iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS1 KA-50 HISTORY................................................................

2 GENERAL DESIGN ................................................................

GENERAL DESIGN AND LAYOUT................................POWER PLANT AND ROTOR SYSTEM ................................GENERAL PURPOSE EQUIPMENT................................RADIO EQUIPMENT ................................................................COUNTERMEASURES SYSTEMS ................................PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS................................................................

3 ARMAMENT ................................................................

CANNONS ................................................................................................2A42 CANNON HISTORY ................................................................BOMBS ................................................................................................

FAB-250 General Purpose Bombs ................................KMGU-2 Sub-Munition Dispenser................................

ATGM WEAPONS................................................................9K121 “Vikhr” (AT-9) Anti-tank Weapon System

ROCKET WEAPONS ................................................................S-8 Rocket ................................................................S-13 Rocket ................................................................

4 HELICOPTER FUNDAMENTALS................................

THE FOUR FORCES THAT ACT ON A HELICOPTER ................................Controls................................................................Velocity ................................................................Torque................................................................Anti-torque Rotor................................................................Gyroscopic Precession................................................................

DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT................................................................RETREATING BLADE STALL................................................................SETTLING WITH POWER (VORTEX RING STATE)................................HOVERING ................................................................................................

Ground Effect................................................................Translational Lift................................................................Autorotation ................................................................

SUMMARY ................................................................................................

.................................................1–2

.............................................2–2

................................................................ 2–2........................................................ 2–3

.............................................................. 2–4.................................................. 2–5

................................................................ 2–8..................................... 2–9

.....................................................3–2

.................................... 3–2................................................ 3–2

....................................... 3–4........................................................ 3–4........................................................ 3–4

......................................................... 3–5tank Weapon System................................. 3–5

........................................................ 3–8............................................................ 3–8

.......................................................... 3–9

..........................................................4–2

................................................. 4–2................................................................ 4–3................................................................ 4–4

.................................................................. 4–4................................................. 4–4

.......................................... 4–5.................................................... 4–5

............................................... 4–6................................................... 4–8

................................... 4–9..................................................... 4–10

................................................ 4–11...................................................... 4–11

................................. 4–14

DIGITAL COMBAT SIMULATORKa-50 BLACK SHARK

5 AERODYNAMIC FEATURES OF COAXIAL CONFIGURA5–2

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE REACTIVE MOMENT COMPENSATION

POWER EFFICIENCY ................................................................DIMENSIONS ................................................................CONTROLLABILITY AND STABILITY ................................MANEUVERABILITY ................................................................AUTOROTATION................................................................VORTEX RING FLIGHT................................................................FLIGHT SAFETY ................................................................

6 COCKPIT CONTROLS ................................

INSTRUMENT PANELS OVERVIEW ................................CYCLIC CONTROL STICK ................................................................

Release Weapon – Cannon Triggers................................COLLECTIVE CONTROL STICK ................................LEFT AND RIGHT FORWARD PANELS................................

Left Forward Panel ................................................................Right Forward Panel ................................Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) ................................Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)................................Laser Designator Panel................................Rotor Pitch Indicator................................Barometric Altimeter................................Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI)................................Rotor RPM Indicator................................Airspeed Indicator ................................................................Accelerometer ................................................................Radar Altimeter ................................................................Clock ................................................................EKRAN System ................................................................Standby Attitude Indicator (SAI)................................Exhaust Gas Temperature Indicator................................Tachometer ................................................................Fuel Quantity Indicator................................Caution Lights Panel................................Left Forward Panel Caution Lamps................................Landing Gear Control Panel................................

OVERHEAD PANEL................................................................PRTz Data Link Control Panel ................................

v

OF COAXIAL CONFIGURATION HELICOPTERS

OMPENSATION.................................5–2........................................................5–3

.................................................................5–5......................................................................5–6

.........................................................5–8...........................................................5–11

....................................................5–12............................................................5–12

........................................................................ 6–2

......................................................................6–2...................................................6–5

.....................................................6–6.............................................................................6–9

.................................................................6–11.............................................6–11

...........................................................................6–13........................................................6–14

....................................................6–16.......................................................................6–19

...........................................................................6–19..........................................................................6–20

..........................................................6–21...........................................................................6–21

..............................................6–22....................................................6–22

..................................................6–23...................................................................6–24

....................................................6–25.........................................................6–33

...................................................6–35........................................................6–36

.......................................................................6–36...........................................................................6–37

.....................................................6–38................................................................6–39

........................................................6–40.............................................................6–45

vi

Laser Warning Receiver (LWR) ................................UV-26 Countermeasures Control Panel ................................Magnetic Сompass ................................................................

