THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE: A REVIEW OF ITS ROLE
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THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE: A REVIEW OF ITS ROLE Citation counting and analysis has been the subject of a number of studies. These studies gene: rall y br ing out the btbl iogr aphtcaf , social and indexing functions of citations. The present paper eurnrna r i aea the studies and observations rnade so far and pre- sents a bibliography of 51 papers on the subject. Introduction The bibliographical references. or citations. mat are often gathered at the end of a scientific document or spread over in the text as footn.otes, have a varied and distinct function in scientific communication. They contribute to scientific bricklaying. provide the necessary ·currency· for recognition of a particular scientist among his peers as well as for establishing his property rights and priority claims with respect to the scientific contri- bution he makes, constitute an important source of information for the scientist. serve as a tool for some of the recent techniques of literature indexing and, above all. help to gauge the information gathering habits of scientists and indicate therefrom the literature that are indispensable to their work. This in turn, provide the librarians and do currrerrta.l i s t a with the basic data necessary for formulation of library aquisition programmes. The subject has engaged the attention of several workers. An attempt is made here to summarize the observations made so Ia r and also to bring out some of the studies un de r , taken with citations as the bas is. It is apt to begin with the words of Kaplan. -The practice of citing other works is almost second nature to anyone writing a scholarly or a scientific paper" (1]. The more obvious functions of literature citation are (a) to give authority (and due credit) for facts quoted or statements made and confer intellectual and scientific respectability on the paper; (b) to direct the Vol 17 No 3-4 Sept-Dec 1970 A C Mitra Central Mining Research Station, Dhanbad reader of the paper to other sources of infor- mation on the subject dealt w(th or the ·prior art"; (c) to adequately describe in clear and concise terms the source or documents from which the statements or facts are quoted. But. a deeper inquiry would reveal that citations have a much wider contribution to science in its entirety. Scientific Bricklaying The phenomenon of cumulation of papers - the way in which each paper is built on a founda- tion of previous papers. then in turn is one of several points of departure for the n ext .- has been discussed by Price. In his brilliant exposition on the subject the writes. ·The most obvious manifestation of this scholarly bricklaying is the citation of references. One cannot assume that all authors have been accurate. consistent. and conscientious in not ing their sources. Some have done too little. others too much. But it is generally evident from a long run of any scientific periodical that around 1850 there appears the familiar modern pattern of explicit reference to previou s work on which rests the distinct, well-knit addition that is the ideal burden of each paper. Before that time, though foot- noting is as old as scholarship itself-- com- pare the very term scholia for the ancient footnote" there is nothing like this attitude toward the accretion of learning" (2] Another paper of Price displays how ·the pattern of bibliographic references indicates the nature of the scientific research front". He tries to picture. in the context of that special relationship which is given by the citation of one paper by another in its foot- notes or bibliography. the network of scientific papers which is obtained by linking each published paper to the other papers directly associated with it [3]. 117
Transcript of THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE: A REVIEW OF ITS ROLE
THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE:A REVIEW OF ITS ROLE
Citation counting and analysis has been thesubject of a number of studies. These studies gene:rall y br ing out the btbl iogr aphtcaf , social and indexingfunctions of citations. The present paper eurnrna r iae athe studies and observations rnade so far and pre-sents a bibliography of 51 papers on the subject.
Introduction
The bibliographical references. orcitations. mat are often gathered at the end of ascientific document or spread over in the textas footn.otes, have a varied and distinct functionin scientific communication. They contributeto scientific bricklaying. provide the necessary·currency· for recognition of a particularscientist among his peers as well as forestablishing his property rights and priorityclaims with respect to the scientific contri-bution he makes, constitute an importantsource of information for the scientist. serve asa tool for some of the recent techniques ofliterature indexing and, above all. help togauge the information gathering habits ofscientists and indicate therefrom the literaturethat are indispensable to their work. This inturn, provide the librarians and do currrerrta.l is t awith the basic data necessary for formulation oflibrary aquisition programmes.
