The Gymnosperms - Springer978-3-662-13164-0/1.pdf · The Gymnosperms is a well-illustrated...
Transcript of The Gymnosperms - Springer978-3-662-13164-0/1.pdf · The Gymnosperms is a well-illustrated...
Cover photograph: Taxus baccata. Courtesy Prof. B.D. Sharma, JNV University, Jodhpur, India
Dr. Cbhaya Biswas Formerly Principal, Gargi College University of Delhi South Campus New Delhi 110 049, India
Prof. (Retired) B.M. Johri Central Reference Library University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India
Copyright © I 997 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1997
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ISBN 978-3-662-13166-4 ISBN 978-3-662-13164-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-13164-0
Preface
The Gymnosperms is a well-illustrated comprehensive account of living and fossil plants of this group. Chapters 1 and 2 give a general account, and describe similarities and dissimilarities with pteridophytes and angiosperms. Chapter 3 deals with classification. The next 18 chapters (4-21) deal sequentially with fossil and living taxa. Phylogenetic relationships are considered for each order. Chapter 22 discusses the in vitro experimental studies on the growth, development and differentiation of vegetative and reproductive organs and tissues. Chapter 23 summarizes the economic importance of gymnosperms. Chapter 24 gives the conciuding remarks.
Thus, there is a complete coverage of significant findings concerning morphology, anatomy, reproduction, development of embryo and seed, cytology, and -evolutionary trends and phylogeny. Ultrastructural and histochemical details are given wherever considered necessary.
There is a comprehensive list of literature citations, and a plant index. This book is essentially meant for the postgraduate students in India and abroad. Undergraduate students can also use it profitably. The entire course should be taught in 25-30 lectures/hours and about 75 hours of field and laboratory work.
CHHAYA BISWAS
BRu MoHAN JoHRI
Acknowledgements
For the preparation of this book we are grateful to: Dr. B.S. Venkatachala, former Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany, Lucknow, for allowing Dr. Chhaya Biswas to work in the Library of the Institute, and to Dr. H.K. Maheshwari, Dr. Sheila Chandra, Dr. A.K. Srivastava, Dr. Usha Bajpai, Dr. Sukh Devi, Dr. S.C. Srivastava and Dr. Jayashree Bannerjee for helping her to update the information, fruitful discussions and suggestions concerning fossil members of the gymnosperms, to the Librarian of the Institute for providing the literature.
(The Late) Professor P.N. Mehra, Department of Botany, Punjab University, Chandigarh, for scrutinizing the outlines of this book and giving valuable advice, for providing his monograph on the Indian Conifers, Gnetophytes and Phylogeny of Gymnosperms; Professor B.D. Sharma, Department of Botany, JNV University, Jodhpur, for a critical review of several chapters of the manuscript; to Professor S.P. Bhatnagar, and Dr. S.S. Bhojwani, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, for providing relevant literature and fruitful discussions; Dr. P.S. Srivastava, Department of Botany, Hamdard (deemed) University, New Delhi, for important literature and valuable suggestions; eur colleagues in Gargi College, University of Delhi, Dr. Bharati Bhattacharyya for useful suggestions, Dr. Asha Juneja and Dr. Lalita Sehgal for making available several publications from their personal collections, and Dr. Gita Mathur for scrutinizing some of the chapters; our students Arindam Bhattacharyya and Somdutta Sinha Roy for technical assistance in the preparation of the manuscript.
Professor Upendra Baxi (former Vice-Chancellor), Professor A.L. Nagar (former Pro-Vice-Chancellor), Professor A.P. Srivastava (former Librarian) and Mr. Sher Singh (Deputy Librarian), University of Delhi, for providing an office in the Library where this work was completed.
Mr. Kishen Lal and Mr. S.K. Das for preparing the photographs, Mr. R.K. Gupta for typing the manuscript, and Professor N.N. Bhandari (then Head of the Department of Botany, University of Delhi) for allowing us to use the departmental facilities during the preparation of this book.
Our family members, especially Mr. Alok Biswas and Mrs. Raj Johri, for their encouragement and interest in this work.
We wish to express our gratitude to all the persons and institutions mentioned above.