CENTER PANEL................................................................PUI-800 Weapon Status and Control Panel ................................Targeting Display Control Panel ................................Landing Lights and Voice Warning ("Betty") Control Panel

WALL PANEL, FORWARD SECTION ................................................................PVI-800 Navigation Control Panel ................................PVTz-800 Off-Board Targeting Data Link Mode Panel

RIGHT PANEL, MIDDLE SECTION................................................................Autopilot Panel ................................................................Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) ARK-22 ................................R-828 Radio Control Panel................................................................Signal Flare Panel ................................................................

WALL PANEL ................................................................Electrical Power Controls ................................................................Radio and Data Link Power Control Panel ................................Fuel Boost Pump Controls................................................................Fire Extinguisher Control Panel................................Fuel Shutoff Valve Control ................................................................Transmission/Oil Pressure and Temperature GaugesOnboard Equipment Control Panel ................................Lighting Control Panel ................................................................Electronic Engine Governors ................................Engine Power Indicator................................................................

REAR AUXILIARY PANEL ................................................................Ice Defrosting Control Panel ................................Engines Control Instruments Panel................................Automatic Ejection System BIT Panel ................................Intercom Check Panel ................................................................EKRAN and Voice Warning System Control ................................Hydraulic Temperature and Pressure IndicatorsPPK-800 Systems Preparation and Check PanelLWS, WS and CMS Power and Test Panel ................................Electrical System Control Panel ................................Lighting Brightness Control Panel................................

LEFT PANEL................................................................R-800L1 VHF Radio Control System ................................Targeting Mode Control Panel ................................Engine and APU Start-Up Controls ................................

.......................................................... 6–46............................................. 6–47............................................ 6–49

............................................................ 6–52....................................... 6–53

........................................................ 6–55Landing Lights and Voice Warning ("Betty") Control Panel............... 6–56

.................................. 6–58..................................................... 6–59

Board Targeting Data Link Mode Panel ...................... 6–66..................................... 6–67

.................................................. 6–68......................................... 6–69

................................. 6–72.............................................. 6–74

.............................................................. 6–75................................... 6–77

......................................... 6–78.................................. 6–78

.......................................................... 6–79................................. 6–81

Transmission/Oil Pressure and Temperature Gauges ....................... 6–82.................................................... 6–82

....................................... 6–84.............................................................. 6–85

...................................... 6–86................................................ 6–88

.............................................................. 6–89.................................................... 6–89

................................................ 6–90........................................ 6–90....................................... 6–91

Hydraulic Temperature and Pressure Indicators ............................... 6–91................................ 6–93

.......................................... 6–95......................................................... 6–96

...................................................... 6–97................................................................ 6–98

................................................... 6–98........................................................ 6–101

.................................................. 6–103

DIGITAL COMBAT SIMULATORKa-50 BLACK SHARK

Radio Intercom SPU-9 Panel................................Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) Control ................................

7 ADVANCED MOVING MAP SYSTEM AMMS (ABRIS)

PURPOSE................................................................ABRIS PANEL CONTROLS ................................................................DISPLAY AND INPUT OF INFORMATION IN ABRIS................................TURNING ABRIS ON/OFF ................................................................DISPLAY OF INFORMATION IN ABRIS ................................

System Bar................................................................OPERATING MODES ................................................................

MENU Page ................................................................NAV Page................................................................ARC Page ................................................................HSI Page ................................................................

MENU OPERATING MODE................................MENU/OPTION Sub-Mode................................MENU/CONTROL Sub-mode................................Saving Route Plans to ABRIS Database ................................Saving Map Points and Map Lines to ABRIS DatabaseMENU/PLAN Sub-mode................................MENU/PLAN/SPEED Sub-mode ................................MENU/PLAN/VNAV Sub-mode ................................MENU/PLAN/METEO Sub-mode................................MENU/PLAN/FUEL Sub-mode ................................MENU/GNSS Sub-mode................................Active Route Modes and Functions ................................Common Function Select Keys (FSK) buttonsSEARCH Sub-mode................................................................MAP Sub-mode................................................................MAP/INFO Sub-mode ................................MAP/ERBL Sub-mode ................................FPL Sub-mode................................................................FPL/VNAV Sub-mode ................................SUSP Sub-mode ................................................................Manually Setting the Steerpoint................................

