Robert M. Price: Deconstructing Jesus

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D E C O N S T R U C T N G

JESUS

R O B E R T M . P R I C E



D E O N S T R U T I N G



Prometheus Books

5 9 J o h n G l e n n D r i v e

A m h e r s t , N e w Y ork 1 4 2 2 8 - 2 1 9 7



Publ ished 2000 by Prometheus Books

Deconstructing Jesus. Copyright © 2000 by Robert M. Price. All rights reserved. N

part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-

mitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical , photocopying, recording,

or otherwise, without prior writ ten permission of the publisher, except in the case of

brief quotations embodied in cri t ical art icles and reviews.

Inquiries should be addressed to

P rom etheus Books , 59 Joh n Glenn Dr ive , Am hers t , New York 142 28- 219 7 .

V O I C E : 7 1 6 - 6 9 1 - 0 1 3 3 , e x t . 2 0 7 .

F A X : 7 1 6 - 5 6 4 - 2 7 1 1 .

W W W . P R O M E T H E U S B O O K S . C O M

http://www.prometheusbooks.com/

http://www.prometheusbooks.com/



04 03 02 01 00 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Price, Robert M., 1954—

Deconstructing Jesus / Robert M. Price,

p. cm.

Includes bibliog raphical references and index.

I S B N 1 - 5 7 3 9 2 - 7 5 8 - 9 ( c l o t h )

1. Jesus Chr is t— His tor ici ty . 2 . Church his tory— Primit ive and early church,

ca. 30 -6 00 . I . Ti t le .

BT303.2 .P75 2000

2 3 2 — d c 2 1 9 9 - 0 4 8 1 4 0

CIP

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper



This book is dedicated to

Darrell J. Doughty

Men tor, Friend\ and Colleague in the Higher Criticism



CONTENTS

I n t r o d u c t i o n : T e su s C h r i s t as t h e E f f e c t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , N o t t h e C a u s e

1 . R e c o n s t r u c t i n g C h r i s t i a n O r i g i n s

2 . T h e J e s u s M o v e m e n t s

3 . T h e C h r i s t C u l t s

4 . M e s s i a h a s M i s h n a h



5 . T h e Los t G os pe l

6 . Sac red S cap eg oa t

7 . T h e C r u c i - F i c t i o n ?

8 . T h e H i s t o r i c i z e d J e s u s ?



Introduction

JESUS CHRIST

AS THE EFFECT OF

CHRISTIANITY

NOT THE CAUSE

T _

^ h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s b o o k i s a r a t h e r a b s t r a c t o n e . T h o u g h i t d e a l s w i t

he ar t o f the r e l ig ion of a b i l l ion p eo ple , f ew of th em even k no w th ere is an i s sue



F o r t h i s b o o k t r e a t s of t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s a n d w h e t h e r w e c a n k n o w a n y t h i n g

w h e t h e r e v e n t h e r e i s a n y o n e t o k n o w a b o u t T h o s e b i l l i o n C h r i s t i a n s a f f i r m t h e

J e s u s C h r i s t , t h e w o n d e r - w o r k i n g m a n - g o d w h o d i e d f o r s i n s a n d r o s e f r o m t h

t h e m a n d t h e i r s a l v a t i o n . H o w d o t h e y c l a i m t o k n o w t h e s e c h e r i s h e d f a c ts ?

t a u g h t t h e s e t h i n g s a t t h e i r m o t h e r s ' k n e e s , o r i n c a t e c h i s m b y c l e r g y m e n . T h e y

t h i n k t o q u e s t i o n w h a t t h e y h a v e t h u s l e a r n e d , fo r i t w o u l d s e e m t o t h e m

d i s l o y a l ty , a s i f o n e s h o u l d t h i n k t w i c e a b o u t o n e 's p a t r i o t i s m . M a n y , h o w e v e r ,

b e y o n d s u c h p a t c e r t a i n t y . " B o r n - a g a i n " C h r i s t i a n s , t h a t i s, e v a n g e l i c a l p i e t i s t s ,

p e w s o f m o s t P r o t e s t a n t d e n o m i n a t i o n s a n d in c r e a s in g l y th o s e o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o

a s w e l l , d o n o t r e s t c o n t e n t w i t h b e l i e v i n g i n h e r i t e d d o g m a . T h e y s e e n o a d v a n t a g

o n e ' s r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s f o r g r a n t e d t h i s w a y . A f a i t h a n a l o g o u s t o o n e ' s e t h n i c

( t o a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e t w o e a s il y b e c o m e s y n o n y m o u s ) m a y b e c o m e j u s t a s t a k e n

N o , e v a n g e l i c a l p i e t i s t s i n s i s t , " G o d h a s n o g r a n d s o n s . " O n e c a n n o t i n h e r i t g e n u i n

m u s t p e r s o n a l l y o p t f o r i t . A n d t h i s i s w h a t B i ll y G r a h a m a n d h i s e v a n g e l i s t i c b

t r y i n g t o p e r s u a d e p e o p l e t o d o . T h u s f a r, o n e c a n o n l y a p p l a u d a n a p p a r e n t

p e o p l e t o t h i n k f o r t h e m s e l v e s .

B u t u p o n w h a t g r o u n d i s t h e c e r t a i n t y o f s u c h c h o s e n f a i t h , b o r n - a g a i n f

A p o l o g i s t s , d e f e n d e r s o f t h e f a i t h ( w i t h w h o s e a r g u m e n t s I d e a l t a t s o m e l e n g t h i n



b o o k ,

Beyond Bom Again)*

draw upon a grea t a rsena l o f a rgument s for t he ex i s t en

t h e r e su r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t , a n d o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n t e n e t s , b u t a t b o t t o m su c

give the imp ress ion of be ing a f t e r - the - fac t ra t i ona l i za t ions of a pos i t i on he ld u l

o t h e r , p u re l y e m o t i o n a l a n d su b j e c t i v e , g ro u n d s . F a i t h , w e a r e t o l d , i s " s e l f - a u t h

T he born -aga in p i e t i s t t e l ls us t ha t for h im i t i s no t a qu es t ion of deba t ing a

pro pos i t i on , bu t ra ther of ce l ebra t ing a "perso na l re l a t ion sh ip wi th Ch r i s t . " I t

poss ib l e t o qu es t io n i t s rea l it y , bu t en t i re ly pe rve rse— l ike en te r t a i n in g the

poss ib i l i t y t h a t one ' s l ov ing sp ouse is rea l ly a C IA a gen t ass igned to spy on one

m o v i e Total Recall. W h a t a re t h e c h a n c e s?

I be l i eve the re is l ess here t h an me et s t he eye . Ag ain , i n Beyond Born Again

y

the mea nin g and p oss ib l e re fe ren t s o f t he phrase "hav ing a person a l re l a t ion sh ip

Ch r i s t . " He re l e t me jus t pau se for a m o m en t on the i ssue of se l f -au then

se l f -ev idence . Jo h n C alv in c l a imed tha t t he be l i ever i n Chr i s t en joys such

reassurance ; he ca ll ed i t " the w i tness of t h e Sp i r i t , " a t e rm der ived f rom 1 Jo h n

one who be l i eves in t he Son of Go d has the wi tness i n h ims e l f" ) . As the o ld cho

"You ask me how I k no w he li ves? H e l i ves wi th i n m y hear t " S ince C hr

f r e q u e n t l y b e h e a rd r e m i n d i n g o n e a n o t h e r t o q u i e t t h e i r d o u b t s b y f a l l i n g b a

wi tnes s of t he Spi r i t " w i th in th em , i t i s app are n t t ha t t h i s wi tn ess can not b



se l f - a u t h e n t i c a t i n g a s i t so u n d s W h e n c e a r i s e d o u b t s i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e?

Du bio us c l a ims of t he se lf -ev idence of t h i s o r t ha t po in t a re hard ly un iqu e

rhe tor i c . Rene Descar t es ' s whole ep i s t emology depended upon the supposed re l i ab i l

seem ed "c l ear and d i s t i nc t " t o t he ra t iona l m ind . As Richard Ror ty sum m ed up t

t rad i t i on a l ph i losop hy has ima gine d th e hum an m ind as " the mi r ro r of na ture . "

2

T

wor ld and o bjec t iv e t ru th a re j us t there

y

ha ng ing in me taphy s i ca l space , as i t we

m ind i s a pass ive receptor for t h i s t ru th . Th e t ru th i s suppo sedly se l f -ev ident . Bu

so , why do equa l ly acu te t ru th seekers no t a r r ive a t t he same conclus ions? The

phi loso phers t heor i zed abo ut t he or ig in and co mp osi t i on of t he wo r ld , bu t t hey

agree in t he absence of be t t e r da t a , so Socra t es t u rn ed f rom na tu ra l ph i losophy, suc

a n d A n a x i m a n d e r h a d p ra c t i c e d , to th e in t ro sp e c t i v e s t u d y o f h u m a n n a t u re i n s t e a d

was h i s conf idence ( to hear P l a to t e l l i t ) t ha t c l ear t h in k in g could pen e t ra t e t h

human na ture , mora l s , ep i s t emology , and a grea t many o ther t h ings . Yet Socra t e

and P la to ' s a f t e r h im , were hard ly beyon d do ub t . Th e Skept i cs were a ph i losop hica l

an t i c ip a t ed mo der n Ag nos t i c i sm in every way. The y ba ni shed a l l re l i ance on

se l f -ev ident wi th one mi gh ty b low. The y mere ly po in t ed ou t t he fac t t ha t a ll o f

o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r b e e n a b so l u t e l y c e r t a i n o f so m e t h i n g —w h i c h l a t e r p ro v e d e r ro

were wron g the n; how can you be so sure you ' re no t wrong now ? Everyone kno ws



o f h a v i n g a b u b b l e p o p p e d , a n d t h i n k i n g , " O h y e s I n e v e r t h o u g h t o f that\" S

se l f -ev idence .

Bu t Descar t es be li eved w hat was se l f -ev iden t , wh at was c l ear and d i s t i n c t t o

had to be t rue. So did his fel low Rat io nal is t s L eibniz and Spinoza. An d th ey on

the sad spec t ac l e of t he pre-Socra t i cs , s ince the i r supposedly in fa l l i b l e cogi t a t io

agree . David H u m e began ch ipp ing away a t t he cer t a in t i es of t he Rat iona l i s t s , p

tha t wh i l e we cons ider m any th ing s so se l f -ev ident ly t rue tha t i t wou ld be insan

the m , they a re i n fac t qu i t e unprov able . H u m e doub ted we could prove there is a

sel f , a fee l ing an d se nsing e go, a sequ ence of cause and effec t , and so on. Al l the

rea l i t i es which we th ink we exper i ence a re ac tua l ly mere assoc ia t ions of i deas whos

l inkages we infer w i tho ut proof . Jacq ues De rr id a and Richard Ror ty , am on g o thers ,

up the weapons of unbl ink ing ana lys i s aga ins t such na ive conf idence in t he suppose

dent . Derr ida a ims h i s guns a t what he ca l l s t he "Presence Metaphys i cs" of

phi losoph ica l and theo logica l t h in k in g . We can a lways f ind the h idd en t racks on

snowfie ld i f we look hard enough. We can a lways f ind the seams in the seamless

our l ens i s sharp en oug h. W h at seems bas i c , t ac i t t ru th , up on c loser inspe c t ion

te l l t a l e marks of composi t i on . The subl imely s imple i s ye t t he product o f a h idden

re l a t ion . Derr ida po in t s t o Freudian ana lys i s t o demonst ra t e t ha t even "c l ear a



kn ow led ge of the s e lf is an y t h in g b u t . Th e consc ious s e l f i s bu t a care fu l ly ed i t e d

v e r s i o n " p r o v i d e d f o r o u r o w n " p u b l i c c o n s u m p t i o n . " P e r c e p t i o n is t w i s t e d , a t l e a

i n a t h o u s a n d w a y s . E v e n t h e b a r e p e r c e p t i o n o f " t h e p r e s e n t m o m e n t " is n o t a

r e c e p t i o n of n a k e d p h e n o m e n a , b u t i s r a t h e r a c o m p o u n d i n g of m e m o r y ' s e c h o

n a t i o n ' s a n t i c i p a t i o n . T h e o v e r l a p of t h e t w o r e s u l t s i n a s c r i p t e d , p r e i n t e r - p r

m o m e n t t h a t o n l y s e e m s t o h a v e e m e r g e d f r o m t h e t i m e s t r e a m p e r f e c t a n d f u l l

A p h r o d i t e r i s i n g f r o m t h e w a v e s .

3

J u s t a s p r e s e n c e m a y b e d e c o n s t r u c t e d , so m a y t h e " e x p e r i e n c e " of C h r i s t . J

f u n c t i o n s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n a n u n n o t i c e d a n d e q u i v o c a l w a y , a s s h o r t h a n d f o r a v as

b e l i e fs a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o n w h o s e b e h a l f h e i s i n v o k e d . P u t s im p l y , t h i s m e a n s t h

e v a n g e l i s t o r a n a p o l o g i s t i n v i t e s y o u t o h a v e f a i t h " i n C h r i s t , " h e is i n f a c t s m u

g r e a t n u m b e r o f o t h e r i s su e s . F o r e x a m p l e , C h a l c e d o n i a n C h r i s t o l o g y , t h e d o c t

T r i n i t y , t h e P r o t e s t a n t i d e a o f f a i t h a n d g r a c e , a p a r t i c u l a r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

b i b l i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n a n d l i t e r a l i s m , h a b i t s o f c h u r c h a t t e n d a n c e , a n d s o o n , a re a l l

o p e n q u e s t i o n s , o r s h o u l d b e . A n d y e t n o e v a n g e l i s t e v e r i n v i t e s p e o p l e to a c c e p

f a i t h a n d t h e n t o s t a r t e x a m i n i n g a l l t h e s e o t h e r a s s o c ia t e d i s su e s fo r t h e m s e l v e s

T h e T r i n i ty , b i b l i c a l i n e r r a n t i s m , f o r s o m e e v e n a n t i - D a r w i n i s m , a r e n o n n e g o t i a b l e

y o u c a n n o t b e g e n u i n e l y " s a v e d " i f y o u d o n o t t o e t h e p a r t y l i n e o n t h e s e p o i n t



t h e m , t o " a c c e p t C h r i s t " means t o a c c e p t T r i n i t a r i a n i sm , b i b l i c i sm , i n e r r a n t i sm ,

and so on . Al l t h i s , i n t u rn , mea ns tha t "Chr i s t " has bec om e a sho r tha nd d es ig na t

who le ra f t o f doc t r ines and o pin io ns , al l of wh ich one is t o accept "by fa i th , "

e l se 's say-so . Chr i s t has becom e an um bre l l a for an un qu es t ion ing ac ceptanc e of

prea cher or i ns t i t u t ion t e l l s you to be l i eve . On ce the be l i ever be gins to "de con s

"Jesus Chr i s t " has come to denote i n h i s par t i cu l a r re l i g ious communi ty , he m

tha t h i s p r imary re l ig ious a l l eg i ance has been u t i l i zed to manipula t e h im in to t ran

sam e d i e ha rd loy a l ty t o o th er secondary or t e r t i a ry i ssues , po l i t i ca l and cu l tura l .

Bu t I have a l ready an t i c ip a t ed tha t I i n t e nd to dec on s t ruc t " Jesus C hr i s t " o

l eve l , one unde r ly i ng be l i evers ' ima gina ry re l a t io nsh ip s wi th th e i r Savior, h ims e l f

a m a l g a m o f S u n d a y S c h o o l i l l u s t r a t i o n s a n d H o l m a n H u n t p a i n t i n g s , s t r e t c h e d r i

rack of ch r i s to log ica l do gm a. W h a t I do no t p ropo se to do is wh at an increas in

books endeavor , namely recons t ruc t ing a h i s tor i ca l Jesus f rom what scan ty ev idence

us . In wh at fo l lows I hope to i nd ica t e wh y tha t is p rac t i ca l ly imp oss ib l e and i l l -ad

I be l i eve tha t every "Li fe of Jesus " book i s t ha t schola rs own Go spe l of Jesus

ow n C hr i s to logy . Alb er t Schwei t zer ma de i t c l ear en ou gh th a t t he f i r s t que s t o f t h

Jes us ( in t he n in e t e en th and ear ly tw en t i e th c en tur i e s ) was a p i ece of t heo logy f r

f in i sh , even thou gh i t s p rac t i t i one rs were s incere ly convinc ed of t he pure ly



chara c t e r o f t he i r e f fo r t s . L ibera l Pro t e s t an t scholars wa nted to dep r ive Or tho d

Chr i s t , which served as t he warran t (much l i ke the medieva l forgery the D

C o n s t a n t i n e , w h i c h p re t e n d e d t o g u a ra n t e e c h u rc h o w n e r sh i p o f t h e P a p a l

per pe tu i ty ) for a l l t hey d id and s a id . I f Jesu s cou ld , v i a t he ex ped ien t o f h i s tor i c

b e m a d e t o m i r ro r E n l i g h t e n m e n t M o d e rn i s t p r e f e r e n c e s , t h e n J e su s w o u l d h a v

s ides . H e would have been the f l ag , and l i bera l s wo uld have cap tur ed i t f rom t r

and w on the ga me . L ibera ls could th en use Jes us as t he i r secre t wea pon , t he i r

t h e i r v e n t r i l o q u i s t s d u m m y , j u s t l i k e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s a lw a y s h a d . T h u s i t sh o u l d h a

surp r i se , Schw ei t zer po in t ed o ut , t ha t t he "h i s tor i ca l Jes us" emer ged f ro m every o

h i s tor i ca l p l as t i c surger i es l ooking l i ke the surgeon who opera t ed on h im.

4

In d e e d

e n t e rp r i s e o f s t r i p p i n g a w a y t h e t h e o -m y t h o l o g i c a l e n c ru s t a t i o n s b u i l t u p a ro u n d

theolog ica l she l l ga m e f r om the word g o . I t i s a case of t he "danger ous

d e sc r i b e d b y Ja c q u e s D e r r i d a .

5

I t is l i ke the "noble savage" of t he E nl i gh ten m en t

and , l a t e r , C laude Levi -S t rauss . They he ld up the Tarzan- l ike innocence of t he n

un cor rup ted by the ev i ls o f hu m an soc i e ty , as a reb uke to t he i r ow n cu l tu re . Bu

t h e n o b l e s a v a g e , t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e su s , M a rx ' s p r i m o rd i a l G o l d e n A g e o

c o m m u n i sm , R e a g a n ' s A m e r i c a , a n d t h e f e m i n i s t p r i m i t i v e m a t r i a r c h y a r e a ll a l i k

n o t g e n u i n e discoveries of t he pas t , as t hey c l a im to be (som eth in g poss ib l e on ly w



of H. G . Wel l s ' s t ime machine) , bu t ra ther c l ever po lemica l

constructions.

P re t e n

u n v a r n i s h e d nature, o r b ru t e fac t , t hey a re real ly soph i s t i ca t ed c rea t ions of cultu

c u l t u re c r e a t i o n s t h e y a r e e m p l o y e d t o d e b u n k . T h e y se e m t o l e n d a n a n c i e n t p e d i

v i ews of t hose wh o crea t e t he m . W h a t a t f i r s t seems to be a c r i t i que of (corru

f ro m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f n a t u re t u rn s o u t i n s t e a d t o b e a c r e a t i o n o f c o u n t e rc

wi th in the very cu l ture be in g c r i t i qu ed . Th e t rad i t i ona l c reeda l Chr i s to lo g ies of

Chalcedon are t heore t i ca l concept s of Jesus Chr i s t based on an in t e rpre t ive se l ec t

Tes t ament t ex t s . Cer t a in t ex t s a re chosen as cen t ra l , g iven a par t i cu l a r i n t e rpre

used as c r i t e r i a for exc luding o thers f rom ser ious cons idera t ion , o r t o expla in away

inco nve nien t for one ' s chr i s to lo g ica l t heory . Ho w di f fe re n t a p ro ced ure is t ha t fo l low

tor i ca l Jesus researchers? They , t oo , a re making a se l ec t ion of core t ex t s , based on

d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s , m u l t i p l e - a t t e s t a t i o n , a n d so o n . F ro m t h i s d a t a b a se e m e rg e s a

d i s t i n c t i v e p i c t u re o f J e su s , w h o is a g a i n i n v o k e d t o d e b u n k a n d j u d g e t h e d

pol i c ies of t rad i t i ona l C hr i s t i a n i ty . I t was on ly once the Vat i can moved to qua s

t h e o l o g y t h a t l i b e ra l C a t h o l i c Jo h n D o m i n i c C ro s sa n d ro p p e d h i s f a sc i n a t i n g P o s t -

read ings of t he gospe l s

6

and took up the h i s tor i ca l Jes us en te rpr i se , fash ionin g a

wo uld fur n i sh a new pe digr ee for l i bera t ion theolog y by see min g to have presc i en t

i t n ine t een cen tur i es ago .



S o t o d a y ' s c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s e n g a g e d i n t h e q u e s t f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s a r e t h

l e a st i m p l i c i t l y , t h e o l o g i a n s a d v o c a t i n g n e w r e l i g i o u s l y r e l e v a n t C h r i s t o l o g i e s , j u s t

A t h a n a s i u s , E u t y c h e s , N e s t o r i u s , a n d t h e r e s t d i d i n t h e o l d d ay s . B u t t o g o b a c k

b e g a n , t h e y a r e n o l e ss s i m i l a r t o t h e n a i v e p i e t i s t s w i t h t h e i r " p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i

P ie t i s t s l ike to speak of "acc ep t i ng Jesu s C hr i s t as one ' s per so na l s av ior ." T h e scho

t o d i s c o v e r t h e a u t h e n t i c J e s u s (a s v a l u a b l e a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g a s m a n y o f t h e m

r e c a ll t h i s p i e t i s t i c s l o g a n . F o r h a s n o t e v e r y o n e o f t h e m m a n u f a c t u r e d a " p e r s o

t h a t is , o n e c u s t o m f i t t e d t o e a ch s ch o l a r 's o w n p r e d i l e c t i o n s a n d p r i o r i t i e s ? I d o n

c h a r g e a n y o n e w i t h s i m p l e v e n t r i l o q u i s m , b u t i t i s r e m a r k a b l e h o w f e w s c h o l a r s c o

w a y A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r d i d : w i t h a J e s u s t h a t e m b a r r a s s e d h i m .

L e t m e m i t i g a t e m y j u d g m e n t y e t a g a i n . A s a b r ie f s u r v e y w i l l s u g g e s t , m

c u r r e n t h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s o p t i o n s a r e q u i t e p l a u s i b l e a n d m a k e g o o d s e n se o f a

g o s p e l t e x t s . N o n e v i o la t e s h i s to r i c a l m e t h o d . A l l a r e t h e p r o d u c t of s e r i o u s

s c h o l a r s h i p . B u t w h a t t h e s e le a r n e d l a b o r s h a v e y ie l d e d m a y b e c a l le d a n e m b a r r

r i c h e s . T h e r e a r e j u s t t o o m a n y t h a t m a k e t o o m u c h s e n s e , a n d t h a t f a c t , i t s e

v i t i a t e s t h e c o m p e l l i n g f o r c e o f a n y o n e o f t h e m .

N ot h in g mak es s ense o f a l l t hose gospe l s ay ings abo ut aba nd on ing f am i ly and



l i ke the mode l of Jesus as a C ynic- l i ke sage. Bu r ton L . Ma ck, Jo hn Do m inic Cros

Do wn ing , and o thers s t rongly defend th i s v iew. O r Jesus may have been a l i ber

somewhat along the l ines of his predecessor Hi l lel , as Harvey Falk

7

argues, s ince vi

one of t he ha l ach ic j ud gm en t s mad e by Jesus i s para l l e led in con tempo rary Phar i sa

rab bin i c t ho ug ht . (De spi t e a som ew hat uncr i t ica l t rea tm ent of t he ev idence both

gospe ls and the rab bis, I th in k F alk ' s basic co nte nt io n has mu ch to be said

somewhat t he same theme, Geza Vermes , an exper t on the Dead Sea Scro l l s

Tes t ament -e ra Juda i sm, makes Jesus a f reewheel ing and only loose ly or thodox char i s

typ ica l i n many ways of o ther popular Gal i l ean holy men and mi rac l e workers , su

the Ci rc l e -Draw er and Ha nin a ben -Dosa . L ike them , Jesus was sa id by p ious l ege

cal led God Abba (Father) , to have been blessed by an audible voice from heav

bargained wi th demons who steered clear of him, and to have roused the i re of t

e s t a b l i sh m e n t .

8

Again , Jesus might have been a magic i an (or exorc i s t / fa i t h hea

prefer ) , as M orton S mi th he ld .

9

The gospe l dep ic t ions of Jesus hea l ing the b l ind

m ute wi th sp i t t l e and m ud f i t r i g h t i n wi th contem porary m agica l hea l ing m

ful somely a t t es t ed in numerous surv iv ing Hel l en i s t i c magic handbooks f rom the per i

his exorcist ic techniques, once you correct for christological exaggerat ion. As in Je

story, magicians embarked on thei r career after the visionary descent of a fami l iar s



fo rm of a b i r d , f i l l ed w i th th e as surance tha t they had bec om e sons o f G od .

O r t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s m i g h t h a v e b e e n a p r i e s t l y z e a l o t , f o m e n t i n g

n o n v i o l e n t ) r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n , a s s u r i n g t h e p o o r t h a t t h e i r

w a s n e a r a t h a n d , a n d - w a n u n g t h e t e m p l e f a t c a t s , l a p d o g s o f P i l a t e , t h a t t h e i r

n u m b e r e d . H o w e l s e c a n w e e x p l a i n t h a t i t w a s t h e R o m a n a u t h o r i t i e s w h o k i l l e

c r u c i f i x i o n ? I f t h e J e w i s h S a n h e d r i n s i m p l y n e e d e d P i l a t e ' s p e r m i s s i o n t o e x e c u t e

d i d n ' t t h e y g e t i t a n d s t o n e h i m a s a b l a s p h e m e r ? M a y b e t h e R o m a n s h a d t h e i r

f o r p u t t i n g t h i s K i n g o f t h e J e w s t o d e a t h . I n o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r , t h e

r e v o l u t i o n i s t J e s u s ha s b e e n a b l y a r g u e d , w i t h m a n y v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e t h e m e ,

E i s le r , S . G . F . B r a n d o n , H u g h J . S c h o n f i e l d , H y a m M a c c o b y , A . J . M a t t i l l

E i s e n m a n , J u a n L u i s S e g u n d o , a n d J o h n G a g e r .

1 1

A nd the re is m uc h to be s a i

s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n is t h a t of J o h n D o m i n i c C r o s s a n , R i c h a r d H o r s l e y , a n

Schi i s s l e r F ioren za , w ho r ega rd J esu s as a k in d of f i r s t - c en tur y E . F . Sc h

M o h a n d a s K . G a n d h i , a r a d ic a l c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i z e r w i t h s u r p r i s i n g l y

p r o t o - f e m i n i s t v i e w s .

1 2

P e r h a p s J e s u s w a s a n e s c h a t o lo g i c a l p r o p h e t , f o r e t e l l i n g t h e i m m i n e n t e n d o f

u r g i n g r e p e n t a n c e u p o n h i s p e o p l e , l i k e t h e l a te M e n a c h e m M e n d e l S c h n

L u b a v i t c h e r R e b b e , s e e k i n g t o s p a r k a n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t o f r e p e n t a n c e i n o r d e



t he c om ing of th e K in gd om of G od . Ben F . M eyer sees i t t h i s way , as does

mo di f i ca t ions ) E . P . Sander s .

1 5

J o h a n n e s W e i s s, A l b e r t S c h w e i t ze r , a n d R u d o l f

p i c t u r e d J e s u s o n a s i m i l a r c r u s a d e , b u t a p p e a l i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e p e n t

t h e m s e l v e s f r o m a c r o o k e d g e n e r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n m a r s h a l i n g t h e p e o p l e a s a

J o a c h i m J e r e m i a s , N o r m a n P e r r i n , G u n t h e r B o r n k a m m , a n d o t h e r s a d d e d t o t h is

e l e m e n t o f r e j o i c i n g t h a t t h e k i n g d o m , a s J e s u s t h o u g h t , h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n t o

a m o n g h i m s e l f a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s .

1 5

A n d t h e r e a r e m o r e . M o r e " h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s e s . " N o n e , as u n f a m i l i a r a s t h e y m a

t h e r e a d e r n o t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h c r i t i c a l J e s u s s c h o l a r s h i p , i s p a r t i c u l a r l y f a r - f e t c h e

t o c e n t e r o n p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t e l l a t i o n s of g o s p e l e l e m e n t s i n t e r p r e t e d i n c e r t a i n w

o t h e r d a t a t o t h e s i d e a s s p u r i o u s ( o f c o u r s e , t h i s i s w h a t a l l c r i t i c a l h i s t o r i a n s , w r

a n y s u b j e c t , d o ) . A l l a p p e a l t o so l i d h i s t o r i c a l a n a l o g i e s f o r t h e J e s u s e s t h e y p o s

i m p o s s i b l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c . W h a t o n e J e s u s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l e av e s a s i d e , t h e n e x t ta

m a k e s i t s c o r n e r s t o n e . J e s u s s i m p l y w e a r s t o o m a n y h a t s i n t h e g o s p e l s — e x o r c i s t , h

p r o p h e t , s a g e , r a b b i , d e m i g o d , a n d s o o n . T h e J e s u s C h r i s t o f t h e N e w T e s t

c o m p o s i t e f i g u r e . T o d a y ' s h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s t h e o r i e s a g r e e i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t f a c

p a r t c o m p a n y o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h m i g h t b e t h e o r i g i n a l c o r e , a n d w h i c h t h

a c c r e t i o n s .



S p e a k i n g o f h i s t o r i c a l a n a l o g i e s , h i s t o r y d o e s y i e l d o t h e r , s i m i l a r l y c o m p l e x

t h e y , t o o , s e e m t o b e o v e r la y s . F o r i n s t a n c e , A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n a a p p e a r s in

t h i r d - c e n t u r y h a g i o g r a p h y a s a w a n d e r i n g n e o P y t h a g o r e a n s a g e . B u t h e is q u i

m i r a c l e , a h e a l i n g , a n e x o r c i s m . W a s h e , t h e n , l i k e t h e g o s p e l J e s u s , b o t h a

m i r a c l e - w o r k e r ? P r o b a b l y n o t , f o r i t a p p e a r s t h a t P h i l o s t r a t u s h a s s o u g h t t o

A p o l l o n i u s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e m e m b e r e d a s a w i z a r d , i n t o t h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d

p h i l o s o p h e r . S i m i l a r ly , d o w e n o t h a v e i n t h e m e s s i a n i c r e v o l u t i o n i s t T h e u d a s ( 4 3

f i g u r e ? J o s e p h u s c a l ls h i m "a m a g i c i a n , " i m p l y i n g h e c o m b i n e d t h e ro l e s o f w o

a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y k i n g — l i k e J e s u s ? B u t a p p a r e n t l y n o t : T h e u d a s d i d n o t h a v e a

h e a l e r ; h i s " m a g i c " i s s i m p l y a c l i m a c t i c w o n d e r h e p r o m i s e d a s t h e s i g n o f G o d '

d e l i v e r a n c e . G o d w o u l d p a r t t h e J o r d a n a s h e h a d f o r J o s h u a of o l d . J o s e p h u s

c o l l a b o r a t o r w i t h R o m e , n a t u r a l l y s n e e r e d a t t h i s e x t r a v a g a n t p r o m i s e a s m e r e m a

a d i s p a r a g i n g w a y t o r e f e r to t h e o t h e r f e l l o w ' s s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m . S o e v e n i n o t h e r

w e s e e m a t f i r s t t o e n c o u n t e r a n c i e n t J e s u s - l i k e c o m p l e x f i g u r e s , t h e y , t o o , h a v e

l e g e n d a r y o r r e d a c t i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n , c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s t e r e o t y p e s o r i g i n a l

t h e m .

T h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s (i f t h e r e w a s o n e ) m i g h t w e l l h a v e b e e n a m e s s i a n i c

p r o g r e s s i v e P h a r i s e e , o r a G a l i l e a n s h a m a n , o r a m a g u s , o r a H e l l e n i s t i c s a g e . B u



v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n a ll o f t h e m a t t h e s a m e t i m e . A t t e m p t s , s u c h a s C r o s sa n ' s ,

s e v e ra l o f t h e s e p o r t r a i t s o n l y d e m o n s t r a t e h o w a r b i t r a r y t h e p r o c e d u r e is . M o

c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s s t u d y i n g J e s u s a r e a t l e a s t l i b e r a l C h r i s t i a n s , a n d o n e s u s p e c t s

b r i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o s t o p a t a g n o s t i c i s m a b o u t t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s . " H e m i g h t h a v e

h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h a t . W e d o n ' t k n o w f o r s u r e . " N o , o n e s u s p e c t s t h a t e v e n

o f t h e J e s u s S e m i n a r s t i l l n e e d a s i n g l e J e s u s t o f u n c t i o n a s a re l i g i o u s t o t e m :

o n e f a i t h , o n e b a p t i s m " ( E p h . 4 : 5 ) . T h u s t h e y w i l l c h o o s e o n e p o s s i b l e J e s u s a n

h i m as th e idea l fo r th e chu rch to fo l low. O r they w i l l , l i ke C ros san , p reserve

t h e n e w l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d J e s u s s l ic e s a s t h e y c a n b y g l u i n g t h e m i n t o a n e w p i e . B

n o t w o r k . A n d o n c e o n e a c c e p t s t h a t sa d c o n c l u s i o n , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a re s t r i k i n g i

L a t e r o n , I w i l l d i s c u s s t h e A p o c r y p h a l A c t s o f t h e A p o s t l e s . T h e y a l l h a d

s o m e f o r m of D o c e t i s m , a s u p e r s p i r i t u a l , n a k e d l y m y t h i c v i e w w h e r e b y J e s u s C

p u r e s p i r i t , m e r e l y s p o r t i n g t h e i l l u s i o n o f a f l e s h l y b o d y . T h i s h e n e e d e d i

c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h f l e s h - b o u n d h u m a n s , b u t a c tu a l i n c a r n a t i o n w a s o u t o f t h e q u e

m an y ear ly C hr i s t i a ns v iewe d t he b ody as fa r too s in f u l fo r J es us to have had

o n l y s e e m e d ( 8 0 K £ ( 0) t o . I n t h i s , h e w a s l i k e t h e O l y m p i a n g o d s w h o m i g h t a p

o f a t h o u s a n d f o r m s . Z e u s a p p e a r e d a s a b u l l , a s h o w e r o f g o l d c o i n s , a s w a n , a

a n d s o o n . A t h e n a m i g h t a p p e a r a s a c r o n e o r a w a r r i o r m a i d . T h i s m e a n t t h a t t h e



beyo nd gross b odies of f l esh . Even so , i n t he Act s of Joh n , Jesu s appears i n d i f f

to t he bro th ers Ja m es and Jo hn in t he very same mo m en t . O ne sees h im as

yo uth , wh i l e t he o ther beho lds a gray beard sage . Th en they r ub the i r eyes and se

d i f f e r e n t i m a g e s T o Jo h n , J e su s a p p e a r s d i f f e r e n t l y a t d i f f e r e n t m o m e n t s . S c h o la

mo t i f " the p o lym orp hou sne ss of t he sav ior ." Ag ain , i t i s t he ha l lma rk of Doc et i s

ma ny form s i s t o have no t rue form a t a l l .

Now, obvious ly no modern scholar be l i eves Jesus was a bodi l ess ghos t . A

t h e o l o g i c a l m y t h e m e o f d o c e t i c p o l y m o rp h o u sn e s s i s su rp r i s i n g l y r e l e v a n t to t h e c

d i scuss ion of t he h i s tor i ca l Jesus . Cal l i t a parab le . Because in t he same way t

w ho cou ld t ake so ma ny form s so read i ly had no rea l for m to beg in wi th , we m

a "h i s tor i ca l Jes us" capab le of b e ing por t raye d wi th near ly equa l p l aus ib i l i t y as a

revolu t ion ary , a Cynic sage , an apoca ly pt i c pr op he t , and so on , has no t rue and c

a t a l l The var ious scholar ly recons t ruc t ions of Jesus cance l each o ther ou t . Each s

un t i l y ou hear t he next one . T he inev i t ab l e co nc lus io n is t ha t even i f t here was

Jesus who ac tua l ly walked the ear th two thousand years ago , there is no historic

morel T he or ig in a l is i r recoverab le , un less som eon e inve nt s a t im e mac hine and go

meet Jesus as i n Michae l Moorcock ' s nove l

Behold the Man.

16

G e n e ra t i o n s o f R a t i o n a l i s t s a n d f r e e t h i n k e r s h a v e h el d t h a t J e su s C h r i s t c o r



s u r p r i s i n g l y , s h r i n k s f r o m d o i n g . N e x t , i n c h a p t e r 7 , I t u r n t o t h e r e l e v a n c e of

n o v e l s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c r u c i f i x i o n a c c o u n t s o f t h e g o s p e l s , a n d i n so d o i n g I

c l a r i f y t h e r e c e n t s u g g e s t i o n s o f J o h n D o m i n i c C r o s s a n , w h o , a g a i n , s e e m s t o tr

f a r d o w n a d a n g e r o u s p a t h h e h i m s e l f h a s m a r k e d o u t . T h e l a s t c h a p t e r c o n f r o n t

q u e s t i o n t h a t w i l l h a v e p o p p e d u p a g a i n a n d a g a i n i n t h e c h a p t e r s l e a d i n g u p t o

w h e t h e r J e s u s w a s a re a l h i s to r i c a l f i g u r e o r r a t h e r p e r h a p s a m y t h h i s t o r i c i z e d . T

b e t a k i n g u p i n s i g h t s f r o m J e r o m e H . N e y r e y a b o u t t h e c h r i st o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n

t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n . I n t h e p r o c e s s , I t h i n k w e w i l l s e e h o w e v e r y t h i n g o l d is n e w

w i l l f i n d t h a t s o m e o f t h e m o s t r a d i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h e s k e p t i c s o f p a s t g e n e r

i g n o r e d b y m a i n s t r e a m s c h o l a r s h i p , r e ce i v e n e w a n d s u r p r i s i n g s u p p o r t f r

s c h o l a r s h i p . I c o n t e n d t h a t ra d i c a l N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s h i p , w h i l e d i s d a i n i n g t

j o u r n e y w i t h B r u n o B a u e r , A r t h u r D r e w s , a n d o t h e r s , h a s a t l a s t c o m e a m a z i n g

m e e t i n g t h e m , l i k e a m y s t e r i o u s s t r a n g e r o n t h e r o a d t o E m m a u s , a t t h e s a m e d e s

NOTES



1. Robert M. Price, beyond born A gain: Toward E vangelical Maturity (Eugene : Hy patia

especially chapters 5-7.

2. Richard Rorty, "Min d as the Grasp of Universals ," in Philosophy and the Mirro

(Pr inceton: Pr inceton Univers i ty Press , 1979) , pp. 38-44.

3. Jacques Derrida, "Qual Quelle: Val^ry's Sources," in Margins of Philosophy, tran s

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 27 3- 3 06 ; Jacq ues Derrida , "Freud and

Wr i t ing , " in

Writing and Difference

, trans. Alan Bass (Unive rsity of Chicag o Press, 1978 ),

Jonathan Cul ler , On D econstruction: Theory and Meaning after Structuralism (Ithaca: Corne

Press , 1982) , pp. 92-95, 99.

4. Albert Schweitzer, The Q uest of the Historical Jesus: From Reimarus to Wred

M ontgo me ry (Ne w York: M acm illan, 1968); cf . , Alan Sherm an: "And your spine O h, your

divine It 's exactly l ike mine—now doesn't that seem strange?"

5. Jacques Derr ida, " . . . Th at Dangerous Supp lemen t ," in Of Grammatology

y

tr

Chakravor ty Spivak (Bal t imore: John s Ho pkins Univers i ty Press , 1976) , pp . 14 1-6 4.

6. Joh n D om inic Crossan, R aid on the Articulate: C omic Eschatology in Jesus and



York: Harpe r & Row, 1976) ; Jo hn Dom inic Crossan,

In Parables: The Challenge of the H

(New York: Harpe r & Row, 1973) ; Joh n Dom inic Crossan, Cliffs of Fall: Paradox and

the Parables of Jesus (New York: Seabury Press, 1980 ).

7. Harvey Falk,

Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of\ Jesus

(Mahw ah:

1985).

8. Geza Vermes , Jesus the Jew: A Historian's View of the Gospels (Glasgow : Fon tana/Co

9. Morton Smith,Jesus the Magician (New York: Harper & Row, 1978) . See also Jo

Hellenistic Magic and the Synoptic Tradition. Studies in Biblical Theology, Second Series 28

Alec R. Allenson, 1974); Stevan L. Davies,

Jesus the Healer: Possession, Trance, and th

Christianity (New York: Cont inuum, 1995) .

10. Hans Dieter Betz, ed., T he G reek Magical Papyri in T ranslation, 2d ed., vol. 1: Te

University of Chicago Press), 1992.

11. Robert Eisler, The Messiah Jesus and John the Baptist, trans . Alexander Ha gge

(New York: Dial Press, 1931); S. G . F. Brand on,

Jesus and the Zealots: A Study of the P

in Primitive Christianity (New York: Scribners, 1967 ); H ug h J. Schonfield, The Pentecost R

Story of the Jesus Party in Israel, A.D. 3 6 -6 6 (London: MacD onald, 1974) ; Hy am Maccoby,



Judea (Ne w York: Taplinger, 1980); A. J . M atti l l Jr . , Luke and the Last Things: A

Pers

Understanding of Lukan Thought

(Dilisboro: We stern No rth Carolina Press, 1979); Rob e

"Maccabees, Zadok i tes , Chr is t ians and Qu mra n: A N ew Hypo thes is of Chr is t ian Origins"

Sea Scrolls and the First Christians: Essays and Translations (Rockpo r t : Element Books , 1

Eisenman,

James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christia

Dead Sea Scrolls (Bal t imore: Viking Pengu in, 1996) ; Jua n Luis Segundo, The Historical

Synoptics. Jesus of Naz areth Yesterday an d Today, vol. 2, trans. Jo hn Drury. (Maryknoll:

John G. Gager ,

Kingdom and Com munity: The Social World of Early Christianity

(Engle-

Prent ice-Hal l , 1975) .

