (Walumbwa, 2008), who also discussed authentic

leadership as a separate characteristic of leadership behavior onto itself.

In regard to evaluating potential personnel for leadership positions, Batool (2013)

noted that emotional intelligence is an effective measure for evaluating potential

employees for future leadership positions. The current research supports Batool (2013);

the Naval Special Warfare mean emotional intelligence score was higher than the norms

established in validating the MSCEIT (MHS, 2002). Batool (2013) discussed future

positions of leadership but did not define any level of authentic leadership that is a part of

or necessary for effective leadership.

This research also aligns with Bishop (2013), who described authentic leadership

as being associated with different forms of leadership, implying that authentic leadership

is not a theory in and of itself but rather an aspect of an individual leader. Bishop

discussed how the definition of leadership is categorized into various trait descriptions to

include transactional and transformational and noted that the term authentic has unique

“connotations and innuendo” (p. 2). Bishop also wrote that authentic leadership is rooted

in positive organizational behavior and can also be associated with other forms of

positive leadership. The uniqueness of authentic leadership that sets it apart from other

leadership theories, according to Bishop, includes the aspects of greater self-awareness

and self-regulated positive behaviors. This perspective follows the perspective that there

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is no predictability in the relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership.

Creswell (2009) discussed the necessity of performing sufficient research to

produce evidence of potential relationships. The current study adds to that construct and

to the validity of the authentic leadership theory. Walumbwa (2008) provided additional

validity to the authentic leadership concept and added to the construct validity.

Thomas (2011) and Leigh (2012) called for additional research to be performed to

accomplish this as well. Performing a study that included Naval Special Warfare

diversified the study populations in emotional intelligence and authentic leadership

research amplified the independence of each variable from the other.

The current research contradicted other findings, particularly Kiyani et al. (2013).

Kiyani et al. discussed a direct relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership and noted how a positive organizational environment and positive employee

outcomes result from a combination of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.

Kiyani et al. provided insight on the potential relationship between these two variables

but did not suggest a causative relationship.

Adwazi (2010) found that emotional intelligence is predictive of different

leadership styles, echoed by Thomas (2011), Batool (2013), and Leigh (2012). Them

current research denoted a non-predictive relationship between emotional intelligence

and authentic leadership and supported earlier studies indicating the efficacy of

leadership training and those engaged with enhancing and strengthening an

organizational culture that encourages those aspects of authentic leadership.

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Implications of Findings

This research regarding the relationship between emotional intelligence and

authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership relates to current literature on

this subject by further defining emotional intelligence as a skill set and authentic

leadership as a behavior or trait. This research successfully diversifies the context within

which both emotional intelligence and authentic leadership are studied and builds upon

previous research conducted by a wide variety of researchers. The research also adds to

the body of knowledge relative to both emotional intelligence and authentic leadership,

especially in the context of military and other organizations that operate in dynamic

environments. The data acquired through this research indicated a relationship between

emotional intelligence and authentic leadership that was not statistically significant. The

data does indicate normal levels of emotional intelligence and does support the MSCEIT

instruments validity and reliability however there is no way of telling whether or not

those emotional intelligence abilities will be applied in an authentic manner. The

research data from this study also solidifies the validity and reliability of the Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire survey instrument by broadening the sample population

engaged in authentic leadership research.

This ability (emotional intelligence) is evidenced to have a statistically significant

relationship with various forms of effective leadership as noted by Adwazi (2010),

Thomas (2011) and Leigh (2012). What these researchers did not note is the level of

authenticity that may be a part of each leadership sample studied. Effective leadership, as

noted by management consultant R. Fleisher (personal communication, 2015), describes

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the ability of a person to move an organization to a desired point or level; it does not

reflect the motive or ethical reasoning of the particular leader. This leadership study

supports the idea that authenticity can occur at any level of leadership and is not

dependent of a requisite level of emotional intelligence. Conversely, the findings support

the notion that emotional intelligence is not related to any level of authenticity. This

latter concept parallels a work by Cummings (2012), who discussed emotional

intelligence as being morally neutral.