The subject has engaged the attention ofseveral workers. An attempt is made here tosummarize the observations made so Ia r andalso to bring out some of the studies un de r ,taken with citations as the bas is. It is apt tobegin with the words of Kaplan. -The practiceof citing other works is almost second natureto anyone writing a scholarly or a scientificpaper" (1]. The more obvious functions ofliterature citation are (a) to give authority(and due credit) for facts quoted or statementsmade and confer intellectual and scientificrespectability on the paper; (b) to direct the
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A C MitraCentral Mining Research Station,Dhanbad
reader of the paper to other sources of infor-mation on the subject dealt w(th or the ·priorart"; (c) to adequately describe in clear andconcise terms the source or documents fromwhich the statements or facts are quoted.But. a deeper inquiry would reveal thatcitations have a much wider contribution toscience in its entirety.
Scientific Bricklaying
The phenomenon of cumulation of papers -the way in which each paper is built on a founda-tion of previous papers. then in turn is one ofseveral points of departure for the n ext .- hasbeen discussed by Price. In his brilliantexposition on the subject the writes. ·Themost obvious manifestation of this scholarlybricklaying is the citation of references. Onecannot assume that all authors have beenaccurate. consistent. and conscientious innot ing their sources. Some have done toolittle. others too much. But it is generallyevident from a long run of any scientificperiodical that around 1850 there appears thefamiliar modern pattern of explicit referenceto p r e viou s work on which rests the distinct,well-knit addition that is the ideal burden ofeach paper. Before that time, though foot-noting is as old as scholarship itself-- com-pare the very term scholia for the ancientfootnote" there is nothing like this attitudetoward the accretion of learning" (2]
Another paper of Price displays how ·thepattern of bibliographic references indicatesthe nature of the scientific research front".He tries to picture. in the context of thatspecial relationship which is given by thecitation of one paper by another in its foot-notes or bibliography. the network of scientificpapers which is obtained by linking eachpublished paper to the other papers directlyassociated with it [3].
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Citation Practice: A Social Device
The bibliographical citation, apart frominducing in science its cumulative nature, hasbeen viewed as a distinct entity in the socialsystem of science. Kaplan, in a criticalstudy, of the norms of citation behaviourwrites "..... the citation practices of scienti-sts today are in large part a social device forcoping with problems of property rights andpriority claims. Only incidentally do thesecitations serve as a careful and accurate re·,cons t ruc tion of scholarl y prec u r s o r s of one'sown contribution" [5]. To a scientist, arecognition of his work by his own peers,that he has li ved upto the exacting standardsrequired of a scientist in terms of valuablecontribution to science, is of paramountimportance. Therefore, besides establishingtheir own interests with regard to bestowingtheir papers with intellectual and scientificrespectability and establishing propertyrights and priority claims, there is als 0 animportant ethical consideration which isgenerally recognized among scientist e , Inreporting an investigation, the author is underan obligation to give credit to previous workwhich he has drawn upon and record his indeb-tedness to the work of others. This he does bymeans of the institutionally accepted mode ofcitation which, in turn, provides the necessary'currency' for professional recognition. Again,once a scientist's knowing peers judge hiswork worth the while he gains an access toinvisible colleges. The citations thus servealso as an entrance fee for a new entrant tosuch colleges.
An unique feature of science is its open-ness. Kaplan recognises the openness ofscience and the role of citations in this regardwhen he notes •A cont ribution belongs to th ewhole community. ... The citation is probablyamong the more important ins titutional devic esfor coping with the maintenance of the impera-tive to communicate one's f indings freely as acontribution to the common property ofscience. " . • Is].
Tool for Literature Indexing
There is another field, that of literatureindexing, where citations have cast an in-fluence. The advent of the revolutionarytechniques, such as, citation indexing and
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bibliographic coupling has. in fact, added anew dimension to the practice of citation. Anenormous quantum of literature exist oncitation indexing. In one of his paper [6}Garfield deals with this technique and makes abibliographic recapitulation to emphasize. tothe reader unfamiliar with citation indexes,both the advantages and the simplicity ofcitation In dextng, Citation indexes could alsobe employed in sociological and historicalresearch (7, 81, This enhances the importanceof citations. The papers of Kessler [9, 10]provide exc ellent studies on the potentiality ofbibliographic coupling.