12. Joh n D ominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish P

York: HarperCollins, 1991); Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza,

In Mem ory of Her: A Femini

Reconstruction of Christian Origins (Ne w Y ork: Crossroad P ublis hing , 1984); Rich ard A. H

and the Spiral of Violence: Popular Jewish Resistance in Roman Palestine (Minne apolis: F

1993).

13. Ben P. Meyer,

The Aims of Jesus

(London: SCM Press, 1980); E. P. Sande rs,

Jesus

(Ph ilade lphi a: Fortress Press, 1985); E. P. Sand ers,

The Historical Figure ofJesus

(Lond

1993).



14. Joha nne s W eiss, Jesus' Proclamation of the K ingdom of God, trans. Richard Hyde H

Larrimore Holland (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971); Albert Schweitzer,

The Mystery of

of God: T he Secret of Jesus' Messiahship and Passion , trans. Walter Lowrie (New York

1950); Rudolf Bultmann,y&r/tf and the Word, trans. Louise P etti bone Sm ith and Erm i

Lantero (New York: Scribners, 1958).

15. Joach im Jeremias ,

The Parables of Jesus

, rev. ed., trans. S. H. Hooke (New Yor

1 9 7 2 ) ; G u n t h e r B o m k a m m , Jesus of Nazareth, trans. Irene and Fraser McLuskey (Ne w Yor

Row, I960) ; Norman Perr in,

Rediscovering

the Tea ching ofJesus (New York: Ha rper & Row ,

16. Science-fiction writers have undertak en just such a que st for the historical Jes

machine. See, e.g., William Hope Hodgson, "Eloi Eloi Lama Sabachthani," in O ut o

Uncollected Fantasies by William Hope Hodgson, ed. Sam M oskow itz (New York: Centau r B

pp. 77-108; Arthur J . Burks , "When the Graves Were Opened," in

Black Medicine

Arkham House, 1966) , pp. 90-110; Michael Moorcock, Behold the Man (Ne w York: Avon B



Chapter 1

RECONSTRUCTING

CHRISTIAN ORIGINS

THE M YTH O F THE EARLY C H U R C H

P

1

r e a c h e r s l o v e t o g i v e s e r m o n s t h a t m a k e t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n f e e l p r e

c o m p a r e d t o t h e s h i n i n g e x a m p l e o f t h e " e a rl y C h u r c h . " " O h t o h a v e b e e n t h e r e ,

the waves o f Pen tecos ta l pow er To have the i r love , the i r bo ldnes s , the i r su r



apos to l i c t ru th " Gr an ted , t oday ' s church es a re l uk ew arm , sp i r i t ua l ly d i f f ide n t ,

confu sed . Bu t was the early Ch urc h rea l ly a l l t ha t d i f fe ren t? W as there ever such

the early Church? Sooner or later you begin to suspect that what i s t rue of Jesus

Chr i s t i an i ty : I f t he h i s tor i ca l Jesus has go t t en los t beh in d the s t a ined-g lass cu r

Chr i s t o f dogma, t he ear ly Church i s equa l ly myth ica l , equa l ly a product o f ho ly

Th e of f ic i a l h i s tor i es of t h e C hu rch (such as t he Act s of t h e Apo st l es and

Ecclesiastical History) a re l i ke those "au tho r i zed b iogra phies" of Pa t Ro ber t so n and Je

"Author i zed" means " san i t i zed , " "whi t ewashed . " They wouldn ' t ca l l i t t ha t un less

so m eth ing to h ide and they had m anag ed to h ide i t . W e have to t ake say ing 6 of

o f Tho m as as our mo t to : "The re is no th in g h idd en th a t wi l l no t be revea led . " B

min d: I t i s l i ke ly to be no eas i er ge t t i n g back to pr im i t ive Ch r i s t i an i ty t han

excava t ing the h i s tor i ca l Jesus .

I f you have never t hou gh t abo ut t h i s ques t ion , I 'm su re you a re expe r i enc ing

d£ja vu anyway. In recent years Am erica ns have been forced to face the fact of

wid e ethn ic and cul tu ral diversi ty. Som e f ind it hard to ad m it tha t our co un tr

nar row pa tch of one b reed of f l owers , bu t ra ther a l uxur i an t gard en of d i f fe ren t

beaut i fu l b lossoms. Once we do admi t i t and come to apprec i a t e a l l t he exot i c

real ize that we are the ones who benefi t . We see there was never anything to



Ch r i s t i an r e l ig ion has the s am e les son to lea rn , b u t i s s lower in l ea rn ing i t . He

me an: An yon e can see tha t the K u K lux Kla n i s a bun ch of b igo t s , because they

only one var i e ty o f Am er ica ns i s goo d . Bu t the churc h can some ho w ge t away wi th

on ly one k i nd of Ch r i s t i an i ty is goo d: t r ad i t ion a l o r th od ox Chr i s t i an i ty . O h sure

d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n P r o t e s t a n t , C a t h o l i c , a n d E a s t e r n O r t h o d o x C h u r c h e s , b e t w e

Lu ther an , and P en te cos ta l . Bu t then th e K K K a l lows a b i t o f d iver s i ty , too , i f you

t h a t . Y o u c a n b e E n g l i s h , G e r m a n , I r i s h , F r e n c h , D u t c h , S c a n d i n a v i a n , w h a t e v e r , a s

a r e w h i t e . T h e c r i m e i s b e i n g n o n w h i t e . A n d f o r t h e r e s p e c t a b le b i g o t r y of

C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e c r i m e is b e i n g " u n o r t h o d o x . " H o w d i d C h r i s t i a n i t y c o m e t o l o o k

group? That ' s a long s to ry .

DIVERSITY AND DENIAL

T h e s t o r y o f h o w C h r i s t i a n i t y s u p p r e s s e d i t s e a r ly p l u r a l i s m i n f a v o r o f e m e r g e

o r t h o d o x y s t a r t s w i t h a n o t h e r s to r y , a p a r a b l e f o u n d i n M a t t . 1 3 :2 4 —3 0 . A f a

w he at in h i s f i e ld , loo k in g fo rw ard to a f ine c rop a t harves t t im e . Bu t as soon a



s t a r t t o s p r o u t , h i s f a r m h a n d s b r i n g h i m o m i n o u s n e w s : E v e r y o t h e r p l a n t i s n o t

d a r n e l w e e d T h e f a r m e r k n o w s t h i s i s n o a c c i d e n t . " A n e n e m y h a s d o n e t h i s " F

t h e o f f ic i a l h i s t o r i a n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y h a v e t a k e n t h i s p a r a b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e w a y

s t a r t e d o u t o r t h o d o x a n d t h e n b e c a m e i n f e s t e d w i t h h e r es y . C h r i s t h a d s o w n t h e

t h e g o o d s e e d o f o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y . B u t t h e n h e l e f t t h e sc e n e , r e t u r n i n g

l e a v i n g t h e f a r m i n c h a r g e o f t h e a p o s t l e s a n d t h e b i s h o p s . B u t , t o t h e i r h o r r o r

d i scove red t ha t Sa ta n had s l ippe d in an d p lan ted a l l so r t s o f f a l s e do c t r in es .

S i n c e i t i s a q u e s t i o n o f f a r m i n g , p e r h a p s w e n e e d t h e a d v i c e of a c o u p l e

T w o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s o f e a rl y C h r i s t i a n i t y w e r e a p a i r o f N e w

s c h o l ar s , F e r d i n a n d C h r i s t i a n B a u r ( 1 7 9 2 - 1 8 6 0 ) a n d W a l t e r B a u e r ( 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 6 0 ) .

n a m e s a re G e r m a n f o r " f a r m e r . " ) F. C . B a u r a n d W a l t e r B a u e r

1

p r e t t y m u c h

t r a d i t i o n a l ji g s a w p u z z l e u p i n t h e a i r a n d t h e n r e a s s e m b l e d t h e p i e c e s . T h e r e s u

d e s c r i b e d w i t h a n o t h e r p a r a b l e ( t h o u g h I ' m a f r a i d y o u w o n ' t f i n d t h i s o n e i n a n y

i s as i f a m an sow ed h i s f i e ld wi th a l l k i nd s o f s eeds a t r an do m . "Let a hu nd

b l o o m " h e s a i d . S o o n t h e p l a n t s b e g a n t o s p r o u t , e a c h d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r s

p l a n t w i t h l o n g t e n d r i l s c h o k e d o u t a l l t h e o t h e r s a n d f i l l e d t h e f i e l d w i t

s e e d l i n g s , a n d n o n e o t h e r w a s l e f t .



MANY LORDS MANY FAITHS MANY BAPTISMS

F. C . B a u r w a s t h e f i r s t t o n o t i c e h o w m u c h o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t o n l y m a d e

y o u r e a l iz e d t h e r e w a s a m a j o r c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t w o r i v a l C h r i s t i a n i t i e s : o n e

o r i e n t a t i o n , l e d b y S i m o n P e t e r ; t h e o t h e r G e n t i l e , l e d b y P a u l . T h e f i r s t k e p t

Law and saw Jesu s as a na t ion a l i s t i c Mess ia h . T he secon d saw the Law as

u n d e r s t o o d J e s u s i n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e d , " s p i ri t u a l i z e d " w ay . M o s t o f t h e N e w

w r i t i ng s l ined u p on e i th er s ide o f th i s g re a t d iv ide , an d th e r es t we re par t o f a

t o p a p e r o v er t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o n c e t h e t w o f a c t i o n s h a d b u r i e d t h e h a t c h e t a n d m

c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y . B a u r r e c o g n i z e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t M a t t h e w ' s g o s p e l d i r e c t s i t s

o b s e r v e s t r i c t l y e ve r y l a st r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e T o r a h ( M a t t . 5 : 1 7 - 1 9 ) a n d c o n d

o s t e n s i b l e C h r i s t i a n s w h o d o n ' t (M a t t . 7 : 2 1 - 2 3 : " D e p a r t f r o m m e , yo u w h

lawles snes s " ) . Pa u l and h i s fo l low ers m u s t b e in v iew here . T h e Epi s t l e o f J a m es

i t s s i g h t s , t o o ( " Y o u f o o l D o y o u w a n t t o b e s h o w n t h a t f a i t h a p a r t f r o m w o r k

J a m e s 2 : 2 0 , a f t e r w h i c h f o l lo w s a r e f u t a t i o n o f R o m . 3 : 2 7 - 4 : 1 - 5 f f. ) O n t h e o t h



G a l a t i a n s a n d 2 C o r i n t h i a n s , P a u l l a m b a s t e s c e r t a i n " s u p e r a p o s t l e s " w h o r e q u i

P a u l i n e c o n v e r t s t o " j u d a i z e " ( 2 C o r . 1 1 : 4 - 5 , 1 3 - 1 5 ; G a l . 1 : 6 - 9 ; 2 : 1 4 ) . P a u l c l a i m

r e p r e s e n t a f a l s e g o s p e l m e s s a g e d e s i g n e d b y S a t a n . M a r k ' s g o s p e l s id e s w i t h P a u l

t h a t J e s u s s w e p t a w a y a l l k o s h e r la w s ( M a r k 7 : 1 9 ) , a n e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t t h a t

M a t t h e w c l i p p e d w h e n h e a p p r o p r i a t e d t h a t s e c t i o n o f M a r k i n t o h i s o w n l

( c o m p a r e M a t t . 1 5 : 1 7 ) . J e w i s h T o r a h - C h r i s t i a n s l i k e M a t t h e w v e n e r a t e d P e t e r a n d

w ho obvio us ly s tood for the tw elve t r ibe s o f I s r ae l . Pa u l , as we ha ve seen , had l

f o r t h e s e m e n . M a r k p a r a l l e l s P a u l i n t h i s , t o o , p o r t r a y i n g t h e d i s c i p l e s o f J e s u s a

id io t s every chance he ge t s .

2

B a u r p l a c e d R e v e l a t i o n , w i t h i t s r e v e r e n c e f o r

apo s t l es o f th e L am b" (Rev . 21 :14 ) an d for th e twelv e " t r ibe s o f th e sons o f

7 : 4 - 8 ; 2 1 : 1 2 ) , i n t h e c o l u m n w i t h M a t t h e w a n d J a m e s , w h i l e t h e G o s p e l a n d

J o h n , t o g e t h e r w i t h H e b r e w s , b e l o n g e d m o r e o r l es s i n t h e P a u l i n e c a m p .

Re pre sen t ing t he l a t e r s t age of r econc i l i a t ion were L uke ' s gosp e l and i t s s equ

of th e Apos t l es , as we l l as 1 and 2 Pe te r . Ac t s para l l e l s Pe te r and Pa u l , ha v ing

p r e a c h t h e s a m e m e s s a g e a n d p e r f o r m i d e n t i c a l m i r a c l e s : m i r a c u l o u s ja i l b r e a k s (A c

1 6 : 2 3 - 2 6 ) ; h e a l i n g b y s h a d o w s o r c l o t h i n g ( A c t s 5 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; 1 9 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) ; ra i s i n g t h e

9 : 3 6 ^ 2 ; 2 0 : 7 - 1 2 ) ; re s t o r in g t h e l a m e ( A c t s 3 : 1 - 8 ; 1 4 : 8 - 1 0 ) ; a n d s q u a r i n g o f f w i t

( A c t s 8 : 9 - 2 4 ; 1 3 : 6 - 1 1 ) . T h e T w e l v e a r e h o n o r e d , b u t s o i s P a u l . A n d t h o u g h L u k



put the Twelve on a s l igh t ly h igher l eve l , he spends mos t o f h i s nar r a t ive on th

P a u l . N o f a n o f e i t h e r f i g u r e h e a d , P e t e r o r P a u l , c o u l d r e a d L u k e ' s A c t s a n d c o m e

his hos t i l i ty to th e o th er l e f t i n t a c t . L ikew ise the pse ud ep igra ph ica l Ep i s t l es o f Pe te

Pe te r wh o in 1 Pe te r soun ds l ike Pau l ( so m uc h so , in f ac t , t h a t m an y scholar s

the w r i t e r o f 1 Pe te r cop ied f ro m the P au l ine E pi s t l e to the E phes ians ) , an d

m e n t i o n s P a u l b y n a m e , c a l l i n g h i m " b l e s s e d ," s o l o n g a s o n e d o e s n ' t i n t e r p r e t h i s

a h e r e t i c a l f a s h i o n (2 P e t . 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . T h u s L u k e - A c t s a n d 1 a n d 2 P e t e r , B a u

" c a t h o l i c i z i n g " i n t h e i r t e n d e n c y , j u s t as a r e t h e l a te r c h u r c h l e g e n d s t h a t m a k e P e t

a k i n d o f d y n a m i c d u o , w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r t o f o u n d t h e c h u r c h a t R o m e . D i t t o f o

n o t i o n t h a t t h e T w e l v e f a n n e d o u t a c r o s s t h e k n o w n w o r l d p r e a c h i n g t h e g o s p e l . P

m ak e i t p re t ty c l ear tha t h e , no t they , was the one and o n ly apos t l e to the G e

2 : 7 - 9 ; R o m . 1 : 5 , 1 4 ; 1 5 : 1 5 - 2 0 ) . L a t e r l e g e n d r e m o d e l e d t h e T w e l v e , o r i g i n a l l y t h

o f J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s in P a l e s t i n e ( M a t t . 1 9 : 2 8 : " Y o u s h a l l s i t o n t w e l v e t h r o n e s , g o

twe lve t r ibes o f Is r ae l " ) , i n the ima ge of the j e t - s e t t ing Pau l .

I be l i eve m uc h , even m os t , o f Baur ' s r econ s t ru c t io n i s s t i l l pe r suas ive , as f a r

T h e r e w a s , h o w e v e r , m o r e t o s ay , a n d W a l t e r B a u e r s a id a l o t o f i t . H e j u m p e d

s e c o n d c e n t u r y . B y r e e x a m i n i n g j u s t a b o u t e v e ry s c r a p o f e v i d e n c e s u r v i v i n g f r o m

B a u e r u n c o v e r e d a r e m a r k a b l e f a c t : I t t u r n e d o u t t h a t i n s e v e ra l m a j o r s e g m e



M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d , t h e f i r s t k i n d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t o s e t u p s h o p a n d h a n g o u t

w a s n o t w h a t w e k n o w a s c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y a t a l l , b u t r a t h e r o n e o r a n o t h e r

s o - c a l le d h e r e s y. O n t h i s o r t h a t f r o n t i e r o f C h r i s t i a n e x p a n s i o n , " C h r i s t i a n i t y " s i

M a r c i o n i s m , E b i o n i s m , E n c r a t i s m , G n o s t i c i s m . T h e r e s u l t a n t p i c t u r e , o f c o u r se , w a

t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v e r s i o n o f E u s e b i u s , C o n s t a n t i n e ' s a p o l o g i s t a n d p e t t h e o l o g i a

" h e r e s y " h a d a p p e a r e d o n l y a f t e r t h e a p o s t l e s h a d p l a n t e d c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y a

R o m a n E m p i r e . E u s e b i u s h a d it t h a t t h e a p o s t l e s h a d p a s s e d o n t h e d o c t r i n e

t h e i r h a n d p i c k e d s u c c e s so r s , t h e b i s h o p s , w h o h a n d e d i t o n t o t h e i r o w n s u c c es s o r s

i n t o E u s e b i u s ' o w n t i m e . T h e " h e r e t i c s " h e l i b e l e d a s e c c e n t r i c s a n d t r o u b l e m

c o o k e d u p p e r v e r s e a n d b a s e le s s v i e w s , l e a v e n i n g t h e l u m p o f o r t h o d o x y f o r w a n t

be t t e r to do .

W a l t e r B a u e r b e g a n h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f t h i s s c e n a r i o b y

E d e s s a , a m a j o r c e n t e r of e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y i n e a s t e r n S y r ia . H e s h o w e d h o w t h

of Edessa r ecords as even t s o f no te the b i r ths o r a r r iva l s o f Marc ion , Bardesanes

b e f o r e i t e v e r g e t s a r o u n d t o m e n t i o n i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c h u r c h b u i l d i n g

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o r t h o d o x y . E u s e b i u s h i m s e l f h a s n o t h i n g t o s ay o f a n y e a r ly o r t h

t i a n i t y i n t h e a r e a , t h o u g h h e c a n n o t h e l p m e n t i o n i n g t h e e a r ly m i n i s t r y o f B a r

t h e c i r c u l a t i o n t h e r e o f t h e D i a t e s s a r o n o f T a t i a n (a c o m p i l a t i o n of M a t t h e w , M



J o h n , a n d a b i t of T h o m a s i n t o a s i n g l e n a r r a t i v e ) , w h i c h E u s e b i u s c o n s i d e r e

J u s t i n M a r t y r a n d h e r e s i o l o g i s t s t e l l u s t h e e m b a r r a s s i n g f a c t t h a t t h e n a m e " C

E d e s s a w a s t h e e x c l u s i v e p r o p e r t y o f t h e M a r c i o n i t e s , a n d t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t l y

o r t h o d o x h a d t o b e s a t i s fi e d w i t h b e i n g c a l l e d " P a l u t i a n s " a f t e r t h e f i r s t o r t h o

P a l u t . I n f a c t , t h i s r e m a i n e d t h e s t a t e o f a f fa i r s u n t i l t h e M u s l i m c o n q u e s t A

c o n t e m p o r a r y G r e a t e r A r m e n i a m a k e s c le a r t h a t " h e r e s y " w a s i n t h e v a s t m a j o

r e g i o n . I n l i g h t of t h e s e f a c t s, B a u e r d e d u c e d t h a t t h e f a m o u s a p o c r y p h a l c o r

b e t w e e n K i n g A b g a r u s o f E d e s s a a n d J e s u s ( i n w h i c h t h e k i n g , h a v i n g h e a r d

p l o t s o n J e s u s ' l i fe , i n v i t e s h i m t o t a k e r e f u g e i n E d e s s a ) m u s t h a v e o r i g i n a t e d a s

p e d i g r e e f o r a p o s t o l i c o r t h o d o x y i n E d e s s a d a t i n g b a c k a l r e a d y t o t h e t i m e o f J e

a p o s t l e A d d a i ( T h a d d a e u s ) , w h o m h e s e n t t o A b g a r u s w i t h h i s " T h a n k s , b u t n o t h a

H e l m u t K o e s t e r h a s s u p p l e m e n t e d B a u e r ' s a r g u m e n t h e r e b y l o c a t i n g t

t r a d i t i o n ( t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , A c t s o f T h o m a s , B o ok o f T h o m a s t h e C o n t e n

o n ) i n e a s t e r n S y r i a. T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e " h e r e t i c a l " t e n d e n c i e s in t h e r e g i o n g o

e a r ly i n d e e d , p e r h a p s e v e n t o t h e a p o s t l e T h o m a s h i m s e l f , w h o t r a d i t i o n s ay s m i s s

r e g i o n .

In we s te rn Syr ia , A nt io ch espec ia l ly , we see a s imi la r p i c tu re . An t ioc h i s a l r ea

as a m ajo r cen te r of Ch r i s t i a n mis s io n ac t iv i ty in A ct s and Ga la t i an s . Pau l ,



s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t w o p a r t i e s , n e i t h e r o f w h i c h w o u l d q u a l i f y a s o r t h o d o x b y l a t e

J o h n t h e R e v e l a t o r r e p r e s e n t s a t y p e o f a s c e ti c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y ( i t i s o n l y 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 "

h a v e n o t d e f i l e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h w o m e n " w h o w i l l b e s a v e d ; R e v. 1 4 : 4 ) , a n d h i s

m i e s , t o b e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e v en c h u r c h e s u n d e r J o h n ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n , a r e

s e c t o f t h e N i c o l a i t a n s .

In Act s and the Pas tora l Ep i s t l es (qu i t e l ike ly a l l t he work of one au thor ) w

s t r a t e g i c a d m i s s i o n m a d e p s e u d o n y m o u s l y t h r o u g h t h e l i p s o f " P a u l " t h a t " A l l A s i a

a g a i n s t m e " ( 2 T i m . 1 : 1 5 ) a n d t h a t " a f t e r m y d e p a r t u r e s a v a g e w o l v e s w i l l c o m

y o u , n o t s p a r i n g t h e f l o c k " o f t h e E p h e s i a n c h u r c h ( A c t s 2 0 : 2 9 ) . I n o t h e r w

ca th o l i c i z ing sources m ak e the bes t o f th e f ac t tha t Pau l ' s m in i s t ry in As ia M in

s u c c e e d e d b y c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y . O f c o u r s e t h e a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t P a u l m u s t

o r t h o d o x v i e w s , s o L u k e c a n o n l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t a t e o f t h i n g s i n h i s d a y

c e n t u r y ) a s t h e r e s u l t o f a n a p o st a s y f r o m a n i m a g i n e d P a u l i n e p u r i t y .

E g y p t p r e s e n t s u s w i t h t h e s a m e p i c t u r e y e t a g a i n . T h e f i r s t a t t e s t e d w o r k e r s

t h e r e w e r e t h e G n o s t i c s V a l e n t i n u s , B a s i l i d e s , A p e l l e s , C a r p o c r a t e s , a n d h i s

P h l e g o n p r e s e r v e s a l e t t e r a t t r i b u t e d t o H a d r i a n n o t i n g t h a t a l l C h r i s t i a n p r i e s t

w o r s h i p p e d S e r a p is , t o o T h e le a d i n g g o s p e l s i n E g y p t , t h e G o s p e l s a c c o r d i n g t o t

a n d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e E g y p t i a n s , a s f a r a s w e c a n t e l l f r o m t h e i r e x t a n t f r a g m

G n o s t i c o r h e r e t i c a l i n c o l o r. B a u e r c o u l d d e t e c t n o t ra c e o f o r t h o d o x y i n E g y p



t h i r d - c e n t u r y b i s h o p D e m e t r i u s . B u t d o e s n o t t r a d i t i o n m a k e t h e g o s p e l - w r i t e r M a

b i s h o p o f E g y p t ? I n d e e d i t d o e s , b u t l ik e t h e L e t t e r s o f J e s u s a n d A b g a r u s ,

s e e m s t o b e b u t a n o t h e r s p u r i o u s r e t r o a c t i v e p e d i g r e e m e a n t t o f a b r i c a t e a n " o r t h o

f o r E g y p t i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y ( a s s u m i n g M a r k a n d h i s g o s p e l c o u l d t h e m s e l v e s

o r t h o d o x ) .

B a u e r l i v e d t o s e e h i s p o r t r a i t o f E g y p t i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y a m p l y c o n f i r m

d i sc o v e r y i n 1 9 4 5 o f t h e N a g H a m m a d i l ib r a ry ,

3

a c a c h e m a i n l y o f G n o s t i c g o s p e

t r a c t s , a n d r e v e l a t i o n s , w h i c h r e v e a l e d a n a s t o n i s h i n g d i v e r s i t y o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s

t h e b r e a d t h o f w h i c h n o t e v e n B a u e r h a d d a r e d s u s p e c t W h o w o u l d h a v e g

S e t h i a n G n o s t i c s h a d b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e r

o f S e t h o r o f M e l c h i z e d e k ? O r t h a t J e s u s w a s b e l i e v e d i n s o m e q u a r t e r s t o h a v

r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f " t h e I l l u m i n a t o r " Z o r o a s t e r ? W h a t m a k e s t h i s d i s c o v e r y a l l

a s t o n i s h i n g is t h a t a s s o c i a te d d o c u m e n t s s h o w t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f l e a t h e r - b o u n d v o l u m

b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h e m o n a s t i c l i b r a r y o f t h e B r o t h e r h o o d o f S a i n t P a c h o m i u s

k n o w n C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t e r y . A p p a r e n t l y w h e n t h e m o n k s r e c e i v e d t h e E a s t e r

A t h a n a s i u s i n 3 6 7 C .E ., w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e f i r s t k n o w n l i s t i n g o f t h e c a n o n i c a l t

N e w T e s t a m e n t b o o k s , w a r n i n g t h e f a i t h f u l t o r e ad n o o t h e r s , t h e b r e t h r e n

d e c i d e d t o h i d e t h e i r c h e r i s h e d " h e r e t i c a l " g o s p e l s , l e s t t h e y f a l l i n t o t h e h a



e c c l e s ia s t ic a l b o o k b u r n e r s . W e m a y p e r h a p s t a k e t h a t m o n a s t e r y a s a c a m e o , a m

E g y p t i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , d i v e r s e i n d o c t r i n e , t h o u g h s o o n

b e n e a t h t h e s m o t h e r i n g v e i l o f c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y .

H o w d i d c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y m a n a g e t o d o m i n a t e ? B a u e r s a w R o m e as c e n

d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e r e i s s t r i k i n g e v i d e n c e fo r a n e a rl y d i v e r s i t y o f b e l ie f i n t h e R o m

i n c l u d i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f M a r c i o n a n d V a l e n t i n u s b e i n g i n f l u e n t i a l l e a d e r s t h e r e

( s o m e t h i n g a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e i f R o m e h a d t h e n s h a r e d t h e s a m e v i e w

a r c h h e r e t i c s a s l a t e r o r t h o d o x y w o u l d ) . T h e S h e p h e r d o f H e r m a s , a w o r k o n c e

s i d e r e d t o b e a u t h o r i t a t i v e s c r i p t u r e , w a s t h e w o r k o f H e r m a s , t h e b r o t h e r o f B i s h

R o m e ( d i e d 1 5 4 C . E . ) , a n d i t c o n t a i n s t e a c h i n g s s ca r c e ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f l a

o r t h o d o x y , e s p e c ia l l y a s r e g a r d s J e s u s C h r i s t . In i t , J e s u s is p o r t r a y e d a s a n a r c h a n g

H o l y S p i r i t i s t h e f i r s t S o n o f G o d w h o in t e r c e d e s w i t h h i s F a t h e r t o r e s u r r e c

f a i t h f u l h o s t b o d y , a s t h e se c o n d S o n o f G o d B u t e v e n t u a l l y c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y

R o m e , a n d t h a n k s t o t h e e m e r g i n g m y t h of a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s i o n , t h e b i s h o p s o f

t h e i r s p u r i o u s p e d i g r e e o f j o i n t P e t r i n e - P a u l i n e f o u n d a t i o n , p u l l e d r a n k . C a t h o l i c

s p r e a d n e x t t o C o r i n t h v i a t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f 1 a n d 2 C o r i n t h i a n s a n d 1 C l e m

H a r n a c k w a s r i g h t , 2 C l e m e n t , t o o , p o s s i b l y w r i t t e n b y t h e R o m a n b i s h o p S



o t h e r h e r e s i o l o g i s t s l a t e - d a t e d M a r c i o n a n d o t h e r h e r e t i c s a n d f o r g e d a " h e r e t i c a l



w h e r e b y i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e y a ll i n h e r i t e d t h e i r e r r o r s f r o m o n e a n o t h e r a l o n

c h a n n e l . T h e p o i n t o f t h i s w a s t o m a k e u n o r t h o d o x id e a s a p p e a r t o b e a l a t e g r o

a s t h e p r o p e r t y o f a fe w r e l a t e d e c c e n t r i c s i n s t e a d o f t h e w i d e s p r e a d c r e d o s o f w h

o f C h r i s t e n d o m . L i k e w i s e , E u s e b i u s re f e r s t o a v a s t c o r p u s o f a n t i h e r e t i c a l l i t e r a

back to the s econd ce n tu ry , bu t he ac tu a l ly c i t es very l i t t l e , im pl y i ng he

g e n e r a l i z e d f r o m a v e r y f e w s p e c i m e n s k n o w n t o h i m ( h i s m e t h o d a t m a n y o t h e

wel l ) .

W h y d i d R o m e p re v a i l? W h y d i d R o m a n p r o p a g a n d a su c c e e d ? T h e o r t h o d o x

o r g a n i z a t i o n . A m o n g t h e h e r e t i c s, t h e t w o m o v e m e n t s w h o d i d o r g a n i z e i n t o c o

t h e s e c o n d - c e n t u r y M a r c i o n i t e s a n d t h e t h i r d - c e n t u r y M a n i c h e a n G n o s t i c s , flo uris h

t h e e m p i r e a n d b e y o n d u n t i l t h e y w e r e e x t e r m i n a t e d w i t h i n R o m e ' s b o u n d a r i e

a w a y s lo w l y e l s e w h e r e . M o s t G n o s t i c s , b y c o n t r a s t , e x i s te d a s s e c r e t iv e c e l l s w

c a t h o l i c c o n g r e g a t i o n s a n d w e r e f o rc e d t o l e a v e o r k e e p q u i e t . G n o s t i c s in g

f i s s i p a r o u s a n d f r e e t h i n k i n g . T h e y w e r e n o t t h e t y p e t o f o r g e a n d e n f o r c e a s i n g l e

E n c o u r a g i n g i n d i v i d u a l s p i r i t u a l e x p l o r a t i o n , t h e y w e r e n o t g r e a t i n s t i t u t i o n - b u i l

b a n d e d t o g e t h e r o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , c i r c le s

g a t h e r e d a r o u n d a t e a c h e r . S u c h is n o t t h e s t u f f o f m a s s m o v e m e n t s . A l s o , c a t h o l i



ANOTHER JESUS A DIFFERENT GOSPEL

You can imagine the sor t o f reac t ions the research of bo th Baur and Bauer c

There was , t o pu t i t mi ld ly , near -universa l hos t i l i t y . Most s imply s topped up the i r

b l asphemy (Act s 7 :57) . But , l i ke the fa rmer in t he gospe l parab le of t he sower (M

Ba ur and B auer fo un d tha t t he seed they had p l a n te d d id occas iona l ly t ake roo t

In sp i r e d b y t h e w o rk o f W a l t e r B a u e r , t w o c o n t e m p o ra ry s c h o l a r s o f t h e N e w T e s

E a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , H e l m u t K o e s t e r a t H a rv a rd a n d Ja m e s M . R o b i n so n a t C l a

toge ther a co l l ec t ion of t he i r research ca l l ed T rajectories Through Early Christianity.

4

fo l lowed the hu nc h tha t t he d ivers i ty Bau er had revea led in seco nd-c entur y C hr i s t

have gr ow n out of a s im i l a r d ivers i ty i n f i r s t - cen tury Ch r i s t i an i ty . T ha t i dea by i t s

par t i c u l a r ly new. Af t e r a l l , F. C . Bau r had a l read y t raced ou t som e of t he fau l t - l i

T e s t a m e n t - e r a C h r i s t i a n i t y . B u t t h e re w a s m o re t o t h e m a p , a n d a g re a t a m o u

evidence had been d i scovered not on ly s ince Baur ' s t ime , bu t s ince Bauer ' s a

a p p re c i a t e t h e r e c o n s t ru c t i o n s o f K o e s t e r a n d R o b i n so n , w e m u s t b r i e f l y su rv e y

t y p e s o f s e c o n d - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n i t y ; t h e n w e w i l l b e a b l e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e l i n k s



R o b i n s o n t r a c e d f r o m t h e s e c o n d b a c k i n t o t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y .

Marcionism w a s a c h u r c h f o u n d e d b y M a r c i o n o f S i n o p e i n t h e e a r ly s e c o

T h o u g h B a u r u n d e r s t o o d P a u l t o b e t h e g r e a t s p e a r h e a d o f G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y

c e n t u r y , I b e l i e v e t h a t w e l o o k i n v a i n f o r a n y f i r s t - c e n t u r y P a u l i n i s m . T h e f i r

m o v e m e n t i n e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t y , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o n l y o n e t h a t a t i m e - t r a v e l i n g

m i g h t r e c o g n i z e s o m e k i n s h i p w i t h , w a s M a r c i o n i s m . M a r c i o n i t e s b e li e v e d t h a t P

o n l y t r u e a p o s t l e a n d i n t e r p r e t e d h i m t o m e a n t h a t t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t G o d w

F a t h e r o f J e s u s C h r i s t . T h e l o v i n g F a t h e r h a d n o t c r e a t e d h u m a n b e i n g s b u t l a t e

t o a d o p t t h e m a s h i s c h i l d r e n . M a r c i o n i t e s w e r e r a d i c a l ly a s c e t ic a n d r e q u i r e d c e l

b a p t i z e d C h r i s t i a n s . M a r c i o n w a s v e r y l i k e l y t h e f i r s t t o c o l l e c t t h e P a u l i n e E p i s t

m a d e t h e m t h e b a s is o f t h e f i r s t k n o w n " N e w T e s t a m e n t , " w h i c h h e ca l l e d t h e

a d d i n g a s i n g l e g o s p e l , a n e a r l ie r , s h o r t e r v e r s io n o f L u k e . H e r e j e c t e d t h e O l d T

t h e s c r i p t u r e o f J u d a i s m . I t w a s n o t t h a t M a r c i o n w a s a n t i S e m i t i c , o r e v e n

( c h a r g e s o f t e n l e v e l e d a t h i m b y s c h o l a r s t o d a y ) . R a t h e r , h e s i m p l y r e c o g n i z e d t h

a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y w e r e d i f f e r e n t , s e p a r a t e r e l i g i o n s . M a r c i o n w e n t s o f a r a s t o g r a

O l d T e s t a m e n t w a s a n a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t o f t h e d e a l i n g s o f t h e H e b r e w G o d w i t h

T h e p r o p h e c i e s o f t h a t s c r i p t u r e w e r e r e l i a b l e a n d t r u e , e v e n t h o s e p r e d i c t i n g

Messiah , a Dav id i c k ing . I t was jus t t ha t , as Ma rc ion read t he m , these p rophe c



re fe rence to Jes us of Naz are th . O ne day the Mess i ah of Jew ish exp ec ta t ion w ou

l ibera t e h i s people . Bu t h i s peop le were no t C hr i s t i an s , and he wo uld n o t be Jes

gr an ted the r igh teou snes s of t he Ol d Te s t am ent G od , bu t he saw i t as t he rough

an or i en t a l des pot , ru th l es s and inexorable . Jes us ' d iv in e fa ther , on the o th er h

jud ge no one . Chr i s t i an s se rved h im n ot ou t o f fear bu t f rom love and gr a t i t u de .

5

t ha t had M arc ion ' s v iews preva i l ed as of f i c i a l Ch r i s t i an do c t r in e , t he h i s tory of t

b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n s a n d Je w s m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e ra b l y d i f f e r e n t . C h r i s t i a n s

h a v e h a d t o p re t e n d t h a t J e w i sh s c r i p t u re s w e re r e a l l y t e a c h i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y , n

Chr i s t i ans would no t have fe l t compel l ed to cove t and contes t t he ro l e of Jews a

c h i l d re n o f t h e H e b re w G o d .

M a rc i o n ' s n a t u ra l o p p o n e n t s w e re Jewish believers in Jesus as t he True P

Mess i ah . In t he i r op in ion , Jes us had com e not t o abol i sh th e Law of Moses b

pu r i fy i t o f forg ed in t e rp ola t io ns . Je re mi ah had lon g ago charged the " ly ing

scr ibes" wi th fa l s i fy ing the Torah (Jer . 8 :8) , ad din g spur iou s l aws m an da t in g b lo

sa c r if i ce , a t h i n g G o d h a d n e v e r t h o u g h t o f w h e n h e g a v e t h e T e n C o m m a n d m e n

(Jer . 7 : 21 -2 6) . O ne f ac t ion of Je wi sh Jesus be l i evers , t he Ebio ni t es (" the poor"

Jesus and Moses had founded d i f fe ren t covenant s of equa l va l id i ty .

6

Ma ny re j ec t ed



b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e y t o o k a l i b e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f se v e r a l c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e



a s s a b b a t h o b s e r v a n c e a n d h a n d w a s h i n g , w h i l e t a k i n g c a r e t o k e e p d i e t a r y l a w s .

l a t e r r a b b i s , t h e y d i s d a i n e d t h e c o m m o n " m i n i m u m r e q u i r e m e n t s " v e r si o n o f r

i n s t e a d s t r e ss e d a " h i g h e r r i g h t e o u s n e s s , " e x a l t i n g t h e a t t i t u d e o f h o l i n e s s t h a t

t r u l y p i o u s t o s h r i n k i n h o r r o r f r o m si n a n d t o n i p it i n t h e b u d b y s t r i c t l y

e v e r y t h o u g h t a n d i m p u l s e ( M a t t . 5 : 2 0 - 4 8 ) . W h i l e i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o d o s o , b e f

t h e M a t t h e a n s , o r D i s c i p l e s o f t h e K i n g d o m o f H e a v e n ,

7

p r a c t i c e d s a c r i f i ce a t t h

t e m p l e . B u t t h e y r e s i st e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g r a b b i n i z a t i o n o f J u d a i s m , r e p u d i a t e d

" r ab b i" as an hon or i f i c t i t l e , and v i l i f i ed th e Pha r i s ee s ec t , t h e i r m ore succes s fu l

a n i n it i a l i n d i f f e r e n c e t o G e n t i l e s a n d S a m a r i t a n s ( M a t t . 1 0 : 5 ) t h e c o m m u n i t y u

m i s s i o n t o t h e n a t i o n s ( M a t t . 2 8 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) , t h o u g h w h e t h e r G e n t i l e s w e r e i n v i e w

J e w s , w e d o n o t k n o w .

T h e s e " J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s " w o u l d n o t h a v e c a ll e d t h e m s e l v e s " C h r i s t i a n s . " T

p r o d u c t o f G e n t i l e J e s u s w o r s h i p . I n s t e a d t h e y w o u l d s i m p l y h a v e a t t r a c t e d f a c t i

t h e m s e l v e s , s o m e a s c r i b e d t o t h e m b y J e w s w h o d i d n o t a c c e p t t h e i r f a i t h . T h e

E b i o n i t e s ( " t h e P o o r , " a t i t l e a p p e a r i n g i n G a l . 2 : 1 0 a n d o f t e n in t h e D e a d S e a

E l c h a s i t e s ( n a m e d a f t e r t h e b a p t i z i n g p r o p h e t E l c h a s a i) , a n d t h e N a z a r e n e s / N a z o r e a

s o u r c e s t e l l u s t h a t t h e N a z a r e n e s a g r e e d w i t h e m e r g i n g H e l l e n i s t i c - c a t h o l i c C h r

mos t respec t s , except t ha t t hey b e l i eved th a t t hey as Je w s s t i l l needed to kee p



t h o u g h G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n s n e e d n ' t t r o u b l e t h e m se l v e s . M y g u e s s is t h a t t h e se

represe n ted a co mp rom ise wi th G en t i l e Ch r i s t i an i ty , as F. C . Baur had once s

k ind of t heo logica l ass imi l a t ion i sm.

Cut t ing across t he l i nes of severa l o ther groups , Encratites (" se l f -cont ro l l e r

sexual ly co nt in ent " ) shared th e be l i e f t ha t s in was a t bo t to m sexual , and th

required cel ibacy, so as to undo the sin of Adam and Eve.

8

B a p t i sm re s t o re d t h e

oneness of Ad am before Eve was separa t ed f rom h im . W i th conv ent iona l g

cance led , t he Encra t i t es had women apos t l es and prophet s , re j ec t ed t rad i t i ona l

f a m i l y s t ru c t u re s , a n d e m b ra c e d p a c i f i sm , v e g e t a r i a n i sm , a n d e g a l i t a r i a n i sm . T h

awa i t ed the Second C om ing of Chr i s t t o des t roy the fa l l en wo r ld order . In al l t h

they were much l i ke the Amer i can sec t o f t he Shakers .

Gnostic Ch r i s t i an s cher i sh ed secre t , my st i ca l teach ings they be l ieved h ad be en

by Jesus to se l ec t ed d i sc ip l es .

9

Gn ost i cs (" those in t he k now ") be l i eved themse

me mb ers of a h ig her race possess ing a spark of d iv in e na t ure , un l ike the mass o

They spun fan tas t i ca l ly e l abora t e myths of t he c rea t ion in which some lower g

crea t ed the mater i a l wor ld by mis t ake , k idnapping d iv ine sp i r i t s f rom the rea lm

p o p u l a t e t h e e a r t h a n d p ro v i d e so m e se m b l a n c e of o rd e r a m i d t h e c h a o s . J e su s h a

i n a p h a n t o m l i k e n e s s o f a h u m a n b o d y i n o r d e r t o a w a k e n t h e G n o s t i c s t o t h e



t h e i r t r u e o r i g i n a n d d e s t i n y . T h e y v i e w e d t h e i r o w n r o l e a s s e e k i n g t o r e d e e m t h e

o n e s , m u c h l i k e t h e l o n g - s u f f e r i n g B o d h i s a t tv a s o f M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s m .