An additional implication of this study is that the roots of authentic leadership in a

leadership behavior or style must be found somewhere other than emotional intelligence.

Authentic leadership is a root part of positive forms of leadership (Avolio & Gardner,

2005). Bishop (2013) also noted the contribution of authentic leadership to positive

leadership. The results of the current study, in concert with Avolio et al. (2004) and

Gardner et al. (2005), suggest that authentic leadership is not a skill but rather a in

independent behavior trait or personality trait. This trait, when combined with other

forms of effective leadership, can create a positive organizational environment such as

those noted by Kiyani et al. (2013), Gardner et al. (2011), Mays (2007), and Clausen

(2009). Walumbwa et al. (2008) argued authentic leadership describes a culture of

leadership oriented outwards toward the cultural ethics of the organization or community

it is relevant to. Goleman (1998) stated that emotional intelligence is an ability to

understand emotions and to being aware how those emotions include how one’s actions

may influence the emotions of others. How a leader utilizes his or her emotional

intelligence may be authentic in nature, or it may also be Machiavellian (Cummings,

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2012).

Triola (2007) stated that authentic leadership begins with emotional intelligence.

Although this statement cannot be substantiated by this research, it does not mean

authentic leaders do not exist in Naval Special Warfare or that there is no emotional

intelligence in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The results indicate that one can exist

without the other. There is no causative or predictive properties to the between the two

variables.

An additional practical implication of this research pertains to the potential

application of the research results in the development of a leadership-training curriculum.

Naval Special Warfare currently has social scientists assisting in describing the

characteristics and profiles of prospective SEALs and those who have successfully

become SEALs (V. Draeger, personal communication November, 2013). These

characteristics are being identified to assist in recruiting efforts and train junior officers

about emotional intelligence. Because there appears to be no statistically significant

relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and that emotional

intelligence does not guarantee ethical leadership, Naval Special Warfare leadership

training curricula should consider what other attributes of leadership might be included in

leadership development course goals.

Limitations of the Research

As acknowledged in Chapter 1, this study has several limitations. This design is

limited by the size of the sample population in a single community within the Department

of Defense, and by the potential bias due to the researcher being a retired Navy SEAL.

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Other researchers performed additional studies utilizing the same instruments with

different population, which may have mitigated this limitation. The potential for bias

does exist, however, and utilizing objectivity via quantitative, voluntary, self-moderated

surveys removed the potential for any responses to be guided or interpretations to be

skewed. Of the two instruments used in the study, the MSCEIT may have limited

applicability to the sample population. Feedback from survey takers included comments

that indicated a measure of frustration with both length and content; thus, some survey

takers may have thus been inclined to rush through responses just to finish the survey.

Additional potential limitations included the disadvantage of correlational analysis in

determining a cause-and-effect relationship, potential misinterpretation of data, and

outside variables influencing the responses to questions (Waring, 2006). Recruitment for

this survey included the criteria of having been a current or historic Navy SEAL; this

precluded the ability to randomly select a sample population that may have subjected the

sample population to the bias of self-selection. The potential for biased survey responses

also poses a limitation to this study if participants are inclined to answer the survey in a

manner they believe is socially acceptable and not what they really think. Assuring the

participants of anonymity and non-attribution mitigated this limitation. Finally, this was

a purely quantitative study and may have been limited by not having and qualitative

aspect to it.

Recommendations for Further Study

This study provided a look at the potential relationship between emotional

intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. This research

108

showed that the strength of the relationship between these two variables was not

significant. There is however, no shortage of research showing a strong relationship

between emotional intelligence and effective leadership. An area of further research

includes one that defines successful leadership and effective leadership within the context

of Naval Special Warfare.