TACTICAL INFORMATION................................................................

8 INFORMATION DISPLAY SYSTEMS ................................

Heads Up Display (HUD) Panel ................................FLIGHT AND NAVIGATION HUD INFORMATION ................................

vii

.............................................................6–105..................................................6–105

SYSTEM AMMS (ABRIS) ......................... 7–2

......................................................................7–2................................................7–2

..................................................7–3...............................................7–4

.................................................................7–6............................................................7–6

.......................................................7–8..........................................................7–9

............................................................7–11

............................................................7–13.............................................................7–15

............................................................................7–21..................................................................7–22

...............................................................7–35..............................................7–38

Saving Map Points and Map Lines to ABRIS Database.......................7–39......................................................................7–40

..........................................................7–55...........................................................7–58

.........................................................7–62............................................................7–64

......................................................................7–83....................................................7–93

Common Function Select Keys (FSK) buttons......................................7–96..............................................7–97

.................................................7–100.......................................................................7–101.......................................................................7–103

...................................................7–105........................................................................7–108

................................................7–111.......................................................7–111

..............................................7–112

................................................... 8–2

.............................................................8–2....................................................8–3

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THE I-251 “SHKVAL” ELECTRO-OPTICAL TARGETING SYSTEM

THE HELMET-MOUNTED SIGHT (HMS) SYSTEM ................................HMS Indications................................................................

9 FLIGHT PREPARATION ................................................................

Systems Activation and Checks................................ABRIS Activation ................................................................PrPNK Preparation................................................................Activating the Weapons Control System ................................ADF Activation and Check................................................................UV-26 IRCM Dispensing Program Preparation ................................

ENGINE START AND POWER TESTS PROCEDURES................................Preparation for Start-up ................................................................APU Start-up ................................................................APU Start-up Troubleshooting................................APU Crank and False Start................................................................Main Engines Start-up ................................................................Main Engines Start-up Troubleshooting ................................Engine Crank and False Start................................Pre-flight Tests................................................................Final Checks ................................................................

10 FLIGHT SCHOOL................................................................

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................................TAXI PREPARATION AND TAXI ................................................................

Taxi Initiation................................................................Taxi ................................................................................................

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB................................................................Hover Check ................................................................Vertical Takeoff Using the Rotor-In-Ground EffectVertical Takeoff without Using the Rotor-In-Ground EffectRunning Takeoff................................................................Takeoff Peculiarities ................................................................Climb................................................................................................

HORIZONTAL FLIGHT AND TRANSITIONS ................................Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Traffic Pattern ................................Transitional Flight Regimes ................................

DESCENT ................................................................................................Descent with Operating Engines and Forward SpeedVertical Descent with Operating Engines ................................Descent in Autorotation................................................................

YSTEM .............................. 8–12............................................... 8–16

................................................. 8–17

......................................9–2

............................................................ 9–2.................................................. 9–3

............................................... 9–3............................................. 9–5

.................................... 9–5

.................................... 9–5..................................... 9–7

...................................... 9–7........................................................ 9–8

............................................................. 9–9................................. 9–10

....................................... 9–10............................................ 9–12

............................................................. 9–13................................................... 9–14

....................................................... 9–17

..............................................10–2

............................................. 10–2........................................ 10–2

..................................................... 10–3.................................... 10–3

.................................................... 10–4....................................................... 10–4

Ground Effect ............................ 10–5Ground Effect .............. 10–5

................................................. 10–6.......................................... 10–6

.................................. 10–6........................................................... 10–7

............................................ 10–7............................................................... 10–8

................................... 10–9Descent with Operating Engines and Forward Speed........................ 10–9

.......................................... 10–9................................... 10–10

DIGITAL COMBAT SIMULATORKa-50 BLACK SHARK

LANDING IN CLEAR METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

Vertical Landing Using the Rotor-In-Ground EffectVertical Landing Without Using the RotorRoll-out Style Landing................................Landing Peculiarities ................................