W h a t h a p p e n e d t o a l l t h i s d i v e r s i t y ?

I t s e e m s l i k e E n c r a t i s m w a s d o m e s t i c a t e d b y c a t h o l i c C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d s e g r e g

th e s ide in th e fo r m of th e ce l iba te o rde r s o f p r i es t s an d n un s . Bu t i t w asn ' t fo r

E b i o n i t e s a n d o t h e r " J e s u s - J u d a i s m s " l a s t e d f o r s e v e r al c e n t u r i e s

1 0

( con t r a ry to

w h o t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e a l l s w a l l o w e d u p i n a c o m p r o m i s e w i t h P a u l i n i s m ) . B u t

a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y g r e w f u r t h e r a n d f u r t h e r a p a r t , e a c h i n c r e a s i n g l y d e f i n i n g i t s e l f i n

t o t h e o t h e r , J e s u s - J e w s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u t a m a r k e t s h a re . G e n t i l e

L a w - f r e e P a u l i n e o r c a t h o l i c C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h i l e J e w s w a n t e d n o t h i n g t o d o

n o t o r i o u s n a m e o f J e s u s , t h e n e w p a g a n id o l . W i t h G n o s t i c s a n d M a r c i o n i t e s i t

d i f f e r e n t s t o ry . O n c e t h e E m p e r o r C o n s t a n t i n e c h o s e c a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y a

C h r i s t i a n i t y , i t w a s s o o n o p e n s e a s o n o n t h e " h e r e t i c s . " ( " H e r e s y , " b y t h e w a y , s i m

" c h o i c e. " I t c a m e t o m e a n " t h o u g h t c r i m e , " i m p l y i n g i t w a s b l a s p h e m y t o p r e s u m

y o u r o w n b e l i e f i n s t e a d o f s w a l l o w i n g w h a t t h e b i s h o p s s p o o n f e d y o u . ) T h e y g

e x t e r m i n a t i n g t h e i r r i v a ls w i t h f i r e a n d s w o r d , b u r n i n g t h e i r s c r i p t u r e s a n d t h e i r f



THIS TREASURE IN EARTHEN VESSELS

In 194 5 , j us t a year before the d i scovery of t he Dead Sea Scro l ls , Eg ypt i an

a c c i d e n t a l l y u n e a r t h e d t h e N a g H a m m a d i G n o s t i c t e x t s . R e m e m b e r , t h e se h a d

been the l i b ra ry of t he mo nas t e ry of Sa in t Pa ch om ius , deep-s ixed on ce the mo nk s

Ath ana s ius ' Eas t e r Encycl i ca l o f 367 C.E ., req ui r ing a l l t rue Ch r i s t i an s to rea

p re se n t l i s t o f t w e n t y - se v e n N e w T e s t a m e n t b o o k s a n d n o o t h e r s . K n o w i n g t h e

w o u l d so o n b e m a k i n g t h e i r ro u n d s , t h e b re t h re n b u r i e d l e a t h e r s a t c h e l s c o n

m a n u sc r i p t s . B e t t e r b u r i e d t h a n c r e m a t e d

The document s i nc luded a l l sor t s o f fasc ina t ing new gospe l s , reve l a t ion

t rea t i ses , you nam e i t . The y thre w a who le new l igh t on G no st i c i sm , even as t hey

m uc h of wh at t he chu rch heresy hu nte rs had to ld us and m uch m ore tha t s

surm ised . Re i t zens t e in had t raced Gn os t i c i sm to I ran ia n or ig ins ; l o and beh old ,

apoca lypse ca l l ed Zos t r i - anos (=Zoroas t e r , Zara thus t ra ) .

1 1

D i d G n o s t i c i sm se e m

rad ica l form of P l a ton i s m? He re was a f ra gm en t of P l a to ' s Republic. Wa s G n o s t i c i s

i n s o m e of i t s b r a n c h e s , a n o u t g r o w t h o f J u d a i s m ? N a g H a m m a d i c o n t a i n



r e v e l a t i o n s f r o m o r t o a n c i e n t b i b l i c a l f i g u r e s s u c h a s S e t h , A d a m , a n d M e l c h i

G n o s t i c i s m h a v e p r e - C h r i s t i a n p a g a n r o o t s a k i n t o H e r m e t i c i s m ? U p p o p p e d A s

O n t h e E i g h t h a n d t h e N i n t h , p u r e H e r m e t i c t r a c ts . H a d t h e s e ct f o u n d e r D o s i t h e

S i m o n M a g u s , b e e n , l i k e h i m , a p r o t o - G n o s t i c ? T h e r e w a s a R e v e l a t i o n o f D

a p p e a r e d t h a t m a n y o f t h e t h e o r i e s h a d b e e n c o r r e c t a t t h e s a m e t i m e . G n o s t i c i

j u s t a " m a n y - h e a d e d h e r e s y " a s t h e c h u r c h f a t h e r s c a ll e d i t ; i t w a s a d o c t r i n e w i t h

as wel l .

B u t K o e s t e r a n d R o b i n s o n s a w s o m e t h i n g e l se , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t . L i k e p a

p u z z l i n g o v e r n e w l y u n e a r t h e d f o s si l s, t h e y r e a l iz e d t h e s e s t r a n g e - s e e m i n g g o s p e l s

m u s t s o m e h o w f i t i n t o a n e v o l u t i o n a r y s e q u e n c e . S u p p o s e g o s p e l s l i k e t h e D i a l o

S a v i o r, t h e G o s p e l o f P h i l i p , a n d t h e S o p h i a of J e s u s C h r i s t w e r e n o t w i l d m u t

o u r m o r e f a m i l i a r g o s p e l s , b u t r a t h e r e a r l i e r t r a n s i t i o n a l f o r m s o n t h e w a y t o o u

A n d K o e s t e r a n d R o b i n s o n r e a li z e d s o m e t h i n g e l se : T h e s e g o s p e l s m u s t h a v e b

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b e l i e f s a n d t h e r e l i g i o u s n e e d s o f r e a l p e o p l e . W i t h a b i t o

g u e s s w o r k , t h e y m i g h t b e a b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t j u s t w h a t k i n d o f C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s

a n d u s e d t h e s e t e x t s a s w e l l a s h o w t h e y e v e n t u a l l y d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e k i n d s o f

t h a t p r o d u c e d a n d p r e s e r v e d t h e c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s .



THE QUOTES OF THE HISTORICAL JESUS

K o e s t e r a n d R o b i n so n d e c i d e d t h e re m u s t h a v e b e e n t h re e d i f f e r e n t p r e g o sp e l t y p e

di f fe ren t co mb ina t ion s , eventua l ly evolved in to the k ind of gospe l s we have i

Tes t ament canon . Each type had i t s own d i s t i nc t ive theo logica l s l an t and app

di f f e re n t g r ou p . O ne p regos pe l t ype was the Sayings Co l l ec t ion . Th ey were l i ke t

P ro v e rb s , th e W i sd o m o f S o l o m o n , a n d t h e W i sd o m o f J e su s b e n -S i r a c h . T h e o n l

g o sp e l o f t h i s t y p e is t h e N a g H a m m a d i G o sp e l o f T h o m a s . B u t M a t t h e w a n d

have had access t o another which scholars t oday ca l l "Q" ( for Quelle, " source , " d

say ings source of Ma t th ew a nd Luke) . S t i l l ano the r may l ie behin d the l i nke d se t

i n M a r k 9 : 3 3 - 5 0 .

Whoever produced wr i t i ngs l i ke these was in t e res t ed in t he t eaching of Jes

mu ch h i s fa t e or h i s i den t i t y . The se wo uld , hypothe t i ca l ly , be the sor t o f p eople

even tua l ly deve lop ed in to G no st i c i sm as t hey scr u t in i zed the say ings ever mo re c

they began to see secre t t ru ths wi th in them. "These a re t he secre t say ings which

Jes us spoke . . . . W ho ev er f i nds the i r m ea nin g w i l l no t t as t e dea th . " M uch has b



a b o u t t h e Q D o c u m e n t , a n d I w i l l e x p l o re t h e m a t t e r fu r t h e r i n c h a p t e r 5 .

GNO STIC NE W S CON FERENCE

A second pregospe l t ype was the revelation discourse dialogue. W e see th i s fo rm m os

Gnost i c works l i ke the P i s t i s Sophia , t he Dia logue of t he Savior , t he Book of

Contender and the Sophia of Jesus Chr i s t , as wel l as ca tho l i c works l i ke the Ep

A p o s t l e s . T h e se w r i t i n g s a r e so m e t h i n g l i k e n e w s c o n fe re n c e s i n w h i c h t h e

answ ers que s t ion s f r om the d i sc ip l es , revea l ing grea t mys ter i es f i t on ly for Gn os

Ro bins on po in t ed ou t , reve l a t ion d i a log ues a re s t ru c tu red on a basi c d iv i s ion b

pre-Eas t e r t ime of i gnorance and parab le , and the pos t -Eas t e r t ime of open reve la

books a re nonethe l ess qu i t e d iverse , because the l i ne be tween ignorance and reve l

be moved , l i ke the marker on a sca l e , t o t he l e f t o r t he r igh t .

1 3

Som e such

push ed the l i ne way over t o t he r igh t , l ike the P i s t i s Soph ia , i n which Jes us i s

t each ing only in c rypt i c parab les for

eleven years

a f t e r t he resu rrec t ion , a f t e r whic h

i n t o H e a v e n , t h e n d e s c e n d s a g a i n i n g l o r y t o i m p a r t o p e n r e v e l a t i o n s i n p l a i n s



h e l p s u s t o r e c o g n i z e w h a t i s g o i n g o n i n A c t s 1 : 6 , w h e r e t h e s c e n e i s J e r u s a l e m

a f t e r t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n , a n d J e s u s is t e a c h i n g , b u t t h e d i s c i p l e s s e e m f u l l y a s o b t u

"Lo rd , i s i t a t t h i s t im e you w i l l r es to re ind ep en de nc e to I s r ae l?" Sh ak ing h

b e m u s e m e n t , J e s u s t e l l s t h e m t h e y w i l l h a v e t o w a i t t i l l t h e H o l y S p i r i t a r r i v e s

c o s t ) b e f o r e a l l w i l l b e c o m e c l ea r . H e r e , t h e ig n o r a n c e / r e v e l a t i o n l i n e h a s m o v e d

o v e r t o P e n t e c o s t .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s t e n d t o m o v e t h e l i n e b a c k t o t h e

m o v e t h e l i n e b a c k i n t o t h e e a r t h l y l i fe a n d m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s , a l o n g w i t h h i s

o r ig in a l ly som eth in g e l se th a t ha d to w ai t t i l l h i s r esur re c t ion . Th e mos t obv ious

wo uld be th e Farewel l Discour se o f J esu s in Jo h n ch ap te r s 13—17. W e are os tens ib

to the p re -E as te r J esu s as he t e l ls the d i s c ip les th a t he can no t ye t r evea l the w

s ince they a re no t up t o r ece iv ing i t . Soon the my s te r io us Para c le te wi l l com e to

b lan ks . Bu t i t i s r ea l ly as the p os t -E as te r r evea le r tha t th i s au th or p ic tu re s J esu s .

the J esus of th e Fo ur th G osp e l sounds so l i t t l e l ike the J es us o f the f i r s t t h re e g

r e a d e r i s t o t a k e t h e h i n t f r o m t h e a u t h o r ' s w i n k i n J o h n 1 6 : 1 2 - 1 5 : " I h a v e y e t m

t o s a y t o y o u , b u t y o u c a n n o t b e a r t h e m n o w . W h e n t h e S p i r i t o f T r u t h c o m

g u i d e y o u i n t o a l l t h e t r u t h ; f o r h e w i l l n o t s p e a k o n h i s o w n a u t h o r i t y , b u t w

hears he wi l l speak . . . . H e wi l l t ake of m ine an d dec l a re it un to you . " So the se



ear th ly l i fe of Jesus i s rea lly j us t a d ra m at i c f ram ew ork for t he au tho r t o p resen t

teaching he bel ieves he has received from the Paraclete . Here the l ine has been

to before the resurrec t ion .

Darre l l J . Doughty

1 4

sugges t s t ha t Ma rk s gospe l , which has so man y my ster io

would make a lot more sense i f we read i t as having a ci rcular s t ructure—if i t

t he resurrec t ion That ' s why the book seems to end so abrupt ly a t Mark 16:8 , wi th

f leeing from th e to m b after a you ng m an tel ls them Je sus wi l l rejoin his disciples

Mark wants the reader to look next at the only place there i s left to look: the begi

we find the episode of Jesus ' cal l ing the disciples at the lakeside and the

imm edia t e response : Th e d i sc ip l es dro p what t hey a re do in g and fo llow h im . Do ug

how much sense this scene makes i f we assume the disciples know him al ready. Th

s imi l a r t he scene is bo th to Luke 's vers ion in L uke 5 : 1- 11 and to t ha t in Jo hn 2 1:

i t i s expl ici t ly a resurrect ion story This i s t he reunion Mark ' s young man was t a

(Mark 16:7) So once the Risen Jes us reg ains his disciples at the Sea of Gal i lee, the

rec t ion t eachings begin . They cont in ue throu gh ou t t he Gospe l o f Mark .

Yes , t h i s would mean tha t t he whole of Mark ' s gospe l , l i ke John ' s , i s rea l ly

l a t e r t eaching s tha t have been p l aced in t he m ou th of t he Jes us charac t e r . Ag ain ,

been p ush ed a l l t he way over t o t he l e f t , t o t he very be gin nin g of t he os t ens ib l e



ear th ly Jesus . No wonder scholars keep say ing th i s o r t ha t say ing sounds susp

saying of t he h i s tor i ca l Jesus , more l i ke a l a t e r say ing f rom the ear ly Chr i s t i an

M a rk c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a r e v e l a t i o n d i a l o g u e l i k e T h o m a s t h e C o n t e n d e r , t h e

backl i t by Easter .

RIGHTEOUS RESUME

A very d i f fe ren t t h i rd type of pregospe l was the

aretalogy

, a wo nde r- l aden r e l

biography or saint ' s l i fe . Li teral ly, i t means a l i s t of "vi r tues" {arete) or g re a t de

a n c i e n t H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d w e f i n d th e se w r i t t e n a b o u t M o se s, A l e x a n d e r t h e G re a t ,

Em ped ocles , Ap ol lon ius of Tyana , and o thers . Mo st of t hese nam es a re fam i l i a r ; o th

But i n t he i r day , many of t hem were he ld in much the same es t eem in which Je

today . L ike Jesu s , m an y of t hese o the rs were be l i eved to be the sons of G od ,

conce ived , t he i r b i r th s ann oun ced by god s or ange l s .

The soul of Pythagoras came from the realm of Apollo, either being a heavenly compani



with him in some other familiar way, to be sent down among men; no one can deny thi

maintaine d from his birth and the manifold wisdom of his soul. . . . H e was educated so

the most beautiful and godlike of those written about in histories. After his father died, he

nobili ty and w isdom. Alth oug h he was sti l l a youth, in his mann er of hum ility and p

coun ted mo st worthy already, even by his elders. Seen and heard , he persuaded everyone,

who saw him he appeared to be astonishing, so that, reasonably, he was considered by man

son of a god. (Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras, 3-10)

15

L i k e t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n , I a m b l i c h u s m a k e s h i s s a v io r a p r e e x i s t e n t h e a v e n l y

w a s b o r n t h e s o n o f G o d , l i k e J e s u s i n M a t t h e w a n d L u k e . W e a l so t h i n k o f L u k

t h e y o u n g J e s u s w h e n w e h e a r h o w P y t h a g o r a s g r e w i n w i s d o m a n d v i r t u e ( as i n

a n d p r o v e d h i m s e l f i n a r g u m e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e w i s e s t e l d e r s ( cf . L u k e 2 : 4 6 - 4 7 ) .

The bride (Olym pias, mo ther-to-be of A lexander), before the nig ht in which they w ere t

bride chamber, had a vision. There was a peal of th und er and a l igh tnin g bolt fell upon

great f ire was kindled from the str ike, then it broke into flames which flashed everywher

extinguished. At a later time, after the marriage, Philip saw a vision: he was placing a seal

wom b; the engraving on the seal was, as he thou gh t, in the im age of a l ion. Th e men

interpreting oracles were made suspicious by this vision and told Philip to keep a closer w



ma rital affairs. Bu t Aristand er of Telmessus said (the vision mea nt tha t) her husband had

her, for no thin g is sealed if it is em pty, and th at she was pregn an t w ith a child whose natu

courageo us and lion like. On ano ther occasion, a great snake appea red, wh ile Oly mp ias was

wo und itself aroun d her body. Th is especially, they say, weaken ed Philip's desire and ten de

her, so that he did not come often to sleep with her, either because he was afraid she woul

and enchantments upon him, or because he considered himself discharged from the obligat

course with her because she had become the partner of a higher being.. . . After the vi

snake), Philip sent Chairon of Megalopolis to Delphi (to inquire of Apollo's oracle there as

dream might mean). He brought an oracle to Philip from Apollo: Philip was henceforth to

Zeus-Amon and worship that God especially. (Plutarch, Parallel Lives of the Greeks and Rom

the Great,, 2:1-3:2)

16

N o t e h o w , l i k e M a r y i n M a t t h e w , t h e h o l y m o t h e r is f i r s t s u s p e c t e d o f i m m o r

1 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . A f t e r s h e i s v i n d i c a t e d , h e r w o m b is s e a l e d , r e c a l l i n g J o s e p h ' s n o t " t o

t i l l t h e d i v i n e b i r t h ( M a t t . 1 : 2 5 ) . P h i l i p ' s a b s t i n e n c e i s n o t q u i t e s o c o m p l e t e , b u t

t h e s a m e : O l y m p i a s is n o l o n g e r r e a l l y h i s . T h e p r o p h e t i c o ra c l e o f t h e c h

g r e a t n e s s r ec a l ls t h a t of S i m e o n i n L u k e 2 : 2 5 - 3 8 . H e r e i s a n o t h e r , c u t f r o m t h e s a

To h is [Apol lon ius '} mo ther , jus t before he was born , there cam e an appar i t ion of P



changes h i s fo rm so much in H om er , in the gu i se of an Egy pt i an de mo n. She was

f r igh ten ed , bu t asked h im w hat sor t o f ch i ld she would bear. An d he answered , "M

wh o are you? " she asked. "Prote us ," answ ered he, " the go d of Eg yp t ." . . . No w he is

been born in a mea dow . . . . An d jus t as the hou r of his bi r t h was appro ach ing , his

warn ed in a dream to walk out into the mea dow a nd pluc k th e f lowers ; and in due

came there and her maids a t t ended to the f lowers , s ca t t e r ing them selves over the me

she fel l as leep lying on the grass . Thereupon the swans who fed in the meadow set

aro un d her as she s lept , and l i f t in g their win gs , as they are won t to do , cr ied ou t

once, for there was som ew hat of a breeze blo wi ng in the meado w. She the n leaped

sound of the i r song and bore her ch i ld , fo r any sudd en f r ig h t i s ap t to b r ing o

de l ivery . But the p eople o f tha t count ry say tha t jus t a t the mo m ent o f the b i r th , a

seemed a bo ut to fal l to ear th and th en rose u p int o the ai r and disa ppea red a lof t ; a

thereby ind ica ted , I t h ink , the g rea t d i s t inc t ion to which the s age was to a t t a in , an

advance how he should t r anscend a l l t h ings upo n ear th and approach the gods , and

the th ings tha t he would ach ieve . (Ph i los t r a tus , The Life of Apollonius of Tyana I : IV-V

trans . Loeb ed.)

T h o u g h t h e e l e m e n t of t h e h o ly m o t h e r s u r r o u n d e d b y h e r m a i d s in t h e o p e n



e v e n c l o se r to t h e n a t i v i t y o f G o t a m a t h e B u d d h a , t h i s s t o r y s h a r e s w i t h t h e g o s p

t h e e l e m e n t s of a d i v i n e a n n u n c i a t i o n ( L u k e 1 : 2 6 - 3 8 ) a n d a h e a v e n l y p o r t e n t ( M a t

A n d , l i k e J e s u s , m a n y a n c i e n t h e r o e s w e r e t h o u g h t t o h a v e s u r v i v e d a t t e m

t y r a n t s

1 7

t o d e s t r o y t h e m w h i l e s t i l l c h i l d r e n a n d l a t e r t o h a v e p e r f o r m e d m

e x o r c i s m s .

And when he [Apollonius] told them to have handles on the cup and to pou

handles— this b eing a purer par t of the cup s ince no one 's mo uth touched that p ar t— a

began laughing raucously, scattering his discourse to the winds. Apollonius stopped and, lo

him, said, " I t i s not you that does this ar rogant thing, but the demon who dr ives you

for, unk no w n to everyone, the youth was actually possessed by a dem on, for he used

thin gs no one else did a nd wou ld fall to weepin g for no reason and wo uld talk and sin

Most people thoug ht i t was the jumpiness of youth that brou ght him to do such things ,

poin t he seemed carried away by drun ken ness, b ut i t was really a dem on w hich spoke t

Thus, when Apollonius began staring at i t , the phantom in the boy let out horrible cries

rage, sounding like someone being burned alive or stretched on the rack, and he began

that he would leave the young boy and never again possess anyone else among men. Bu

spoke to him angrily such as a master might to a cunning and shameless slave, and he

him to come out of him, giving definite proof of it. "I will knock down that statue th



pointing to one of those about the Porch of the King. And when the statue tottered a

over, who can describe the shout of amazement that went up and how everyone clapped th

aston ishm ent But the you ng boy opened his eyes, as if f rom sleep, and looked at the ray

Now all those observing these events revered the boy, for he no longer appeared to be as

had been, nor did he look disorderly, but had come back to his own nature nothing les

had drunk some medicine. He threw aside his fancy soft clothes and, stripping off the

luxuriousness, came to love poverty and a threadbare cloak and the customs of Apollo

IV: XX)

18

This s tory para l l e l s a t many poin t s t he gospe l t a l e of t he Gadarene demo

5 : 1 -2 0 ) . T h e d e m o n i a c i s n o t o r i o u s fo r s t r a n g e b e h a v i o r , w h i c h t h e w o n d e r -w o r k e r

t h e l a t t e r s ta r t s t h r e a t e n i n g , t h e d e m o n i a c t r ie s t o n e g o t i a t e . W h e n t h e d e m o n l e a

s t r i k in g v i s ib l e ev idenc e of i t . Th e c rowd i s mo ved , and the f orm er dem on iac

a t t i re and want s t o fo l low the mi rac l e -worker . There i s no reason to suspec t on

been b orrow ed f rom the o ther . N o, t he po in t is t ha t t hey a re t he

sa me, sort of st

t he sam e f i c t i ona l gen re .



had no clear dream an d started for hom e again. Th en, near Cu rni she drea m t tha t a ma

appearance, fell in with her and her com panion s; whe n he learned abou t their bad luck h



set down the li t ter on which they were carrying Sostrata; then he cut open her belly,

enormous qua nt i ty of worm s— two fu l l bas ins ; then he st i tched up her belly and made

well; then Asclepius revealed his presence and bade her send thank offerings for the cure

[the main cult s i te] . (Epidaurus inscription, 4th century

B.C.E.)

20

H e r e w e c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g o f t h e f a m o u s s t o r y o f t h e d i s c i p l e s o n t

E m m a u s (L u k e 2 4 : 1 3 - 3 5 ) . A d i s a p p o i n t e d b e l ie v e r r e t u r n s h o m e a f t e r a fr u i t l e s s

t o t h e h o l y c i ty w h e r e h e / s h e h o p e d f o r s o m e g r e a t d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m t h e s a v io r ,

h a p p e n e d . N e v e r f e a r, t h e s a v io r h i m s e l f a p p e a r s i n c o g n i t o a s a tr a v e l e r o n t h e r o a

t h e c a u s e o f t h e s a d n e s s . T h e n t h e s a v io r p e r f o r m s t h e d e s i re d m i r a c l e a n d

i d e n t i t y . T h i s p a i r o f p a r a l l e l s t o r i e s m a y p e r h a p s b e j u d g e d t o o c lo s e f o r c o i n c i d e

h a r d l y m a t t e r s w h e t h e r L u k e h a s b o r r o w e d t h e E m m a u s s t o ry f r o m A s c l e p i u s o r

tw o t a l es a re so s im i la r because the y co nfo rm so c lose ly to type , to a par t i cu la r m

s u b g e n r e .

At tha t t im e he (Pythagoras) was goi ng from Sybaris to K rotona . At th e shore, he stoo

fishing with nets; they were sti l l hauling the nets weighed down (with fish) from the dep

he knew th e num ber of fish tha t they had hauled in. Th e men agreed to do what he or

nu mb er of fish was as he said. He ordered the fish to b e set free, living, afte r they w



accurately. What is more astonishing, in the time they were out of the water being coun

the fish died wh ile he stood the re. He paid th em the price of the fish and w ent to K

annou nced the deed everyw here, having learned his nam e from some children . {Life of P

60 f.)

21

N o one wi ll mi ss t he s imi l a r i t y t o t he Jo ha nn ine s tory of t he m i raculou s ca

(John 21:1-11) . In my judgment we can be sure John has t aken over a vers

Pythagoras s tory . Why? S imply because of t he now-i r re l evant surv iva l o f t he exac t

f i sh . I t has been re t a ined (p erhaps because som eone fe l t , l i ke mod ern c om m enta to

t h e n u m b e r m u s t m e a n

something,

) f ro m a vers ion where it mat t e r ed because the

h ing ed on the hero correc t ly assess ing the num be r of f i sh in t he ne t s . T ha t was

in t he Pytha gora s vers ion . Th ere , t he wh ole th in g was don e for t he sake of f ree in

f i sh : Pytha gore ans w ere s t r i c t vege ta r i ans . Ch r i s t i ans were no t , so i t d id n ' t occur t o

Jesus wou ld f ree the f i sh . So the mi rac l e sh i f t ed to Jesu s pro vid in g the ca t ch

di sc ip l es had h i the r to ca ug ht no th ing . Th e exac t nu mb er is i r re l evant ; we only nee

the ne t s were too heavy to drag in (Joh n 21:6) . W e do not hear t ha t any one o

cou nted the m. Bu t t he nu m be r surv ives nonethe l ess , and i t i s a very spec i a l num

t o P y t h a g o r e a n s , t h a t i s. O n e h u n d r e d f i f t y - t h r e e , t h e n u m b e r of f i sh i n J

" h a p p e n s " t o b e w h a t P y t h a g o r e a n s c a l le d a " t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r " ; i n f a c t , t h



t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r . O n e h u n d r e d f i f t y - t h r e e is t h e

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 1 0 + 1 1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + 1 4 + 1 5

+

1 6 + 1 7 . O n e h u n d r e d f i f t y - t h r e e is

y o u g e t if y o u a d d as f o ll o w s : l + ( l x 2 ) + ( I x 2 x 3 ) + ( l x 2 x 3 x 4 ) + ( l x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 ) . A d d t

cube s o f th e th ree d ig i t s in 15 3 and you ge t 153

2 2

S o m e a r e t a l o g i c a l h e r o e s w e r e r e m e m b e r e d a s b e i n g t r i e d b e f o r e a w i c k e d t y

h a v e m i r a c u l o u s l y e s c a p e d t o r e j o i n t h e i r d i s c i p l e s a n d t h e n t o a s c e n d i n t o t h e h e

t h i s , a f e w s u p p o s e d l y a p p e a r e d t o t h e i r f o l l o w e r s f o r a l a s t g o o d - b y e .

When he [Romulus] was holding a maneuver in order to review the army at the ca

marsh of C aprea, sudde nly a storm arose, wi th great l igh tnin g and th und er, and it veiled

such a dense cloud th at his form was hidd en from the troops; from that t im e Ro mu lus

earth. Th e terrif ied Rom an soldiers were finally quie ted after the sunlig ht cam e back and r

and serenity following tha t ho ur of wild confu sion. Bu t, even so, they rem ained silent an

long tim e, as if s tr icken by the fear of being orph ane d, althou gh they readily believed

stand ing nearest him who said that Rom ulus had been taken up on high by the storm . T

a few, then all , joyfully declared Ro mu lus, the k ing and father of the city of R om e, to

the Son of a God. (Livy, History of Rome, Book 1.16)

23

A s w i t h J e s u s ' a s c e n s i o n , R o m u l u s ' f i g u r e i s f i r s t o b s c u r e d b y a c l o u d



c r e a t i n g n a r r a t i v e s u s p e n s e b y o p e n i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e m a y re a p p e a r , b u t h

T h e p r e t e r n a t u r a l d a r k n e s s is m i r r o r e d i n M a r k 1 5 : 3 3 , a n d i n M a r k i t i s a t t h i s

d a r k n e s s a t t e n d i n g t h e c r u c i f i x i o n , t h a t J e s u s i s a c c l a i m e d a s t h e S o n o f G o d ( M

T h e e l e m e n t s a r e r e s h u f f l e d , b u t t h e p a r a l l e l s a r e c le a r n o n e t h e l e s s .

"Romulus Quirites," he {Julius Proculus, a senator] said, "the father of this city, at the f

this day, descended from the sky and clearly showed himself to me. Wh ile I was awe

frig ht, I s tood reverently before him, asking in prayer tha t I m igh t look at him w itho ut

said, 'announ ce to the Rom ans tha t Heaven wishes tha t my Ro me shall be the capital o

therefore they shall cultivate the military; they shall know and teach their descendants th

m igh t can resist Ro ma n arms. ' He said this and w ent away on high ."

2 4

H er e i s an ep i sod e in w hic h th e ascen ded sav ior appe ar s on ear th soon a f

e d i f i c a t i o n o f h i s m o u r n i n g f o l l o w e r s a n d d e l i v e r s , a s J e s u s d o e s i n M a t t . 2 8 : 1 8 - 2 0

2 4 : 4 5 —4 9 , a " g r e a t c o m m i s s i o n . "

Others again say that he [Apollonius] died in Lindus, where he entered the temple of

disappeared w ithin i t . Oth ers again say that he died in Crete in a much more rem arkable

the people of Lindus relate. For they say that he continued to live in Crete, where he beca



centre of adm iration than ever before, and that he came to the temple of Dictynna late at

this temple is guarded by dogs, whose duty is to watch over the wealth deposited in it, and

claim th at the y are as good as bears or any other animals equ ally fierce. No nethele ss, wh

instead of bark ing, they approached him and fawned upon h im , as they would no t have do

people they knew familiarly. Th e gua rdians of the shrine arrested h im in consequence, and t

bonds as a wizard and a robber, accusing him of having thro wn to the dogs some c harmed

about midnight he loosened his bonds, and after calling those who had bound him, in ord

might witness the spectacle, he ran to the doors of the temple, which opened wide to rece

when he had passed with in they closed afresh, as they had been shut, and there was heard

maidens singing from within the tem ple, and their song was this . "Hasten thou from earth,

to Heaven, hasten." In other words: "Do thou go upwards from earth." {Life of Apollonius of

VIII , XXX)

T h i s is o n e o f t h e " a p o t h e o s i s n a r r a t i v e s " a p p e a l e d t o b y C h a r l e s L . T a l b e r t t o

M a r k ' s e m p t y t o m b s t o r y w o u l d b y i t se l f b e e n o u g h t o e s t a b l i s h f o r t h e a n c i e n t

J e s u s h a d r i s e n / a s c e n d e d .

2 5

T h e h e a v e n l y c h o i r p l a y s t h e s a m e r o l e a s t h e y o u n g

t o m b i n M a r k 1 6 : 6 - 7 , a n d t h e b u s i n e ss a b o u t t h e d o o r s s u p e r n a t u r a l l y o p e n i n g a n

o f a p i e c e w i t h t h e c l o s e d d o o r s b r e a c h e d b y t h e r is e n J e s u s i n J o h n 2 0 : 1 9 -



There ca me to Tyana a youth wh o did not shrink from acrimon ious discussions, and w h

accept truth in argument. Now Apollonius had already passed away from among men, but

wond ered at his passing, and no one ventured to disp ute th at he was im mo rtal. This b

discussions were mainly about the soul, for a band of youths were there passionately

wisdom. The young man in question, however, would on no account allow the tenet of the

of the soul, and said: "I myself , gen tlem en , have done no thin g now for nine m on ths

Apo llonius tha t he wou ld reveal to me the tru th ab out the soul; bu t he is so utterly dead

not appear to me in response to my entreaties, nor give me any reason to consider hi

Such were the youn g m an's words on tha t occasion, but on th e fifth day following , after d

same subject, he fell asleep where he was talkin g w ith th em , and of th e youn g me

study ing w ith him , some were reading book s, and others were industrio usly drawin g geome

on the ground, when on a sudden, l ike one possessed, he leaped up sti l l in a half slee

with perspiration , and cried out: "I believe thee." An d, wh en those who were present aske

was the matt er; "Do you n ot see," said he, "Apollonius th e sage, how that he is present w

listening to our discussion, and is reciting wondrous verses about the soul?" "But where

asked, "For we cannot see him anywhere, although we would rather do so than possess all

of m an kin d." And th e youth replied: "It would seem tha t he is come to converse with

concerning the tenets which I would not believe." (Ibid., VIII: XXXI)

H e r e i s a c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h e D o u b t i n g T h o m a s s t o r y o f J o h n 2 0 : 2 4 - 2 9 , i n t e n d



t h e s a m e l i t e r a r y p u r p o s e b y m a k i n g t h e re a d e r , w h o w a s o f c o u r s e n o t p r e s e

or ig ina l app eara nce s o f the s av ior , i n to a cha rac te r in the sto ry , to w ho m

a c c o m m o d a t e s h i m s e l f , v o u c h s a f i n g a s p e c ia l " c o m m a n d p e r f o r m a n c e " a p p e a r a n c e

l i t t l e f a i t h . " I f t h e r e a d e r c a n n o t h i m s e l f s e e h i s l o r d , a t l e a s t h e m a y r e s t c o n t e

" f a c t " t h a t a d o u b t e r l i k e h i m h a d s i m i l a r d o u b t s a l la y e d T h e i n v i s i b i l i t y o f t

s a v i o r t o t h e b y s t a n d e r s is t h e s a m e a s i n t h e D a m a s c u s R o a d e p i p h a n y o f J e s u s

A c t s 9 : 7 .

Now as he [Moses] went thence to the place where he was to vanish out of their si

followed after him weeping; but Moses beckoned with his hand to those that were remot

and bade them stay behind in quiet, while he exhorted those that were near to him that

not render his dep arture so lam entab le . . . so they restrained them selves, tho ug h weepin g

one another. All those that accompanied him were the senate [i .e. , the seventy elders], and

high priest , and Jos hua their com man der. Now as soon as they were come to the mou

Aba rim . . . , he dismissed the senate; and as he was goin g to em brace Eleazar and Jo sh

stil l discoursing w ith the m , a cloud stood over him on the sudden , and he disappeared

valley, altho ugh he wrote in th e holy book s that he died , which was done ou t of fear, lest

ven ture to say, tha t because of his extraordinary virtue, he w ent to Go d. (Josephus,

the Jews, book IV, chapter VIII , Whiston trans.)



T h i s is p r o b a b l y n o t a s p o n t a n e o u s p a r a l l e l ; i t s e e m s li k e l y t h a t L u k e , t h e o n l

t o n a r r a t e t h e a s c e n s i o n ( L u k e 2 4 : 5 0 - 5 3 ; A c t s 1 : 9 ) , h a s a c t u a l l y b o r r o w e d i t f r o

a c c o u n t o f M o s e s ' a s s u m p t i o n .

Som e of these a re ta log ies , f i l l ed wi th adv entu res and m arve l s , su rpr i s es an d nar

cros s over the l ine be tw een sa in t ly b iog raph ies and an c ien t nove ls . Th e sto r i es o f Al

Ap ol lon ius o f Tyana wo uld be two of these . T he l a t t e r i s , o f a l l t he a re ta log ies ,

para l l e l to our c anonica l gospe l s .

MIX AND MATCH

K o e s t e r ' s g u e s s i s t h a t v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f C h r i s t i a n s g r a d u a l l y c o m b i n e d w h a t t h

e a c h p r e g o s p e l g e n r e t h e y h a d , t h e e v e n t u a l r e s u l t b e i n g o u r g o s p e l s . E a c h o f t h

g o s p e l s h a s a s e q u e n c e o f m i r a c l e s t o r i e s a n d e n d s w i t h t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h

c r u c i f i x i o n , t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a n e m p t y t o m b , a n d a j o y o u s r e u n i o n w i t h t h e d i s c i

n a r r a t i v e o u t l i n e c o m e s s t r a i g h t f r o m t h e a r e t a l o g y f o r m . B u t , p a c k e d i n h e r e a n d



m e a t o n t h e b o n e s , o u r g o s p e l s h a v e g r e a t n u m b e r s o f p a r a b l e s a n d p r o v e r b s a t

J e s u s . T h e s e h a v e b e e n t a k e n f r o m s o u r c e s l i k e Q , w h i c h h a d n o t h i n g b u t s u c h

w a s e a sy t o c o m b i n e th e s e t w o t y p e s b e c a u s e Q a l r e a d y h a d a n u m b e r o f p r o

s t o r i e s , b r i e f n a r r a t i v e i n t r o d u c t i o n s t h a t s e t t h e s t a g e f o r a s a y i n g o f J e s u s , m a k i

a c r o ss l i k e t h e p u n c h l i n e i n a j o k e . P e o p l e h a d g r a d u a l l y a d d e d t h e s e b r i e f i n t r o

o r d e r t o s u p p l y a c o n t e x t f o r t h e s a y i n g , s o t h e r e a d e r o r h e a r e r w o u l d h a v e s o m

t h e s a y i n g w a s a b o u t . I t w a s a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o i n s e r t t h e s e l i t t l e s t o r i e s i n t h e f r

the a re ta logy .

A n d t h e s a m e g o e s f o r t h e r e v e l a t i o n d i a l o g u e . Y o u c o u l d a t t a c h o n e

r e s u r r e c t i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l y b e e f i n g u p w h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e t t y m u c h a n a n t i c l

a r e t a l o g y . O r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , y o u c o u l d m a k e t h e w h o l e s t o r y i n t o a r e v e l a t i o n

J o h n a n d M a r k d i d . P e o p l e d i d c o n t i n u e w r i t i n g a n d r e a d i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h r

g o s p e l s . T h e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s w a s a n o t h e r l i k e Q , w h i l e T h o m a s t h e C o n t e n d e r

o t h e r s a r e p u r e r e v e l a t i o n d i a l o g u e s . T h e v a r i o u s I n f a n c y G o s p e l s ( cf . , I n f a n c y

M a t t h e w , G o s p e l o f T h o m a s t h e I s r a e l i t e , a n d s o o n ) m a i n t a i n e d t h e a r e t a l o g y f o r

c e n t u r i e s . T h e y o f f e r n o t e a c h i n g b u t s i m p l y r e l a t e m i r a c l e a f t e r m i r a c l e d o n e b y

h e w a s a b o y . T h e s e w e r e m o s t l y c o m i c a l , a t l e a st t o m o d e r n e a r s , p r o b a b l y t o a

a s w e l l . I n t h e m t h e b o y J e s u s s m i t e s h i s u n c o o p e r a t i v e p l a y m a t e s , b r i n g s c l a y - m o d



l i f e s o a s t o e v a d e a c h a r g e f r o m t h e J u n i o r P h a r i s e e S c o u t s t h a t h e v i o l a t e d t h e

s c u l p t i n g , s a ve s h i s b u m b l i n g d a d s o m e w o r k b y m i r a c u l o u s l y e v e n i n g u p t h e le g s

J o s e p h h a d m i s m e a s u r e d , a n d s o o n .

T h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f g o s p e l s c a m e f r o m d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n

a r e d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s a n d m u s t h a v e g r o w n f r o m d i f f e r e n t r o o t s , d i f f e r e n t s e e d s. T h

i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t u d i e s o f K o e s t e r a n d R o b i n s o n . B u r t o n L . M a c k

5 0

h a s t a k e

t h e s e t w o l e f t o f f . C o n c e n t r a t i n g o n Q a n d M a r k , M a c k h a s t r i e d t o i m a g i n e t

g r o u p s w h o s e i n t e r e s ts p r o d u c e d t h e se d o c u m e n t s . H e a ss u m e s t h a t w h a t e v e r w a s i m

t h e Q o r M a r k a n c o m m u n i t i e s m a d e it s w a y i n t o t h e d o c u m e n t s a n d t h a t n

p r e s e r v e d t h e r e t h a t w a s n ' t i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m . T h u s w e o u g h t t o b e a b l e t o g

g o o d i d e a o f t h e b e l i e f s o f e a c h g r o u p f r o m t h e g o s p e l it p r o d u c e d ; e a c h g o

s u p p l y a n a d e q u a t e t h e o l o g i c a l p o r t r a i t of t h e c o m m u n i t y t h a t p r o d u c e d i t . T h i s

a ri s k y a s s u m p t i o n ; m a y b e t h e r e w e r e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n t h a t t h e y s i

have occas ion to r ecord in the i r b ook s . M ay be so . Bu t is the re any r eason to

D o e s n ' t i t s t a n d t o r e a so n t h a t , i f s o m e o n e w e r e w r i t i n g u p a k i n d o f c h a r t e r d

h a n d b o o k , a c o n s t i t u t i o n , a n i n s t r u c t i o n b o o k , o r w h a t e v e r , i t w o u l d c o v e r a l l m

O t h e r w i s e , w h y w r i t e i t ? A n d , t o p u t t h e s a n d a l o n t h e o t h e r f o o t , e v e n if , f o r e

Q c o m m u n i t y d i d h a v e a be l ie f in t h e r e su r r e c te d J e s u s t h a t t h e y d i d n ' t m e n t i o n



w o u l d w e k n o w i t ? W e c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , j u s t a s s u m e t h e y b e l i e v e d i t j u s t b e c a u s e

l i k e t o t h i n k a l l t h e e a rl y J e s u s g r o u p s b e l i e v e d i n i t . B u t t h a t ' s j u s t c i r c u l a r r e a s o

M a c k c a r v e s u p t h e t u r k e y o f e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t o s e v e r a l o t h e r g r o u p s ( or

g r o u p s ) t h a t w o u l d s e e m t o c o r r e s p o n d t o v a r i o u s N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t i n g s . H i s

f a s c i n a t i n g t h r o u g h o u t , a n d u s u a ll y q u i t e c o n v i n c i n g , t h o u g h h e r e a n d t h e r e I f

t a k e i s su e w i t h h i s c o n c l u s i o n s . I n t h e n e x t t w o c h a p t e r s , I w a n t t o s e t o u t M a c k

e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t i e s , f i l l i n g i n s o m e o f t h e g a p s a n d r e d r a w i n g a f e w o f t h e l i n e s .