Wong et al. (2003) and Snodgrass (2014) discussed the importance of

understanding the context within which leadership takes place in order for that leadership

to be effective. Contexts of leadership change even within an organization (Homrig,

2001; Wong et al., 2003). The discussion that different sectors within organizations

warrant different types of leadership was discussed at length by Zigarmi et al. (2004) and

can be experienced by anyone who has been a member of a hierarchal culture (Masood,

Dani, Burns, & Backhouse, (2006). A commanding officer of a SEAL Team provides a

leadership style that is much different than the junior officer or project lead. Effective

leadership may move from transactional to path-goal to transformational depending on

the environmental context. Blue Sky Group Facilitator and management consultant R.

Fleisher (personal communications, July 8, 2015) noted how, when internal and external

congruencies are not in synchronization, the likelihood of poor performance and

dissatisfaction within an organization will increase. Kiyani et al. (2013) demonstrated

that authentic leadership is connected to positive employee outcomes and impacts

retention in an organization. Houchin (2011), in particular, noted that that authentic

leadership behavior on the part of leadership leads to higher levels of trust, team

cohesion, and group performance (p. 23). If Naval Special Warfare can define what

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attributes create a successful leader throughout the various stage of a Navy SEAL’s

career and align appropriate leadership skills to those contexts, the effort may assist in

increasing retention levels in Naval Special Warfare. In addition to defining attributes a

successful Naval Special Warfare leader, a qualitative study asking direct questions

regarding retention may also assist Naval Special Warfare decision makers in recruitment

and retention efforts.

An additional area of future research would involve exploring the efficacies of

individual leadership training events for Naval Special Warfare personnel. USSOCOM is

currently engaged in a broad scope effort to enhance the personal and professional

development of its civilian workforce. USSOCOM accomplishes this through the use of

a division dedicated to leadership development. This leadership development division

brings in a variety of leadership, coaching, and mentoring courses to facilitate the

professional development of USSOCOM personnel. These opportunities are also open to

military members. A longitudinal study utilizing the MSCEIT, a 360 Multi-Leadership

Questionnaire, and a 360 Authentic Leadership Questionnaire administered before

leadership training and then 6-12 months after, may provide valuable insight into what

leadership training is most effective and useful for organizational commitment and

growth.

The 2013 USSOCOM Command Climate Survey described communication as a

significant issue within leadership at USSOCOM. Organizational leaders should

participate in leadership development courses such as the Office of Personnel

Managements’ Extraordinary Leadership Course. Many of those in leadership positions

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may feel unenthusiastic about this type of training, but it is prudent though those

opportunities to reinforce critical communication skills that will enhance the

organizational environment be created and taken advantage of.

An additional recommendation for research also includes a qualitative analysis

that might define or adequately describe the Naval Special Warfare culture and relate

those findings to value congruence. Stazyk (2009) described value congruence as “the

domain of research that attempts to capture the congruence between the characteristics of

individuals (e.g., goals, skills, values) and the characteristics of organizations (e.g., goals,

values, resources, and culture” (p. 8). Analyzing the intersection of those values, goals,

and skills a person brings to Naval Special Warfare or that the person expects to bring to

Naval Special Warfare with the culture, goals, and resources of the Naval Special

Warfare may disclose areas of parallel expectations. Mitchell, Parker, Giles, Joyce, and

Chiang (2012) described this as the supplementary fit in the person-environment fit

environment, in which an employee and the environment possess the same or similar

characteristics including values, attitudes, personality traits, and goals (p. 327). Mitchell

et al. provided data that positively correlates levels of value congruence with increased

levels of employee job satisfaction, positive organizational environment, and reduced

employee turnover. The background of this particular study was premised on the low

retention rates within the Naval Special Warfare community. Snodgrass (2014) noted that

2013 was one of the worst years for retention in Naval Special Warfare. However,

challenges to recruitment and retention were not unique to the year 2013 but have been

an ongoing issue in Naval Special Warfare, contrary to present-day popularity.