Source of Information
One of the generally accepted methods ofscientific investigation is, indeed. to followthe scientific literature is the topic underinvestigation. Scientists use various sources--regular reading. recommendation of colleagues,references (or citations) in other publications,and the like-- in locating printed information.Of these, citations found in books and inperiodical articles supply 5 to 15 percent ofthe referenc es. The studies of Glass andNorwood {II], Hogg and Smith (IZi, Fishenden(13]. and Scott (14) assessed the comparativeimportance of the above sources while Hernerhas made some general studies along this line{IS]. An earlier study. that of Bernal, how-eyer, revealed that 37 percent of sources ofreferences to the literature were references
, in articles [16]. The study of Urquhartshowed that a.mong the borrowers of the ScienceMuseurn Library, London, abstracts weremain source of information for materialsrequested, followed closely by references inperiodical articles P7J Williams observedthat the patrons of the John Crerar Libraryrelied to a great extent on footnotes in articlesand other references-- footnotes to a greaterextent than references in bibliographiesfollowing publications. The study did notcover current periodicals [18].
Citation Studies: Means to GaugeInformation Needs of Scientists
Since references or citations constitutethe mass of literature a scientist consults inthe cours e of his investigation that ultimatel y
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culminates into a paper, the value of suchcitation in gauging the information needs ofscientists has already been accepted. Therehave been several studies based on citations.chiefly reference counting. in order to producelists of periodicals most frequently cited andthereby consulted; and to find out time-spanor period of usefulness. language distributionand national origin of literature drawn upon byscientists. Such factor s aid in the formulationof library acquisition programmes, planning ofdocumentation and translation services and thelike. An informative bibliography of earlierstudies based on citations have been includedin a paper of Tornudd [19]
The class ic among such studies was thatof Gr os s and Gross who confined themselves toreference counting in the Journal of theAmerican Chemical Society for 1916-1925 witha view to determining the periodicals usedmos t by chemis ts in 1926 [20]. This wasfollowed by several studies limite d to diffe rentscientific disciplines whose purpose was todetermine. applying the same technique ofcitation counting. the periodicals most usedin thes e disciplines. Thes e include the studiesof Allen, [21] in mathematics. closely followingthe above study of Gross and Gross; Hooker[2~in physics; Barrett and Barrett [23] inchemistry; Baum [24] in meteorology; Grossand Woodford [25] in geology; Henkle [26] inbiochemistry; Hackh [27], and Jenkins [28l inmedicine; Coile [29], Dalziel [30], andMcNeeley and Crosno [31] in electricalengineering; Croft [32] in agriculturalchemistry; and of Smith [33] in chemicalengineering. The study of Brown aimed atdetermining the relative importance of 838serials to science as a whole and in differentfields of science and presented lists of mustfrequently cited serials. The primary purposeof his study was arather to attempt to ascer-tain what conclusions and inferences can bedrawn from a study of such lists in variousfields of science and what results can beobtained from such a study which will make theuse of libraries by scientists more effective"(:H].