NOTES

1. Ferdinan d Chr istian Baur,

P aul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ: His Life and Work, His

His Doctrine, trans. Allan Menzies, 2 vols. (Edinbu rgh: William s and No rgate, 1875); Ferdina

Baur, T he Church History of the First Th ree Centuries, trans. Allan Menzies, 2 vols. (Edinb ur

and Norgate, 1878); Walter Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, ed. Robe

Gerhard Krodel, trans, the Philadelphia Seminar on Christian Origins (Philadelphia: Fo

1971).



2. Theodore J . Weeden, Mark: Traditions in Conflict (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971

3. Jame s M. Rob inson, ed. , The Nag Hammadi Library. 3d rev. ed. (San Francisc

Row, 1988).

4. Jame s M. Robinson and H elm ut Koes ter, Trajectories Through Ea rly Christianity

Fortress Press, 1971).

5 . R . Joseph Ho f fman n , Marcion: On the Restitution of Christianity. An Essay on the D

Radical Paulinist Theology in the Second Century

(Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1984).

6. Hans -Joachim Schoeps, Jewish Christianity: F actional Disputes in the Early C

Dou glas R. A. Hare (Philadelph ia: Fortress Press, 1969 ), p. 67.

7. I believe the t i t le of the G ospel of Matthe w is a pun based on the im po itan ce

of naG r j xa i , o r mathetai

y

"disciples."

8. Peter Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Wom en, and Sexual Renunciation in Early

(New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).

9. The bes t book on Gn ost icism remains Kur t Ru dolp h, Gnosis: The Nature an

Gnosticism

, trans. Rob ert McLachlan W ilson, P. W. Coxo n, and K. H. K uh n (San Francisc



Row, 1983).

10. Georg Strecker, "On the Problem of Jewish Christianity," trans. Gerhard Krode

Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity

, pp . 24 1-8 5 .

11. And rew J. W elb urn , "Iranian P rophe tology and th e Birth of the Messiah: Th e A

Adam," in Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spieg

Forschung

(New York: Wa lter de G ruyter . 197 2-1 987 ) , vol . I I , 25, 4 , 1988 , pp. 47 52 -9 4,

Zoroastrian influence on the Apocalypse of Adam, a text which Robinson, "On the Gatt

(and John)" (see n. 13), shows to share significant ancient mythemes underlying many Ne

texts.

12. Stevan L. Davies, The Gospel of Thomas and Christian W isdom (Ne w Y ork: S

1983) , pp. 16 -1 7, and He lm ut Koes ter , A ncient Christian Gospels: Their History and

(Phi ladelphia: Tr ini ty Press Internat ional , 1990) , pp. 75 -1 28 , argue tha t the Gospel of

composed in the mid—first centu ry or not long there after, ma king it earlier tha n the cano

Barbara Thiering similarly argues for a f irst-century date for the Gospel of Philip ("T

Unity of the Gospel of Philip,"

Journal of Higher Criticism

2, no. 1 [spr ing 1998] : 102-11

13. Jame s M. Ro binson, "On the Gattung of Mark (and John)," in Jesus and M a

David G. But t r ick, vol . 1 (Pi t tsburgh : Pi t tsbu rgh Theological Seminary, 1970), pp. 99 -



Perkins , The Gnostic Dialogue: The Early Church and the Crisis of Gnosticism (New York:

1980).

14. Darrell J . Doughty, class lectures. Cf. Norman Perrin, "Towards an Interpret

Gospel of Mark," in Christology and a Mo dern Pilgrimage: A Conversation with Norman Per

Dieter Betz (Claremont : New Tes tament G>lloquium, 1971) , pp. 1-78.

15. Iamblichus , Life of Pythagoras, trans. David R. Ca rtl idge , in Sourcebook of T

Comp arative Study of the Gospels, David L. Du nga n and David R. Ca rtl idge 4t h ed. Misso

Press , 1974) , pp. 33-34.

16. Plutarch, P arallel Lives of the Greeks and Romans: Alexander the G reat, 2 :

Car t l idge, in

Sourcebooks

of Texts for the Compa rative Study of the Gospels, pp . 7 - 8 .

17. See Ot to Ranck,

The Myth of the Birth of the Hero

, in

In Q uest of the Hero

, ed

Segal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 3-86.

18. Phi los t ratus ,

L ife of Apollonius of Tyana

, t rans . Dungan, in

Sourcebook of T

Comp arative Study of the Gospels, p. 280 .

19 . Ib id . , pp . 28 2-8 3 .

20. Epidaurus inscr ipt ion, 4th century B.C.E. , trans. N. Lewis, in Wom en's Life in

Gre



A Source Book in Translation

, ed. Mary Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant (Baltimore: Jo

Unive rsity Press, 198 2), p. 120.

21. Iamblichus ,

Life of Pythagoras

, p. 55.

22. Dr . Crypton, "Mathemat ics in the Bible,"

Science

Digest (May 1985): 78. Th ank s

Tierney for br inging this to my at tent ion.

23. Livy, History of Rome, bk. 1.16, trans. C artl id ge, in

Sourcebooks

of Texts for t

Study of the Gospels, pp . 155 -56 .

24. Ibid.

25. Charles H. Talbert , What Is a Gospel? The G enre of the C anonical Gospels

Fortress Press, 1977), pp. 25-43.

26. Bur ton L. Mack, A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins (Minn eapolis:

1991; Mack, The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian O rigins (San Francisco: Harpe

1993) ; Mack,

Who Wrote the New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth

(S

HarperSanFrancisco, 1995).



Chapter 2



THE JESUS MOVEMENTS

THE Q CO M M UN ITY

B

_ L . M ack .

S t a p

„

b

, , Q

D

„

r e v o l u t i o n i z e o u r p i c t u r e of t h e e ar ly J e s u s m o v e m e n t . W h y ? T h e p e o p l e w h

t h e Q D o c u m e n t c a n n o t p r o p e r l y b e c a ll e d " C h r i s t i a n s " s i n c e Q n e v e r r e fe r s t o J e

t i t l e " C h r i s t . " N o r is t h e r e a w o r d a b o u t a n a t o n i n g d e a t h . J e s u s ' d e a t h i s a t m o s t

t h e s a y i n g a b o u t t a k i n g u p o n e ' s c r o ss , j o i n i n g J e s u s o n D e a t h R o w ( M a t t . 1

1 4 : 2 7 ) . T h e u s u a l i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e d i s c i p l e is f o l l o w i n g a J e s u s w h o is c a r r y i

c ros s , bu t the s ay in g does no t ac tu a l ly s ay so . A nd per ha ps the in fe renc e i s no

s i n c e t h e i m a g e m i g h t p o s s i b l y b e a k i n t o t h a t i n 2 C o r . 2 : 1 4 , w h e r e t h e i m a g e



J e s u s a s a t r i u m p h a n t R o m a n g e n e r a l ( ) l e a d i n g a p a r a d e o f c a p t u r e d r e b e

e x e c u t i o n : l i v i n g t r o p h i e s o f w a r . T h o s e w h o f o l lo w J e s u s a r e b e a r i n g c r os s e s, b u t h

A n d t h e r e is n o t a w o r d i n Q a b o u t t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n , e i t h e r . T h i s i s

C h r i s t i a n i t y a s w e t h i n k o f i t . T h e c o m p i l e r s o f Q s e e m t o h a v e re g a r d e d J e s u

s e v e ra l G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l sc h o o l s v i e w e d S o c r a t e s , a s a m a r t y r e d s a g e w h o s e t

fo r fear l es s p re ac h in g of th e t r u th . Luc ian of Samo sa ta ( a s ec on d-c en t ury

p h i l o s o p h e r a n d h u m o r i s t ) w r o t e a l a m p o o n o f o n e P r o t e u s P e r e g r i n u s ( T h e

P e r e g r i n u s ) w h o h e s a i d h a d f i r s t b e e n a C y n i c , t h e n a C h r i s t i a n , a p p a r e n t l y

t r a n s i t i o n . I n t h i s c o n t e x t L u c i a n c a l l s J e s u s " t h e c r u c i f i e d s o p h i s t . "

J e s u s i s s a id t o h a v e l i v e d i n G a l i l e e , a m a r g i n a l l y J e w i s h t e r r i t o r y w h i c h

h e a v i l y H e l l e n i z e d . N a z a r e t h w a s i n t h e m i d d l e o f a d o z e n G r e e k c i t i e s . I f J e s

b e e n f a m i l i a r w i t h G r e e k p o p u l a r p h i l o s o p h y , M a c k , D o w n i n g , C r o s s a n , a n d o t h e r

w o u l d b e a s u r p r i s e .

1

W e k n o w o f t h r e e C y n i c a p o s t l e s ( w a n d e r i n g s o a p b o x p r e

l i v e d i n n e a r b y G a d a r a : M e n i p p u s ( f i rs t h a l f o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y

B . C . E . ) ,

Meleager

o f t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . ) , a n d O e n o m a u s ( e a rl y s e c o n d c e n t u r y C . E . ) , e n o u g h t o e

p r e s e n c e o f a l o n g - s t a n d i n g C y n i c t r a d i t i o n in t h e r e g i o n . T h u s i t s h o u l d c o m e a s

w h e n w e c o m p a r e t h e Q s a y i n g s w i t h t h e p r o v e r b s an d p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f th e



d i s c o v e r s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n t h e m . M a n y o f t h e s a y i n g s f r o m b o t h s o u r c e s a

t h r o w o f f t h e b u r d e n s o f s o c ia l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , f a m i l y e n t a n g l e m e n t s , a n d s o u l - k i l l i n

w o r k . D o t h e b i r d s a n d f l o w e r s b o t h e r w i t h s u c h t r if l e s ? A r e n ' t y o u s u p p o s e d t o

t h a n t h e m ? W e l l , t h e n , w h a t a re y o u w a i t i n g f o r ?

J e s u s is d e p i c t e d i n t h e g o s p e l s a s a w a n d e r e r w i t h n o p l a c e t o re s t h i s

8 : 2 0 / L u k e 9 : 5 8 ) . P e r h a p s t h i s w a s t h e w a y t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s l i v e d , p e r h a p s n o t .

t h e way cer t a in o f h i s l a t t e r -da y fo l lo we rs l ived .

2

D i d t h e y i m i t a t e J e s u s , w h o

l i k e t h e C y n i c i t i n e r a n t s ? O r d i d t h e y g e t t h e i d e a d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e C y n i c s t h e m

t h e n r e i m a g i n e J e s u s i n th e i r o w n i m a g e ? I t w o u l d n ' t b e t h e f i rs t t i m e , b u t w h o

C y n i c s w a n d e r e d t h e r o a d s w i t h o n l y a b a r e m i n i m u m : a c l o a k , a b a g , a s t a f f , p

l i st p r e s u p p o s e d i n t h e M i s s i o n C h a r g e t e x t s ( M a t t . 1 0 : 5 - 1 5 ; M a r k 6 : 7 - 1 1 ; L

w h i c h s t e m f r o m t h i s g r o u p .

3

C y n i c a n d C h r i s t i a n i t i n e r a n t s b o t h c l a i m e d t h a t G o

t h e m t o d e m o n s t r a t e t o o t h e r s t h e f r e e d o m o f l i v i n g u n d e r t h e s p a r t a n f r e e d

k i n g d o m o f G o d ( " t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f Z e u s " ) . T h e y a i m e d c y n i c al b a r b s a t

r e l i g i o n ( l ik e M a r k 7 : 1 8 - 1 9 ; w h y b o t h e r w i t h f o o d - p u r i t y l a w s w h e n i t ' s a l l g o i n g

i n t h e t o i l e t a n y w a y ? ) . B u t th e y a l s o b l e s s e d t h o s e w h o m a l t r e a t e d t h e m .

T h e y w e r e t h e w a n d e r i n g " b r e t h r e n " o r " a p o s t le s " o f M a t t h e w ' s g o s p e l , t h e

E p i s t l e s, a n d t h e D i d a c h e ( a l a t e - f ir s t /e a r l y - s e c o n d - c e n t u r y t e a c h i n g m a n u a l a t t r i b u



T w e l v e ) . G e r d T h e i s s e n

4

p o i n t e d o u t t h e o b v i o u s : I f th e r e h a d n ' t b e e n a g r o u

p e o p l e w h o a c t u a l l y l i v e d o u t a ll t h o s e u n c o m f o r t a b l e s a y i n g s a b o u t g i v i n g a w a y

t u r n i n g t h e o t h e r c h e e k , l e a v i n g y o u r h o m e a n d f a m i l y — h o w w o u l d t h o s e s a y i n g

s u r v i v e d ? W h a t C h r i s t i a n d o e s n o t s q u i r m h e a r i n g t h e m ? W h y d i d n ' t p e o p l e l e

l o s t t o h i s t o r y w h e n t h e y s t il l h a d t h e c h a n c e , b e f o r e t h e r e w a s a B i b l e t o p r e s e r v

B e c a u s e

somebody

w a s n ' t a f r a i d t o p u t t h e m i n t o e f f e c t . T o r e p e a t s u c h s a y i n g s w o u

a wa y of b oa s t in g of one ' s ow n cred en t i a l s .

S o m e p e o p l e w e r e p r e t t y i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e i r t e a c h i n g s , a n d w i t h t h e i

l i f e s ty l e . O t h e r s w e r e n o t . T h e i s s e n

5

s u r m i s e d t h a t P a u l h a d t o s q u a r e o f f a

" s u p e r a p o s t l e s " i n C o r i n t h . T h e y h a d ( u n v e r i f i a b l e ) m i r a c l e s to r i e s a n d t a l e s o f

h e a v e n l y a s c e n s io n s t o s h a r e w i t h t h e c r e d u l o u s . D i e t e r G e o r g i

6

s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n " P a u l d e r i d e s ( 2 C o r . 3 : 1 - 2 ) w e r e g r o w i n g r e s u m e s of m i r a c l e s t h

p e r f o r m e d . I f , a s T h e i s s e n s ay s , P a u l ' s o p p o n e n t s i n C o r i n t h w e r e s o m e o f t h

p r o p h e t / a p o s t l e s f r o m w h o s e c ir c l es t h e Q c o l l e c t i o n c a m e , w e c a n m a k e a v e r y

c o n n e c t i o n . A m o m e n t a g o I s a id h o w t h e v e ry p r e a c h i n g o f t h e r a d i c a l s a y i n g

w o u l d h a v e u n d e r l i n e d t h e r a d i c a l s e l f - d e n i a l o f t h e i t i n e r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e

e f f e c t , a g g r a n d i z i n g t h e m s e l v e s e v e n as t h e y p r e a c h e d s e l f - d e n i a l . I t c o u l d h a v e b

s m a l l s t e p f r o m t h i s t o c l a i m i n g f u l l - f l e d g e d m i r a c l e s ( d o n e in t h e la s t v i l l a g e b a



w h a t t h e s u p e r a p o s t l e s d i d . A n d t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e a r e t a l o g y f o r m m a y h a v e d e v

f r o m t h e s a m e g r o u p , t h e i t i n e r a n t a p o s t l e s , a s t h e s a y i n g s c o l l e c t i o n s .

O f cour se , I am im ply ing tha t the f i r s t mi ra c le l i s t s s t a r r ed no t J esu s bu t t

apos t l es themse lves Th i s i s by no me ans f a r - f e t ched . Take a look a t th e m an y Apoc

of the Apo s t l es , som e of wh ich m ay wel l be ear l i e r than the canon ica l Act s . In

Pau l , o f Jo hn , and of Tho m as , the apos t l es a r e p rac t i ca l ly Ch r i s t s in the i r ow n

t h e i r o w n m i r a c l e s , t h e i r o w n m a r t y r d o m s , a n d e v e n t h e i r o w n r e s u r r e c t i o n s a n d e

An d th ink of 1 Cor . 1 :12 , wh ere Cep has , Pau l , and Apo l los a re es t eem ed by s

r iva ls to C hr i s t h im se l f O nc e Jesu s h imse l f bec am e the sub jec t o f an a re ta log y l i

w o u l d c e r t a i n ly b e n a t u r a l f o r t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e i t i n e r a n t a p

m e m o r i z e d t h e i r ( Q ) s a y i n g s a n d t h e i r a re t a l o g i e s , t o c o m b i n e t h e t w o , a t t r i b u t i n g

bo th to J esus .

W h a t I a m t r y i n g t o d o h e r e i s t o s u p p l y a fe w m o r e c o n n e c t i n g l i n k s b

p r e g o s p e l f o r m s ( a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t y o r i g i n s ) a n d t h e c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s d e s c

t h e m . O b v i o u s l y , I t h i n k t h e r e a r e m o r e c o n n e c t i o n s t o b e m a d e t h a n s c h o l a r s h a

f a r. H e r e i s a m a t t e r I t h i n k M a c k s k i r t s : W e c a n e a si ly i m a g i n e t h a t t h e r e w o u l d

l o o s e - k n i t g u i l d s o f w a n d e r i n g J e s u s - C y n i c s ( T h e i s s e n h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e m c o n v i n c

M a c k s e e m s t o w a n t t o r e j e c t t h i s p i c t u r e . T h o u g h e m p h a t i c a l l y a r g u i n g f o r



cha rac te r o f the Q say ings , a t l eas t tho se in the hyp oth e t i c a l ea r l i es t s t r a tu m ,

v e r s i o n , o f t h e Q c o l l e c t i o n , h e d o e s n o t s e e t h e m a s s t e m m i n g f r o m a g r o u p o f

p r e a c h e r s . H e s u g g e s t s i n s t e a d t h a t t h e r e w e r e o n l y s e t t l e d c o m m u n i t i e s of p e o p l e

t o l i v e o u t a c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l " s o ci al e x p e r i m e n t . " H i p p i e c o m m u n e s ? O n e i d a ? M

s c h o l a r s d o n ' t e v e n t h i n k t h e J e r u s a l e m c h u r c h , a s s h o w n i n t h e o p e n i n g c h a p t e

r e a ll y l i v e d c o m m u n a l l y . M o r e li k e l y , L u k e is t r y i n g t o c r e a t e a " m y t h o f i n n o c e n

g o l d e n a g e o f w h a t M a r x w o u l d l a t e r ca l l " p r i m i t i v e c o m m u n i s m . " I n o t h e r w o r d s ,

t h e " e a r l y C h u r c h " t o u s e t o s c o l d l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s w i t h .

7

I fo l l o w S t e v a n L . D a v i e s ' i n t h i n k i n g t h a t n o s e t t l e d c o m m u n i t i e s c o u l d p o

o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f Q i n s o f a r a s t h e s e r e q u i r e d t h e r e n u

f a m i l y , h o m e , a n d p r o p e r t y . S u c h s a y i n g s a r e f i n e f o r l o n e w o l v e s a n d l o o se c a n n o n

C y n i c a n d J e s u s m o v e m e n t i t i n e r a n t s . T h e y a r e l i k e h o b o e s s i t t i n g a r o u n d t h e c a

t r a i n y a r d : a f e l l o w s h i p , n o t a c o m m u n i t y . D a v i e s s ee s t h a t t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e

n i t i e s o f p e o p l e w h o w o u l d g l a d l y o f f e r f o o d a n d s h e l t e r t o s u c h i t i n e r a n t h o l

l i s t e n t o t h e i r t e a c h i n g w i t h r e v e r e n c e . B u t , l i k e m o d e r n c h u r c h g o e r s , w h e n t h e y

o f c e li b a c y , h o m e l e s s w a n d e r i n g , a n d v o l u n t a r y p o v e r t y , t h e y m u s t h a v e s i l e n t l y

T h e b e s t c o m p a r i s o n w o u l d b e t h e t w o - t r a c k s a l v a ti o n s y s t e m o f B u d d h i s m . T h e m

h a v e r e a l ly e m b a r k e d o n t h e E i g h t f o l d P a t h t o N i r v a n a . L i f e i n t h e w o r k a d a y w



d i s t r a c t i n g f o r a n y o n e b u t a m o n k t o p u r s u e e n l i g h t e n m e n t . B u t t h e la i ty c a n , b

t h e n e e d s o f t h e m o n k s , g a i n e n o u g h m e r i t t o e n s u r e a b e t t e r r e i n c a r n a t i o n n e x t t

(no t exac t ly s a lva t ion , bu t no t bad) .

W e s ee t h e s a m e so r t o f f u n d - r a i s i n g t h e o l o g y i n M a r k 9 : 4 1 a n d M a t t . 1 0 : 4 1

we are to ld th a t anyone wh o he lps a p ro ph e t wi l l r ece ive a p ro ph e t ' s r eward . A

quai l s a t the p ros pec t o f " l e t t ing go ods and k in dre d g o , th i s mor t a l li f e a l so" m ig

the cha nce of b uy ing in to the k i ng do m t he easy way by of fe r in g a cup of co ld w

o f t h e J e s u s B o d h i s a t t v a s . T h a t ' s a l l t h e " Q c o m m u n i t i e s " h a d t o d o . A n d w h o d o

the i t ine ran t s had in m in d w hen they ex hor ted the i r hearer s to cash in pos ses s ion

the p roc eeds to " the poo r"? In case any one in the co ngr ega t ion m is sed th e po in t

t h i n k i n g of p o o r L a z a r u s i n th e g u t t e r o u t s i d e , h e m i g h t b e b r o u g h t u p s h o r t w

i n s p i r e d s a y i n g : " T h e p o o r y o u a l w a y s h a v e w i t h y o u . Y o u c a n h e l p t h e m w h e n e v e

s t r ikes you . Bu t you wi l l no t a lways have m e" (Mark 14 :7) . A nd l e t ' s no t was te th

sha l l we? Th e th ree hu nd red d enar i i wou ld com e in a lo t m ore handy , to t e l l you t

W e k n o w a b u s e s l i k e t h i s o c c u r r e d ; t h e D i d a c h e w a r n s c o n g r e g a t i o n s n o t t o a

t h e s e f r e e l o a d e r p r o p h e t s t o h a n g a r o u n d o v e r h a l f a w e e k w i t h o u t g e t t i n g a

b e g a n t o g r o w m o r e s u s p i c i o u s o f t h e s e w i l d c a r d p r o p h e t s . A s t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n s b

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d a n d b i s h o p s b e g a n t o e m e r g e , t h e y w e r e a b l e t o s q u e e z e t h



i t i n e r a n t s o u t . W e h a v e a l re a d y s ee n P a u l t r y i n g t o c o n v i n c e t h e C o r i n t h i a n s t

w i t h t h e m e d i c i n e - s h o w a p o s t l e s . 2 J o h n 1 0 s a ys t o s l a m t h e d o o r o n t h e m , t o o

J o h n 1 0 , a p p a r e n t l y w r i t t e n b y s o m e o n e o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e d o o r , s a ys n o

2 5 : 3 1 - 4 6 w a r n s r e a d e rs n o t t o n e g l e c t t h e n e e d s o f t h e s e g o s p e l v a g r a n t s , t h e l i t

o f t h e S o n o f M a n . S i m i l a r l y , t h e D i d a c h e w a r n s a b o u t w a n d e r i n g p r o p h e t s w h o t

v a g a b o n d e x i s t e n c e a n d w i s h t o s e t t l e d o w n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y : " A n d i f h e w i s h

am on g you a nd has a t r ade , l e t h im wo rk for h i s b re ad . . . . Bu t i f he wi l l n o t d

t r a d i n g o n C h r i s t ; b e w a r e o f s u c h " ( 1 2 : 3 , 5 ) .

W h e n M a c k ( w i t h T h e i s s e n , H o r s l e y , a n d o t h e r s ) r e f e rs t o " t h e J e s u s

p r e f e r r i n g i t t o t h e a n a c h r o n i s t i c t e r m " C h r i s t i a n i t y , " I ca n n e v e r h e l p t h i n k i n g o

m o v e m e n t o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s in A m e r i c a , a k i n d o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t n e o p r i m i t i v i s m t h

m a n y d i s il l u s i o n e d c o u n t e r c u l t u r e d r o p o u t s as w e l l a s s u b u r b a n c h u r c h t e e n a

i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e h o w s o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e f i r s t - c e n t u r y J e s u s

r e s u r f a c e d i n i t s t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c o u n t e r p a r t . T h e r u d e a n d i n t i m i d a t i n g i t i n

rebo rn in the C hi l d re n of G od m ov em en t of Mo ses Da vid ( a .k .a . Dav e Berg) . "Se



2 : 1 5 ; 3 : 1 9 b ) . M a r k h a d n o w a y o f k n o w i n g w h a t p e o p l e t h o u g h t o f J e s u s i n J e s

s t o r y i s n o t a h i s t o r ic a l r e p o r t o f a c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d P e t e r . B u t h e

t h a t i n h i s o w n d a y s o m e m a d e J e s u s a n i t i n e r a n t p r o p h e t l i k e t h e C y n i c s , a n d



m u c h l i k e i t . H e h a s J e s u s c o n d e m n i t . W e c a n e v e n l o c a t e t h i s h o t b e d o f c

e r r o r : C a e s a r e a P h i l i p p i , o n e o f t h o s e H e l l e n i z e d c i t i e s . O t h e r w i s e , w h y s h o u l d M

episo de ther e? I t is a lo t l ike th e l e t t e r s o f J es us a im ed a t the s even c hu rch es o f

i n t h e B o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n ( c h a p t e r s 2 - 3 ) . J e s u s i s m a d e t o c o n d e m n h e r e t i c a l g

t h e w r i t e r ' s o w n t i m e .

I n T h o m a s ' v e r s i o n ( s a y i n g 1 3 ), t h e f a ls e e s t i m a t e s o f J e s u s a re e v e n m o r e

J e s u s s p u r n s t h e o p i n i o n o f t h o s e s e l f - s ty l e d b e l i e v e r s w h o c o n s i d e r h i m " a w i s e p

B i n g o A w a n d e r i n g C y n i c . ( T h o m a s a ls o h a s J e s u s r e j e c t t h e i d e a , w i d e l y h e l d b y

C h r i s t i a n s , t h a t h e w a s a n a n g e l i n h u m a n f o r m . )

S o w e c a n m e a s u r e a g r o w i n g t i d e o f o p p o s i t i o n d i r e c t e d t o t h e Q i t i n e

r e j e c t i o n is a n t i c i p a t e d i n t h e M a r k a n M i s s io n C h a r g e ( M a r k 6 : 7 - 1 1 ; M a t t . 1 0 :

1 0 : 1 0 - 1 2 ) : " I f a n y v i l l a g e w i l l n o t r e c e iv e y o u , s h a k e t h e d u s t o f f y o u r f e e t a

a g a i n s t t h e m . I t e l l y o u , i t w i l l g o e a s ie r f or S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h o n J u d g m e n

f o r t h a t p l a c e " T h e S p i r i t w o u l d s u p p l y r e t o r t s t o w h i c h n o c o m e b a c k l i n e c o u l d

( L u k e 2 1 : 1 4 - 1 5 ) . O n e o f t h e s e w a s t h e t h r e a t e n i n g a p p e a l t o t h e S on o f M a n :

t h i s g e n e r a t i o n o f s i n n e r s a n d a d u l t e r e r s w h o is t o o p r o u d t o h e e d m e a n d m y

t h e So n o f M a n w o n ' t b e t o o p r o u d o f h i m w h e n h e c o m e s i n j u d g m e n t J u s t w

8 : 3 8 ) . T h e S o n o f M a n w o u l d w i p e t h e t e a r f r o m ev e r y ey e ( R e v . 7 : 1 7 ) — a n d t h e



every f ace Q spec ia l i s t s have sp o t t ed a w ho le s econd l ayer of Q say ings wh ich r ea

th i s sor t o f angry invec t ive .

1 2

T h a t w o u l d s e em t o d e n o t e t h a t a t u r n i n g p o i n

r e a c h e d : T h e i t i n e r a n t s w e r e n o l o n g e r p o p u l a r , c a r r i e d n o m o r e c l o u t . A l m s w e r e

d o o r s b e i n g s l a m m e d i n t h e i r f a c e s a s i f t h e y w e r e J e h o v a h ' s W i t n e s s e s , w h i c

t h i n k o f i t , t h e y w e r e

THE PILLAR SAINTS AND THE HEIRS OF JESUS

B o t h o f th e s e g r o u p s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n q u i t e p r o m i n e n t i n t h e e a r ly J e w i s h J e s u s

( t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e u s e d t h e t e r m " C h r i s t i a n i t y " ) , a n d b o t h o f t h e l e a d e r s

i n c l u d e d J a m e s t h e J u s t , t h e b r o t h e r o f J e s u s . B u t M a c k i s n o t q u i t e s u r e o f t h

b e t w e e n t h e t w o . I t h i n k w e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e s a m e g r o u p b e f o r e a n d a f t e r 7 0

t h e f a ll o f J e r u s a l e m t o t h e R o m a n s a n d t h e

hijra

( f l i g h t ) o f t h e J e r u s a l e m J e s u s

t o t h e c i t y o f P e l l a . W h i l e s t i l l h e a d q u a r t e r e d i n J e r u s a l e m , c h o s e n b e c a u s e of

r e p u t a t i o n a s t h e H o l y C i t y o f Z i o n , t h e l e a d e r s h i p w a s k n o w n a s t h e P i l l a r s ( G

c o m m u n i t y a s " t h e s a in t s o f J e r u s a l e m " ( R o m . 1 5 : 3 1 ) o r " t h e P o o r " ( G a l . 2 : 1



m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e E b i o n i t e s e c t , a l a t e r s u r v i v a l o f t h i s g r o u p ) . T h e " P i l l a r s , " a t e

I s l a m f o r t h e f i v e f o u n d a t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s , w a s u s e d i n J e r u s a l e m f o r t h e t

J a m e s t h e J u s t , S i m o n P e t e r / C e p h a s , a n d J o h n , s o n o f Z e b e d e e .

I n M a r k ' s g o s p e l , t h e p a i r J a m e s a n d J o h n a r e g i v e n t h e t i t l e B o a n e r g e s ,

t r i es to do pe ou t as m ea nin g " sons o f th un de r" (Ma rk 3 :17) , wh ich , howe ver , i t do

t o m e a n . J o h n A l l e g r o {The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross) sug ges te d tha t the

f r o m a n o l d S u m e r i a n n a m e f o r C a s t o r a n d P o l l u x , t h e h e a v e n l y t w i n s , a n d t h a

" u p h o l d e r s o f t h e v a u l t o f h e a v e n . "

1 5

A n t h o n y T . H a n s o n s e es a n a l l u s io n t o B o a z

t h e m i g h t y p i l l a r s i n S o l o m o n ' s t e m p l e ( 1 K i n g s 7 : 2 1 ) , s y m b o l i z i n g t h e p i l l a r s t h a

t h e f i r m a m e n t ( J o b 9 : 6 ).

1 4

C e p h a s o r P e t e r , " t h e R o c k , " w o u l d r e f e r t o t h e g r e a t

s tone of the wor l d , w hic h sc r iba l lo re loca ted be ne a th t he t em ple . So to be ca l led

ind ica ted qu i t e an exa l t ed s t a tus . We can see the s ame sor t o f god l ike venera t ion

T h o m a s , s a y i n g 1 2 , " T h e d is c i p l e s s a id t o h i m , ' W e k n o w t h a t y o u w i l l l e a v e u s

s h a l l w e g o ? ' J e s u s sa i d t o t h e m , ' W h e r e v e r y o u c o m e f r o m , y o u a r e t o g o t o

R i g h t e o u s f o r w h o s e s a k e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h w e r e c r e a t e d . ' " ( " W h e r e v e r y o u c o m e

t o t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f m i s s i o n a r y a p o s t l e s t o c h e c k i n w i t h a r e p o r t t o J a m e s in

a n o t h e r m e a s u r e o f h i s i m p o r t a n c e . )

The th ree P i l l a r s s eem to have been an ear l i e r au thor i ty s t ruc ture , o r e l s e a



t h a n t h a t o f t h e T w e l v e . T h e T w e l v e a re n e v e r m e n t i o n e d i n t h e g o s p e l s o u t s i d e

n a r r a t i v e , r e w r i t t e n s a y i n g s ( M a t t . 1 9 : 2 8 . c f ., L u k e 2 2 : 3 0 ) , e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t

f a b r i c a t e d sa y i n g s ( J o h n 6 : 7 0 ; M a r k 1 4 : 1 2 — n o t in M a t t h e w o r L u k e at th i s p o i n t )

f i g u r e s J a m e s , J o h n , a n d P e t e r , b y c o n t r a s t , a r e m e n t i o n e d a s a g r o u p o r i n d i v i d u

t i m e s . T h e t r o u b l e is t h a t t h e J a m e s m e n t i o n e d a s o n e o f t h e d i s c ip l e s i s J a m e s

Ze bed ee , b ro th er o f Jo hn . Th i s J a m es is s a id in Ac t s 12:1—2 to have been e xecu t

b y H e r o d A g r i p p a I . D i d J a m e s t h e J u s t t a k e h i s p la c e ? P o s si b l y , b u t t h e r e i s s o m

over the f a t es o f bo th o f the b ro th er s Boane rges . Pap ias , a b i sh op wr i t in g in ab ou

s a id t h e t w o w e r e m a r t y r e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e , i n f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e p r e d i c t i o n i n

S ince o th er t r ad i t io ns have Jo h n l ive on fo r s evera l decade s ( app aren t ly to conne c

t h e v e r y l a t e G o s p e l o f J o h n ) , s c h o l a r s h a v e r e j e c t e d P a p i a s ' t r a d i t i o n . B u t h o w d

Ac ts ' r epor t o f J a m es ' de a th (A ct s 12 :2) and the t r a d i t ion of Jo h n l iv ing to a r ipe

E p h e s u s w e r e n o t le g e n d a r y ? P e r h a p s d i s t i n g u i s h i n g " J a m e s , s o n o f Z e b e d e e " f r o m

J u s t " w a s a n a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e t w o c h a r a c t e r s o u t o f o n e , s o a s t o m a k e a ll t h

s o u n d r i g h t . J o h n h a d b e e n s p l i t i n t o t w o c h a r a c t e r s ( " J o h n t h e E l d e r " a n d " J o

Zeb edee" ) i n order t o preserve " Joh n" as au th or of bo th th e Re vela t ion on the on

the " Johannine" gospe l and ep i s t l es on the o ther . So maybe Mark thought of t he

be long ed to t he inner c i rc l e of Jesu s as be ing one of t he th re e P i l l a rs . Rom a



scholars have usua l ly i den t i f i ed the two.

As for t he Hei rs , t hese were the roya l household of Jesus (and James) , a t l e

w e re s e e n i n r e t ro sp e c t b y t h e J e su s g ro u p d e sc e n d e d f ro m t h e m . J a m e s t h e

probably a lways owed h i s p rominence to t he acc ident o f h i s b i r th , func t ion ing as

t he successor of h i s fam ou s bro ther , j us t as Al i , cous in and a do pted s on of t

M u h a m m a d , s e rv e d as c a l i p h o f t h e M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . J a m e s sh a re d t h e m a n t

w i t h Jo h n a n d P e t e r a s Primus Inter Pares ( f i r s t among equal s ) as a sor t o f comp

these two o thers who had been c lose assoc ia t es of Jesus dur ing h i s min i s t ry

c l a ims to l eadersh ip were no t t o be eas ily se t as ide . Bu t a f t e r t he fa l l o f Je rus a l e

dea th of Pe t e r some t en years ear l i e r (or so t rad i t i on t e l l s us) , t he on ly au thor i ty

s t i l l commanded any c red ib i l i t y was tha t o f James , o r ra ther t he o ther surv iv ing

Ja m e s a n d Je su s , s i n ce J a m e s , to o , h a d b e e n m a r t y re d . A s t h e y o u n g e r H a sm o n e

t o o k o v e r l e a d e r sh i p w h e n Ju d a s o r S i m o n w o u l d f a ll i n b a t t l e , a n d t h e d e sc e n d a n

of G al i l ee t ook turn s l ead in g the revo lu t ion in succ eeding decades , so d id the

Jesu s and Jam es t ake the i r t u r n a t t he he lm . S im eon succeeded Jam es . Co l l ec t ive ly

k n o w n a s t h e H e i r s . T h e d e s u l t o r y r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e m o t h e r a n d b r o t h e r s of J

g o s p e l s ( M a r k 3 : 2 0 - 2 1 , 3 1 - 3 5 ; J o h n 7 : 1 - 7 ) m u s t o r i g in a l l y h a v e b e en p o l e m i c a l

a t t h i s f a c t i o n b y r i v a l f a c t i o n s w h o s u p p o r t e d o t h e r a p o s t o l i c l e a d e r s .



A l l M a c k i s s u r e o f i s t h a t f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e H e i r s a n d / o r t h e P i l l a r s

r e m e m b e r e d a s t h e i r f o u n d e r , t h a t t h e y k e p t t h e J e w i s h L a w , a n d t h a t th e y

g o s p e l q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t a s s o c i a te d w i t h t h e n a m e o f P a u l , w h o m t h e y d e e

p r o p h e t . M a c k r i g h t l y s u s p e c t s t h a t t h e d e a t h of J e s u s m e a n t l i t t l e m o r e t o t h e m

m e a n t t o t h e Q c o m m u n i t y ( a n d t h e i t i n e r a n t s ) . F i rs t , l e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t t h e y a t

o f t h e d e a t h o f J e s u s . J e s u s a s t h e i r M e s s i a h w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e l i k e M e n a c h

S c h n e e r s o n is t o L u b a v i t c h e r H a s i d i c J e w s t o d a y . M y g u e s s i s t h a t , l i k e t h e

R a b b i S c h n e e r s o n , t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e P i l l a r s / H e i r s w o u l d h a v e l o c a t e d t h e r e s

t h e i r M e s s i a h n o t i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t b u t r a t h e r i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . J e s u s w o u l d s h

t h e b e g i n n i n g ( t h e " f i r s t f r u i t s , " 1 C o r . 1 5 : 2 0 - 2 3 ) o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n h a r v e s t ; i n o

t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p r o c e s s , n o t s o m e e a r ly a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n h a p p

or deca des o r ce n tu r i es in adv anc e of i t

C . H . D o d d

1 5

o n c e n o t e d a s e t o f i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n a n u m b e

T e s t a m e n t p a s s a g e s d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d h i s s e c o n d

t h e o t h e r , i m p l y i n g p e r h a p s t h a t t h e e a rl y C h r i s t i a n s h a d n o t a t f i r s t d i f f e r e n

c l e a rl y b e t w e e n t h e t w o . F o r i n s t a n c e , w e f i n d t h e m o t i f o f " s e e i n g " J e s u s i n

s e n s e a p p l i e d b o t h t o t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e s ( " T h e r e y o u w i l l s e e h i m , " M a r

1 C o r . 1 5 : 3 - 1 1 ) a n d t o t h e S e c o n d C o m i n g ( " E v e r y e y e w i l l s e e h i m , " R e v . 1 : 7

t h e m o t i f o f a r e u n i o n i n w h i c h t h e v i n d i c a t e d C h r i s t w i l l e a t a n d d r i n k



f o l l o w e r s — a f t e r t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n ( A c t s 1 : 4 R S V ; 1 0 : 4 1 ) o r a t t h e S e c o n d C o m i n g ( M

R e v . 3 : 2 0 ; 1 9 : 9 ) . L i k e w i s e t h e t h e m e o f t h e g a t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r o f C h r i s t ' s e

c h u r c h ( M a t t . 1 8 : 2 0 ; 1 C o r . 5 : 4 ) o r a t t h e e s c h a t o n ( M a r k 1 3 : 2 7 ; 2 T h e s s . 2 : 1 ) .

r o y a l i n v e s t i t u r e o f C h r i s t w i t h u n i v e r s a l d o m i n i o n a n d p o w e r , d e r i v e d f r o m D

a s s o c ia t e d n o w w i t h t h e r e su r r e c t io n ( M a t t . 2 8 : 1 6 - 1 8 ; P h i l . 2 : 6 - 1 1 ) , n o w w i t h t

( M a t t . 2 5 : 3 1 ; R e v . 1 1 : 1 5 ) . D o d d t h o u g h t t h a t t h e s e p a r a ll e l s i m p l i e d a n e ar l y

J e s u s ' v i n d i c a t i o n a f t e r d e a t h w a s s p o k e n o f i n g e n e r a l t e r m s t h a t w e r e i n t e r p r e t e

a s r e f e r r i n g t o a r e t u r n t o e a r t h l y l if e s h o r t l y a f t e r d e a t h a n d t o a r e t u r n t o t h e

h e a v e n l y c o n c e a l m e n t , l e a d i n g a n a n g e l i c a r m y i n h i s t r a i n . I n t i m e , h e r e a s o n s ,

p r e t a t i o n s h a r p e n e d o r p r o d u c e d v a r i o u s s a y i n g s , l i k e t h e o n e s c i t e d h e r e , t h a t

a n d s p e c i f i e d t h e m a n n e r o f J e s u s ' r e t u r n o n e w a y o r t h e o t h e r .

D o d d t a c t f u l l y r e f r a i n e d f r o m e x p l o r i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s

b u t n o t h i n g f o r b i d s u s . I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t f o r s u c h a n a m b i g u i t y a s h e d e s c r i

h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e , t h e e a r l y b e l i e v e r s m u s t n o t h a v e t h o u g h t t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f

a l r e a d y h a p p e n e d C e r i n t h u s , a J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n G n o s t i c o f t h e l a t e f i r s t c e n t u r y

h a v e b e l i e v e d t h a t J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n l a y y e t i n t h e f u t u r e . I w o u l d c o n s i d

i n n o v a t o r , b u t a s t u b b o r n t r a d i t i o n a l i s t . I t i s h a r d t o s e e h o w s u c h a v ie w c o u l d

occ ur red to h i m in th e f i r s t p l ace i f the p r i o r an d un ive r sa l be l i e f ha d b een tha



l o n g a g o r i s e n f r o m t h e d e a d .