ENGINES AND EQUIPMENT SHUT DOWN................................INSTRUMENT LANDING APPROACH ................................

Types of Approach and Planning the LandingLarge Pattern Approach ................................Small Pattern Approach ................................Straight In Approach with Teardrop ProcedureInstrument NDB Approach ................................

ROUTE, DESCENT AND HOVER MODES................................Pre-loaded Route Autopilot Flight ................................Flight Director Control ................................Changing WP Sequence in Flight ................................Ingress to a Target Point Using Route ModeReturn to Base Using Route Mode ................................Route without Task................................................................

HOVER AND DESCENT MODES ................................Hover ................................................................Vertical Descent................................................................

HELICOPTER COORDINATE CORRECTIONS ................................Coordinate Corrections Using Over-flight MethodCoordinate Corrections Using Shkval ................................

OPERATING ENGINES IN EXTREME MODES ................................Icing ................................................................Engine inlet icing ................................................................Rotor blades icing................................................................Pitot and AoA sensors icing ................................Dust effects on engines ................................

MANEUVERING THE KA-50................................General ................................................................Turns and Spirals ................................................................Climbing U-turn (“Combat” Turn)................................Break Turn ................................................................Climb................................................................Climbing Turn ................................................................Dive................................................................Flat Yaw Turn................................................................Acceleration and Deceleration at Maximum Rates

ix

ONDITIONS..........................................10–12Ground Effect ..........................10–12

Vertical Landing Without Using the Rotor-In-Ground Effect ............10–12.......................................................................10–13

........................................................................10–13.........................................................10–13

................................................................10–15Types of Approach and Planning the Landing ..................................10–15

...................................................................10–16

...................................................................10–18with Teardrop Procedure Turn .......................10–20

...............................................................10–21..................................................10–22

....................................................10–22......................................................................10–23

......................................................10–26Ingress to a Target Point Using Route Mode....................................10–27

...................................................10–27...........................................10–28

......................................................................10–29................................................................10–29

................................................10–29........................................................10–30

flight Method ...........................10–30...............................................10–30

.......................................................10–31..................................................................10–31

..............................................10–32.............................................10–32

..............................................................10–32....................................................................10–32....................................................................10–33

.............................................................10–33..............................................10–34

.....................................................10–35........................................................10–36

.................................................................10–37...................................................10–38

...................................................................10–39....................................................10–40

Acceleration and Deceleration at Maximum Rates..........................10–41

x

Maneuvering at Low Altitude ................................EMERGENCY FLIGHT PROCEDURES................................

In-flight Engine Start-up ................................................................Onboard Fire................................................................In-flight Single Engine Failure ................................Single Engine Landing................................................................Single Engine Failure during Hover................................In-flight Dual Engine Failure ................................Autorotation Landing ................................................................Dual Engine Failure during Hover ................................Vortex Ring State................................................................Hydraulics Failure ................................................................

11 KA-50 COMBAT EMPLOYMENT ................................

Vikhr ATGM Employment Parameters................................Cannon Employment Parameters ................................Preparations for a Combat Mission ................................

COMBAT PROCEDURES ................................................................General Guidelines................................................................Designate Target Points ................................................................Designate Targets and Ingress Points for Data LinkData Exchange between Helicopters ................................Using Data Link when Approaching a Target AreaAutomatic Ingress to Target ................................Sending Recon Orders to Flight Members ................................Shkval Scan Mode................................................................

WEAPONS EMPLOYMENT PREPARATIONS................................ATGM Employment................................................................Rocket Employment................................................................Cannon Employment ................................................................Bombs Employment................................................................Returning to Weapons-safe Condition................................

AUTOMATIC INGRESS TO TARGET AREA ................................Using Shkval to Lock Target................................Using HMS to Lock Target ...............................................................

WEAPONS EMPLOYMENT IN AUTOMATIC MODE ................................ATGM Employment................................................................Vikhr ATGM Launch Procedure................................Using the 2A42 Cannon with Auto-tracking ................................Using Rockets or Fixed Cannon with Auto-tracking

FIRING ROCKETS OR CANNONS WITHOUT AUTO-TRACKING................................