There have also been studies. based oncitations. that covered othe r areas. Broadus[35} aimed at finding forms. languages. andages of publications used in psychology. andalso from what other fields information andtechniques were gathered. FussIer [36]confined himself to determining th e. research
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literature used in the United States in ·pure·chemistry and physics. He studied four aspects(a) the importance of literature of varioussubject fields of chemistry and physics; (b)the temporal span. particularly the spanbetween date of original publication and dateat which it is used; (c) principal forms andnational origin of literature used; and (d) theimportant serial titles for each field. Heproduced a study of changing values of certainperiodicals publis hed at different intervals. bys electing volumes of chemical and physicaljournals published in different periods. Hintz{37]as ce rtained the extent of interchange ofscientific information through the literatureamong botanists of the United States. GreatB.ritain. France and Germany. Voigt [38]studied the interrelationship between scientistsand research carried out in the applied fieldsof engineering and agriculture with particularemphasis to the analysis of subject fields in thepure sciences as they relate to the appliedsciences. Burton and Kebler [39] consideredthe analogy between the fthalf-life" of radio-active substances and the rate of obsolescenceof scientific literature. They compared thehalf-life of 9 subjects. Gomperts [40] studiedthe literature of vibrating plates and revealedthat in more than 150 years the mean numberof relevant citations per article per year hasremained constant at 2.8. despite the fact thenumber of articles published since 1950 isthree times the number of printed between1787 and 1950. This leads to the generalstatement that for any given year, Ra = 2£,where R is the "citation factor" for that yearand a i-; the total number of articles thathave-appeared up to and including that year.The constant c, probably varies with thesubje ct , Cawkell [41] seeks to explain thereasons for the constant average number ofreferenc es per article. Louttit undertook twos tudies v- one to determine whether psycholo-gists draw on the world literature and citeforeign references proportional to the volume offoreign literature in the field [42] and the otherto test the validity of the hypothesis of propor-tional citation of foreign references to thedis tribution of material by country and language[43]. Kofnovec [44] correlated a number of5 tudies of the cita tion of literature ref"erencesto obtain conclusions about the rate of obsoles-cence of chiefly periodical articles in science.A few studies have been reported in India.Gupta [45] studied the characteristics ofdocuments cited by Indian physicists. Heexamined the citations in the Indian Journal of
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Pure and Applied Physics, (5), 1967, in orderto compile a list of the most cited periodicalpuul ic a ti ons , and examine thes e publicationsfrom the view-point of country of origin,subject coverage, and age of the citations. Theincidence of ·self-citation· and -repeatedc ita ti on " and reasons thereof were alsoexamined. Karthikeyan and Guha [46] sought tomeasure the impact of the Referativnyi Zhurnalon the use of non-Russian literature by Soviets cientis ts from the citation analysis of articlesin two Russian physics journals, viz. DokladuiAkademii Nauk, USSR (Physics and Mathematical
Physics Sections only) and the UspekhiFizicheskikh Nauk. covering a p e r iod beforethe advent of the--Refe rativnyi Zhurnal andanother period when the abstracting servicehad established itself. Mitra [47] attemptedto identify the characteristics of subjectliteratures used by Indian scientists. Thecitations appended to original articles publi-shed in 1966 in 26 core Indian periodicals wereanalysed in order to examine the relativeimportance of English-language, foreign-language and Indian (domestic) literature, andtheir usefulness according to period ofpublication, to scientists engaged in 14 sub-ject fields. The incidence of self-citation wasals 0 studied.
The above review of studies based oncitations would not be complete unless some ofthe criticisms on such techniques are noted.Literature records two important critics.Brodman [48] checked the basic assumptions ofthe reference counting method and correlatedthe relative value p1ac ed on spec ific jou rnalsby specialists with the value of these journalsas measured through reference counting. Thelatter method appeared to be untrustworthy.Raising [49] discussed some of the early worksincluding that of Gross and Gross. Thesewere criticized as being based on basicallyun s oun d assumptions mainiy in the subjectivechoice of sources, which ignores the funda-mental s ta ti st ica l principle of the randomsample.
Conclusion
The citation studies have no doubt c e r ta inlimitations. Firstly, citations in journals andbooks need not cover the most useful materialconsulted. Secondly, s uc h studies will bemore meaningful if certain norms and ethicsare followed in citation p ra ct ic es. There islittle gua r ant ee that all that have been cited
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have been actually consulted. After all. oneis too familiar with the malpractices ofwindow-dressing. padding or just sprinklinga few citations as an afterthought for merelyenhancing the respectability of on e+s paper.or the devious attempt to avoid responsibilityby leaning heavily on the work of others.Price [50] suggests that since now citationsto previous work have become a valuable toolfor literature indexing, referees and editorsshould summarily reject bibliographies thatare either insufficient or padded. However.barring such isolated acts of dishonesty inscientific parlance. citations do play an,important role in science in general and inscientific communication in particular. Thiscould not be better reflected than in thewords of Kaplan. ·Whatever happens, itseems quite certain that we are less likely tolook down upon the lowly footnote in the yearsahead" (1].
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