W i l l i a m W r e d e

1 6

d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w J e s u s w a s o r i g i n a l l y b e l i e v e d t o h a v e

M e s s i a h o n l y u p o n h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n . S u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s c a l l e d " A d o p t i o n i s

c e r t a i n l y s e e m s t o b e p r e s e n t h e r e a n d t h e r e i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . F o r i n s t a n c e ,

w h i c h s e e m s t o b e a q u o t a t i o n f r o m a n e a r l ie r h y m n o r c r e e d , s a ys t h a t J e s u s

been po s i t ion ed for M ess iah sh ip , as he was "Son of Dav id acc ord in g to the f l esh

was "dec la red Son of G od by an ac t o f po we r by the r esur re c t ion of the dead

Ac ts 2 :3 6 has Pe te r s ay to the P en tec os ta l c rowd s , "Le t a l l I s r ae l kno w for sure th

m a d e h i m b o t h L o r d a n d C h r i s t , t h i s J e s u s w h o m y o u c r u c i f i e d . " T h e l o g i c i s

J esu s ' i ns t a l l a t ion as Me ss iah and Lord fo l lo we d , i ron ica l ly , th e na t io n ' s r epu dia t i

Ag ain , in Ac t s 13 :33 , Pau l is sho wn sa y ing , "H e r a i s ed up Jesu s , as i t i s a l so w r

second Psa lm , 'You a re m y son ; toda y I have be go t t e n y o u / " Ch r i s t i a n f a i th so

c i a t e d J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n w i t h h i s i n a u g u r a t i o n a s m e s s i a n i c "s o n " t h a t A c t s 1 3

pre d ic t io n of the one as be in g fu l f i l l e d in the o ther .

Jo hn A . T . Robin son sho wed there is reason to be l i eve tha t an even ear l i e r v ie

t h e R i se n J e su s w a s still no t t he Mess i ah but would have to wai t t o rece ive the

Second C om ing , wh en he would do the work of t he Mess i ah , def ea t in g the pow ers



d e sc r i b e d in t h e B o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n . R o b i n so n p o i n t e d t o s t i l l a n o t h e r t a n t a l i z i n

i n A c t s , t h i s t i m e A c t s 3 : 1 9 -2 1 , " R e p e n t , th e re fo re , a n d r e t u rn , t h a t y o u r si n s m a

away, i n order t h a t t ime s of re f res h ing may com e f ro m the presence of t h e Lo rd ,

m a y se n d Je su s , the Christ appointed fo r y o u , w h o m t h e h e a v e n s m u s t h o l d u n t i l

o f res tora t ion of a l l t h ings which God spoke about by the mouth of h i s ho ly pr

anc ien t t ime . "

1 7

In e i ther case , t he p o in t i s t ha t early C hr i s t i an s would have a t f i r s t expec ted

c o m i n g o f Jesus—his first c o m i n g a s t h e Messiah—in the near fu tur e . Bu t t im e w

he never showed up . Eventua l ly t hey dec ided he must a l ready have been the Mess

m us t have kep t i t a secre t . Th a t ' s why pre t ty mu ch nob ody knew a bo ut

Re surr ec t io n , an d , i n t u rn , t ha t ' s why som e assum ed he had beco me Mess i ah onl

resurre c t ion . Th i s scenar io , t ho ug h c r i t i c i zed by many scholars (I suspec t ma in ly be

d i s t u rb i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s fo r t r a d i t i o n a l d o g m a ) , s t i l l s e e m s p re t t y c o g e n t . B u t

imp l i ca t ion of i t is t ha t , s ince resu rrec t ion and Me ss i ahsh ip go toge th er as two s

sam e co in , i f Jes us ' fu tu re Me ss i ah sh ip was pus hed f rom the near fu tur e back in to

p a s t , so was his resurrection. T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y a l l t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n n a r r a t i v e s d

a p p e a r i n g o n l y t o s m a l l g r o u p s o f d i s c i p l e s i n p r i v a t e , a n d w h y M a r k h a s t h e w o

t o m b sa y n o t h i n g a b o u t i t t o a n y o n e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , p a r t o f t h e m e s s i a n i c s e c

s e c r e t t h a t J e s u s h a d a l r e a d y r i se n f r o m t h e d e a d , b u t t h e n e w s w a s s l o w i n l e a k i n



m e a n h e

did

r i s e f ro m the dead and we jus t d i dn ' t kn ow i t ? Yeah . . .

that's

t h e t i

W h y d o e s t h i s m a k e e n o u g h d i f f e r e n c e f o r m e t o b e s p e n d i n g s o m u c h

m a t t e r ? B e c a u s e o n e o f B u r t o n M a c k ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t s u g g e s t i o n s is t h a t t h e

g o s p e l w a s a m y t h t h a t f i t t h e i n t e r e s t s o f s o m e e a rl y J e s u s g r o u p s b u t n o t o t h

t h e

product

o f one f ac t ion of early Ch r i s t i an i ty , no t the

foundation

o f any sor t o f

a t a ll . M a c k s a ys t h a t e v e n c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n t o o l o n g e n c h a n t e d b y t h e m

" B i g B a n g " m o d e l of C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n s : J e s u s r o s e f r o m t h e d e a d ( o r a t l e a s t t

e x p e r i e n c e d s u c h a v i s i o n ) , a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y b e g a n t o e v o l v e i n i t s v a r i o u s f o r m s

p o i n t . B u t t h i s i s w h a t w e m u s t d e c o n s t r u c t . A n d I h a v e b e e n t r y i n g t o e x p l a

r e s u r r e c t i o n d o c t r i n e m a y h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m a g r a d u a l p ro c e s s o f r e t h i n k i n g o n t h

s i n g l e f a c t i o n o f t h e J e s u s m o v e m e n t . T h e J e s u s m o v e m e n t w a s a l r e a d y o n t h

a n o t h e r f o r m , s e v e ra l o t h e r f o r m s . A n d n o t o n l y w e r e t h o s e f o r m s n o t r e s u r r e c t i

t h e y m a y n o t e v e n h a v e b e e n a l l t h a t J e s u s - c e n t e r e d .

B u t w h a t if e v e n t h i s f a c t i o n d i d n o t a t f i r s t t a k e f o r g r a n t e d t h e d e a t h o f



a v a t a r s , t h a t t h e y d i d n o t d i e , e s c a p i n g t o h e a v e n l y c o n c e a l m e n t a s w e l l . S u c h d o c e

i n c l u d e B i r sa al C h a l k a d ( d . 1 9 0 0 ) , S a i y id A h m a d ( d . 1 8 3 1 ) , a n d R a m S i n g h ( d . 1

S o S h i ' i t e M u s l i m s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s a m e s o r t o f s u p e r n a t u r a l o c c u l t a t i o n p r e

J e s u s a n d M u h a m m a d i b n - H a s a n - a l - A s k a r i f r o m th e p e r s e c u t i o n o f th e i r e n e m i e s .



b e a n e l e m e n t o f t r u t h h e r e . I t m a y i n d e e d b e t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e P i l l a r

k n e w J e s u s w a s n o l o n g e r p r e s e n t . I n a t i m e o f p e r s e c u t i o n , h e h a d d i s a p p e a r e d

t h a t G o d c o u l d n o t h a v e a b a n d o n e d h i m t o t h e c l u t c h e s o f t h e w i c k e d , t h e y c o n

h e w a s s a fe i n h i d i n g ( c f. M a t t . 1 4 : 1 3 ; J o h n 7 : 1 ) , c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h r o u g h h i s b r o

h i s B a b . M a n y g o s p e l s c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t m a n y p o w e r f u l s a y i n g s a t t r i b u t e

b u t w h i c h c a n n o t r e al ly g o b a c k t o h i m , w e r e t h e w o r k o f C h r i s t i a n c h a r i s m a t

w h o s p o k e i n h i s n a m e . T h e " I a m " s t a t e m e n t s o f J o h n ' s g o s p e l ( J o h n 4 : 2 6 ; 6 : 3 5 ;

1 1 : 2 5 ; 1 5 : 1 ) w o u l d b e p r i m e e x a m p l e s . A n d o n e o f t h e s e i s " I a m t h e d o o r " ( J o h n

t h i s o n e o r i g i n a l ly a d r a m a t i c d e c l a r a t i o n o f a J e s u s - p r o p h e t i n t h e J o h a n n i n e

H a d h e d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f t h e B a b o f J e s u s ? S o m e t h i n g l i k e t h i s s e e m s t o b e p r e

t h a t g o s p e l , w h e r e t h e B e l o v e d D i s c i p l e , r e c l i n i n g a t t h e b o s o m o f J e s u s a t t h e s

13 :23—25) , r e f l ec t s th e Son h im se l f , "w ho is in the bo som of th e f a th er " ( Joh n 1 :1

" h a s m a d e h i m k n o w n " ( ib i d . ) . T h a t u n n a m e d d i s c i p l e i s h i m s e l f t h e v o ic e o f t h

( John 16 :7) .



Je w s rea l ly have sex th ro ug h a shee t w i th a ho le cu t in i t ? Ta lk show hos t s m

sense o f sha m e, bu t a p io us has id does . H e r esp ond ed in d i s t r e s s , " I t i s an

h u m a n i t y " P h i l s e e m e d t o t h i n k h e w a s d e n y i n g t h e w h o l e i d e a , s a y i n g t h a t s u c h

w o u l d b e o u t r a g e o u s . B u t h e w a s re a l l y s a y i n g , " I t i s a n o u t r a g e f o r y o u t o a s k a



such a qu es t ion I t ' s no one e l s e 's bus in es s "

J e s u s w a s n ' t a v a i l a b l e , b u t J a m e s w a s i n e a sy c l u b b i n g d i s t a n c e . T h u s h i s m a r t

w a s h e f o l l o w i n g i n h i s b r o t h e r ' s f o o t s t e p s ? D o e s t h e s t o r y p r e s u p p o s e J e s u s h a d

k n o w s ? M a y b e J e s u s w a s j u s t h i d d e n a w a y s o m e w h e r e . M a y b e t h i s i s e v e n t

d e n o t a t i o n o f J a m e s ' e p i t h e t , " t h e L o r d ' s b r o t h e r . " A s t h e l i v i n g o ra c l e o f J e s u s

d e s e r v e d t h e s a m e t i t l e o f h o n o r a s " J u d a s T h o m a s , " " J u d a s t h e T w i n " b r o t h e r o f

he was be l i eved to be h i s im ag e on e ar th .

I f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e P i l l a r s / H e i r s d i d b e l i e v e i n t h e d e a t h o f J e s u s , h o w

h a v e u n d e r s t o o d h i s d e a t h ? R o b e r t E i s e n m a n

2 2

m a k e s a p e r s u a s i v e c a s e f o r J e s u s

a n a r m e d , p r i e s t l y M e s s i a h - k i n g l i k e M e n a h e m , s c i o n o f J u d a s o f G a l i l e e a n d l e

Z e a l o t s . J e s u s w o u l d h a v e d i e d f i g h t i n g i n (o r a s a r e s u l t o f ) t h e r a i d o n t h e t e

1 1 : 1 5 - 1 8 ) . A s B u r t o n M a c k p o i n t s o u t , t h e s t o r y o f J e s u s " c l e a n s i n g " t h e t e m p l e

p i e c e of f i c t i o n , w h i c h i s M a c k ' s o w n o p t i o n , o r i t i s a g a r b l e d ( o r e d i t e d ) r e

a r m e d a s s a u l t a s R o b e r t E i s l e r a n d S . G . F . B r a n d o n m a i n t a i n e d , b e c a u s e t h e

e n v i s i o n e d a c t u a l l y c o v e r e d a n e x t e n t o f s o m e t h i r t y - f i v e a cr e s , t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f

f o o t b a l l f i e l d s I t w o u l d h a v e c o n t a i n e d t h o u s a n d s o f p i l g r i m s , i n n u m e r a b l e l iv e

a n d m o n e y - c h a n g i n g b o o t h s .

2 3

A n d i t w a s c r a w l i n g w i t h a r m e d g u a r d s O n e

c o u l d n ' t h a v e h a p p e n e d i s o u r u s u al p i c t u r e of a l o n e f i g u r e b u s t i n g u p a c h u r c



B u t d o w e h a v e a n y o t h e r c l u es a b o u t t h e J a m e s w i n g o f t h e J e s u s m o v e m e

w e h a v e a g r e a t d e a l m o r e t h a n w e h a d t h o u g h t . A g a i n , I r e f e r t o t h e w o r k

E i s e n m a n . I t i s h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e D e a d S e a S c r o ll s h a v e b e e n d a t e d a c e n t u r

(he i s by no mea ns a lon e in th i s be l i e f , nor i s i t even a new o pin ion ) . Th ey sh ou

i n s t e a d as f i r s t - c e n t u r y C.E. w o r k s s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e c o m m u n i t y l e d b y J a m e

c a l l ed " t h e T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s " o r " t h e R i g h t e o u s T e a c h e r " i n t h e S c r o ll s . N

w i t h b a r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , E i s e n m a n s e t s f o r t h a s e ri e s o f r e m a r k a b l e l i n k s b e t w e e n

a n d n u m e r o u s J a m e s t r a d i t i o n s i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . F u r t h e r

b e t w e e n t h e S c r ol ls , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , H e g e s i p p u s , J o s e p h u s , a n d t h e C l e m e n t i n

t e n d t o i m p l i c a t e P a u l a s " t h e S p o u t e r o f L i e s " w h o h a d b e t r a y e d t h e c o m m u n i t y

t h e L a w w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y i t s e l f. A l l th i s s o u n d s q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e d e p i c t i o n

J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . A s a n y o n e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e

k n o w , t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s is s a i d t o h a v e b e e n a m b u s h e d , b e t r a y e d , a

dea th by a "W icke d P r i es t . " Th e para l l e l E i se nm an sugges t s wi th the p lo t o f

H ig h Pr i es t t o t rap and k i l l Ja m es in He ge s ipp us ' h i s tory is a fa r c loser on

sugges t ed by those scholars who ins i s t t he c iphers of t he Scro l l s must by hook o

refer t o t he event s of t he Hasmonean k ings and the Phar i sees and Essenes of t h



second centuries B.c.E.

I t i s the absence of any ment ion of Jesus in the Scrol l s that has made i t im

mo st scholars to ente rtain an yth ing l ike Eisenman's theory ( th ou gh Jaco b L. T

suggest , in a series of art icles back in 1950s, that the Scrol l s communi ty were Eb

branch of t he so-ca l l ed Jewish Chr i s t i ans) . But what i f I am r igh t about James ' p r

the "Door of Jesus , " t he Bab connec t ing fo l lowers t o Jesus the Hidden Imam? J

soon c om e to ecl ipse Jesu s in the eyes of his fol lowers. Or , as Schon field sugge ste

have been qu i te natura l for Jes us ' fol lowers to have regarded him in ret ros pect as t

k ing who resumed Davids roya l l i ne , wi th James as h i s successor as Messiah, that

king . Jes us would have receded to the status of a

Deus Abscondittis

, a h idde n G

Jam es was a l i v ing mouth piece of d iv ine t ru th . And once he was h imsel f m

central i ty was assured.

Ei senman can be unders tood as reopening the door for t he theory of Renan an

very popular t heory in t he e igh teenth and n ine t een th cen tur i es and even

C h r i s t i a n i t y b e g a n as " a n E s s e n is m . " T h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y h e r e s y h u n t e r E p i p h a n i u s

preserves these s t a r t l ing f ac t s: f i r s t , t ha t there was a p re - Ch r i s t i an s ec t ca ll ed " the

(m ean ing " the Observe r s , " o f the Torah) , and seco nd , tha t the ear l i es t Chr i s t i a ns

" Jes seans, " wh ich sound s l ike some one ' s a t t e m pt to d i sgu i se the na m e "Essenes" b



con nec t i t w i th J es se , Da vid ' s f a ther , and thu s r e in te rpre t ing i t as a r e fe rence to th

"son of Da vid " m ot i f . E i se nm an sugg es t s tha t t e rm s l ike "Na zorea ns , " "Essenes , " "Z

othe r s were a l l i n t e rc han gea b le t ags fo r the b lur ry c lo ud of ove r l app ing Jewi sh

s e c t a ri a n s , a n d " e n t h u s i a s t s " in N e w T e s t a m e n t t i m e s . " J e s u s t h e N a z o r e a n " w o u l d h

"Jesus the Sec ta r i an , " " Jesus the Ha s id , " no t " Jesus f rom Naz are th . "

2 5

E i s e n m a n ' s t h e o r y w o u l d l e a v e u s w i t h a c r e a t i v e l y i n c h o a t e , u n s t a b l e , a n d d i

J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y " t h a t w a s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c e n t e r e d o n J e s u s . H e m a y h a v e b e e

e q u a l l y w i t h a g a l l e r y o f s a i n t s a n d m e s s i a h s i n c l u d i n g J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , J a m e

S i m o n M a g u s , a n d D o s i t h e u s ( t h e l a t t e r t w o b e i n g S a m a r i t a n g u r u s a n d m i r a c l e w

t o h a v e b e e n , l i k e J e s u s , d i s c i p l e s a n d s e l f - a p p o i n t e d s u c c e s so r s o f J o h n t h e B a p t i s

e a s i l y i m a g i n e a s e r i e s o f s c h i s m s o c c u r r i n g i n t h i s m o v e m e n t , d i v i d i n g i t a l o n g t

the par t i s an s o f th e var iou s p a t r on sa in t s : " I am of J am es " " I am of t he B ap t i s t

J e s u s " ( p re c i s e ly a s i n 1 C o r . 1 : 1 1 - 1 2 , w h e r e C h r i s t i s o n l y o n e a m o n g s e v e r

t o t e m s ) .

S p l i t t i n g o f f a n d h a n g i n g o u t t h e i r o w n s h i n g l e , t h e " J e s u s - S h i 'i t e s " ( " p a r t i s a

h a v e b e c o m e t h e b a s i s o f t h e v a r i o u s l a t e r " J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n " g r o u p s k n o w n t o

t h e E b i o n i t e s , t h e N a z a r e n e s , t h e E l c h a s i t e s , e v e n t h e C e r i n t h i a n G n o s t i c s . T h o s e w

J a m e s t h e R i g h t e o u s T e a c h e r re l e g a t e d J e s u s t o t h e s t a t u s o f J a m e s ' f o r e r u n n e r ,



J e s u s f a c t i o n s u b o r d i n a t e d t h e B a p t i s t t o J e s u s . F r o m t h e J a m e s f a c t i o n c a m e t h

Scro l l s wh ich e xa l t the i r Teach er as a new Mo ses , be m oa n h i s t r ag ic de a th , an d lo

to h i s r e tu rn a t the end of days to even the s core .

A nd l e t ' s no t fo rge t Jo hn t he Bap t i s t . N ew Te s tam ent scho lar s f rom David Fr i ed

onw ard have r ecognized in the gospe l s ev idence tha t the s ec t o f Jo hn con t inu ed o

the J esus mo ve m en t fo r decades . For ins t ance , M ark preserves a s to ry in which w

Jesu s i s wel l k no wn to have d i sc arde d t he p io us p rac t i ce o f f a s t ing , a p rac t i ce shar

the Bapt i s t ' s d i s c ip le s wi th th e Phar i s ee sec t (Mark 2 :18) . Luke ' s in t ro du c t io n to

Prayer dep ic t s J esu s ' d i s c ip les ask in g h im to com pose a p rayer fo r the m to r epea t j

the Bapt i s t had com posed a p rayer used b y h i s fo l lowers (Luke 11 :1) . O ne need

these tw o pas sages r epresen t r ea l even t s in the l i f e o f J esus . Ind eed , i t s eems they

B u l t m a n n p o i n t e d o u t , in e p i so d e s w h e r e J e s u s i s a s k e d n o t a b o u t h i s o w n c o n d u c

tha t o f h i s d i s c ip les , we a re sure ly dea l in g w i th a s to ry co mp osed in the ear ly C hu

as a p roof t ex t in a deb a te abou t wha t the chu rch ou gh t to do . L ikewise , s ince M

Luke bo t h der ived the Lord ' s P rayer f rom Q bu t have d i f f e ren t con tex t s fo r i t ,

Luke ' s in t ro du c tor y s cene is a r t i f i c i a l. Th e h i s to r i ca l ly s econdary charac te r o f bo th th

u n d e r l i n e s a l l t h e m o r e d r a m a t i c a l l y t h a t a s e c t o f J o h n , a t t r i b u t i n g f a s t i n g a n d p r a

to h im, surv ived for many decades a longs ide Chr i s t i an i ty , a t l eas t in to the t ime of



Luke .

S imi la r ly , bo th Luke and John seem to be a t pa ins to as sure r eader s tha t John

was no t h im se l f the s av ior , de sp i t e th e hopes o f man y tha t he m ig ht have been

J o h n 1 : 6 - 7 ; 3 : 2 8 - 3 0 ) . W h a t c o u l d b e t h e p o i n t of s u c h p r o t e s t a t i o n s i f n o t t o r e

o v e r t h o s e w h o h e l d J o h n t o b e t h e C h r i s t , n o t J e s u s ? I n t h e C l e m e n t i n e H o m i l i e s

d e b a t e in w h i c h J o h n ' s f o l l o w e r s a r g u e a g a i n s t J e s u s a n d c l a i m t h a t J o h n h i m

Mess iah . "A nd beh old , one of the d i s c ip les o f Jo hn as ser t ed th a t Jo h n was the C hr

Jesus : ' I na sm uc h , ' he s a id , ' a s J esu s h imse l f dec la red t ha t Joh n was grea te r than a

a l l p ro phe t s . I f there fo re , ' he s a id , ' he i s g rea te r tha n a l l m en , he mu s t w i th ou t do

to be g rea te r tha n b o th M oses and Jes us h im se l f . Bu t if h e i s g rea te r tha n a l l , he

t h e C h r i s t ' " {Recognitions 1 .60 .1)

2 6

There surv ives even today an I r aq i Aram

b a p t i z i n g c o m m u n i t y c a l l e d t h e M a n d a e a n s ( A r a m a i c f o r " G n o s t i c s " ) , t h o u g h t h e

se l f -des igna t io n is "Na zorea ns" These p eop le s t i l l cur se J esu s as a f a l se p ro ph e t and

( see 1 Cor . 12 :3) . The y r evere the Bap t i s t as a t rue p ro ph e t , b u t t he i r Mess iah i s

s a v io r c a l le d E n o s h - U t h r a , t h e A n g e l E n o s h . E n o s h w a s t h e f i r s t m a n , t h e p r i m o r d

i n s o m e a n c i e n t H e b r e w c r e a t i o n m y t h s , t h o u g h i n G e n e s i s h e h a s b e e n e l b o w e d a

s imi la r f igu re o f Ada m . In shor t , Enosh U thr a is the Son of Man . H ow could a se

g lo r i fy in g Jo h n and cur s ing Jesus if i t i s no t the r esu l t o f anc ie n t sec ta r i an s t r i f e b



f ac t ions o f a m ov em en t tha t had prev ious ly venera ted bo th?

T h e r e w e r e v a r i o u s S i m o n i a n a n d D o s i t h e a n s e c ts i n a n t i q u i t y , t o o , b u t t h e y

s i n c e p e r i s h e d . I a m w i l l i n g t o b e t t h a t a l l w e r e t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f r a g m e n t s o f

p r e - J e s u s N a z o r e a n - E s s e n e m o v e m e n t t o w h i c h J o h n , J a m e s , a n d J e s u s t h e N a z o r

b e l o n g e d . T h a t a n y o f t h e s e n a m e s s h o u l d h a v e b e c o m e e x c l u s i v e f i g u r e h e a d s o f

m o v e m e n t s m u s t b e a l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t . A n d h e r e w e h a v e a p l a u s i b l e p i c t u r e o

J e s u s m o v e m e n t t h a t h a d n o t b e e n J e s u s - c e n t e r e d a n d t h a t d i d n o t b e g i n w i t h t h

o f J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n . C o n t r a r y t o B u l t m a n n ' s f a m o u s t h e o r y , i t d i d n o t a ll b e g i

E a s t e r m o r n i n g f a i t h o f t h e o r i g i n a l d i s c i p l e s .

I w i l l r e t u r n t o t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e G a l i l e a n C h r i s t i a n i t y o f t h e H e i r s a f t e r

J e r u s a l e m i n c h a p t e r 4 .

THE COMMUNITY OF ISRAEL



M a c k s e e m s t o i n c l u d e t h i s f o u r t h J e s u s m o v e m e n t ( c o u n t i n g t h e P i l l a r s a n d t h

J e s u s a s n u m b e r s t w o a n d t h r e e ) , as h e d o e s t h e Q c o m m u n i t y , t o p r o v i d e s o m

b l o o d c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t o p l a c e a n o t h e r d i s t i n c t g r o u p o f g o s p e l m a t e r i a l s . H e r e

mind a par t i cu la r l inked se r i es o f mi rac le s to r i es tha t occur s twice , a lmos t s ide

M a r k . P a u l A c h t e m e i e r w a s t h e f i r s t t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p u z z l e . " I t i s h

n o t i c e , e v e n o n a c a s u a l r e a d - t h r o u g h o f M a r k ' s g o s p e l , t h a t h e h a s t w o v e r s i

m i r a c u l o u s m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f l o av e s a n d f is h e s ( 6 : 3 4 - 4 4 ; 8 : 1 - 9 ) . W h a t b e g i n s t o e

c loser s c ru t iny i s a m or e ex ten s ive pa t t e rn . In b o th cases we s t a r t o f f wi t h a mi r

h i g h s e a s ( s t i l l i n g t h e s t o r m i n 4 : 3 5 - 4 1 ; w a l k i n g o n t h e w a t e r d u r i n g a s t o r m i n

N e x t w e f i n d s e t s o f t h r e e h e a l i n g m i r a c l e s . T h e f i r s t s e q u e n c e is t h e s t o ry of t h

d e m o n i a c ( 5 :1 —2 0 ) , t h e h e a l i n g of t h e w o m a n w i t h t h e h e m o r r h a g e ( 5 : 2 5 - 3 4 ) , a n d

o f J a i r u s ' d a u g h t e r ( 5 : 2 1 - 2 3 , 3 5 - 4 3 ) . T h e s e c o n d , p a ra l l e l s e q u e n c e i s c o m p r i

h e a l i n g o f t h e b l i n d m a n o f B e t h s a i d a ( 8 : 2 2 - 2 6 ) , t h e e x o r c i s m o f t h e d a u g h

S y r o - P h o e n i c i a n w o m a n ( 7 : 2 4 b - 3 0 ) , a n d t h e h e a l i n g o f t h e d e a f - m u t e ( 7 : 3 2 - 3 7 ) .

o f s t o r i e s c o n c l u d e s w i t h a m i r a c u l o u s f e e d i n g s t o ry , t h e f e e d i n g o f t h e f i v e t

M a r k 6 : 3 4 ^ 4 , a n d t h a t of t h e f o u r t h o u s a n d i n M a r k 8 : 1 - 1 0 . T h e t h i n g t h a t s t r i

i s pe rha ps the susp ic ion t ha t a s ing le bas ic s equ enc e was pas sed on in ta c t by



p r o c e s s o f o ra l t r a n s m i s s i o n w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y a l lo w e d m a n y o f t h e d e t a i l s t o

d e v e l o p , u n t i l t h e r e w e r e ( a t l e a s t ) t w o v e r s i o n s c i r c u l a t i n g b y t h e t i m e M a r k e n c o

t r a d i t i o n . T h e y w e r e d i f f e r e n t e n o u g h t h a t h e d e c i d e d n o t t o r i s k l e a v i n g e i t h e r s

a m o d e r n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t fa c e d w i t h a s e t o f b i b l i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , M a r k m a y h a

s i m i l a r e v e n t s h a p p e n e d t w i c e . A t a n y r a t e , t h e m e r e f a c t o f t h e d o u b l i n g o f t h e

i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e i t a l l o w s u s t o g a u g e t h e k i n d o f v a r i a t i o n a n d e v o l u t i

pos s ib le in the o ra l t r ad i t ion .

B u t A c h t e m e i e r w a s p e r c e p t i v e e n o u g h t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e h a d t o b e e v e n

T h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n s o m e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o s o m e o n e h a v i n g t h r e a d e d t h e s

mi ra c le t a l es tog e the r , an d for a wh ole s e r i es o f som eon e e l ses to k eep th em l in

p r o c e s s o f r e p e t i t i o n , s i n c e m o s t g o s p e l v i g n e t t e s s e e m t o h a v e f l o a t e d a r o u n d o n e b

k e e n - e y e d A c h t e m e i e r p o i n t e d o u t t h e g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w i n m i r a c l

he had d i scovere d an d th e S igns Source , the nu m be re d se r i es o f s even mi rac les us

as the nar ra t ive ske le ton of h i s gospe l .

2 8

R o b e r t F o r t n a , l e a d i n g e x p e r t o n t h e S

f o l l o w e d b y M a c k , w e n t a b i t f u r t h e r a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e S i g n s S o u r c e w a s

s o m e w h a t r e s h u f f l e d a n d a u g m e n t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e s a m e m i r a c l e s e q u e n c e A c h t e m

twic e in M ark . As th i s i s hard ly ev i den t a t f i r s t s ig h t , l e t m e br i e f ly exp la in t he eq

R i g h t o ff t h e b a t , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t J o h n s h a r e s t h e se a m i r a c l e a n d t h e f e e



m u l t i t u d e w i t h M a r k . H e h a s 5 , 0 0 0 f e d i n c o m m o n w i t h M a r k ' s f i r s t m i r a c l e s e q

6 : 1 0 ) , w h i l e in J o h n t h e s e a m i r a c l e is w a l k i n g o n t h e w a t e r ( 6 : 1 9 ) a s i n M a

s e q u e n c e r a t h e r t h a n s t i l l i n g t h e s t o r m a s i n M a r k ' s f i r s t . T h e r e a r e n o e x o r c i s m s

m a t c h t h o s e o f t h e S y r o - P h o e n i c i a n w o m a n a n d t h e G a d a r e n e d e m o n i a c , b u t J o h

J e s u s ' r e m o t e - c o n t r o l h e a l i n g o f t h e r o y a l o f f i c ia l ' s s o n ( 4 : 4 6 - 5 4 ) i s a t r a d i t i o n - v a r

s t o r y o f J e s u s ' h e a l i n g a t a d i s t a n c e o f t h e R o m a n c e n t u r i o n ' s so n ( M a t t .

7 : 1 - 1 0 ) . T h i s ta l e , a s B u l t m a n n p o i n t e d o u t , s e e m s in t u r n t o b e a v a r i a n t v e r

s t o r y o f t h e S y r o - P h o e n i c i a n w o m a n ( i n M a r k ' s s e c o n d s e q u e n c e ) J o h n ' s s t o r y

r e s u r r e c t i o n ( c h a p t e r 1 1 ) p a r a l l e l s t h e s to r y o f J a i r u s ' d a u g h t e r f r o m M a r k ' s f i r

w h i l e J o h n ' s e p i s o d e o f t h e m a n b o r n b l i n d p a r a l l e l s M a r k ' s b l i n d m a n o f B e t h

h i s s e c o n d s e q u e n c e .

B u r t o n M a c k a g r e e s w i t h A c h t e m a i e r t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r m i r a c l e s i n v o l v e d s e e

m o r e t h a n m o s t o t h e r g o s p e l m i r a c l e s , t h e w o n d e r s p e r f o r m e d b y M o s e s a n d E l i j

d o u b l e , E l i s h a ) . T h e t w o se a m i r a c l e s r ec a l l M o s e s ' p a r t i n g t h e s ea ( E x o d . 1 4 ) , w h

o f f e e d i n g m i r a c l e s m i r r o r M o s e s ' f e e d i n g t h e I s r a e l i t e s i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s w i t h

q u a i l s ( E x o d . 1 6 ; N u m . 1 1 :4 —1 5 , 1 8 - 2 3 , 3 1—3 2 ) a n d E l i s h a 's m i r a c u l o u s m u l t i p

f o o d i n 2 K i n g s 4 : 1 - 7 a n d 4 : 4 2 - 4 4 . T h e G a d a r e n e d e m o n i a c e p i so d e (M a r k 5 : 1 - 2

s e n d i n g o f a h e r d o f " G e n t i l e " s w i n e o f f t h e c l i f f i n t o t h e se a , s y m b o l i z e s M o s e s

J o s h u a ' s ) b l i t z k r i e g s o v e r r u n n i n g t h e C a n a a n i t e s , a s d o e s J e s u s ' i n i t i a l d i s d a



C a n a a n i t e w o m a n ( M a r k 7 : 2 7 ) . T h e s h a m a n i s t i c h e a l i n g t e c h n i q u e s J e s u s u s e s o n M

m a n ( M a r k 8 : 2 3 ) a n d d e a f - m u t e ( M a r k 7 : 3 3 - 3 4 ) a n d o n J o h n ' s b l i n d m a n ( J o h n

t h e s y m p a t h e t i c m a g i c e m p l o y e d b y E li s h a t o re v i ve t h e s o n o f t h e S h u n a m m i t e

K i n g s 4 : 3 2 - 3 5 ) . T h e r a i s in g o f J a i r u s ' d a u g h t e r ( M a r k 5 : 3 5 - 4 2 ) r e c al ls t h e sa m e

E l i s h a 's ( 1 K i n g s 7 : 1 7 - 2 4 ) . W h e n J e s u s s e n d s t h e b l i n d m a n t o w a s h in t h e p o o

i n J o h n 9 : 7 , w e t h i n k o f E l i s h a s e n d i n g N a a m a n t h e S y r i an t o w a s h a w a y h i s l e p

J o r d a n i n 2 K i n g s 5 : 1 0 . T h e p a t i e n t a t t e n t i o n s h o w n b y J e s u s t o t h e w o m a n

h e m o r r h a g e ( M a r k 5 : 3 2 - 3 4 ) p a r a l l e l s E l i j a h ' s a n d E l i sh a ' s p a t r o n a g e of t h e w i d o w

a n d Z a r e p h a t h ( 1 K i n g s 1 7 : 8 - 1 6 ; 2 K i n g s 4 : 1 - 7 ) .

Mo ses and E l i j ah had been ac t ive in wa ter she d per iod s in the h i s to ry o f I

d u r i n g t h e t i m e of n a t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n , t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e T w e l v e T r i b e s , t h e

f r o m E g y p t , a n d t h e i r f o r g i n g a c o v e n a n t w i t h G o d , E l i j a h d u r i n g t h e d e c i s

be t we en G od and Baa l fo r the a l l eg ian ce of I s r ae l . W h a t wou ld i t have m ea nt to



c o n s t i t u t e d t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m o f I s ra e l . A n d a f t e r t h e h a r s h r u l e o f S o l o m o

v

i n t h e n o r t h h a d d e c i d e d t h e y ' d g i v e n t h e d y n a s t y o f D a v i d m o r e t h a n a f a ir c

s e r v e d n o t i c e t h a t t h e h o n e y m o o n w a s o v e r , a n d s o w a s t h e m a r r i a g e ( 1 K i n g

F r o m t h e r e o n i n , t h e b i b l i c a l h i s t o r y w e n t o n i n t w o p a r a l l e l li n e s , o n e f o r t h e K



I s ra e l i n t h e n o r t h , t h e o t h e r f o r t h e K i n g d o m o f J u d a h i n t h e s o u t h . A n d i t w

s o u t h e r n e r s w h o e a g e r l y a w a i t e d t h e re v i v a l o f t h e i r m o n a r c h y b y a n e w h e i r

t h r o n e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , u p s t a i r s i n I s r a e l, t h e p r o s p e c t o f a n e w D a v i d i c k i n g

b e e n b a d n e w s , n o t g o o d . T h e y h a d d r e a m s o f t h e f u t u r e , t o o , b u t t h e i r e a g e r h o

a d i f f e r e n t s o r t . T h e y r e a d in D e u t e r o n o m y t h a t G o d w o u l d o n e d a y s e n d a p

M o s e s ( D e u t . 1 8 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . T h e y r e ad in M a l a c h i t h a t G o d w o u l d s e n d t h e m E l i j a h

b e f o r e t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e D a y o f t h e L o r d ( M a i . 4 : 5 ) . A n d n e i t h e r o f th e s e f i

t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e H o u s e o f D a v i d . S a m a r i t a n s h a d d e v e l o p e d t h e i r b e l i e f i

p r o p h e t t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e h e h a d b e c o m e a k i n d o f M o s a i c M e s s i a h , c a l le d t h e

r e s to r e r . H e i s t h e r e v e a l e r w h o m t h e S a m a r i t a n w o m a n e x p e c t s ( J o h n 4 : 2 5 , 2 9

w h o m s h e b e l i e v e s s h e e n c o u n t e r s i n t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s

W e c a n n o w b e g i n t o g u e s s t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s " C o m m u n i t y

r eq u i r e d by M ack ' s ana lys i s . In f ac t , t hey f i l l a lon g-v ac an t ho le r a the r n ice ly

f i n a l l y s t u m b l e d u p o n t h e i d e n t i t y o f L . E . E l l i o t t - B i n n s ' s h y p o t h e t i c a l

C h r i s t i a n i t y . "

2 9

E l l i o t t - B i n n s f e l t s u r e t h a t t h e o l d n o r t h - s o u t h r i v a l r i e s o f t h e O l d

w o u l d h a v e l i n g e r e d o n i n t o t h e p e r i o d o f e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e r e m u s t h a

G a l i l e a n C h r i s t i a n i t y q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e J u d e a n v e r s io n c e n t e r e d i n J e r u s a l

w a s a t a l o ss to s k e t c h i n a n y d e t a i l s f o r t h e s i m p l e r e a s o n t h a t o u r N e w T e s t a

f r o m t h e J e r u s a l e m g r o u p , j u s t a s o u r c a n o n i c a l O l d T e s t a m e n t s t e m s f r o m



s c r i b e s o f J e r u s a l e m . W e c a n o n l y g u e s s w h a t a n o r t h e r n , I s r a e l i t e B i b l e m i g h t

l i k e ; l i k e w i s e , w e a r e l e f t t o s h e e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t w h a t f o r m e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y

t a k e n i n t h e n o r t h .

B u t le t 's n o t t h r o w i n t h e t o w e l t o o q u i c k l y . A f t e r a l l , t h e n o r t h e r n " E " d o c

E p h r a i m i t e , E l o h i s ti c E p ic , w a s p r e se r v e d a m o n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f J u d a h . D e u t e r

r e f o r m m a n i f e s t o f o r J u d e a n w o r s h i p a n d s o c ie t y , w a s b a s e d o n p r o p h e t i c p r e a c h i n

g i v e n i n t h e n o r t h e r n s h r i n e of S h i l o h , t h o u g h e d i t e d t o f i t t h e s o u t h e r n c o n t

s a m e w a y , i t s e e m s n o l es s l i k e l y t h a t s e v e ra l n o r t h e r n J e s u s t r a d i t i o n s w o u l d h a v e

s o u t h e r n g o s p e l s . W e c a n s p o t t h e m i f w e k n o w w h a t t o l o o k f o r . T h e s e c h a i n s

a n d E l i j a h - l i k e m i r a c l e s w o u l d b e a n i m p o r t a n t p u z z l e p ie c e . F o r t n a r e p e a t

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e c o m p i l e r o f t h e S i g n s S o u r c e , p r e s e r v e d i n J o h n

" M a n y o t h e r s i g n s J e s u s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e d i s c i p l e s w h i c h a r e n o t

t h i s b o o k ; b u t t h e s e a re w r i t t e n t h a t y o u m a y b e l i e v e t h a t J e s u s i s t h e C h r i s t ,

G o d . " T h i s v e r s io n o f t h e m i r a c l e s e q u e n c e w a s , t h e n , s u p p o s e d t o c o n v i n c e t h

J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p — o r s o t h e r e d a c t o r t h o u g h t . N o d o u b t t h e r e d a c t o r b e l ie v e

M e s s i a h s h i p f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s a n d t h e n s o u g h t t o p r e s s t h e m i r a c l e s e q u e n c e i n t o

e v a n g e l i s t i c p r o o f . B u t in a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , n o t o n e o f

h a s a n y t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y m e s s i a n i c a b o u t i t B e i n g a m i r a c l e w o r k e r a n d b e i n g K



h a v e n o o b v i o u s c o n n e c t i o n . I n s t e a d , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e i n h e r e n t t h r u s t o f t h e s

p a r a l l e l J e s u s w i t h M o s e s , E l i j a h , a n d E l i s h a , n o r t h e r n a n d n o n m e s - s i a n ic

r e d a c t o r o f t h e S i g n s S o u r c e v e rs i o n of t h e m i r a c l e c h a i n m a y h a v e t h o u g h t h i s c

m i r a c l e s p r o v e d J e s u s t o b e t h e M e s s i a h , b u t w o u l d n o t m o s t r e a d e r s m o r e n a t

c o n c l u d e d , w i t h t h e c r o w d s i n M a r k 8 : 2 8 , t h a t J e s u s w a s E l i j a h r e t u r n e d ?

S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e i s t h a t o t h e r w i s e b a f f l i n g e p i s o d e i n w h i c h w e l i st e n i n o n J e

t h e s o u t h e r n n o t i o n t h a t t h e M e s s i a h m u s t b e a d e s c e n d a n t of K i n g D a v i d ( M a r k

I t w o u l d m a k e p e r f e c t s e n s e a s a b i t of p o l e m i c a i m e d f r o m u p n o r t h in G a l i l e e

b y J e s u s p e o p l e w h o r e j e c t e d a n y n o t i o n o f a D a v i d i c M e s s i a h . M a r k h a s p r e s e rv e

n o t b e c a u s e h e h i m s e l f r e j e c te d t h e ( D a v i d i c ) M e s s i a h s h i p of J e s u s ( h e d i

1 0 : 4 7 - 4 8 ) , b u t s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t w a s a c o n t r o v e r s y s to r y s h o w i n g J e s u s t r o

o p p o n e n t s . M a r k d i d n ' t m u c h c a r e w h a t t h e is s u e u n d e r d e b a t e w a s , a s l o n g as h e

J es us s i l en c ing t he s c r ibes . Bu t in the p roces s he has to ld us m ore tha n he w an ted

R a b b i n i c a l l o re re c o r d s t h e b e l i e f , h e l d b y s o m e J e w s , t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e

M e s s i a h s , o n e f r o m t h e s o u t h , t h e M e s s i a h so n of D a v i d , a n d o n e f r o m t h e

M e s s i a h so n o f J o s e p h ( = t h e l e a d i n g N o r t h e r n t r i b e s , E p h r a i m a n d M a n a s s a h ) . S o

have sugg es te d t ha t fo r J es us to be ca l l ed Jose ph ' s son in th e gosp e l s



m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' t i t l e as t h e G a l i l e a n M e s s i a h . J u s t a s " J e s u s t h e N a z o

n o t r e fe r t o h a v i n g r o o t s i n N a z a r e t h b u t m a y i n s t e a d i m p l y m e m b e r s h i p i n

N a z o r e a n s e c t ( se e A c t s 2 4 : 5 ) , " J e s u s s o n o f J o s e p h " m a y b e a m e s s i a n i c t i t l e

w o u l d b e t h a t , o n c e t h e s o u t h e r n i d e a o f J e s u s a s a d e s c e n d a n t o f D a v i d c a u g h t o

t r i e d t o r e i n t e r p r e t h i s n o r t h e r n m e s s i a n i c i d e n t i t y , r e i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e e p i t h e t " s o n

b y m a k i n g J o s e p h r e f e r t o t h e i m m e d i a t e , i f a d o p t i v e , f a t h e r o f J e s u s , i n s t e a d o f

a n c e s t o r , w h o s e p r o p h e t i c d r e a m s p r o m i s e d h i m t h a t t h e s u n , m o o n , a n d s t a r s w o u

b o w b e f o r e h i m ( G e n e s i s 3 7 : 9 ) .