CHHAYA BISWAS
B.M. JOHRI
Contents
Preface vii Acknowledgements ix
1. Introduction 1-11
Antiquity and Fossil History 1 Geographical Distribution 4
Cycadales and Ginkgoales 4 Pinaceae 6 Taxodiaceae 6 Cupressaceae 7 Podocarpaceae 7 Araucariaceae 7 Cephalotaxaceae 7 Taxales 8 Ephedrales 8 Welwitschiales 8 Gnetales 8
Characteristic Features 8 Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes 9 Gymnosperms and Angiosperms 10
2. Seed Development 12-19
Microsporangium 12 Microsporogenesis 12 Male Gametophyte 13 Ovule 14 Megasporogenesis 14
Megaspore Wall 15 Female Gametophyte 16
Archegonia 16 Pollination and Fertilization 17
Pollination 17 Fertilization 18
Embryo 19 Seed 19
Seed-Coat 19 Temporal Considerations 19
3. Classification 20-23
xii Contents
4. Progymnospermopsida
Phylogenetic Considerations of Archaeopteris 25
5. Gymnospermopsida
Gymnospermopsida-Cycadophytes (Chapters 6-8)
6. Pteridospermales
Lyginopteridaceae 29 Lyginopteris oldhamia (Calymmatotheca hoeninghausi) 29
Habit 29 Root 30 Stem 30 Leaf 30 Sporangia 33 Seed 33
Phylogenetic Considerations 34
7. Cycadeoidales
Cycadeoidaceae 38 Cycadeoidea 38
Stem 38 Leaves 38
Reproduction 39 Phylogenetic Considerations 42
8. Cycadales
Fossil Cycads 44 Nilssonia 46 Baenia 47 Androstrobus manis 47
Living Cycads 47 Root 47 Stem 48 Leaf 49
Reproduction 50 Spermatozoid 51
Ovule 52 Pollen Tube 52 Embryo 54 Chromosome Number 55 Cycadaceae 56 Cycas 56
24-26
27
28-35
36-43
44-81
Morphology 56 Anatomy 59
Root 59 Stem 59 Leaf 61
Reproduction 63 Male Cone 63
Microsporangium 66 Microsporogenesis 66 Male Gametophyte 67
Megasporophyll 68 Ovule 68 Megasporogenesis 71 Female Gametophyte 71 Archegonium 71
Pollination 73 Fertilization 77 Embryogeny 77
Differentiation of Embryo 79 Seed 79 Chromosome Number 80 Temporal Consideration 80 Phylogenetic Considerations 81
Contents xiii
Gymnospermopsida-Gymnosperms of Uncertain Relationship (Chapters 9-12)
9. Caytoniales
Caytoniaceae-Caytonia 82 Leaf 82 Pollen-bearing Organs 82 Ovule-bearing Organs 84
Phylogenetic Considerations 85
10. Glossopteridales
Glossopteridaceae-Glossopteris 86 Root 86 Leaf 88 Male Fructifications 88 Ovulate Structures 89
Phylogenetic Considerations 92
11. Pentoxylales
Pentoxylon 94 Habit 94
82-85
86-93
94-97
xiv Contents
Stem 94 Leaf 95 Microsporangiate Organs 96 Ovulate Cone 96
Phylogenetic Considerations 97
12. Ginkgoales
Fossil Taxa 98 Ginkgoaceae 100 Ginkgo 100 Morphology 100 Anatomy 104
Root 104 Stem 104 Leaf 105
Reproduction 105 Male Cone 105
Microsporangium 105 Microsporogenesis 107 Male Gametophyte 107
Ovule 107 Megasporogenesis 108 Female Gametophyte 109
Pollination 117 Post-Pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 117
Fertilization 121 Embryogeny 122
Differentiation of Embryo 122 Seed 124
Germination 125 Chromosome Number 125 Temporal Considerations 125 Phylogenetic Considerations 125
Gymnospermopsida-Coniferophytes (Chapters 13-16)
98-126
13. Cordaitales 127-136
Cordaitaceae-Cordaites 127 Habit 127 Root 127 Stem 128 Leaf 131
Fructifications 131 Cordaianthus concinus 133 Cordaianthus pseudofluitans 133
Phylogenetic Considerations 134
Contents xv
14. Voltziales 137-143
Morphology 137 Anatomy 138 Reproductive Organs 139 Lebachiaceae 139 Voltziaceae 139
Ullmania 142 Glyptolepis 142 Voltziopsis 142
Phylogenetic Considerations 142
15. Coniferales 144-146
15.1 Pinaceae 146-188
Pinus 146 Morphology 146 An~tomy 150
Root 150 Stem: Shoot Apex 150 Compression Wood 156 Dwarf Shoot 156 Leaf 156
Reproduction 157 Male Cone 157
Microsporangium 158 Pre-meiotic Changes 158 Meiotic Changes 160 Post-meiotic Changes 160 Microsporogenesis 163 Male Gametophyte 166
Female Cone 166 Ovule 166 Megasporogenesis 168 Female Gametophyte (First period of growth) 168
Pollination 168 Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 170 Female Gametophyte (Second period of growth) 171
Fertilization 175 Embryogeny 178
Proembryo 178 Differentiation of Embryo 178
Seed 181 Germination 184
Chromosome Number 185 Temporal Considerations 186
15.2 Taxodiaceae 188-202
Cryptomeria japonica 189
xvi Contents
Morphology 189 Anatomy 189
Stem 189 Leaf 191
Reproduction 191 Male Cone 191
Microsporangium 192 Microsporogenesis 192 Male Gametophyte 192
Female Cone 194 Ovule 194 Megasporogenesis 197 Female Gametophyte 197
Fertilization 199 Embryogeny 199
Diferentiation of Embryo 201 Seed 201
Germination 201 Chromosome Number 201 Temporal Considerations 202
15.3 Cupressaceae