.......................................................... 10–42....................................................... 10–44

.................................. 10–44.................................................... 10–45

.......................................................... 10–46...................................... 10–47

.................................................. 10–48............................................................ 10–49

...................................... 10–50.................................................... 10–51

............................................. 10–51............................................ 10–51

......................................................11–2

............................................... 11–2...................................................... 11–2

................................................... 11–3................................................. 11–4

............................................. 11–4.................................... 11–5

Designate Targets and Ingress Points for Data Link .......................... 11–6................................................. 11–7

Using Data Link when Approaching a Target Area............................ 11–8............................................................ 11–10

....................................... 11–10............................................ 11–11

....................................................... 11–12.......................................... 11–12......................................... 11–13

....................................... 11–13......................................... 11–14

............................................. 11–14......................................................... 11–15

............................................................. 11–15............................... 11–15

............................................. 11–17.......................................... 11–17

........................................................ 11–18.................................... 11–25

tracking......................... 11–26................................ 11–28

DIGITAL COMBAT SIMULATORKa-50 BLACK SHARK

Firing Rockets or Cannons Using Laser-RangefinderEmploying Rockets or Cannon with the Standby ReticleEmploying Bombs................................................................

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEN ATTACKING AIR TARGETS

12 CHECK LISTS................................................................

ENABLE ELECTRICAL POWER AND INTERCOMENABLE AND TEST EKRAN SYSTEM................................MESSAGE LAMPS TEST, ENABLE ILLUMINATIONTARGETING-NAVIGATION SYSTEM PREPARATIONAMMS ABRIS ENABLE ................................ADF CHECK AND ADJUST ................................UV-26 COUNTERMEASURES PANEL PROGRAMMINGLASER WARNING RECEIVER PREPARATIONINDICATION SYSTEM PREPARATION................................FIRE EXTINGUISHERS CHECK................................

ENGINES START-UP ................................................................START-UP PREPARATION................................APU START-UP................................................................ENGINES START-UP................................................................PRE-FLIGHT TEST ................................................................FINAL CHECKS AND TAXI................................BEFORE TAKE-OFF ................................................................HOVER CHECK................................................................HELICOPTER STYLE TAKEOFF ................................RUNNING STYLE TAKEOFF ................................EN-ROUTE FLIGHT ................................................................INGRESS TO TARGET POINT................................HOVERING AND DESCENT ................................RETURN TO BASE................................................................ONE ENGINE FAILURE IN FLIGHT ................................ONE ENGINE FAILURE DURING HOVER ................................BOTH ENGINES FAILURE IN FLIGHT ................................AUTOROTATION LANDING ................................RESTART ABORTED ENGINE IN FLIGHT................................RECOVERY FROM VORTEX RING................................

13 KA-50 SERVICE LIMITS AND SYSTEMS ................................

CRITICAL ALTITUDE-VELOCITY ZONE ................................VORTEX RING SAFETY ZONE ................................HELICOPTER CONTROL ................................................................

xi

Rangefinder ........................11–28Employing Rockets or Cannon with the Standby Reticle ..................11–29

.............................................11–31ARGETS ................................11–32

....................................................12–2

ENABLE ELECTRICAL POWER AND INTERCOM....................................12–2.....................................................12–2

MESSAGE LAMPS TEST, ENABLE ILLUMINATION................................12–3NAVIGATION SYSTEM PREPARATION .............................12–4

.........................................................................12–4....................................................................12–5

TERMEASURES PANEL PROGRAMMING ........................12–6LASER WARNING RECEIVER PREPARATION ........................................12–7

...................................................12–7...............................................................12–8

...............................................12–10..................................................................12–10

..................................................12–10...........................................12–11

..............................................12–14...................................................................12–15

............................................12–17...................................................12–18

............................................................12–19................................................................12–19

............................................12–20..............................................................12–21

................................................................12–21..............................................12–22

......................................................12–23............................................12–24

..................................................12–26...............................................................12–27

.............................................12–28.......................................................12–30

.............................................13–2

................................................................13–5...........................................................................13–6

..................................................13–7

xii

Lift System ................................................................Helicopter Flight Controls ................................................................Special Hardware Considerations for Controlling a HelicopterFlight Controller Position Indicator................................