T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n n a r r a t i v e ( M a r k 9 : 2 - 8 ) , w h i c h o b v i o u s l y c o m p a r e s J e s u s

a n d E l i j a h , n o t w i t h D a v i d , w o u l d f i t i n h e r e . A n d t h e G o o d S a m a r i t a n p a

1 0 : 2 9 - 3 7 ) m u s t r e f le c t n o r t h e r n s y m p a t h i e s , a s m u s t T h o m a s s a y in g 6 0 , a b o u t t h

c a r r y i n g t h e l a m b , w h e r ea s t h e a n t i - S a m a r i t a n s e n t i m e n t s of M a t t h e w ' s M i s s io n C h

m u s t s t e m f r o m J u d e a n c i rc l es .



f r o m u n b e l i e v e r s , e v e n t h e s a m e h e c k l e r s ' j i b e s , a s t h e P r o p h e t

I s u s p e c t t h a t t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s to r i e s , w h i c h s e e m t o d e l i g h t a t le a s t a s m u c

r h e t o r i c a l p r o w e s s as i n t h e a c t u a l l e g a l o p i n i o n s h e r e n d e r s , r e p r e s e n t t h e d e f e n s

o f t h e " C o m m u n i t y o f I s r a e l" a g a i n s t t h e i n t r u s i o n o f P h a r i s a i c , s c r i b a l J u d a

a r r i v e d f r o m t h e s o u t h i n t h e w a k e o f J e r u s a l e m ' s d e s t r u c t i o n . F o r t h e G a l i l e a n J e



a n d f o r G a l i l e a n J e w s i n g e n e r a l , t h e a r ri v a l o f t h e s e l f - a p p o i n t e d e x p e r t s i n

G od , w i th l i t t l e p a t i e nce fo r Ga l i l ea n lega l l axnes s , w ou ld have be en a lo t l ike th

t h e h a u g h t y p r i e s t l y E x il e s i n J e r u s a l e m u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e h i g h - h a n d e

N e h e m i a h , w h o p r e s u m e d t o d i c t a t e t o t h e l oc a l s a n d t o r e b u f f t h e i r le a d e r s a s

h a l f - b r e e d s . H i s t o r y r e p e a t e d i t s e l f , o n l y t h i s t i m e t h e h o l i e r - t h a n - t h o u s ( a s t h e y w

p e r c e i v e d ) w e r e g o i n g into e x i l e , n o t c o m i n g b a c k f r o m i t .

T h i s w o u l d a l s o a c c o u n t f o r t h e o u t r a g e o u s l y u n f a i r p o r t r a y a l o f t h e P h a r i s e e

v i e w s i n s o m e g o s p e l c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r ie s , w h e r e t h e P h a r i s e e s a r e b l a m e d f o

o p i n i o n s a t t e s t e d n o w h e r e i n r a b b i n i c a l w r i t i n g s ( m o r e a b o u t t h i s i n c h a p t e r 4

p r o b a b l y n e i t h e r k n e w n o r c a re d w h a t t h e f i n e p r i n t o f t h e T o r a h sa i d . A l l th e y

w a s l a m p o o n i n g s t r a w m e n , a l w a y s a n e a s y v i c t o r y t o w i n . F o r t h e r e c o r d , B

w o u l d c r e d i t t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r i e s t o t h e n e x t g r o u p o n t h e l i s t , n o t t h i s o n e

m ig h t very eas ily be a goo d b i t o f over l ap , as we wi l l shor t ly s ee .

THE SYN AGO GU E REFORM MO VEMENT



J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s ( " m e e t i n g h a l l s " ) g r e w u p i n t h e D i a s p o r a , i . e ., i n t h e J e w i s h c

s c a t t e r e d t h i c k l y a b o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e t w

J e w s l i v i n g o u t s i d e t h e H o l y L a n d a s w i t h i n i t . T h e y c o u l d m a k e p i l g r i m a

J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e o n l y s o o f t e n , a n d t h e y n e e d e d s o m e k i n d o f lo c a l J e w i s h

p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m b e c o m i n g t o t a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e a

H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s h a d a l r e a d y g r o w n r u s t y o n t h e i r H e b r e w , G r e e k b e c o m i n g

l a n g u a g e as n e w g e n e r a t i o n s w e r e b o r n i n t o t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n w o r l d o f t h e R o m

F o r t h e m t h e H e b r e w B i b l e h a d b e c o m e a c l o se d b o o k , a n d v a r i o u s G r e e k

e s p e c i a ll y t h e S e p t u a g i n t B i b l e ( so n a m e d f o r t h e c o m m i t t e e of se v e n t y s c h o l a r s

he ld t o have t r an s la t ed i t ) we re p rod uc ed to mee t the i r l i t u rg i ca l needs . I t was

m a s s i v e s o c ia l d i s l o c a t i o n . T h e r e w e r e " D i a s p o r a " c o m m u n i t i e s of e v e r y i m a g i n a b l e

a n d e t h n i c i t y , a n d , i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r u n i q u e c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , m o s t o f t h

v a r i o u s v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s , l i k e a l o c a l S l a v o n i c H a l l o r I t a l i a n - A m e r i c a n A s

B l a c k S t u d e n t U n i o n t o d a y . S y n a g o g u e s w e r e p a r t o f t h i s t r e n d , a n d o n e c a n

r e l i g i o u s d e b a t e s r a g e d t h e r e o v e r q u e s t i o n s n o o n e in t h e H o l y L a n d w o u l d e v e n

T h e r e w e r e b o t h u l t r a z e a l o u s J e w s w h o ra i se d h i g h w a l l s b e t w e e n t h e m

o u t s i d e r s , as H a s i d i c J e w s d o t o d a y , a n d J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h h a d s o l a r g el y

t o H e l l e n i s m t h a t t h e y d r o p p e d l i t e r a l o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e L a w a l t o g e t h e r P h i l o of



w a r n e d t h e l a t t e r n o t t o c a rr y t h i n g s s o f a r, b u t o t h e r s b l a m e d h i m f o r t h e t r e n

h im se l f t au gh t tha t the B ib le was on ly r ead r igh t whe n you r ead i t as

s y m b o l i z i n g t h e t r u t h s o f P l a t o n i c a n d S t o i c p h i l o s o p h y . D i a s p o r a J e w s i n R o m e

A f r i c a d i d n o t m i n d m i x i n g t h e i r w o r s h i p o f t h e H e b r e w G o d w i t h t h a t o f D i o n

a n d A t t i s , as t h e d e s i g n s of a n c i e n t s y n a g o g u e m o s a i c s a n d b u r i a l s a r c o p h a g i d e

T h e y f i g u r e d t h e s e w e r e j u s t d i f f e r e n t n a m e s f o r t h e s a m e d i v i n e b e i n g s , a

e c u m e n i c a l a t t i t u d e g u a r a n t e e d n o t t o a l i e n a t e o n e ' s n e i g h b o r s , a n d a n e a r l y u n i v e

a t t h e t i m e a m o n g G r e e k s , R o m a n s , E g y p t i a n s , a n d o t h e r s.

A m i d t h i s g r e a t f e r m e n t , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f o n e m o r e p i n c h o f t h e o l o g i c a l

f a i t h o f s o m e H e l l e n i z e d J e w s i n t h e p r o p h e t - s a g e J e s u s , m a d e w a v e s , b u t n o t

J u s t e n o u g h d i s t a n c e w a s c r e a t e d b e t w e e n J e s u s J e w s a n d o t h e r J e w s t o p r o d u c e

f o r i n t r a - J e w i s h d e b a t e . M a c k s e es J e s u s as s o m e t h i n g l i k e a H e l l e n i z e d G a l i l e a n

f u n c t i o n i n g i n a l a r g e ly a l r e a d y - H e l l e n i z e d c o n t e x t . A n d i n d e e d t h e B o o k o f A c t s t e

were He l l en i s t i c (Gre ek-sp eakin g) synagogu es in Je ru sa l em i t se lf , and t ha t they

se t t i n g for theo logica l deba tes am on g fe l low Jew s over t he t eachings of Jesu s

imp l i ca t ion s for t rad i t i ona l Jew ish prac t i ce (A ct s 6:13—14) . Th i s is a s t r i k ing

ex i s t ence of G reek -spe akin g synagog ues in t he Holy Land for t he sake of Jew

moved to the Holy Land only to f i nd they could no t "ass imi l a t e" t here They



t oo Gree k to f i t i n W h o could need a syna gog ue in Je ru sa l em i t se lf? I t soun ds

a n A m e r i c a n e m b a ssy i n Wa sh i n g t o n , D . C . H e l l e n i s t i c sy n a g o g u e s i n t h e H o l y

so m e t h i n g o f a " h o m e a w ay f ro m o n e 's h o m e a w a y f ro m h o m e "

Rel ig ious cha nge is mo st o f t e n occas ioned by cu l tu ra l chan ge , and th ose wh

through the cu l ture-shock of Jewish surv iva l i n t he Diaspora would be a ready a

new and Hel l e n ic - l ean ing l i bera l i deas f ro m the sophi s t Jesu s . Ma ck a t t r i b u

H e l l e n i s t i c sy n a g o g u e s t h e b u l k o f t h e g o sp e l p ro n o u n c e m e n t s t o r ie s , f o r t w o r e a s

one han d , Jes us Jew s in th i s soc i a l con tex t wou ld have had occas ion to deb a te wi

and the i r sym path i zers on po in t s o f re l i g ious l aw, a rg uin g for a looser , f reer

conserva t ives would have d i smiss ed the m as " seekers a f t e r sm oo th th in gs . " So th e

the pro no un ce me nt s tor ies , espec i a l ly t he cont rove rsy s tor i es , wo uld ha ve su i t ed th

o t h e r h a n d , t h e fo rm w o u l d h a v e b e e n n a t u ra l fo r t h e m , t o o . M a c k h a s d e m o n s

the gospe l p ro no un ce m en t s tor ies fa l l i n to the same l i t e ra ry type as t he G reek ch

i n t r o d u c t o r y s e t t i n g l e a d i n g u p t o a p i t h y a n d / o r h u m o r o u s s a y i n g b y t h e s a g e

outwi t s h i s c r i t i cs .

T h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n i s, w h o w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d t o t e l l s u c h s t o r i e s ?

a G r e e k e d u c a t i o n , t h a t ' s w h o . I t w a s a s t a n d a r d s c h o o l e x e r c i s e t o c o

p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o r ie s s t a r r i n g a f a m o u s p h i l o s o p h e r a s a w a y o f s h o w i n g a n u n



o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y . " W h a t w o u l d S o c r a te s o r E p i c u r u s s ay if s o m e o n e a s k e d h i m t h

W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o ri e s o f t h e g o s p e l s a c t u a l l y c o n t a i n a u t h e

o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s is a d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n . E v e n i f t h e y d o , w e h a v e t o a s k : W

h a v e r e l a t e d t h o s e s a y i n g s i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f o r m ? B e c a u s e t h e f o r m is c u l t

P r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o r i e s a r e a H e l l e n i s t i c p r o d u c t . S o t h e o l d i d e a t h a t t h e s e s t o r i

s t o c k - i n - t r a d e o f A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g J e w i s h d i s c i p l e s o f J e s u s f r o m t h e e a r l y d a y

o u t — u n l e s s , o f c o u r s e , t h o s e d i s c i p l e s w e r e s e m i - H e l l e n i z e d G a l i l e a n s w h o f o l l o w

w h o w a s m o r e t h a n a l i t t l e l i k e D i o g e n e s , m o r e l i k e M e l e a g e r t h a n E l i s h a .

B u t t h e n , w h y s h o u l d w e n o t p l a c e t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o ri e s b a c k a m

c o m m u n i t i e s ? I f w e d i v i d e t h e s e , a s I s u g g e s t e d a b o v e , i n t o s e t t l e d c o m m

s y m p a t h i z e r s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d t h e i t i n e r a n t s a g es o n t h e o t h e r , i t a l l f a ll s i n t o

c a n i m a g i n e t h e s a g e s i s s u i n g t e r se p r o v e r b s , a p h o r i s m s , a n d f o r t u n e - c o o k i e p r e a

w e l l a s h u m o r o u s d i a t r i b e s . B u t Q c o n t a i n s q u i t e a n u m b e r of p r o n o u n c e m e n t st o

t hese a re scholas t i c exerc i ses , I wond er i f we do not owe the m ins t ead to

co m m un i t i e s of Q su ppo r t e rs . Af t e r a l l , wh ere a re you go ing to have a school

except in a se t t l ed co m m un i ty of some k ind ? An d of course th i s scenar io wou ld

ex i s t ence of a com pi l a t io n of say ings and p ro no un ce m en t s tor ies l i ke Q . T he p o

wis do m col l ec t ions i s , a f t e r a l l , t o preserve such va lu able w i sdo m wh en i t i s i n



bein g fo rg ot t e n because such sages a re no long er as co m m on as t hey once were . Q

a la t e r foss i l o f t he "Cynic" Jes us m ov em en t . An d s ince the G reek chreia was

t h u m b n a i l m e m o r i a l o f a t h i n k e r f ro m t h e m o re o r l es s d i s t a n t p a s t , t h e p re se n c e

Q m eans i t m us t have been comp i l ed by the l a t e r , se t t l ed adh ere n t s of t he on

Jesus i t i neran t s . There i s no par t i cu l a r reason not t o i den t i fy these se t t l ed com

l a t t e r-d a y r e a d e r s o f Q w i t h M a c k ' s S y n a g o g u e R e fo rm m o v e m e n t . I t w o u l d n e a

pa t t e r n of sec t a r i an evolu t ion : Af t e r an in i t i a l per iod of rad i ca l repu dia t ion of

re l i g ion , t he sec t becomes increas ing ly ass imi l a t ed to i t s wor ld ly sur roundings , a

"wo r ld ly" cons ide ra t ions beg in to make be l a t ed sense a f t e r a l l , ra the r as a ch i ld gr

sees t he wi sd om of h i s par en t s l ong a f t e r t he fac t . An d ye t t he sec t me m be rs ca

su r r e n d e r t h e i r o ld i d e a ls , so th e y a c c o m m o d a t e t h e m . T h e y w a t e r t h e m d o w n . E v e

c o m m u n i t i e s w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y h a v e g i v e n u p t h e ro m a n t i c d e l u s i o n o f J e su s r a d

se t t l e d for " C h r i s t i a n R e a l i sm . " T h e y w o u l d h a v e so u g h t a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h t h e

t hey had ea r l i e r r i d i cu led . On ce there , t hey would have s tood u p for t he l i bera l

t h e g o sp e l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o r i e s, t h o u g h n o lo n g e r fo r t h e s e c t a r i a n r a d ic a l

i t i neracy say ings .

T h e sa m e t h i n g h a p p e n e d w i t h e i g h t e e n t h -c e n t u ry H a s i d i sm . I t b e g a n a s a

m o v e m e n t t h a t r e p u d i a t e d t h e d e a d l e t t e r o f s c r i p t u re in f a v o r o f m a g n e t i c



persona l ly i ncarn a t ed t he Torah . Bu t i n t im e, t he i r you thf u l en th us i a sm havin g co

they re turn ed to t he Torah scro l l s and w oun d up b eco min g supe r-ke en scholars

of t he Law, as wi tn ess Has id i sm today . Even so , we m us t p i c tur e t he Q co m m un

of the se l f -a r ro ga t in g orac l es of ho ly f re e loaders , f i na l ly c los ing the doors t o sh

noi sy f i i lmina t io ns on the co m ing ve ngean ce of t he Son of M an. Ol de r and w i ser ,

fo r ways they c ould ho ld on to som e bas i c i ns ig h t s gar ner ed f ro m the Q sages

su b s t i t u t e d fo r t h e t ir e so m e Q sa g e s t h e m se l v e s . W i t h Q i n h a n d , th e y r e a p p r

sy n a g o g u e c o m m u n i t i e s , k e e p i n g m u m u n t i l t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p w a s e s t a b l i sh e

s t a n d i n g . T h e n t h e y b e g a n t o t ry t o l e a v e n t h e d o u g h w i t h so m e of t h e s t i l l - p u n g

o f t h e J e su s p r o p h e t s a n d sa ge s . O r p e rh a p s t h e i r n o n c o n fo rm i n g p ra c t i c e s a ro u

comment s f rom o thers , a "weaker bro ther , s t ronger bro ther" scenar io (c f . , Rom. 14

the Q peo ple would have no do ub t v i ewed i t . An d th e answe rs t hey gave , t ha t t he

Je su s w o u l d h a v e g i v e n , b e c a m e p a r t o f Q . A s B u l t m a n n sa w l o n g a go

3 1

this i s

gosp e l s Jes us ' c r i t i cs p ro t es t no t h i s ow n prac t i ce b u t t h a t o f h i s d i sc ip l es : "W hy

w h a t i s u n l a w fu l o n t h e S a b b a t h ? " (M a rk 2 : 2 4 ) . " Wh y d o your disciples ea t

unw ash ed? " (Ma rk 7 :5) . "T he d i sc ip l es of Jo h n and t he P har i sees ' d i sc ip l es fas

disciples

do no t fa s t " (Mark 2 :18) .

M ar t in N o th no t i ced the same sor t o f t h i ng in t he Moses s tor i es i n Exod us



a n d N u m b e r s : Wh e n M o se s h a s t h e sp o t l i g h t , w h y a re t h e a p p a re n t l y su p e r f l u o u s

Is rae l , o r secondary ch arac t e rs li ke N ad ab and A bih u , men t ion ed a t a ll ? I t m us t

t he s tor i es were or ig ina l ly about t hem, Moses be ing added only l a t e r , i n order t o

c lou t o f t he s tory . T he t e l l t a l e c lue is t ha t one pre-M oses s tory surv ives in near ly

for m . In Exod. 5 : 15 -1 9 , i t i s no t Moses and h i s do pp elg ang er Aaro n (h ims

in t e rpola t ion in t ended to i n j ec t p r i es t ly i n t e res t s i n to what must a t f i r s t have been

s tor i es ) wh o fearl ess ly co nfr on t Pha raoh , bu t ra th er t he un na m ed fore me n of

s l aves . Moses and Aaron a re anxiou s ly w ai t i n g ou t i n t h e ha l l : "W el l , wh at d id h

the sam e way, B ul tm an n surm ised th a t t he me nt io n of t he d i sc ip l es ' p rac t i ce ,

os t ens ib ly Jesus who i s a t t acked , t i ps us of f t ha t t he or ig ina l t a rge t o f t he l ega

was not Jes us bu t t he ear ly Chr i s t i an c om m un i ty wh o fabr i ca t ed the t a l e .

N o one wo uld c r i t i c i ze a se t o f t heore t i ca l ca t egor i es l ike Bur ton M ack ' s bec

may tu rn o u t t o be a b i t mo re messy . An " idea l t ype " such as he i s p ro pos ing i s

a s o r t o f d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n , o r a s e t o f c o o r d i n a t e s . M a c k d o e s n o t c l a i

d e f i n i t i v e l y m a p p e d t h e l a n d s c a p e o f e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t i e s . H e o n l y m e a n s t o i n d i c a

o f t h i n g t h a t m u s t h a v e b e e n g o i n g o n i n o r d e r t o g i v e r i s e t o t h e l i t e r a r y m a t e r i

l e a r n e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h u s w h a t I s a y h e r e i s n o t i n t e n d e

h i m , o n l y t o r e m i n d u s t h a t t h e r e a l i t y w a s l es s c u t - a n d - d r i e d t h a n a n y t h e o r e



m a k e s i t l o o k . S o I s e e a g o o d b i t o f p o s s i b l e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h o s e g r o u p s M a c

C o m m u n i t y o f I s ra e l , t h e Q C o m m u n i t y , a n d t h e S y n a g o g u e R e f o r m M o v e m e n t .

NOTES

1. F. Gerald Downing, Cynics and Christian Origins (Edinbu rgh: T. & T. C lark

1 4 6 - 4 7 .

2. Gerd Theissen,

So ciology of Early Palestinian Christianity,

t rans . Joh n Bowden

Fortress Press, 1978), pp. 10-15.

3. I t has often been objected tha t the C hristian it ineran ts in view mus t be distin g

Cynics because of the gospel prohibition of the very items the Cynics allowed thems

pou ch, sandals, s taff . Bu t given the gene ral similarity, this seems absurd, a case of th e

apologetics device of "the differences are greater than the similarit ies." In fact, i t oug ht t

that the gospel prohibi t ion s are themselves ni tpicking a t tem pts to dis t inguish Chr is t i

from their Cynic competitors, s ince the two were otherwise so similar as to be easily

the publ ic .



4. Gerd The issen, "The W and ering Radicals: Light Shed by the Sociology of Liter

Early Transmission of Jesus Sayings," in Social Reality and the Early Christians: Theology, E

World of the New Testament, trans. Marg aret Kohl (Minne apolis: Fortress Press, 1992), p p.

5. Gerd Theissen, The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: E ssays on Corinth, t ra

Schutz (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982), pp. 28-35.

6. Dieter Georgi , The Opponents of Paul in Second Corinthians, trans. Harold Att

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), p. 244.

7. Erns t Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Comm entary, trans. Bernard N ob le, G

R. McL. Wilson (Phi ladelphia: Westmin s ter Press , 1971) , pp. 233 -3 5. See also Rober t L.

Myth of Christian B eginnings: History's Impact on Belief (Garden Ci ty: Doubleday Anchor , 19

Cohn,

The Pu rsuit of the Millennium: Revoltitionary Millenarians and Mystical A narchists o

Ages, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 187-97.

8. Stevan L. Davies, The R evolt of the Widows: The Social World of the Ap

(Carbondale: Southern Ill inois University Press, 1980), p. 36.

9. Michael McFadden,

The Jesus Revolution

(Ne w York: Ha rpe r & Row, 1972 ), pp .

Glenn D. Ki t t ler , The Jesus Kids and their Leaders (New York: Paperback Library, 19

180-81 , 209 .



10. McFadden, The Jesus Revolution, p. 17 3- 74 . Cf., Lowell D. Streiker, The Jesu

York: Ab ingd on Press, 1971 ), p. 38; Jack Sparks,

God's Forever Family

(Grand Rapids

Publ ishing House, 1974) , pp. 62-64.

11. Gerd Theissen,

The Miracle Stories of the Early Christian Tradition

, trans. Franc

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), p. 171.

12. The same sort of frustrate d retreat from missionizing to sour-grapes doom say

observed qui te clear ly in the Nag Hammadi text The Book of Thomas the Contender .

13. John M. Al legro, The Sacred Mushroom and the C ross (New York: Bantam Book

100-101. One need not subscribe to Allegro's inferences about the connection of this

hypothet ical Soma cul t am ong early C hr is t ians to appreciate his l inguis t ic con tr ibut

meaning of "Boanerges."

14. Anth ony Tyrrel l Hanson, "The Foundat ion of Truth : I Tim othy 3:15," in S

Pastoral Epistles (London: SPCK , 1968) , pp . 5- 20 .

15. C. H. Dodd, Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel (New York: Cambridg e Uni

1963) , pp . 413-20 .



16. Wil l iam Wrede, The M essianic Secret, trans. J . G . C. Gre ig (A ltrinch am : Jam es Cl

17. Jo hn A . T. Robinson , "Th e Most Prim itive Christology of All?" in Twelve N

Studies. Studies in B iblical Theology 34 (London: SCM Press, 1962),

pp.

1 3 9 - 5 3 .

18. Cohn, P ursuit of the Millennium, pp . 29-36 .

19. Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina,

Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi in T

(Albany: State Un iversity of N ew York Press, 1981).

20. Ignaz Goldziher ,

Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law

, t rans . Andras Hamo r

H am ori. M odern Classics in Near Eastern Studies (Princeton: Princeto n Univ ersity Pres

246.

21. There is a whole Valhalla of such Mahdis in Stephen Fuchs,

Rebellious Prophets

Messianic Movements in Indian Religions (New York: Asia Pub lishing Ho use, 1965 ).

22. Eisenman, "Maccabees , Zealots , Chr is t ians and Qumran."

23. Rober t W. Funk and the Jesus Seminar ,

The Acts ofJesus: The Search for the Au

of Jesus (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, A Polebridge Press Book, 1998), p. 121.

24. Jacob L. Teicher, "The Dead Sea Scrolls— Docu men ts of the Jewish-C hrist

E b i o n i t e sJournal o fJewish Studies 2, no. 2: 67 -9 9; "The Dam ascus Fragments and the O



Jewish Christian Sect

"Journal of Jewish Studies

2, no. 3: 11 5- 43 ; "Jesus in the Ha bak ku k S

of Jewish Studies 3, no. 2: 53 -5 5; "T he Teaching of the Pre-Pauline Church in the Dead

Journal of Jeivish Studies 3, no. 3: 11 1- 18 ; "Th e Teaching of the Pre-Pauline Chu rch in t

Scrolls —II,"

Journal of Jewish Studies

3, no. 4: 13 9- 50 ; "The Teaching of the Pre-Pau lin

the Dead Sea Scrolls—III," Journal of Jewish Studies 4, no. 1: 1 -1 3 ; "The Teaching of th e

Church in the Dead Sea Scrolls—IV," Journal of Jewish Studies 4, no. 2: 49 -5 8; "The Tea

Pre-Pauline Church in the Dead Sea Scrolls—V,"Journal of Jewish Studies 4 , no . 3 : 9

Teaching of the Pre-Pauline Church in the Dead Sea Scrolls—VI," Journal of Jewish Stud

139-53; "Jesus ' Sayings in the Dead Sea Scrolls , "Journal of Jewish Studies 5, no. 1:

Habakkuk Scrol l ," Journal of Jewish Studies 5, no. 1: 47 -5 9. Th oug h J . R andal l Pr ice,

Secre

Sea Scrolls

(Eugene: Harvest Hou se, 1996),

p.

374 , dismisses Teicher 's along with Cecil R

R. Driver's theories as "long -refuted " and "laid to rest ," this only means th at those co m



and Its

Predecessor:

From Narrative Source to Present Gospel (Philade lphia: Fortress Press, 19

29. L. E. Elliott-Binns,

Galilean Christianity

(Studies in Biblical Theology 16, Naperv

Allenson, Inc. , 1956) , pp . 25, 34 -3 5.

30. Richard Reitzenstein,

Hellenistic Mystery-Religions: Their Basic Ideas and Significance

E. Steely. (Pittsburgh: Pickwick Press, 1978), p. 176 ff .



31 . Rudol f Bul tmann ,

History of the Synoptic Tradition

, 2d e d., trans. Joh n Marsh

Harper & Row, 1968) , pp. 16-19 f f .

32. Mart in Noth, "Figures Alongs ide Moses ," in A History of Pentateuchal Trad

Bernhard W. Anderson (Englewood Cl i ffs : Prent ice-Ha l l , 1972) , pp. 175 -88 .



w a s p i v o t a l . A n d t h e t i t l e " C h r i s t " c a m e t o d e n o t e t h i s . O u t s i d e o f P a l e s t i n e ,

e q u i v a l e n t o f " m e s s i a h , " i . e . , A n o i n t e d O n e , r a p i d l y b e c a m e t h e p r o p e r n a m e

s a v io r . A f t e r a l l , o u t s i d e t h e H o l y L a n d , a n d a m o n g G e n t i l e s , t r a d i t i o n a l J u d a i s m

l i t t l e o r w a s e c l i p s e d b y o t h e r r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s .

M a c k is p e r h a p s n o t q u i t e c l e a r a b o u t w h a t w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a C h r i s t c u l t .



h e s e e m s t o m e t o o b s c u r e s o m e i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n w h a t w o u l d a p

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t s u b t y p e s of C h r i s t m o v e m e n t s . I w i l l s u b d i v i d e h i s C h r i s t c

t o p i c k u p s o m e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s .

THE JESUS MA RTYR CULT

O n e m i g h t w i t h e q u a l j u s t i c e c al l t h i s g r o u p t h e " O t h e r S h e e p f o l d " (c f. J o h n 1 0

"Son of G od f earer s . " H er e Ma ck t r i es to p rov id e an env i ron m en ta l n iche f

W i l l i am s ' s b r i l l i an t r econs t ru c t ion of p rob ab ly the ear l i es t ver s ion of the a to ne m en

H ow d id the dea th o f J esu s ever come to be cons idered the r eme dy for the s ins o f

r ace , espec ia lly in v iew of the t e r r i f i c log ica l and m ora l d i f f i cu l t i es a t t en d i ng th

Th ere ha ve been som e doz en maj or a t t e m pt s to exp la in how th e c ross s aves , and

neces sary a t a ll . W h y can not G od jus t fo rg ive s inner s and l eave i t a t tha t?

S a m W i l l i a m s , w h o s e a r g u m e n t M a c k c a p a b l y s u m m a r i z e s , r e a s o n s t h a t

J e w i s h J e s u s p e o p l e h a d n o t h o u g h t o f J e s u s ' c r u c i f i x i o n a v a i l i n g f o r a n y b o d y ' s

w e r e J e w s ; J u d a i s m h a d a l w a y s h a d p e r f e c t l y a d e q u a t e w a y s o f d e a l i n g w i t h s i n s ,



a n d c e r e m o n i a l . T h e i d e a o f J e s u s ' d e a t h a s a s a c r if i c e m u s t h a v e f i r s t a r i s e n

J e w s , p r o b a b l y H e l l e n i s t i c o n e s , w e r e fa c e d w i t h t h e c o n u n d r u m o f G e n t i l e s , p a g a

t o b e b a p t i z e d i n t o t h e J e s u s m o v e m e n t . F o r g i v i n g t h e i r m o r a l l a p s es w a s n o p r o

h a d a l w a y s b e e n p e r f e c t l y w i l l i n g t o b l e s s r i g h t e o u s G e n t i l e s s o l o n g a s t h e y k

b a s ic s h o r t l is t o f N o a h i c c o m m a n d m e n t s ( G e n e s i s 9 : 4 - 6 ) . H e n e ve r e x p e c t e d t h e m

t h e m s e l v e s t o k e e p t h e s p e c ia l c u s t o m s a n d r i t u a l s o f J u d a i s m , s o h e d i d n ' t h o l d

t h e m t h a t t h e y d i d n ' t . B u t t h e r e w a s a b a r r ie r . G e n t i l e s c o u l d n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e

c o m m u n i t y o f I s r a e l b e c a u s e t h e y d a r e d n o t d r a w n e a r t h e D i v i n e P r e s e n c e r e e k i n

i m p u r i t y . H a m s a n d w i c h e s w e r e n o t h i n g t o c o n d e m n G e n t i l e s t o H e l l o v er , b u t t

t h e m f r o m e n t e r i n g h is c o u r t s w i t h p r a i s e .

T h i s i s t h e s a m e p r o b l e m t h a t k e p t g r e a t n u m b e r s o f G e n t i l e s o n t h e m a r

J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s a ll o v e r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d . T h e r e w a s g r e a t i n t e r e s t in J

i t s n o b l e e t h i c a l m o n o t h e i s m . M a n y p a g a n s l ik e d t h a t . B u t t o b e c o m e a m e m b

s t a n d i n g , t h e re w as t h e l it t l e m a t t e r o f c i r c u m c i s i o n t o b e d e a l t w i t h , t h a t a n d

o t h e r c o m m a n d m e n t s . F o r J e w s , n o n e of t h i s w a s a p ro b l e m ; t h e y h a d b e e n b o

c u l t u re t h a t t h e se c o m m a n d m e n t s d e f i n e d . T h e i m p l i c i t c u l t u ra l ru l e s o f a n y

e q u a l l y c o m p l e x — a n d e q u a l l y i n v i s ib l e to a n y m e m b e r o f t h a t c u l t u re . B u t t h e

hav ing to t ry t o ado pt t he mo res of a d i f f e re n t cu l tu re is qu i t e da un t in g . So f

Ge nt i l es ac tua l ly t ook th e s t ep of fu l l conv ers ion . M ost rema ined on the per ip



t hey were welco me to a t t en d syna gog ue and hear t he sc r ip tures read and prea ched .

ca l l ed th e Go d-fea rers , i . e ., t he p ious G ent i l es , t he noble pag ans . I t was no t b ib l i c

they qua i l ed a t ; no , t ha t i s what a t t rac t ed them. I t was the ritual b o u n d a ry t

above them l ike the Ber l in Wal l .

I t was among such people tha t mi ss ionary Chr i s t i an i ty made such t e r r i f i c head

ear ly decades . Th e no t -q ui t e - Jew ish Go d-fea rers gree t ed Pau l ine prea chin g wi th

Such a Tora h-f ree gosp e l seem ed idea l ly su i t ed for t he m (and tha t ' s j us t wha t c r

w a s : a w a t e re d -d o w n , m o re m a rk e t a b l e v e r s io n t h a t m a d e c o n v e r s i o n t o o c h e a p

h a l fw a y m e a su re —t h e sa m e w a y H i n d u g u ru s l o o k a sk a n c e a t T ra n sc e n d e n t a l M e

the West , a McDonald ' s t r i v i a l i za t ion of t he genuine a r t i c l e ) . Here was a way

w h a t t h e y l i k e d a b o u t Ju d a i sm , t o c o n s i d e r t h e m se l v e s t ru l y a p a r t o f A b ra h a m

a n d y e t w i t h o u t a l l t h o se n u i sa n c e r e g u l a t i o n s J e su s w a s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m n o t so

t e a c h e r , b u t a s t h e i r t i c k e t i n t o t h e H o u s e o f I s r ae l . H e r e ' s h o w i t w o r k e d .

H e l l e n i s t i c J e s u s J e w s t h o u g h t b a c k to t h e i r c o m m u n i t y ' s p r o u d t r a d i t i o n o f

h o w o l d E l e a z e r (2 M a c c . 6 : 1 8 - 3 1 ; 4 M a c c . 5 a n d 6 ) a n d t h e s e v e n b r o t h e r s

m o t h e r ( 2 M a c c . 7 ; H e b . 1 1 : 3 5 ) h a d a l l y i e l d e d u p t h e i r l iv e s r a t h e r t h a n r e n e g e o

o f G o d w h e n p a g a n t y r a n t s h a d t r i e d t o f o r c e t h e m t o d o so . T h e s e s a i n t s h a d d i

p u n i s h m e n t fo r s i n — G o d f o r b i d — b u t a s w i t n e s s e s t o r i g h t e o u s n e s s . B u t t h e y k n e



s i n n e r s d e a t h c a n m i t i g a t e h i s g u i l t b e f o r e G o d , a n d t h e y p r a y e d t o G o d w i t h

b r e a t h s t h a t h e m i g h t c o n s i d e r t h e i r r i g h t e o u s d e a t h s a n a t o n e m e n t , a n e x p i a t i

t o w a r d t h e si n s o f f e l l o w J e w s w h o s e b a c k s l i d i n g h a d i n v i t e d t h e s e t e r r i b l e p e r s

M a c c . 7 : 3 7 - 3 8 ; 4 M a c c . 6 : 27 —2 9 ) . I t w a s t h e o l d " r i g h t e o u s r e m n a n t " id e o l o g y w i t h

s i x t h - c e n t u r y B . c. E. p r i e s t l y a r i s t o c r a t s e x p l a i n e d w h y it w a s t h e y w h o h a d b e e n d

n o t t h e i d o l a t r o u s p o p u l a c e w h o s e s i n s h a d c a l l e d f o r t h t h e B a b y l o n i a n c o n q u e r o r s

place ( Isa. 53) .

W e l l , c o m e t o t h i n k o f i t , J e s u s h a d d i e d f o r n o s i n s o f h i s o w n , p e r i s h t h e

i s i t p o s s i b l e G o d w a s w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t h i s m a r t y r d e a t h a s a n e x p i a t i o n f o r t h e

r i t u a l i m p u r i t i e s a n d a b o m i n a t i o n s o f th e u n w a s h e d , s h r i m p - e a t i n g p a g a n s ? S u r e ,

b e i t " O t h e r w i s e C h r i s t d i e d t o n o p u r p o s e " ( G a l . 2 : 2 1 ) . S o t h e d i f f e r e n c e J e s u s m

G o d - f e a r e r s w a s t o l e t t h e m i n t o a t l e a s t o n e f o r m o f J u d a i s m , H e l l e n i z e d J e s u s

f u l l - f l e d g e d m e m b e r s .

( T h e E p i s t l e t o t h e G a l a t i a n s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n t o a d d r e s s s u c h a g

m e m b e r s l a t e r b e g a n t o f e e l c o n s c i e n c e p a n g s , to s u s p e c t t h a t s o m e t h i n g s o e a s il y

n o t b e w o r t h m u c h . I t w a s l i k e w o n d e r i n g i f y o u r e a l ly d e s e r v e d t h e j o b , o r w h e t h

i t b e c a u s e o f r a c i a l p r e f e r e n c e q u o t a s , e sp e c i a l ly if y o u r c o l l e a g u e s a s s u m e t h e l a t t e

b o t h e r h i d i n g t h e i r c o n t e m p t . Y o u ' d f e e l t h e n e e d t o p r o v e y o u r s e l f. T h a t ' s o n



n u m b e r o f N a t i o n o f I s l a m m e m b e r s a b a n d o n F a r r a k h a n ' s f a i t h o n c e t h e y l e a r n a b

I s l a m : T h e y w a n t t h e re a l t h i n g . A n d s o t h e G a l a t i a n s h a d a f t e r a l l d e c i d e d

of f i c i a l and a t l eas t ge t c i r c um cise d . )

J e s u s ' m a r t y r d e a t h h a d b e c o m e a r e d c a r p e t f o r G e n t i l e G o d - f e a r e r s t o t a k e

a m o n g t h e c l a n s o f J u d a h . " O n c e y o u w e r e n o p e o p l e , b u t n o w y o u a r e G o d ' s

Pe t . 2 :1 Oa). Bu r to n Ma ck ca l l s th i s fo r m of f a i th in J es us a C hr i s t c u l t . But I b

T h e r e is n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e t h e o r y o f J e s u s ' d e a t h r e h a b i l i t a t i n g t h e u n c l e a n h

d e p e n d s o n o r f o l l o w s f r o m h i s b e i n g a m e s s i a h o r a C h r i s t . N o b o d y m a d e E l e

s e v e n b r o t h e r s C h r i s t s . B o t h t h e J e w i s h c a t e g o r y o f r e l i g i o u s m a r t y r s a n d t h e G r e

o f t h e n o b l e d e a t h o f a h e r o o n b e h a l f o f h i s h o m e l a n d w e r e g o o d e n o u g h o n

C a l l i n g su c h a m a r t y r - h e r o t h e M e s s i a h w o u l d o n l y h a v e c o n f u s e d t h e i s s u e.

T h u s I w o u l d p l a c e S a m W i l l i a m s ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e a rl y a t o n e m e n

a m o n g H e l l e n i s t i c m i s s i o n - c o n g r e g a t i o n s w h o o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e i r o w n

p a r a l l e l t o t h e J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s t h e y h a d p r e v i o u s l y a t t e n d e d . T h e y c o u l d

c o n t i n u e d i n t h e s a m e s y n a g o g u e s u n l e s s t h e y w e r e r u n b y H e l l e n i s t i c J e s u s J e w

a l w a y s a p o s s i b i l i t y . B u t i f w e a r e t o r e c k o n w i t h a n y t h i n g l i k e t h e p i c t u r e A c

J e s u s m i s s i o n s i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c s y n a g o g u e s , c a s e s, i n o t h e r w o r d s , w h e r e t h e J e s u s



p r o p a g a n d i s t s f r o m o u t s i d e , t h e n w e w i l l h a v e t o e n v i s i o n s c h i s m a t i c ri v a l J e s u s

f o r m i n g a l o n g s i d e t h e p a r e n t b o d i e s . A n d t h i s i s n o t b e c a u s e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l J

c r a z e d a n t i p a t h y t o J e s u s a s A c t s d e p i c t s , b u t r a t h e r s i m p l y b e c a u s e u n l e s s t h e

l e a d e r s t h e m s e l v e s a c c e p t e d t h e J e s u s - a t o n e m e n t d o c t r i n e , t h e y c o u l d n o t i n g o o d

a l l o w t h e G o d - f e a r e r s m o r e a c c e ss t h a n t h e y h a d a l r e a d y g i v e n t h e m . T h e G o d - f

n e w b e l i e f d i d n o t m a k e i t s o . I n t h i s c a s e , i n o r d e r t o e n j o y t h e n e w a d v a n t a g e

h a d p r o v i d e d ( " T h r o u g h h i m w e h a v e g a i n e d a c c e s s t o t h i s g r a c e i n w h i c h w e

R o m . 5 : 2 ) , t h e G o d - f e a r e r s w o u l d h a v e t o s e t u p t h e i r o w n p a r a l l e l s y n a g o g u e s ,

m a y i m a g i n e h a v i n g a g o o d d e a l o f r e s e m b l a n c e , n o t t o t o d a y ' s P r o t e s t a n t f u n

" J e w s fo r J e s u s " o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r t o p r e s e n t - d a y R e f o r m J u d a i s m .