Biota orienta/is 203 Morphology 203 Reproduction 205 Male Cone 205
Microsporangium 205 Microsporogenesis 205 Male Gametophyte 206
Female Cone 207 Ovule 207 Megasporogenesis 207 Female Gametophyte 207 Archegonial Complex 209
Pollination 212 Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 212
Fertilization 213 Embryogeny 215
Differentiation of Embryo 217 Seed 218
Germination 218 Chromosome Number 219 Temporal Considerations 221
15.4 Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus 222 Morphology 222
202-221
221-251
Anatomy 222 Root 222 Stem. Shoot Apex 222 Leaf 224
Reproduction 227 Male Cone 227
Microsporangium 227 Microsporogenesis 231 Male Gametophyte 233
Female Cone 234 Ovule 234 Megasporogenesis 236 Female Gametophyte 236
Pollination 237 Post-Pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 239
Fertilization 242 Embryogeny 242
Differentiation of Embryo 245 Seed 248
Germination 250 Chromosome Number 250 Temporal Considerations 251
15.5 Araucariaceae
Araucaria 252 Morphology 252 Anatomy 254
Stem 254 Leaf 254
Reproduction 257 Male Cone 257
Microsporogenesis 257 Male Gametophyte 257
Female Cone 259 Megasporogenesis 259 Female Gametophyte 260
Pollination 262 Embryogeny 262 Chromosome Number 265
15.6 Cephalotaxaceae
Cephalotaxus 265 Morphology 267 Anatomy 268
Leaf 268 Reproduction 270 Male Cone 270
Contents xvii
251-265
265-290
01iii Contents
Microsporangium 270 Microsporogenesis 271 Male Gametophyte 272
Female Cone 273 Ovule 274 Megasporogenesis 278 Female Gametophyte 278
Pollination 282 Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 282
Fertilization 283 Embryogeny 284 Seed 287
Germination 289 Chromosome Number 289 Temporal Considerations 289
15.7 Phylogenetic Considerations of Coniferales
16. Taxales
Taxaceae 292 Taxus 292 Morphology 292 Anatomy 293
Stem 293 Leaf 294
Reproduction 295 Male Cone 295
Microsporangium 295 Microsporogenesis 295
Ovule 296 Megasporogenesis 298
Pollination 302 Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 302
Fertilization 303 Embryogeny 304 Seed 308
Germination 308 Chromosome Number 308 Temporal Considerations 309 Phylogenetic Considerations 309
17. Gnetopsida
18. Ephedrales
Ephedraceae 312 Ephedra 312
290-291
292-310
311
312-342
Morphology 312 Anatomy 313
Root 313 Stem 314
Reproduction 321 Male Strobilus 321
Microsporangium 321 Microsporogenesis 325 Male Gametophyte 327
Female Strobilus 327 Ovule 327 Female Gametophyte 330
Pollination 335 Fertilization 336 Embryogeny 337 Seed 338 Chromosome Number 341 Temporal Considerations 341
19. Welwitschiales
Welwitschiaceae 343 Welwitschia 343 Morphology 343 Anatomy 346
Root 346 Stem 347 Leaf 349
Reproduction 352 Cone Bracts 352
Male Strobilus 354 Microsporangium 355 Male Gametophyte 355
Female Strobilus 356 Megasporogenesis 356 Female Gametophyte 356
Pollination 359 Post-pollination Development of Male Gametophyte 360
Fertilization 360 Embryogeny 360 Seed 364
Germination 364 Chromosome Number 365
20. Gnetales
Gnetaceae 366 Gnetum 366
Contents xix
343-365
366-404
xx Contents
Morphology 366 Anatomy 366
Root 366 Stem 367 Leaf 375
Reproduction 378 Male Strobilus 378
Microsporangium 378 Microsporogenesis 381 Male Gametophyte 383
Female Strobilus 384 Ovule 384 Megasporogenesis 389 Female Gametophyte 389
Pollination 391 Fertilization 393 Embryogeny 396 Seed 400
Germination 402 Chromosome Number 402 Temporal Consideration 403
21. Phylogenetic Considerations: Ephedra, Welwitschia and Gnetum
22. In Vitro Experimental Studies
Vegetative Tissues and Organs 408 Microspore and Male Gametophyte 411 Female Gametophyte 413 Embryo 423 Conifer Biotechnolgy 433 Somatic Embryogenesis 433 Genetic Transformation 436 Protoplast Culture 436 Micropropagation 437
23. Economic Importance
General Aspects 440 Woods 441
AJaucariaceae 442 Cupressaceae 442 Pinaceae 443 Podocarpaceae 444 Taxodiaceae 445 Taxaceae 445 Ginkgoaceae 445
405-407
408-439
440-456
Paper and Board 445 Resins 446 Hard Resins 44 7
Copal 447 Kauri Copal 447 Manila Copal 447 Amber 448 Sandarc 448
Oleoresins 449 Turpentine 449 Canada Balsam 450 Venice Turpentine 450
Tannins 451 Essential Oils 451 Fatty Oils 451 Food Supplements 452 Pharmaceuticals 454
24. Concluding Remarks
Seasonal Changes in Secondary Growth 457
Population and Wood Requirement 457
Pollution 458 Symbiosis 458 Reproductive Biology Pollen Biology 459 Life History 459
References Plant Index
458
Contents xxi
457-459
460-489 491-494