ENGINES AND POWER TRAIN ................................................................TV3-117 ENGINE ................................................................FUEL SYSTEM................................................................ELECTRICAL SYSTEM................................................................

Main AC Power Supply System ................................Emergency AC Power Supply ................................DC Power Supply System ................................................................

AIRCRAFT TARGETING AND NAVIGATION SYSTEM ................................Principles of Operation ................................................................PrPNK Controls................................................................PrPNK Components................................................................

PNK-800 FLIGHT NAVIGATION SYSTEM ................................Main Technical Characteristics ................................Control and Test and Device Indicators ................................Attitude (angular) Stabilization Mode................................Hover Stabilization Mode ................................................................Vertical Descent Mode................................................................Automatic Flight Mode................................................................Special Mode ................................................................

PNK-800 FLIGHT ESTIMATION PARAMETERS ................................COMPUTATION of Helicopter Coordinates ModeROUTE Mode ................................................................RETURN Mode ................................................................INGRESS Mode................................................................CORRECTION Mode................................................................RECORD Mode ................................................................TURN Mode ................................................................

14 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ................................

RADIO FREQUENCIES................................................................COMMANDS MENU ................................................................FLIGHT ................................................................................................WINGMEN ................................................................................................ENGAGE ................................................................................................TARGET DETECTION ................................................................PINCER................................................................................................GO TO ................................................................................................

......................................................... 13–7.................................. 13–9

Special Hardware Considerations for Controlling a Helicopter ....... 13–10.................................................. 13–11

....................................... 13–13..................................................... 13–14

............................................................ 13–16................................................... 13–19

........................................................ 13–19........................................................... 13–20

................................. 13–21............................................ 13–26

.................................... 13–26................................................. 13–26

.......................................... 13–27........................................................ 13–28........................................................ 13–29

........................................... 13–30............................................. 13–30

................................ 13–30..................................... 13–31.................................... 13–31

................................................... 13–31................................................. 13–31

COMPUTATION of Helicopter Coordinates Mode............................ 13–32................................................... 13–32

................................................. 13–33

................................................. 13–34.......................................... 13–34

................................................. 13–35..................................................... 13–36

............................................................14–2

.................................................... 14–2..................................................... 14–3

...................................... 14–3................................. 14–4

.................................... 14–5..................................................... 14–7

...................................... 14–8

...................................... 14–9

DIGITAL COMBAT SIMULATORKa-50 BLACK SHARK

COVER ME ................................................................JETTISON WEAPONS ................................................................FORMATIONS ................................................................

Rejoin................................................................HOLD POSITION ................................................................RECONNAISSANCE ................................................................AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL ................................................................GROUND CREW ................................................................

Weapons Reload................................................................Refuel................................................................Helmet Device................................................................Ground Electric Power ................................Turbo Gear................................................................Ground Equipment Requirements ................................

COMMANDS AND MESSAGES ................................Commands and Messages List ................................

AI MESSAGES................................................................

15 SUPPLEMENTS................................................................

MORSE CODE ALPHABET ................................ACRONYM LIST ................................................................DEVELOPERS................................................................EAGLE DYNAMICS................................................................

Management................................................................Programmers................................................................Designers ................................................................Quality Assurance................................................................Science support ................................................................Customer support ................................................................

SUBJECT MATTER EXPERTS................................TESTER STAFF ................................................................THIRD PARTIES ................................................................SPECIAL THANKS................................................................TRANSLATOR TEAMS................................................................

French Team:................................................................German Team:................................................................Spanish Team: ................................................................

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SOURCES ................................

xiii

...............................................................14–10...................................................14–10

............................................................14–11................................................................14–14

.........................................................14–14......................................................14–15

................................................14–16.........................................................14–18

...............................................14–19................................................................14–21

...................................................14–23......................................................................14–24

........................................................14–24....................................................14–25

...............................................................14–27.........................................................14–28

............................................................14–31

................................................15–2

.........................................................................15–2........................................................15–1

............................................................15–4....................................................15–4

......................................................15–4

......................................................15–4............................................................15–5

...............................................15–5..................................................15–5

...............................................15–5......................................................................15–6

..........................................................15–6........................................................15–7

......................................................15–8...............................................15–9

......................................................15–9....................................................15–9..................................................15–10

.......................................................................15–11