S u c h a c o m m u n i t y c o u l d v e r y w e l l h a v e g e n e r a t e d t h e E p i s t l e o f J a m e s , w r

n a m e o f a g r e a t J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r i t y , a n d f u l l o f m i x e d J e w i s h a n d p o

ma xim s, and w i th b u t an ob l ig a tory t i p of t he ha t t o Jes us , wh o wo uld rea l ly

l i t t l e subs t an t ive d i f fe rence for such a group . We might wonder i f i t i s a l so su

tha t com es in for c r i t i c i sm in th e Book of Rev ela t ion as " those wh o say they a r

are no t , bu t a re a syn ago gue of Sa t an" (2 :9) . Th ey a re im ag ine d s t i l l t o par t ake o

h e a t h e n w a y s , e a t i n g m e a t s a c ri f ic e d t o i d o l s a n d p a t ro n i z i n g t e m p l e

( " p r i e s t i t u t e s , " w e m i g h t c a l l t h e m ) , a l l o n t h e a s su m p t i o n t h a t o n c e J e w



regula t ions go , t he whole th ing ' s gone . (The log ic i s fami l i a r enough: I f Jesus

s i n n e r s , t h e n h e m u s t h a v e b e c o m e o n e o f t h e m — M a r k 2 : 1 5 - 1 7 ; M a t t . 1 1 : 1 9 . )

I f t h i s g r ou p of "Son of Go d fearers" does no t rea l ly f i t t he "Ch r i s t c u l t "

even to be c lassed as a separa t e Jesus mo ve m en t? Poss ib ly , bu t t h en aga in , i t w

su rp r i s e t o f i n d t h e m sh a r i n g w o rsh i p w i t h M a c k ' s S y n a g o g u e R e fo rm m o v e m

i m a g i n e t h e d e b a t e s b e i n g c o n d u c t e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o ty p e s o f sy n a g o g u e s r a t h e r

a s i n g l e c o n g re g a t i o n . T h e G o d - fe a re r s w o u l d c e r t a i n l y h a v e h a d t h e G re e k e

c re a t e t h e p ro n o u n c e m e n t s t o r i e s o r chreias. T h e y c o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e l a t er Q c

too , s ince even the ear l i es t l ayer of Q as Mack d iv ides i t up ( fo l lowing Kloppenbo

con ta ins t h e say ing "N ot even in Is rael have I fou nd such fa i th " (M at t . 8 :10 /Lu k

R o m a n c e n t u r i o n t o w h o m Je su s r e f e rs i s a m o d e l p o r t r a i t o f a G e n t i l e G o d -

rem em be r tha t t he seco nd-c entury sa t i r i s t Luc ian of Samo sa ta ca ll ed Jes us " th

s o p h i s t , " i m p l y i n g J e s u s w a s r e c a l l e d a s n o l e s s a p h i l o s o p h e r f o r h a v i n g a l s o b e e n

a m a r t y r . A Q c o m m u n i t y w i t h G e n t i l e G o d - f e a r e r s a s m e m b e r s w o u l d c e r t a i n ly

i t that way.

N o r i s i t d i f f i c u l t t o i m a g i n e t h i s J e s u s m a r t y r c u l t as o n e w i t h , o r o v e r l

C o m m u n i t y o f I s r a e l, o n c e w e r e c a ll h o w b o t h S a m a r i t a n s a n d G a l i l e a n s t r a d i t i

t h e s t i g m a of b e i n g o n l y m a r g i n a l l y J e w i s h ( l i k e H e r o d t h e G r e a t , a p r o f e s s i n



r e a ll y a n o - g o o d I d u m e a n / E d o m i t e ) . I f t h e y h a d i n t e r n a l i z e d t h i s s o u t h e r n J e w i s h

w o u l d h a v e f e l t m u c h l i k e t h e " h a l f w a y c o v e n a n t " G o d - f e a r e r s o n G r e e k s o il . T

h a v e w e l c o m e d t h e n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e a t h o f J e s u s , a s S a m W i l l i a m s

T h e y w o u l d h a v e s e e n J e s u s as " t h e P r o p h e t l i k e M o s e s , " a n d M o s e s h a d o n c e o f fe

h i s o w n n a m e e r as e d f r o m G o d ' s b o o k if o n l y i t c o u l d s a v e h i s s e m i p a g a n i z e d p e

3 2 : 3 2 ) . T h e y m i g h t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o a c c e p t t h e J e w i s h e s t i m a t e of t h e m s e l v e

s a m e m o m e n t t h e y w e r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a w a y o f r e m o v i n g t h a t t a i n t .

I n f a c t , t o v i e w t h e C o m m u n i t y o f I sr a e l a s i n c l u d i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t p e r

G o d - f e a r e r s f r o m " G a l i l e e o f t h e G e n t i l e s " ( M a t t . 4 : 9 ) w o u l d m a k e i t m u c h e a s ie

M a c k ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h a t g r o u p a s r e j o i c i n g o v e r a n e w o r r e n e w e d s e n s e

i d e n t i t y . W e w o u l d h a v e t h e m i s s i n g p i e c e o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p u z z l e . M a c k h a d a

of wh at i t wo uld loo k l ike ( the s e l f - es t eem b us ines s ) b u t h ad n ' t ye t fou nd i t . H er e

I f t he Jesus mar tyr cu l t does no t qua l i fy as a Chr i s t cu l t , what does? F i rs t

t ry t o sup ply a cou ple more t rans i t i ona l for ms in t he foss il record of ear l

evolu t ion . One of t hese , t he Gnostic Christ cult of t he Syr i an apos t l es , wi l l somew

t h e Q c o m m u n i t y a n d so m e o f i t s l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t s . T h e o t h e r , t h e Kyrios Chr

bare ly me nt io ne d by Ma ck, and he never rea lly d i s t i ng ui sh es i t f rom what I am

ma r ty r cu l t o f Jesu s . An d ye t i t i s one of t he most imp or t an t o f a l l .



THE GN OS TIC CHRIST C ULT

Wa l t e r S c h m i t h a l s

2

no t i ced var ious puzz l ing incons i s t enc i es i n t he severa l New Tes

of t he t e rm "apos t l e , " as wel l as cer t a in pa t t e rns t o t hose incons i s t enc i es . In shor

t o su sp e c t t h a t e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o la r s h ad c o n fu se d v a r i o u s

ideas t ha t were or ig ina l ly d i s t i nc t , o r t he anc ien t wr i t e rs and ed i tors of i nd i

T e s t a m e n t w r i t i n g s h a d . In sh o r t , h e w o u n d u p to t a l ly d i sm a n t l i n g a n d r e b u i l d i n

cept and h i s tory of t he t e rm "apos t l e . " Sch mi th a l s sys t em at i ca l ly exam ined a l l t

sug ges t ed poss ib l e or ig in s of t he C hr i s t i an idea of t he apos t l es and f ina l ly t raced

S y r i a n G n o s t i c i s m .

O n t h e o n e h a n d , S c h m i t h a l s s h o w e d h o w , o n c e y o u b r a c k e t a c o u p l e o f m i

( M a r k 6 : 3 0 r e f e rs b a c k t o 6 :7 a n d s h o u l d b e t r a n s l a t e d " t h e o n e s s e n t o u t r e t u r n e d

n o t " t h e a p o s t l e s r e t u r n e d t o J e s u s " ) a n d t e x t u a l c o r r u p t i o n s ( s o m e o n e h a s a d d e d

a l so n a m e d a p o s t l e s" t o M a r k 3 : 1 4 : " h e a p p o i n t e d t w e l v e " ) , M a t t h e w , M a r k , a n d

r e fe r to " th e apos t l es , " b u t on ly to " th e Tw elve , " o r, a t mo s t , " th e twelv e d i sc ip les



T w e l v e , S c h m i t h a l s a r g u e s , a r e a g r o u p o f a u t h o r i t i e s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e e a rl y c h u r

s u b s e q u e n t l y r e a d b a c k i n t o t h e t i m e o f J e s u s i n o r d e r t o g i v e t h e m g r e a t e r c l o

idea o f th e apo s to la te was no t even in v iew here . T h e p ic t u r e o f an o f f i c i a l an

c o l l e g e o f t w e l v e a p o s t l e s e m e r g e s o n l y i n e a r l y c a t h o l i c w r i t i n g s f r o m a b o u t 1 2 5 C

a n d t h i s i n c l u d e s th e t w o - p a r t w o r k L u k e - A c t s . S c h m i t h a l s a g r e e s w i t h J o h n

L u k e - A c t s i n i t s p r e s e n t , c a n o n i c a l f o r m , i s a r e s p o n s e t o M a r c i o n i n t h e m i d - s e c o

M a r c i o n , l i k e t h e e v a n g e l i s t M a r k , h a d w r i t t e n o ff t h e T w e l v e a s d u n c e s w

m i s u n d e r s t o o d J e s u s . H e a c c e p t e d P a u l a s t h e o n l y g e n u i n e a p o s t l e : W h y h a d J e s

t o h i m a f t e r t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n e x c e p t t o f i n d s o m e o n e w h o c o u l d s u c c e e d w h e r e

h a d f a i l e d , i n g r a s p i n g t h e t r u t h o f h i s g o s p e l ? M a r c i o n c o m p i l e d t h e A p o s t o l i c o

c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i n g l e g o s p e l ( p r o b a b l y a n e a r l ie r , s h o r t e r v e r s i o n o f o u r L u k e ) a l o n

t e n e p i s t l e s a sc r i b e d t o P a u l a t t h e t i m e ( l a c k i n g 1 T i m o t h y , 2 T i m o t h y , a n d

s o - c a l le d P a s t o r a l E p i s t l e s , w h i c h w e r e n o d o u b t s u b s e q u e n t l y w r i t t e n a g a i n s

a t t e m p t i n g t o c r e a t e a n o r t h o d o x " c o u n t e r - P a u l " ) . T h e s u c c e s s o f t h i s t h e o l o g i c a l

d i s t i n c t i v e l y C h r i s t i a n T e s t a m e n t , s p u r r e d t h e e m e r g i n g C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t o r e p

o w n N e w T e s t a m e n t c a n o n , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a n e x p a n d e d , " c a t h o l i c iz e d " L u k e f o l l o

a n A c t s w h i c h c o - o p t e d P a u l b y p a i r i n g h i m w i t h P e t e r a n d s u b o r d i n a t i n g h

T w e l v e A p o s t l e s . " T h e T w e l v e A p o s t l e s , t h e n , a re a l a t e r c h u r c h l y c o n s t r u c t , j u



no t io n of the apos to l i c succes s ion of b i sh ops . Bu t a t f i r s t t he o f f i ce o f an apo s t l e

C h r i s t i a n c i r c le s f r o m a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e . B o t h " a p o s t l e " a n d " C h r i s t "

s o m e t h i n g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t .

Sc hm i tha l s we nt on to ske tch t he o r ig in o f the apos t l e idea in the c i r c l

p r e - C h r i s t i a n G n o s t i c i s m . G n o s t i c i s m w a s l a t er a s s i m i l a t e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n i ty , g i v i

G n o s t i c i z e d C h r i s t i a n i t y ( i n c l u d i n g t h e i d e a o f J e s u s a s a n i n c a r n a t i o n o f

C h r i s t - b e i n g ) a n d C h r i s t i a n G n o s t i c i s m ( l ik e t h a t re p r e s e n t e d in m a n y o f t h e N a g

t e x t s , w h e r e J e s u s i s p o r t r a y e d a s a G n o s t i c t e a c h e r o n t h e m o d e l o f V a l e n t i n u s ,

S i m o n M a g u s ) . B u t i n G n o s t i c i s m , b e f o r e i t b e g a n t o c r o s s b r e e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

w a s n o t i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a n y p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e , a t l e a s t w i t h n o n e f r o m

p a s t . T h e R e v e a l e r / R e d e e m e r w a s i d e n t i f i e d i n s t e a d w i t h s o m e a n c i e n t f i g u r e ( S

E n o s h , M e l c h i z e d e k , a n d so o n ) , o r w i t h s o m e p e r s o n i f i e d a b s t r a c t i o n ( e . g . , D a m e

P r o v e r b s , W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n , S i ra c h ; M a n d a d ' H a y e , " K n o w l e d g e of t h e L i f e ," i

s c r i p t u r e ) , w h o i n t u r n w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e s y m b o l i c o f t h e P r i m o r d i a l H

a v i 3 p o m o q . L i k e G a y o m a r d , t h e f i rs t h u m a n i n Z o r o a s t r i a n m y t h , o r t h e a n d r o g y

o f r a b b i n i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n , t h e P r i m o r d i a l H u m a n c o n t a i n e d t h e s o u ls o f a ll f u t u r

w o m e n i n i t s e l f .

T h e av dp C OT U X ; w a s a b e i n g o f p u r e s p i r i t a n d l i g h t . B u t s o m e w h e r e a l o n g



h a d p l u n g e d i n t o t h e s h a d o w - w o r l d of l o a t h s o m e m a t t e r a n d h a s b e e n h e l d p

s i n c e , l o n g a g o h a v i n g f o r g o t t e n i t s t r u e i d e n t i t y . I t e x i s t s n o w o n l y in t h e f o r m o

o f d i v i n e s p a r k s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . I t c a n b e c o m e s e l f - a w a r e

i n s o f a r a s i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g s w h o h a p p e n t o p o ss e ss t h e s p a r k c a n b e a w a k e

f a c t . T h e G n o s t i c R e v e a le r i s t h e G n o s i s (d i v i n e s e l f - k n o w l e d g e ) a w a k e n e d w i t h i n

h im se l f o r her se l f . T hu s the s av ior and th e s aved a re on e and the s am e, and we c

a " R e d e e m e d R e d e e m e r . " F o r G n o s t i c s , t h e C h r i s t , t h e S o n o f M a n , i s t h e s p i r i t u a

t h e e l e c t , t h e G n o s t i c e l i t e . T h i n k o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n m a d e i n 1 J o h n 2 : 2 7 b e t w e

k n o w l e d g e a n d a n o i n t i n g : " T h e a n o i n t i n g w h i c h y o u r e c e iv e d f r o m h i m a b i d e s i

y o u h a v e n o n e e d t h a t a n y o n e s h o u l d t e a c h y o u ; a s h i s a n o i n t i n g t e a c h e s

e v e r y t h i n g , a n d i s t r u e . . . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g a b o u t n a t i o n a l i s t i c J e w i s h m e s s i a n i s

a r e i n a d i f f e r e n t w o r l d a l t o g e t h e r , o n e in w h i c h G n o s t i c i s m ' s C h r i s t e x

Tran scen den ta l A ion or Spi r i t ua l Power . Th i s Ch r i s t was bu r i ed in t he mate r i a l

wo uld r i se as mo re and mo re of h i s sun dere d shar ds awa kene d a nd , i n so do ing ,

t he severed Body of t he C hr i s t , t he Pr im al Ma n.

I f i t seems to be s t ra ined spec i a l p l ead ing to sugges t t ha t t he t e rm "Chr i s t "

m e a n t so m e t h i n g u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h J e w i sh m e ss i a n i sm , o n e o n l y n e e d r e m i n d o

a l ready in t he Paul ine Epi s t l es , "Chr i s t " i s no th ing but t he surname of Jesus (o



t h e p ro n o m e n ) . A s We rn e r K ra m e r sh o w s , t h e re i s n o t o n e s i n g l e i n s t a n c e i n

Epi s t l es where "Chr i s t " seems to or needs to be a re fe rence to t he Jewish mess i a

the bas i s for L loyd G as to n ' s bo ld s t a t e m en t , "For Pau l , Jes us is ne i th er a new Mo

Mess i ah . "

5

I a m n o t su g g e s t i n g P a u l w a s i m p l y i n g a n y t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y G n o s t i c i

o f "Chr i s t . " Al l I mea n is t ha t he could u se i t w i tho ut any h in t of Jewis h m ess

so could o the rs , wh o mig ht h ave f i l l ed the t e r m wi th a d i f f e re n t s ign i f i ca nce a l tog

In t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e G n o s t i c C h r i s t c u l t , w h o w o u l d q u a l i fy a s a n

a p o s t l e w o u l d b e a n y o n e w h o a w a k e n e d t o h is o r h e r t ru e C h r i s t - i d e n t i t y a n d

the urgen cy to spread th i s word of sa lva t ion to t he res t o f t he los t sheep . T

m y s t a g o g u e s l i k e S i m o n M a g u s , V a l e n t i n u s , a n d M a rk o s a p p a re n t l y c o n s i d e re d t h e

vi s ib l e " inca rna t ions " of t he C hr i s t . Bu t t he i r p o in t was hard ly tha t they w e re C h r

w e re

not.

Ju s t t he opp os i t e . "Everyon e wh o is o f t h e t ru th hears my voice" (John

w a s m u c h t h e s a m e l a te r w i t h t h e S u f i m y s t i c a l -H a l l a j , t o r t u re d a n d k i l l

b l a sp h e m y o f kullul> c l a i m i n g t o b e G o d i n c a rn a t e . H e w e n t a b o u t p ro c l a i m i n g

Tr uth " " I am Go d " a l l t he whi l e m ea nin g th a t G od was a ll t here was , and th

had renounced the brazen i l l us ion tha t he had any separa t e ex i s t ence a longs ide Go

who le po i n t was no t t h a t he was Go d in som e sense in which o the rs were no t ,

was Go d s imp ly b ecause everyone is . H e had jus t awa kene d to t he t ru th and



o t h e r s . H i s k n o w l e d g e m a d e h i m a C h r i s t a n d a n a p o s t l e o f G o d , fo r t h e t w o ,

t e rm s , a r e sy n o n y m o u s .

W e n e e d n o t g o o u t s i d e t h e p a ra m e t e r s o f G n o s t i c i sm t o sh o w t h a t su c

concept i s no mere cons t ruc t o f Schmi tha l s . But i t may be wor th no t ing tha t , as

p o i n t s , t h i s G n o s t i c id e a f i n d s a s t r i k i n g p a ra l l e l i n M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t . J

G n o s t i c m y s t a g o g u e w a s h i m se l f t h e C h r i s t , t h e o n l y " i n c a rn a t i o n " o f C h r i s t t h a

d i f fe re nce , t he Bod hi sa t tvas were a ll be l ieved to fo l low the same pa th as Pr ince

o n c e h a d , t h ro u g h c o u n t l e s s r e i n c a rn a t i o n s t h ro u g h t h e T e n Bhumis (stages) on the

B u d d h a h o o d . B u t t h e y v i ew e d S i d d h a r t h a G o t a m a n o t a s W e s t e rn s c h o la r s d o , a s

h i s tor i ca l Bu dd ha and th e fou nd er of Bud dh i sm , bu t ra ther as mere ly one

twe nty- s ix pa s t and fu tu re Bu ddh as , a ll o f wh om are the sub jec t s o f fab ulou s l eg

not t ha t t he o ther Buddhas and Bodhi sa t tvas were fo l lowing in h i s foo t s t

S i d d h a r t h a G o t a m a h a d s i m p l y t ro d d e n t h e s a m e p a t h a l l B o d h i sa t t v a s t r e a d . A n d

w a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e e t e rn a l B u d d h a -N a t u re .

7

O nc e one awa kens to t he f

o w n B u d d h a -N a t u re , o n e b e c o m e s b o t h r e d e e m e r a n d r e d e e m e d . Ju s t as i n G n o s t i c

T o m a k e Je su s a G n o s t i c R e d e e m e r i n so m e e x c l u s i v e s e n se w a s a h a rd a d j

C h r i s t i a n G n o s t i c s t o m a k e , an d m a n y o f t h e m d i d n o t q u i t e m a k e it . S o m e m a d

one of t he prev ious t empo rary m ani fe s t a t io ns of t he C hr i s t , and for som e, Jes us



b e e n m o re r e c e n t l y su p e r se d e d b y S i m o n M a g u s o r M a n i . (A g a i n , t h i s w a s t h e w a

B u d d h i sm i n c o rp o ra t e d S i d d h a r t h a G o t a m a i n t o a l a rg e r f r a m e w o rk , p o i n t e d l y

un iq uen ess . ) Some G no st i cs a l l owed a cer t a in p r ior i t y t o Jes us as t he h i s tor i ca

Ch r i s t , bu t t hey were t em pt ed towa rd Do cet i sm , de ny ing tha t i n t h i s case the R

re a ll y t o u c h e d d o w n in h u m a n h i s to ry . (A g a i n , M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t s h a d d o n e p

sa m e t h i n g , m a k i n g t h e e a r t h l y a p p e a ra n c e s o f a l l t h e B u d d h a s m e re a p p a r i t i

N i r m a n k y a , t h e " T ra n s fo rm a t i o n B o d y ," w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l su b s t a n c e . ) B u t w h e n

g iven some measu re of cen t ra l i t y , i t me ant t h a t he h ims e l f w ould be con s idere d

t he one sen t f rom the heavenly rea lm of l i gh t t o en l ig h te n po or mor t a l s .

l i eu t enant s , commiss ioned to re l ay tha t message , were no t cons idered "apos t l es . "

t h e re w a s n o a t t e m p t t o fo c u s t h e ro le o f C h r i s t a n d a v O p a m o q e x c l u si v

indiv idua l person of Jesus , t he severa l p rev ious and subsequent preachers of t he

a i C ) al l a l i k e q u a l i f i e d a s " a p o s t l e s , " s e n t o n e s . I n t h i s s e n s e M a n i a n d M u h a m m a d

c a l l t h e m s e l v e s " a p o s t l e s . "

S c h m i t h a l s c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e G n o s t i c i d e a o f t h e C h r i s t - A p o s t l e h a d b e e n

P a u l a l o n g w i t h v a r i o u s i t e m s o f G n o s t i c t h e o l o g y a n d t e r m i n o l o g y , o n l y h e h a d

s u c h c o n c e p t u a l i t y t o e x p r e s s a f a i t h c e n t e r e d u p o n J e s u s C h r i s t . M a n y w h o

G n o s t i c g o s p e l i n s o m e t h i n g l i k e i t s p r i s t i n e f o r m t o o k e x c e p t i o n t o P a u l ' s s y n



C o r i n t h P a u l r a n a f o u l o f " s u p e r a p o s t l e s " (2 C o r . 1 1 : 5 ) w h o c o u l d , w i t h o u t a

i n c o n - s i s te n c y , s ay b o t h " I a m o f C h r i s t " ( i .e . , p a r t o f t h e H e a v e n l y A d a m - C h r i s t )

b e d a m n e d " ( C o m p a r e 1 C o r . 1 : 1 2 w i t h 1 C o r . 1 2 : 3 . ) T o c u r s e J e s u s w a s t o d e n y

t h a t J e s u s w a s u n i q u e l y a n d e x c l u s iv e l y t h e C h r i s t . ( B e s i d e t h e C o r i n t h i a n c u r s e

m a y p l a c e t h e Z e n s a y i n g , " I f y o u m e e t t h e B u d d h a o n t h e r o a d , k i l l h i m " — b

o n l y r e a l B u d d h a is t h e B u d d h a - N a t u r e , t h e g n o s i s , i n s i d e y o u . ) T o t h e s e C o r i n t h i a

t h e J e s u s P a u l o f f e r e d t h e m m u s t h a v e s e e m e d a v e r i t a b l e a n t i c h r i s t , a u s u r p e r o f

C h r i s t - i d e n t i t y t h a t a l l G n o s t i c s h a d a s t h e i r i n a l i e n a b l e b i r t h r i g h t a n d t h e k

s a l v a t i o n .

A n d y e t P a u l s t il l c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f a n a p o s t l e . H e is s t i l l u s i n g t h e o r i g i

t e r m , e v e n t h o u g h h e h a s h a d t o s q u e e z e J e s u s i n t o t h e s y s t e m . B u t w h e t h e r P a u

t h e S y r i an G n o s t i c i s m o r n o t , S c h m i t h a l s ' s r e s e ar c h e s w o u l d i n a n y c a s e d e l i n e a t e

b a s is o f a p r e - J e s u s c u l t o f t h e C h r i s t , o n e i n w h i c h t h e C h r i s t h a d n o t h i n g i

t o d o w i t h J e s u s t h e N a z o r e a n . A n d e v e n t u a l l y i t c o u l d b e f o u n d a l o n g s i d e s o m

H e l l e n i z e d J e s u s m o v e m e n t , I w o u l d g u e s s t h e J e s u s m a r t y r c u l t , i n C o r i n t h .

E a r l i e r I m e n t i o n e d G e r d T h e i s s e n ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e C o r i n t h i a n s u p e r a p o s t

o f t h e i t i n e r a n t Q p r e a c h e r s , J e s u s - C y n i c s . W o u l d S c h m i t h a l s ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o

s u p e r a p o s t l e s c o n t r a d i c t T h e i s s e n ' s ? N o t a t a l l . I f w e lo o k a t T h e i s s e n ' s e a r l i e r d



t h e " i t i n e r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s " w e s e e t h a t T h e i s s e n p e r c e i v e s h o w t h e r e fe r e n c e s t

m a d e t o t h e S o n o f M a n , e i t h e r a s a p e r s o n i f i e d t h r e a t o f r e v e n g e , o r a s t h e h e a v

r i z e r o f t h e i r p r e a c h i n g , s e e m e d t o f u n c t i o n le s s a s a n a p p e a l t o a f a m o u

p r e d e c e s s o r , J e s u s t h e N a z o r e a n , t h a n a s t h e i n v o c a t i o n o f a n i d e a l c o u n t e r p a r t t o

T h e S o n o f M a n w a s s o m e t h i n g l i k e m a n y sc h o l a r s t a k e J o h n ' s " B e lo v e d D i s c i p l e

i d e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f a i t h f u l d i s c i p l e . I s u b m i t t h a t h e r e w e a r e c o n t e m p l a t i n g s o m

c l o s e t o S c h m i t h a l s ' s p i c t u r e o f a m u l t i t u d e of w a n d e r i n g " a p o s t l e s " ( b o t h T h

S c h m i t h a l s m a k e t h e i r i t i n e r a n t s t h e s a m e a s t h e a p o s t l e s o f t h e D i d a c h e ) w h o

e m b o d i e d t h e i r C h r i s t / P r i m a l M a n / S o n o f M a n . N e i t h e r g r o u p ' s m i n i s t r y p r e

p r e v i o u s h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d e r , a h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s C h r i s t . B o t h g r o u p s , t h e n , w e r e p

s a m e g r o u p .

A n d , f u r t h e r , I s u b m i t t h a t o n l y o n t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e C o r i n t h i a n s



T h e G o s p e l o f M a t t h e w , t h o u g h i n i t s p r e s e n t f o r m it o b v i o u s l y a s s u m e s

J e s u s , d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e th e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r , i m p l i c i t l y t h e t i t u l a r c h a r a c

na m e "Jesus . " "You sha l l ca l l h i s nam e Jes us , fo r he sha l l s ave h i s peo ple f ro m

( 1 : 2 1 ) . O n l y t w o v e r s es l a t e r , M a t t h e w g r a f t s i n t o h i s n a r r a t i v e a t e x t f r o m I s a i a

n a m e s h a l l b e c a l l ed E m m a n u e l . " I f w e d i d n o t t a k e f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e b a

n a m e d J e s u s , w e w o u l d b e s u r p r i s e d t o d i s c o v e r t h e h o l y c h i l d is n o t h e n c e



" E m m a n u e l C h r i s t , " o r s o m e s u c h . B u t t h e p a r a l le l b e t w e e n t h e t w o d i v i n e n a

m a n d a t e d b y a n a n g e l , t h e o t h e r b y a p r o p h e c y , f u r t h e r u n d e r l i n e s t h e s y m b o l i c

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e n a m e J e s u s . T h a t " J e s u s " m i g h t o n c e h a v e b e e n a t i t l e o f a g o d

c o n c r e t i z e d i n t o t h e p e r s o n a l n a m e o f a h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d e r o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , w a s

a r g u e d b y A r t h u r D r e w s

9

a n d o t h e r a d v o c a t e s o f t h e C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r y . B u t t h

w a s l i t t l e h e e d e d s i n c e i t s e e m e d t o h a v e l i t t l e g o i n g f o r i t b u t t h e b a r e p o s s i b i l i t

I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t S c h m i t h a l s ' s p a r a l le l s w i t h G n o s t i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e

k n o w l e d g e o f s a l v a t i o n g i v e t h e t h e o r y r e a l c r e d i b i l i t y . I a m n o t t r y i n g t o s ay t h a

a s i n g l e o r i g i n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s a v i o r J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d t h a t o r i g i n is p u r e m y t

a m s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e m a y i n d e e d h a v e b e e n s u c h a m y t h , a n d t h a t if s o , i t e v e n t u

t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r J e s u s i m a g e s , s o m e o n e o f w h i c h m a y a c t u a l l y h a v e b e e n

h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s t h e N a z o r e a n . T h e o l d C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r i s t s t o o k f o r g r a n t e d a

or ig in theory , j us t as or tho dox y d id ; i t j us t chose a d i f fe r en t cand ida t e for t he roo t

By fa r t he s t ron ges t p i ece of e v idence for an ear ly use of " Jesus" for a my th

t h e so -ca l le d K e n o s i s h y m n q u o t e d i n P h i l . 2 : 6 -1 1 . M . C o u c h o u d

1 0

long ago po

s t a r t l i ng de t a i l never even ment ioned in t he grea t number of exege t i ca l s tud

passage . W h a t he was a lone in no t i c ing was the fac t t ha t t he hy m n has the exa

be in g rewarded for h i s hu m i l i a t i on by the bes towal of t he nam e of "Jesus . " "T



was h ighly exa l t ed and g iven the

name

that i s above every

name

, that at the

name

knee shou ld bow and every tongu e confess t ha t Jesus Ch r i s t i s Lord , t o t he g lory

Fa the r . " Exegetes un iversa l ly t ake fo r g ra n ted th a t t he "nam e tha t is above every n

t i t l e Kyrios, "Lord . " But Kyrios i s no t a name. " Jesus , " on the o ther hand , i s .

T he sense of t he passage is a l so ev id ent f rom the appos i t i ve para l l e l i sm be tw e

members , "a t t he name Jesus every knee should bow" and "every tongue should

Jesu s C hr i s t is Lord . " Spec i f ica l ly , bowin g th e k nee a t t he na me of Jesus on the

and sw ear ing fea l ty t o h im , on the o ther , a re equ iva l en t . Ne i th er re ad ing f i t s

o r thodoxy very wel l ; fo r a man a l ready named Jesus to rece ive the t i t l e Kyrios w o

A d o p t i o n i sm , b u t fo r t h e h e a v e n l y C h r i s t su b se q u e n t l y t o r e c e iv e t h e n a m e Je

so me th in g even s t range r , nam ely tha t t he for m of t he sa lva t ion m yth p resup po

P h i l i p p i a n s h y m n f r a g m e n t d i d n o t f e a t u re a n e a r th y f i g u re n a m e d Je su s . R a t h e r

was a sub seq ue nt hon or . H ere is a fos s il o f an ear ly be l i e f acc ord ing to wh ich

e n t i t y ( p e r h a p s a l r e a d y c a ll e d C h r i s t , l i k e t h e V a l e n t i n i a n C h r i s t - A i o n ) s u b s e q u e n

t h e c u l t n a m e J e s u s . I n a l l t h i s t h e r e is n o h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s t h e N a z o r e a n . N o r , a

p o i n t e d o u t , c o u l d t h e r e b e , s i n c e a l l t h e g o s p e l t a l e s o f t h e w a n d e r i n g J e s u s

r e v e a le d a s l a t e r f a b r i c a t i o n s , t a k i n g f o r g r a n t e d t h e n a m i n g o f t h e s av i o r a s J e s u s

i t back anach ron i s t i c a l ly in to h i s per io d of ear th ly s e rv i tu de . ( I s i t pos s ib le ,

s p e c u l a t e , t h a t t h e s a v i or 's n a m e o r i g i n a l l y h a d b e e n E m m a n u e l , a t t e s t e d i n t h e c



fos s i l Mat t . 1 :21?)

A n d e v e n t u a l l y , J e s u s , t h e m a r t y r e d s o p h i s t w h o s e d e a t h g a v e G e n t i l e s a c c e ss

J u d a i s m , m i g h t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d w i t h J e s u s C h r i s t t h e e x a l t e d A i o n .

THE KYRIOS CHRISTOS CULT

T h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d w a s h i p - d e e p i n r e l i g io n s c e n t e r i n g o n t h e

r e s u r r e c t i o n o f a s a v i o r g o d . U s u a l l y t h e s e r e l i g i o n s a n d t h e i r r i t e s m e a s u r e d

r e n e w a l o f n a t u r e . T h e i m a g e r y o f d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t io n m i g h t sy m b o l i z e t h e w

v e g e t a t i o n i n a u t u m n a n d w i n t e r a n d i t s r e s t o r a t i o n i n s p r i n g a n d s u m m e r . O r i t m

f o r t h e w a n i n g o f d a y l i g h t t i l l t h e W i n t e r S o l st i c e a n d i t s g r a d u a l w a x i n g t h

p e r h a p s t h e p l a n t i n g ( d e a t h a n d b u r i a l ) of t h e se e d a n d i t s s p r o u t i n g ( r e s u r r e c t i o n

v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e o n e t h e m e . B u t t h e m y t h s o f e a c h s u c h g o d s u p p l i e d t h e m o

t h e f a t e a n d t r i u m p h o f t h e sa v i o r, o n e t h a t m a d e s e n se i n t h e n a t i v e c o n t e x t .

O n e o f t h e o l d e s t w e k n o w o f , t h e m y t h o f A l e y a n B a a l , h a d t h e w a r r i o r g



b a t t l e w i t h t h e d e a t h m o n s t e r M o t , w h o d e v o u r e d h i m . H i s c o n s o r t A n a t h b e w a i l e

a n d d e t e r m i n e d t o e n t e r t h e n e t h e r w o r l d t o b r i n g h e r lo v e r f o r t h a g a i n . S h e d i d

ra i s ed f ro m the de ad , he took t he d iv ine th r on e bes id e h i s f a th er E l as Lord ( "Ba a

a n d m o r t a l s . D u m u z i , o r T a m m u z , w a s h is B a b y l o n i a n c o u n t e r p a r t . H e , t o o , d i e d a

t h e n e t h e r w o r l d , f r o m w h e n c e h is l o v e r I s h t a r r e s c u e d h i m , d y i n g a n d r i s i n g h e

p r o c e s s B o t h t h e s e d i v i n e p a i r s w e r e n o t o r i o u s l y w o r s h i p p e d i n I s r a e l , m u c h t o t h e

c e r t a i n p r o p h e t s l i k e Z e c h a r i a h ( 1 2 : 1 1 ) a n d E z e k i e l ( 8 : 1 4 ) . T h e S o n g o f S o n

n a t u r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e l i t u r g i e s o f I s h t a r a n d T a m m u z .

1 1

O s i r i s o f E g y p t , a n a n c i e n t d i v i n e k i n g w h o t a u g h t a g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e E g y

b e t r a y e d a n d m u r d e r e d b y h i s b r o t h e r S e t ( t h e d e s e r t g o d ) . I si s h i s q u e e n b e w a i l e d

a n d w e n t f o r t h , a c c o m p a n i e d b y h e r a t t e n d a n t m a i d e n s , t o w e e p a n d t o s e a r c h f o

O n c e s h e f o u n d i t , s h e m a n a g e d t o r e v iv e O s i r i s i n a k i n d o f d o u b l e r e s u r r e c

h i m s e l f e n t e r e d i n t o t h e n e t h e r w o r l d a s i t s s u p r e m e j u d g e a n d r u l e r , b u t n o t u n

f a t h e r e d u p o n Is i s a s o n , H o r u s / H a r p o c r a t e s , h i s o w n e a r t h l y r e i n c a r n a t i o n , w h o

t a k e r e v e n g e o n t h e w i c k e d S e t .

1 2

A t t i s w a s a P h r y g i a n g o d l i n g , e i t h e r t h e s o n o r t h e l o v e r ( o r b o t h ) o f t h e c

C y b e l e . O n e d a y h e b e t r a y e d h e r , m a r r y i n g a m o r t a l p r i n c e s s . C y b e l e a p p e a r e d a

l i k e t h e w i t c h a t S l e e p i n g B e a u t y ' s b i r t h d a y p a r t y a n d s c a t t e r e d t h e g u e s t s . A t t i s

r e m o r s e , c a s t r a t e d h i m s e l f a n d b l e d t o d e a t h . C y b e l e w e p t a n d c o n t r i v e d t o r a i se



t h e d e a d . A d o n i s b e t r a y e d A p h r o d i t e , w h o s e n t a v i c i o u s b o a r t o g o r e h i m t o d e a

t h o u g h t b e t t e r o f i t a n d r e v i v e d h i m . O n C r e t e , D i o n y s u s s u f f e r e d t h e s a m e f a t

a g a i n .

I n t h e O r p h i c m y t h , D i o n y s u s , i n h i s a v a t a r a s Z a g r e u s t h e H u n t e r ,

d i s m e m b e r e d a n d e a t e n b y t h e T i t a n s . Z e u s w i p e d t h e m o u t a n d c o n s u m e d t h

b a b y Z a g r e u s , g i v i n g r e b i r t h t o h i m a s t h e m o r e f a m i l i a r D i o n y s u s o f T h e b e s . M

on the shor te s t day of each year bu t was r eb orn on th e nex t day .

O r i g i n a l l y a l l t h e s e m y t h s w e r e re h e a r s e d y e a r l y i n r i t e s i n t e n d e d e i t h e r

c o m m e m o r a t e t h e c h a n g e of se a s o n s , o r a c t u a l l y t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e c h a n g e .

1 3

At th

t h e g a m e , e i t h e r t h e k i n g / c h i e f h i m s e l f w a s p u t t o d e a t h a n d " r a is e d " i n t h e

r e p l a c e m e n t , a n e w c o n s o r t f o r t h e q u e e n , o r e ls e s o m e h a p l e s s s u r r o g a t e d i e d a s

d a y , " w h e r e u p o n t h e r e al k i n g r e t u r n e d t o t h e t h r o n e . E v e n t u a l l y a n e w i n n e r s i g

t h e m y t h w a s " d i s c o v e r e d " b y t h o s e e l it e f e w f o r w h o m t h e e x t e r n a l c e r e m o

a g r i c u l t u r a l f a i t h w e r e s p i r i t u a l l y u n s a t i s f y i n g . T h e s e p e o p l e w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h

p a s s a g e f r o m c h i l d h o o d t o a d u l t h o o d , a t w h i c h t i m e t h e y h a d b e e n e d u c a t e d

r i t u a l s o f t h e i r p e o p l e a n d d e c l a r e d q u a l i f i e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e m .

1 4

W as i t po

w o n d e r e d , t o u n d e r g o y e t a f u r t h e r s t a g e o f i n i t i a t i o n t o a s t i l l g r e a t e r m a t u r i



p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e g o d ' s d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n i n s o m e w a y ,

a n i m m o r t a l i t y l i k e h is ? S u r e i t w a s . A n d t h e M y s t e r y R e l i g i o n s w e r e b o r n . T h e M

w o u l d b e t h e e s o t e r i c c o re o f a t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n w h o s e e x o t e r i c c o n c e r n w a s

o f t h e f i e l d s i n t h e s p r i n g . B u t w i t h t h e g r e a t s o c ia l d i s l o c a t i o n s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i

n u m b e r s of p e o p l e f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y t o m a i n t a i n a n e t h n i c / c u l t u

i n a r a d i c a l ly p l u r a l i s t i c s oc i e ty . L i k e t h e J e w s , w h o c r e a t e d t h e s y n a g o g u e a s a

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r h e r i t a g e , o t h e r g r o u p s t r a n s p l a n t e d t h e i r r e l i g i o n s , t o o . O n l y s i n

n o t s h a r e a s o c i al r e l i g i o n w i t h t h e i r n e w n e i g h b o r s , t h e o l d e x o t e r i c d i m e n s i o n

l e a v i n g o n l y t h e e s o t e r i c M y s t e r y r i t u a l s . T h e s e w e r e s t i l l k e p t s e c r e t f r o m o u

a n y o n e c o u l d b e c o m e a n i n s i d e r , s e e k i n g r e d e m p t i o n a n d f i n d i n g i t i n t h e i r s a n c t

a n y o n e c o u l d b e a m e m b e r o f m o r e t h a n o n e s u c h r e l i g i o n a t t h e s a m e t i m

s u s p e c t i n g t h a t t h e v a r i o u s d e i t i e s , a ll s o s i m i l a r t o o n e a n o t h e r , w e r e d i f f e r e n t n a

same sav ior .

T h e r i t u a l s w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e i n i t i a t e t o s h a r e t h e s a v i n g t r i a l a n d t r i u m p h o

v a r i e d g r e a t l y f r o m c u l t t o c u l t , b u t m o s t h a d t h i s e l e m e n t i n o n e f o r m o r a

i n s t a n c e , w h e r e a s M i t h r a s h a d w r e s t l e d a g r e a t b u l l t o t h e d e a t h ( o r i g i n a l l y s y m b

s u p p l a n t i n g o f T a u r u s b y P e r s e u s i n t h e p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e e q u i n o x

1 5

) , t h e M i t h r a i s

a r i t u a l s h o w e r i n t h e b l o o d o f a d i s e m b o w e l e d b u l l ( o r , i f h e c o u l d n ' t a f f o r d



B r o t h e r , h a v e y o u b e e n w a s h e d i n t h e b l o o d ?

A t t i s c o n v e r t s w o u l d b e s w e p t u p i n t h e e c s t a t i c d a n c e s o f t h e d e v o t e e s a n d

i m p e l l e d t o c a s t r a t e t h e m s e l v e s , p i t c h i n g t h e s e v e re d t e s t i c l e s i n t o t h e l a p o f a s

o f C y b e l e . G e n e r a l m o u r n i n g , b o t h f o r A t t i s a n d f o r t h e i r o w n m a n h o o d , w o

c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e r i t u a l i n t e r m e n t of a n e f f i g y o f A t t i s c r u c i f i e d t o a p i n e t r u

t h i r d d a y h e w o u l d b e p r o c l a i m e d g l o r i o u s l y r i s e n f r o m t h e d e a d : " R e j o i c e ,

m y s t e r y F o r y o u r g o d i s s a v e d A n d w e , t o o , s h a l l b e s a v e d " ( F i r m i c u s M a t e r n u s

of the Pagan Religions 2 2 : l )

1 6

S im i la r ly , bur i a l insc r ip t ion s fo r the be l i ever s in Os i r i

m o u r n e r , " A s O s i r i s d i e d , s o h a s N _ d i e d ; a n d , a s O s i r i s r o s e , s o s h a l l N _ r i s e ." H

w o u l d p a r t a k e o f a s a c r a m e n t a l m e a l o f b r e a d a n d b e e r , s y m b o l i z i n g h i s b o d y

T h e (f e m a l e ) M a e n a d s o f D i o n y s u s w o u l d r e c a p i t u l a t e t h e d e a t h o f t h e i r L o r d b y

a f r e n z y a n d r i p p i n g l i v e a n i m a l s l i m b f r o m l i m b .