111

USSOCOM annual manning reports indicate that the historical nature of this personnel

issue (USSOCOM document, 1997; USSOCOM document 2000). Snodgrass (2014) also

noted that this is not unique to Naval Special Warfare. Resource cost associated with

retention issues are also a key concern, as reflected by Hataway (2014), who discussed

both the monetary costs and the intangible costs associated with voluntary separation

from an organization. Like with Naval Special Warfare, Hataway (2014) noted that these

costs are relevant to recruitment and training of new personnel and the cost of lost

corporate knowledge. These heavy costs may be mitigated if a higher level of value

congruency can be achieved. A qualitative study discussing the influence of expectation

on the retention and organizational climate may provide important information relevant

to organizational policies and doctrines. Understanding the expectations of why people

join Naval Special Warfare and explaining realistic organizational expectations may

increase retention percentages.

A relentless stream of unethical behavior seems to be ubiquitous in today’s work

culture. In response, leadership behavior is becoming more transparent to organizational

members, and authentic behavior seems to have moved to the forefront of public view.

Nichols and Erakovich (2013) argued that ethics are a basic component of authentic

leadership, and this type of leadership is a key component of today’s leadership profile.

An additional question that may be asked is if authentic leadership is the same as ethical

leadership. The transitive nature of leadership traits and behaviors allow for them to

apply to various organizational disciplines. It is hoped that the perspectives and insights

112

gained from this research will apply to athletic, corporate, and other military communities

and contribute to stronger leadership development vehicles in those communities.

Conclusion

The importance of effective leadership is evidenced by the historical depictions of

this leadership throughout the millennia. Examples of leadership are noted throughout

history from Egyptian rulers, Greek heroes, and biblical patriarchs (Stone & Patterson,

2005) through to members of today’s private and public organizations. Whether these

leaders were effective or were for good or bad, all were able to influence those around

them. The purpose of this study was to provide a substantive quantitative analysis that

explored the strength of the relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic

leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. Although the concept of authenticity in

leadership is not new, the promulgation of authentic leadership as a theory has only

recently evolved. This nascent characteristic of the authentic leadership theory is noted

by the relative paucity of studies related to it (Gardner, 2011). Alternatively, several

researchers have noted authentic leadership is rooted in positive behavior (Tonkin, 2013;

Triola, 2007) with an implication of it being an effective form of leadership. With the

multitude of leadership showing a strong relationship between emotional leadership and

effective leadership, it seemed intuitive there would be a relationship between emotional

intelligence and authentic leadership. This research study did not find any statistically

significant relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and lends

more to the idea the emotional intelligence is more of a skill set and authentic leadership

a potential characteristic of its use. Cummings (2012) stated that emotional intelligence

113

is morally neutral and may be used for any ends depending on the individual. As levels of

emotional intelligence may be indicative of effective leadership, a significant level of

emotional intelligence may be a valuable tool for a Naval Special Warfare leader when

appropriately applied. Whether a person is born with leadership abilities or is made into

a leader has been addressed by a number of scholars. Kouzes and Posner (2007), for

example, argued nothing in a person’s genetic make-up predisposes him or her to

leadership. Stephenson (2004) noted that the best leaders learn to lead and that positive

leadership behavioral traits are learned by communicating and interacting with others.

The characteristics of this interaction include a leader’s interpersonal skill, an ability to

convey ideas, engagement with followers, a vision for the future, and the ability to set

viable goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). In the context of Naval Special Warfare,

authentic leadership may or may not be the most effective or most successful

characteristic of leadership, but it may be a part of that leadership.

Leadership, as defined by Northouse (2014), is “a process whereby an individual

influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 6). Gardner (1990) also

describes leadership as a process of persuasion. No matter if an organization is profit

motivated or a public bureaucracy, the leaders should lead the same way—a way that

influences and motivates members to succeed in their organizational and personal goals

as well as to instill a pride in performance and desire to succeed. How they do this is

based on their behavior and traits (Ortmeier & Meese, 2010). It is the use of appropriate

leadership behavior, one that develops and matures throughout the career path of the

Naval Special Warfare member, that the Naval Special Warfare organization as a whole

114

can maintain a positive organizational climate, lower attrition, and move forward into the

future with strength and relevance.

115

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