E n t e r i n g i n t o t h e s e r i t u a l s i n i t i a t e d t h e p r o c e s s o f a n i n n e r s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m

d i v i n e a n d i m m o r t a l b e i n g . W o r s h i p w a s o f t e n e c st a t ic , a s t h e g a t h e r e d c

w o r s h i p p e d t h e i r Kyrios, t h e i r Lo rd , o r the i r Kuria, e .g . , t he L ady I s i s o r the M

W e h a v e c o p i e s o f w r i t t e n i n v i t a t i o n s t o s a c r a m e n t a l b a n q u e t s h e l d i n h o n o r o

e . g . , " P r a y c o m e d i n e w i t h m e t o d a y a t t h e t a b l e of t h e Kyrios Serap i s . " I t i s no

s o c i a l e v e n t s w h i c h t r o u b l e P a u l i n 1 C o r . 8 - 1 1 , w h e r e h e a d m i t s t h a t i n d e e d " t h e



a p l e n t y a n d Kyrioi a p l e n t y " ( 1 C o r . 8 : 5 ) , b u t s e e m s t o n e e d t o r e m i n d h i s

C h r i s t i a n s t h a t "f o r u s t h e r e i s b u t o n e G o d , t h e F a t h e r , w h o c r e a t e d a l l t h i n g

Kyrios, t h r o u g h w h o m a l l t h i n g s w e r e m a d e " (1 C o r . 8 : 6 ).

1 7

I t i s very hard no t to s ee ex ten s ive and b as ic s im i la r i t i es b e tw een the se r e l ig io

C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n . B u t s o m e h o w C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s h a v e m a n a g e d n o t t o s e e i t , a n

m u s t s u s p e c t , fo r d o g m a t i c r e a so n s . T h o s e w i t h o u t s u c h a M a g i n o t L i n e m e n t a l i t

t r o u b l e . J o h n C u t h b e r t L a w so n

1 8

r e c o u n t e d h o w , d u r i n g a t r i p t o r u r a l G r e e c e , h e

P a s s i o n p l a y. A s t h e l o c a l m a n a c t i n g t h e r o l e o f J e s u s w a s b e i n g b r o u g h t i n t o t h

G o o d F r i d a y e v e n i n g , L a w s o n w a s s t a r t l e d a t t h e m a n i f e s t a n x i e t y o f a n o l d p e a s

b e s i d e h i m . O n h i s a s k i n g t h e c a u s e of h e r d i s t r e s s , s h e b l u r t e d o u t , " O f c

a n x i o u s ; f o r i f C h r i s t d o e s n o t r i s e t o - m o r r o w , w e s h a l l h a v e n o c o r n t h i s y e a r. "

venture to s ay tha t i t was her very l ack of s cho lar ly sophi s t i ca t ion tha t enab

r e c o g n i z e w h a t w a s r e a l l y g o i n g o n .

C o n s e r v a t i v e sc h o l a r s a n d C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t s h a v e n e v e r b e e n a t e as e e v e n

t h e e x i s te n c e of t h e d y i n g - a n d - r i s i n g - g o d m o t i f i n n o n C h r i s t i a n M y s t e r y R e l i g i o n s

t h e i r r e l e v a n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n s . A s a p o l o g i s t s a r e m e r e l y s p i n d o c t o r s f o r a

p a r t y l i n e , t h e i r a l o o f n e s s t o t h e d y i n g - a n d - r i s i n g - g o d m y t h e m e i s s c a rc e l y s u r p r i s i

i s h a r d - p r e s s e d t o t a k e t h e i r d i s d a i n s e r io u s l y , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e a n c i e n t a t t e m p t



M a r t y r a n d F i r m i c u s M a t e r n u s t o d i s c o u n t su c h p a r a l l e l s a s S a t a n i c c o u n t e r f e i t s . B u

d a y s , t h e a p o l o g i s t s ' a g e n d a h a s r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t s u p p o r t f r o m a n u n e x p e c t

J o n a t h a n Z . S m i t h , i n h i s Encyclopedia of Religion a r t i c l e o n " D y i n g a n d R i s i n g G

t o e x p l o d e t h e w h o l e n o t i o n , d i s m i s s i n g i t a s a n a r t i f i c i a l c o m p o s i t e o f e l e m e n t s t

c o n t e x t f r o m t h e r e l i g i o n s in q u e s t i o n . S i n c e S m i t h , a n e x c e l l e n t s c h o l a r, i s r i g h t l y

s e r ious ly , I be l i eve a s l ig h t d ig res s ion i s ca l l ed fo r : In m y v iew, Sm i th ' s c r

u n j u s t i f i e d , a n d t o i g n o r e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e d y i n g - a n d - r i s i n g - g o d m y t h e m e i

o r i g i n s i s t o s h o r t - c i r c u i t o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t s u b j e c t .

Sm i th ' s f i r s t e r ro r is h i s f a i lu re , as I s ee i t , t o g ras p th e p o i n t o f an " idea l ty

t e x t b o o k d e f i n i t i o n / d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o m e p h e n o m e n o n u n d e r s t u d y . A s B r y a n

r e m i n d e d u s , a n i d e a l t y p e i s n o t s o m e b o x i n t o w h i c h a l l t h e v a r i o u s i n s t a n

p h e n o m e n o n m u s t f i t s n u g l y . I f t h a t w e r e t h e n a t u r e o f a n i d e a l t y p e , t h e s c h o l a r

h i m s e l f e i t h e r t r i m m i n g a w a y t h e r o u g h e d g e s o f p a r t i c u l a r p h e n o m e n a ( i n

r e d e e m e r m y t h s ) o r b u i l d i n g h i s b o x b i g e n o u g h a n d sh a p e l e s s e n o u g h t o f i t e v

A n d s i n c e t h i s w o u l d s e r v e n o d e s c r i p t i v e p u r p o s e , S m i t h , f i n d i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e

d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e so - c al le d d y i n g - a n d - r i s i n g - g o d m y t h s , a b a n d o n s a n y h o p e o

d y i n g - a n d - r i s i n g - g o d p a r a d i g m . F o r S m i t h , t h e v ar i o u s m y t h s o f O s i r i s , A t t i s , A d o n

o t h e r s , d o n o t a ll c o n f o r m t o t y p e e x a c t l y ; t h u s t h e y a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y a l i k e t o



s a m e b o x — s o l e t' s t h r o w o u t t h e b ox W i t h o u t e v e r y t h i n g i n c o m m o n , S m i t h s ee s

c o m m o n . B u t a n i d e a l t y p e , a s W i l s o n p o i n t s o u t , i s r a t h e r a y a r d s t i c k a b s t r a c t e

a d m i t t e d l y d i v e r se p h e n o m e n a ; i t r e p r e s e n t s a g e n e r a l f a m i l y r e s e m b l a n c e w i t h o u t

o r i m p l y i n g a n y a b s o l u t e o r c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o n f o r m i t y . I n d e e d t h e v e ry l a c k o f c o

t h e t y p e b y a p a r t i c u l a r m y t h w o u l d s e r v e a s a p r o m i s i n g p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e

s t a n d i n g i t s s p e c i a l u n i q u e n e s s .

S m i t h s e r r o r is t h e s a m e a s t h a t of R a y m o n d B r o w n , w h o d i s m i s s e s t h e t

c o m p a r a t i v e r e l i g i o n p a r a l l e l s t o t h e m i r a c u l o u s b i r t h o f J e s u s :

2 0

Thi s one i s

s p e a k i n g a v i r g i n b i r t h , s i n c e t h e g o d f a t h e r e d t h e c h i l d o n a m a r r i e d w o m a n

i n v o l v e d p h y s i c a l in t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e d e it y , n o t o v e r s h a d o w i n g b y t h e H o l y S p i r i t ,

B ut , we have to ask , how c lose does a para l l e l have to be to cou nt as a para l l e



t h e m i n w i t h t h e m o d e l of t h e r e s u r r e c t e d g o d , b u t S m i t h c a l l s i t a n a r g u m e n t f

I s i t ? Even on Sm i th ' s ow n re ad ing , the t ex t ac tu a l ly does s ay th a t "Baa l i s r ep or

d i e d " a f t e r d e s c e n d i n g t o t h e n e t h e r w o r l d . T h e r e h e i s i n d e e d s a i d t o b e "a s d e

recover s h i s corpse and bu r ies i t . La te r E l s ees in a d re am th a t Baa l ye t l ives . A

g a p B a a l i s d e p i c t e d i n b a t t l e . W h a t is m i s s i n g h e r e ? S m i t h s e e m s t o i n f e r

m i s s i n g l i n e s i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n d is c o v e r e d t h a t B a a l w a s t h e v i c t i m o f a p r e m a

t h a t t h e r e p o r t o f h i s d e m i s e , l i k e t h a t of M a r k T w a i n , w a s p r e m a t u r e . B u t d o e s



any p ar t i cu la r r eason to be sure abo ut th i s ? And even if h i s gue s s we re to p ro ve

s e e m s e v i d e n t t h a t a p r e m a t u r e b u r i a l a n d a r e s c u e v i a d i s i n t e r m e n t is s i m p l y

v e r s i o n o f t h e d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n , n o t a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o i t .

Baa l 's var i a n t se l f in Syr ia , H ad ad , i s even l ess p ron e to dy ing acc ord ing to S

H ad ad i s s a id me re ly to s ink in to a bog for s even year s . H e is on ly s i ck , bu

r e e m e r g e s , l a n g u i s h i n g n a t u r e r e n e w s i t s e lf . S m i t h s a y s, " T h e r e is n o s u g g e s t i o n o f

r e s u r r e c t i o n . " N o r a n y h i n t o f r i tu a l r e e n a c t m e n t o f t h e m y t h . W h a t a b o u t Z e c h . 1

w e r e ad of i n c o n s o l a b l e r i tu a l m o u r n i n g f o r H a d a d - R i m m o n ? W h a t a re t h e y m o u

even if one were to den y th a t s even year s o f subm ers i on in a bo g i s as goo d as

d i f f e r e n c e w o u l d b e , a g a i n , o n l y a s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n a n a t u r a l r a n g e f o r a

m y t h e m e . W e se e t h e s a m e v a r i a ti o n a m o n g t h e N a g H a m m a d i a n d o t h e r G n o s t i c

w h e t h e r t h e R e d e e m e r t o o k o n f le s h . S o m e d e n y h e d i d . O t h e r s sa y h e d i d , b u

con desc ens io n , and the s av ior s t r ip pe d of f the f l esh shro ud as soon as he go t the c

ascr ibe to J es us a f l esh ly body bu t an ap pa ren t de a th . O th er s have a r ea l de a th ,

t h e h u m a n J e s u s , o n c e t h e C h r i s t - S p i r i t h a s f l e d b a c k t o h e a v e n . T h e y a re a l

v e r s i o n s , s i m p l y r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t c h o ic e s f r o m t h e m e n u o f o p t i o n s . T h e d i f

w i t h i n a d e f i n i t e r a n g e a l o n g t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c a x i s , a n d t h e s to r y i s t h e s a m e

s y n t a g m i c a x i s .



O s i r i s , S m i t h a d m i t s , is s a id e v e n i n v e r y a n c i e n t r e c o r d s t o h a v e b e e n d

r e a s s e m b l e d b y I s i s, a n d r e j u v e n a t e d ( p h y s i c a l l y ; h e f a t h e r e d H o r u s o n I s is ) . B u t S

u p o n t h e f a c t t h a t O s i r i s re i g n e d h e n c e f o r t h i n t h e r e a l m o f t h e d e a d . T h i s is n o t

e a r t h l y l i f e , h e n c e n o r e s u r r e c t i o n . B u t t h e n w e m i g h t a s w e l l d e n y t h a t J e s u s i s

d y i n g a n d r i s i n g s i n c e h e r e i g n s h e n c e f o r t h a t t h e r i g h t h a n d o f G o d i n H e a v e n a

o f t h e d e a d , l i k e O s i r i s . A n d t h e l o n g c o n s t a n c y o f t h e m y t h e m e o f O s i r i s ' r e s u r r e

t h e a n c i e n t p y r a m i d i n s c r i p t i o n s t o t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , o u g h t t o m a k e u s w a r y

c o n s t a n t s u s p i c i o n t h a t l a t e r , C h r i s t i a n - e r a m e n t i o n s o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n s o f A t t i s ,

t h e r es t m us t be l a t e inn ova t ion s . In the case o f Os i r i s , w hic h w e can t r ace , i t i s

i n n o v a t i o n . W h y m u s t S m i t h a s s u m e i t w a s a l a t e a d d i t i o n t o t h e m y t h i n t h e o t h

i s a f u n d a m e n t a l m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r to a s s u m e t h a t a p h e n o m e n o n m u s t h a v e

sho r t ly be fore i t s ea r l i es t a t t e s t a t io n .

W h a t a b o u t T a m m u z , a n a n c i e n t g o d s o f a m i l i a r to a n c i e n t I s ra e l i te s t h a

g r a c e s o n e m o n t h o f t h e J e w i s h c a l e n d a r t o t h i s d a y ? S m i t h d e s c r i b e s h o w s c

s p e c u l a t e d f r o m t h e f r a g m e n t a r y T a m m u z t e x t s t h a t h e h a d b e e n d e p i c t e d a s

r i s i n g , t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e w a s t o u c h - a n d - g o . S u b s e q u e n t l y m o r e t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e

v i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r t h e o ri e s . S h o u l d n ' t t h i s t e l l S m i t h s o m e t h i n g ? N a m e l y t h a t

a n d - r i s i n g - g o d p a r a d i g m m a y n o t b e a b a d h e u r i s t i c d e v i c e t o i n t e r p r e t f r a g m e



B u t h e q u i b b l e s e v e n h er e . T h o u g h t h e n e w m a t e r i a l m a k e s u n a m b i g u o u s l y

T a m m u z ' s l o v e r I s h t a r h e r s e l f a l s o d i e s a n d r i se s , S m i t h p a s se s t h i s b y v i r t u a

r e m a r k a n d p i c k s t h e n i t t h a t T a m m u z i s " b a a l e d o u t " o f d e a t h f o r o n l y h a l f t h e

s o m e o n e e ls e t a k e s h i s p la c e . D e a t h , S m i t h r e m a r k s , i s i n e x o r a b l e : T h e m o s t T a m

g e t i s a s i x - m o n t h f u r l o u g h . T h e c a s e i s p a r a l l e l t o t h a t o f A d o n i s , b u t t h e r e S m i

h a l f - y e a r r e t u r n f r o m H a d e s m e a n t a re a l d e a t h , w h e r e a s w i t h T a m m u z h e s a y s i

r e a l r e s u r r e c t i o n .

W h y d o e s S m i t h a d o p t t h e p r o g r a m o f C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t s ? I s u s p e c t it i s

r o o t - a n d - b r a n c h c a m p a i g n t o u n d o t h e t h e o r i e s o f h i s g r e a t p r e d e c e s s o r J a m e s F r

c a s e , t h e v i a b i l i ty o f t h e d y i n g - a n d - r i s i n g - g o d m y t h e m e se e m s t o m e u n i m p e a c h e d .

such a m yt h m ak in g th e rou nd s . I t is ex tan t in severa l ver s ions as we have seen .



ipso facto t o b e c o n s i d e re d a d y i n g a n d r i s i n g g o d w h o se i m m o r t a l i t y o n e

t h ro u g h p a r t i c i p a t o ry s a c ra m e n t s .

And we need not on ly th ink of t he s i t ua t ion as Rei t zens t e in d id , s t i l l p i c tur in

of i nd iv id ua l s b reak ing w i th the i r o ld re l ig ion and a ccep t ing a new one ins t ead

M y s t e ry R e l i g i o n s m a d e n o e x c lu s i ve c la i m a n d b e g ru d g e d n o m e m b e r h i s

membersh ip in a para l l e l Mystery , we must assume tha t many ear ly Chr i s t i an "co

n o t h o u g h t of a b a n d o n i n g M i t h ra s , I s is , A t t i s , o r D i o n y su s . W h y sh o u l d t h e y ? H i p



his Refutation of All Heresies (V, 7 :3- 10:2 ) , p reserves th e N aasen e exeges i s o f a

H y m n to At t i s , i n which we hear t ha t t he Savior Jes us is t he same as Ad am

Ado ni s . (Ad am and Eve had long been iden t i f i ed wi th At t i s and Cybe le , p res u

anc ien t vers ion of t he Eden my th echoed in t he Na g Ha m m ad i t ex t s , t ha t Eve wa

and crea t ed Adam. )

W h a t was the dange r Pa ul perce ived in t he case tha t one "weaker i n fa

observe ano the r Ch r i s t i an par t ak in g in an ido l 's feas t (1 Cor . cha pter 8 )? Th e "weak

Paul impl i es , i s "weak" prec i se ly for no t g ra sp in g th a t Chr i s t is t he on ly rea l Kyrios

t ake the example of a Chr i s t i an ea t ing f rom the communion t ab l e of Serap i s as

h i s assu mp t ion th a t a Chr i s t i an m ig ht be a Mi th ra i s t o r an yth ing e l se he had the

for . W h at Paul appare n t ly faced in C or in th in t hese ins t ances was the prac t i ce by



re l ig ion a l ready in ope ra t ion before e l em ent s of o th er re l i g ion s could beco me mix

An d in Eu rop e and Asia , t he bes t can dida t e would prob ably be the Jesu s m ar t yr

a l ready based on Jes us ' suf fe r ing and de a th . Th ere i s , however , no reason to t h ink

mar tyr cu l t i nvolved any sor t o f be l i e f i n t he resurrec t ion of Jesus , except ma

fu tur e , a t t he gen era l resurre c t ion .

In fac t , t he resurrec t ion idea does no t seem to f i t t he ma r ty rd om idea . W h a t

m ar tyr do m i s i t wh en som eone d i es on ly for a cou ple of days? Th i s is no t



sup rem e sacr if i ce . T hu s the resur rec t ion has i t s na tura l hom e in a d i f f e re n t con te

the myth of t he dy ing and r i s ing god who represen t s t he t emporary dea th of na tu

b e re v o k e d . A c c o rd i n g l y , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e d e s i g n a t i o n " C h r i s t " p ro b a b l y d e n o t e d

On e , " re f l e c t ing Is i s ' an oin t ing of t he dead Osi r i s , which res tored h im to li fe

a n o i n t i n g w h i c h w e g l i m p se b e h i n d M a rk 1 6 : 1 a n d 1 4 : 8 .

T he pr ior i t y of t he Jes us mar t yr cu l t t o t he Kyrios Chr i s tos cu l t means , i n

t e rm s , t h a t t h e f i r s t J e su s a d h e re n t s w e re t h e G o d - fe a re r s o n t h e m a rg i n s of t h e

and tha t those a t t rac t e d f ro m the rank s of t he My ster i es represe n ted a second w

G e n t i l i z e d J e su s - Ju d a i sm b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e t o a b ro a d e r s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a c e

e v e r h a v e g i v e n t h e t i m e of d a y t o sy n a g o g u e Ju d a i s m . T h e M y s t e ry c u l t i

God-fearers on the marg in of t he Jesus mar tyr cu l t , j us t as t he Jesus mar tyr



3 . John Knox , Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History o

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942).

4. Werner Kramer , Christ, Lord, Son of God, trans. Brian H ardy. Studies in Biblical

50 (Napervi l le: Alec R. Al lenson, 1966) , pp. 212-13.

5. Lloyd Gaston, Paul and the Torah (Vancouver: University of British Colu mb ia Pre

33.



6. Louis Massignon, Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr, trans. He rber t Mason. My thos seri

Series 48. Abridged ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); for a shorter

Al-H al laj and his ma r tyrdom , see Robe r t Payne, The Holy Sword: The Story of Islam from

to the Present (New York: Coll ier Books, 1962) , pp. 1 99 -22 1.

7. Har Dayal , The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sa nskrit Literature (New York: Sa

1978); Leslie S. Kawamura, ed., T he Bodhisattva D octrine in Bua dhism. Papers presented at

Budd hism Conference, Septembe r 18- 21 , 1978 (Water loo, O nt . : Wilf r id Laur ier Univ

1981).

8. Theissen, Sociology

of Early Palestinian Christianity

, pp . 27-29 .

9. Ar thur Drews,

The Christ Myth

, trans. C. Delisle Burns. 3rd ed. W estm inster Co



17. Wilhelm Bousset , Kyrios Christos: A History of the Belief in C hrist from the

Christianity to Irenaeus,

trans. Jo hn E. Steely (N ew York: Ab ingd on Press, 1970 ), pp. 1 19 -5

18. Joh n C uthb er t Lawson, Modem Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion: A Study

(Cambridge: Cambridge Univers i ty Press , 1910) , p . 573.

19. Jona than Z . Sm ith, "Dying and R ising Gods," in Th e

Encyclopedia

of Religion., vol.

Eliade (New York: Macm illan P ublishing Com pany: 1987) pp. 521 -27 .



20. Raymond E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah: A Com mentary on the Infancy

Matthew and Luke (Garden City: Doubleday, 1977), p. 523.

21. Pausarias, Guide to Greece, trans. Peter Levi (Baltimore: Pen guin Classics, 1971 ), p

22. Maarten J. Vermaseren, Cybele and Attis: The Myth and the Cult, trans. A. M.

(London: Thames and Hudson, 1977), pp. 119-24.

Chapter 4

MESSIAH AS MISHNAH



ANACHRONISMS AS EVIDENCE

T

^ h e g o s p e l s p o r t r a y J e s u s a s i n c o n f l i c t w i t h " t h e J e w s , " " t h e s c r ib e s , "

P h a r i s e e s, " i m p l y i n g J e s u s w a s o p p o s e d t o a m o n o l i t h i c " n o r m a t i v e " J u d a i s m — w h i

y e t e x i s t T h e M i s h n a h , a c o d i f i c a t i o n o f s c r i b a l c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e T o r a h c o m p i

end of the s econ d ce n tu ry C .E ., show s th a t the p roces s o f con so l ida t ing var io us ea

o f t h o u g h t a n d l o c a l , e v e n i d i o s y n c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n s of o b s e r v a n c e ( e . g . , i n a c e r t a i n

a cer t a in sc r ibe and h i s d i sc ip l es) was a l a t e r endea vor be gin nin g a t Y avneh , t

P a l e s t i n i a n t o w n w h e re , w i t h R o m a n p e rm i s s i o n , R a b b i Jo h a n n o n b e n -Z a k k a i

new, pos tw ar San hedr in emp ow ered to ad jud ica t e pure ly re l ig ious i ssues.

When, as recent ly, some Christ ian scholars

1

have been wi l l ing to not ice these a

i t i s d i f f i cu l t enough for t hem to draw the unwelcome inference tha t t he gospe l t

que st ion m us t be removed from con siderat ion as evidence for the historical Jesus. Bu

Col l ingwood poin t ed out ,

2

wh at seemed to be evidence for A and prove d no t to



beco me evidence for B. An achr onism s do not tel l us ab ou t the t im e in whic

ostensibly set , but they do provide evidence about the period from which they ac

And as ye t New Tes t ament scholars have not shown much in t e res t i n ask ing what

a n a c h ro n i sm s

do

t e l l about t he i r own

Sitz-im-Leben.

I wi l l suggest that infosar as

gospe l data reflect post -Jesus form at ive Ju da ism they p rovid e new clues as to the

the format ion of the gospel t radi t ion i t sel f .

3

To see this , we need to pu rsue w hat

can f ind be tween gospe l per i copae and the i r Mishnaic counterpar t s , be tween th

gospe l say ings t rad i t i on and the emerg ing rabbin i ca l say ings t rad i t i on .

Let me not r isk see min g to m in im ize th e p ionee r ing e f f or t s o f such grea

sc h o l a rs a s R u d o l f B u l t m a n n , Jo a c h i m Je re m i a s , H a ra l d R i e se n fe l d , a n d B i rg e r G

T h e se a l l u n d e r s t o o d v e ry d e f i n i t e l y t h a t t h e r a b b i n i c / s c r i b a l t r a d i t i o n m i g

i m p o r t a n t c l u e s fo r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s a y in g s t r a d i t i o n s c o m p i l e d i n t h e S y n o p t i c

t h e se t r e a t m e n t s a l l su f f e r e d f ro m t h e r e t ro j e c t i o n ( t h e n u n i v e r sa l ) o f M i sh n a i c Ju

the f i r s t cen tury C .E . B ul tm an n took cont roversy s tor i es f rom the M ishn ah as an

e x e m p l a r s fo r t h e a p o p h t h e g m s (or p ro n o u n c e m e n t s t o r ie s , " p a ra d i g m s , " o r cbr

f i r s t - c e n t u ry C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t , so m e o f t h e se e v e n g o i n g b a c k su b s t a n t i a

h i s t o r ic a l J e su s . B u l t m a n n , t h o u g h q u i t e sk e p t i c a l as t o t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f m a n

hadith of Jes us , d id n o t do ub t t ha t t hey were au th ent i c a l ly Jew ish (C hr i s t i an ) and

5



R i e se n fe l d , G e rh a rd s so n , A . H . M c N e i l e , a n d o t h e r s so u g h t t o c o m b a t B u l t m

rigorous skept i c i sm by appea l ing ins t ead to t he imagined mode of ora l t rans

rabb in i ca l t rad i t i on . Po in t in g to t he acc l a mat io n of a d i sc ip l e of Yo hann an b en Z

plas t e red c i s t e rn th a t loses no t a d r op " {Aboth i i. 8 ) , t hese apolo gi s t s ob je c t ed t ha

had neg lec t ed to t ake in to accou nt t he h ig h s t an dard s of fa i t h f u l o ra l t rad i t i on

am on g the rabbi s . I f t he rab bin i ca l ana logy h e ld go od , t hey reasone d , t he n the

m us t reckon wi th a process wh ereby "R ab bi Jes us" carefu l ly dr i l l ed h i s pup i l s " l i ne

m e a su re u p o n m e a su re " u n t i l t h e y g o t i t r i g h t . A n d i f t h e y d i d , t h e n t h e g o sp e

b e a g o o d d e a l m o re a c c u ra t e t h a n B u l t m a n n su p p o se d .

Ne ver mi nd tha t Riesenfe ld and G erha rdsso n begg ed the cen t ra l que s t ion

even gr an t in g the ex i s t ence of such a c i rc l e of fa i t h fu l mem orizers , t he gospe l s



" M o s e s " a s m e t o n y m o u s f o r t h e T o r a h ) i n t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . I n b o t h c a s e

w o u l d b e m u c h l i k e t h a t w h i c h H e r m a n n H e s s e a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s f u t u r i s t i c m a g

scholar s in Magister L udifThe Glass Bead Gam e: " W e m o d e r n s . . . d o n o t e v e n s p e a

p e r s o n a l i t i e s u n t i l w e e n c o u n t e r m e n w h o h a v e g o n e b e y o n d a l l o r i g i n a l a n d

q u a l i t i e s t o a c h i e v e t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e g e n e r a l i t y , t h e g r e a t

se rv ice to the super per sona l . If w e look c lose ly in to th e ma t t e r w e sha l l s ee tha t

had a l r eady p erce ived th i s idea l . "

8

Hesse ' s nar r a to r l i s ts s evera l exa mp les , th ou gh t

s a g e s a r e n o t a m o n g t h e m , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e M i s h n a i c t r a d i t i



s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r u n t i l N e u s n e r ' s w o r k .

T h o u g h N e u s n e r i s w i l l i n g t o t a k e a t f a c e v a l u e C h r i s t i a n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t h a t

per i cop ae f un c t i on p r im ar i ly to g lo r i fy J es us as Me ss iah (o r Son of G od , and so on

( C h r i s t i a n , c h r i s t o lo g i c a l ) o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . I n f a c t , N e w T e s t a m e n t c r i t i c s k n o w t h

t h e g o s p e l s d o e s n o t a t t e m p t i n t h e f i r st i n s t a n c e s i m p l y t o g l o r i f y J e s u s . F o r

s h o w s h o w " u s e f u l " t h e v a r i o u s m i r a c l e , e x o r c i s m , a n d p r o n o u n c e m e n t st o r i e

g o v e r n i n g a n d i n f o r m i n g C h r i s t i a n c o n d u c t . F o r e x a m p l e , i t l o o k s l i k e M a r k

m i r a c l e h e a l i n g s t o r i e s e m p l o y e d a s e v a n g e l i s t ic p r o p a g a n d a , n o t m e r e s e

h a g i o g r a p h y , w h i l e M a t t h e w f u r t h e r r e c y c l e d M a r k ' s m i r a c l e s t o r i e s , m a k i n g t h e m

of f a i th and answ ered praye r .

9

J e s u s h i m s e l f i s m o r e t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a n t h e

i n d i v i d u a l p e r i c o p a e . T h u s t h e g o s p e l s i n l a r g e m e a s u r e s h a r e t h e M i s h n a h ' s

c o l l e c t i v e , c o m m u n a l a u t h o r i t y . " J e s u s " i s a k i n d o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e f i c t i o n l i k e

r a b b i . "

G r a n t e d , o n t h e s u r f a c e t h e g o s p e l s d o s e e m t o p r e s e n t u s w i t h t h e c e n t r a l

J e s u s a s a c h a r i s m a t i c s a g e , b u t t h e r e m a y b e b o t h m o r e a n d l es s t h a n m e e t s t h

T h e c l o s e s t a n a l o g y i n t h e M i s h n a h t o t h e s o r t o f " m a v e r i c k J e s u s v e r s u s t h e E s

o p p o s i t i o n t h e g o s p e l t r a d i t i o n p r e s e n t s u s w i t h is t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n



H y r k a n u s (a P h a r i s e e w h o s e c ar e e r s p a n n e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e ) a n d t h e

s a g e s o f Y a v n e h . T h i s is t r u e e v e n t o t h e p o i n t of t h e r e p e a t e d m i r a c u l o u s v i n

E l i e z e r b y s i g n s a n d h e a v e n l y v o i ce s H i s o p i n i o n s a r e n o n e t h e l e s s r e j e c t e d , t h e s

e x c o m m u n i c a t e d . A n d G o d is d i s p le a s e d a t t h e e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , f i r s t a t t e m p t i n g

R a b b a n G a m a l i e l , w h o p r e s i d e d a t t h e e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b y a t i d a l w a v e , f r o m

d i s s u a d e d , t h e n k i l l i n g h i m a n y w a y i n a n s w e r t o E l i e z e r ' s p r a y e r s f o r v i n d i c a t i o n

H ow can the Mish na h p oss ib ly r ecord a l l t h i s and ye t s t i l l ho ld th a t E l i ezer

w r o n g ? S u c h s t o ri e s w o u l d s e e m t o f l o w m o s t n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e d i s g r u n t l e d

E l i ezer, bu t they do no t . Th e pro b le m w as no t so m uc h w i th th e spec i f i c op in io ns

ma ny of wh ich w ere in f ee t accep ted , and non e of whic h was spok en i l l o f even

accep ted . N o r was E l i ezer dee me d a here t i c o r even w ron g Ju s t the rever se G



od db al l v i ew, l i t e r a l ly the idea o f a "heresy ," the op in ion of one wh o has d ra wn

h i m s e l f b y t h e e f f r o n t e r y o f choosing f o r h i m s e l f r a t h e r t h a n b o w i n g t o t h e a u t h o

c o m m u n i t y . A p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r ca se i s t o b e f o u n d i n o n e o f t h e t w o t a l m u d i c r

C h r i s t i a n h a l a k h a h , w h e r e E l ie z e r g e t s a r e p u t a t i o n f o r h e r e sy f o r h a v i n g a c c e p t e d

of J es us o f Na za re th , to ld h im by Ja co b of Kefa r -Secha nia , to the e f f ec t tha t the

a p r o s t i t u t e t o t h e t e m p l e t r e a s u ry , t h o u g h f i l t h y l u c r e , c a n n o n e t h e l e s s b e u s e d

t o i l e t fo r t h e h i g h p r i e s t H e r e i s t h e u l t i m a t e c a s e o f a n i n d i v i d u a l a t t r i b u t i o

heresy T he l ega l op in io n was r easona ble eno ug h , bu t the " Jesus" t ag p laced



h e r e t i c a l tr a j e c t o r y , o u t s i d e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . T o r e m a i n f a i t h

c o m m u n i t y i s t o e sc h e w t h e f r u i t s , a n d t h u s t h e r o o t s , o f a l i e n a u t h o r i t y .

S o m e t i m e s , g r a n t e d , a s a g e 's w o r d s a r e s i m p l y c i t e d i n t h e M i s h n a h w i t h t

s c r i p t u r e . I t c a n b e a s s u m e d ( a s i n t h e c a se o f t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ) t h a t h i s

o p i n i o n p r o c e e d s f r o m a t h o r o u g h i m b u e - m e n t of T o r a h a n d s o m a y b e t r u s t e d ( 1

" I h a v e n o c o m m a n d m e n t f r o m t h e L o r d , b u t I g i v e a n o p i n i o n a s o n e w h o b y t h

t h e L o r d is t r u s t w o r t h y " ) . A g e h a n a n d a B h a r a t i p r o v i d e s a n I n d i a n p a r a l l e l , t

R a m a k r i s h n a , w h o " t o l d m a n y a p a r a b l e , e i t h e r o f h i s o w n m a k i n g o r o u t o f lo

b u t t h e y w e r e c e r t a i n l y n o t V e d i c , a s h e c l a i m e d . Q u i t e o f t e n h e p r e c e d e d t h e s e t al

w o r d s bede ache, ' i t s ays in the V eda ' ; and I th i nk the r eason why even th e mo s t l e

o b j e c t w a s t h a t t h e y t a c i t l y g r a n t e d h i m t h e s t a t u s o f a V e d a - m a k e r , a r i s h i , o n

t h e o r i g i n a l c o m p i l e r s of t h e V e d a . T h e y d i d t h i s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e s a t i sf i e d w i t

m e n t s a b o u t t h e [ m y s t i c a l } e x p e r i e n c e s h e w a s h a v i n g a l l t h e t i m e . "

1 0

D o e s n o t s u c h a f o c u s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l , d e s p i t e h i s s a i n t l i n e s s , o r r a t h e r be

s a i n t l i n e s s , r u n a g a i n s t t h e g r a i n o f t h e M i s h n a h ' s t e n d e n c y t o w a r d c o l l e c t i v e

A c t u a l l y n o t : T h i s s p o t l i g h t i n g is o f t e n b e c a u s e t h e s a g e 's w o r d m u s t b e h a r m o

t h a t o f a n o t h e r s a g e or w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s c r i p t u r e p a s s a g e , w h i c h i s o f c o u r s e

T h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e s a g e a n d h i s s a y i n g , a s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s c r i p t u r a l b o o k , a r e r e l



i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n

on ly insofar as there is a problem assimilating it to the larger

t h e h a r m o n i z a t i o n i s e f f e c t e d , i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r w h o s a i d i t a n d i t s i r r i t a t i n g i n d i

t h a n k f u l l y l o s t .

T h e s to ry o f E l i ezer ' s ex co m m un ica t io n i t s e l f , no t a h i s to r i ca l da tu m , i s a p i

a f t e r - t h e - f a c t M i s h n a i c h a r m o n i z i n g . I t i s E l i e z er ' s s t a n d i n g a s a c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o

o w n r i g h t " w i t h w h o m t h e L a w a l w a y s a g r e e s " t h a t n e e d s t o b e p u t d o w n , n o t n e c

s p e c i f i c o p i n i o n s h e h e l d . A n d t h i s u r g e n c y b e t r a y s t h e l a te r p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e e x c o m

i s a p u r e l y n a r r a t i v e s y m b o l f o r t h e l a t e r a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e a u t h o r i t y p r e d i c a t e d o

t h u s e x a c t l y a n a l o g o u s t o t h e f l o g g i n g o f E n o c h - M e t a t r o n b y t h e i n t e r p o l a t i n g

E n o c h , w h o m e a n t b y t h i s m e a n s t o d i s c o u r a g e a n d r e b u k e e x c e ss iv e v e n e r a t i o n ( a



w h y d o C h r i s t i a n t e x t s d e p i c t J e s u s s e e m i n g t o r e f e r t o t h e S o n o f M a n a s s o

G e r d T h e i s s e n s o l v e d t h e p r o b l e m ( t o m y s a t i s f a c t i o n ) b y m e a n s of a s i m p l e

t u r n i n g a r o u n d o f t h e t e l e s c o p e : T h e So n o f M a n s a y i n g s w e r e f i r s t u n d e r s t o o d

about

J e s u s b u t

no t

s p o k e n

by

J esus .

1 4

T h e i s s e n t u r n e d B u l t m a n n ' s s o l u t i o n o n i t s

t h e " h e " t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d J e s u s , n o t t h e " I . " T h e " I " r e p r e s e n t e d t h e ( n o w -

p r o p h e t . T h e M i s h n a i c - l i k e t e n d e n c y t o s u b s u m e a ll i n d i v i d u a l s a g el y p r o n o u n c e m

a n o n y m o u s c o l l e c t i v i t y w o u l d h a v e re s u l t e d i n t h e i n c o n g r u i t y t h a t " S o n o f M a n "

o r i g i n a l l y s p o k e n a b o u t J e s u s b y C h r i s t i a n s w e r e p u t i n t o t h e m o u t h o f J e s u s h i m



I t wou ld a l so exp la in th e f ac t , o f t en no ted by apo log i s t s fo r an " im pl ic i t

h in ted a t by J esu s h imse l f , t ha t J esu s d id n o t p re face h i s s ay ings as the p rop he t s

s a i th the Lord . . . ") bu t r a the r w i th "A m en , I s ay u n t o you . . . ."

1J

W h a t w e o u g

tha t i t i s the very a t t r ib u t i on of the s ay ing to J esu s by the evang e l i s t s / t r ad en t s

e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e a n c i e n t p r o p h e t a t t r i b u t i n g h i s o r a cl e t o t h e L o r d . T h e a t t r i b

evangel i s t ; i t i s the evange l i s t , no t J esus , who i s the counterpar t o f the o ld- t ime pr

does no t cor respond to the p rop he t bu t to the Lord Th e ascr ip t ion of the s ay i

a l lows the du bio us au tho r i ty o f som e ear ly C hr i s t i an s age to r ecede beh in d the Tora

of the Lord Jesus . Th e " impl ic i t Ch r i s to lo gy" in such say ings i s no t tha t o f J esu s

r a the r o f the gosp e l wr i t e r . As N eu sne r s ays , the ascr ip t ions mu s t be under s to od sy

w i t h i n t h e d o c u m e n t —i . e . , r e d a c t i o n a l l y , n o t d i a c h r o n i c a l l y , g o i n g b a c k t o J e s u s .

Note a l so the gospe l s ay ings tha t "whoever hear s you hear s me" (Luke 10 :16)

d i s c ip le i s no t g rea te r t ha n h i s t eacher" (M at t . 10 :24—25) , bo th o f w hich w

encourage , even demand, the humble defer r a l o f any or ig ina l vo ice to the l a r

t r ad i t io n . " Jesus" i s the co m m un i ty , as the "Body of Ch r i s t " (1 Cor . 12 :12 f f ; Ep

lang uag e a l so ou gh t to sugg es t .

A s t o t h e f e a r o f i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r i t i e s f r a g m e n t i n g t h e h o u s e of Is r a e l , w

s a m e c o n c e r n i n 1 C o r i n t h i a n s w h e r e t h e s e v e r a l a d v o c a c i e s o f P a u l , C e p h a s , A



C h r i s t o s t h r e a t e n t o s p l i t t h e c o m m u n i t y . 1 C o r . 1 : 12 —1 3 s e e k s t o s u b s u m e a l l

C h r i s t . T h e A p o c r y p h a l A c t s , d e s p i t e s u p e r f i c i a l o r t h o d o x r e d a c t i o n , p r e s e r v e

p i c t u r e

1 6

i n w h i c h a l l t h e a p o s t l e s w e r e a l i k e C h r i s t s , c u t f r o m t h e s a m e c l o t h ,

s e r v i n g a s t h e " g o s p e l , " t h e d i v i n e " a r e t a l o g y " f o r a w o n d e r - w o r k i n g a p o s t l e w

r e a l o b j e c t o f f a i t h . E v e n t h e l a t e r o r t h o d o x C h r i s t o l o g i c a l p a t i n a w h i c h h a s , a

p o i n t i n e a c h A c t s , t h e a s c e n d e d J e s u s a p p e a r o n s t a g e

in the physical likeness of th

apostle ( w h e t h e r P a u l , P e t e r , A n d r e w , J o h n , o r T h o m a s ) g i v e s a w a y t h e o r i g i n a l

e v e n t u a l l y J e s u s C h r i s t w o n o u t o v e r h i s e x a c t l y i d e n t i c a l " T h o m a s t w i n s . "

A s N e u s n e r i n t i m a t e s , h o w e v e r , w i t h t h e ri s e o f s a i n t w o r s h i p

1 7

t h i s C

m o n o l i t h i c i t y b r o k e a p a r t a g a i n . C a l v in u n d e r s t o o d t h e p h e n o m e n o n i n e x a c t ly

w h e n h e t r i e d t o s u p p r e s s t h e C a t h o l i c s a i n t s i n f a v o r o f J e s u s , w h o h a d b e c o m e

s h u f f l e a n d r e l e g a t e d t o t h e a l s o - r a n s t a t u s o f a m i n o r s a i n t l e t .

1 8

J u s t a s i n 1 C o r i n

I t i s s t r i k i n g t h a t o n e o f t h e t w o p l a c e s i n t h e T a l m u d w h e r e a p o i n t o

ha lakhah i s adduced (by a "ph i losopher , " i . e . , a here t i c ) , t he source i s no t spec i f

b u t r a t h e r t h e "evangelion, " the gosp e l i t s e l f wh ich speaks in the f i r s t per so n " I ,

am n o t com e to t ak e away f ro m the Law of Moses bu t to ad d to the Law

(Shabbat

1 1 6 a , b ) . T h u s a J e w i s h a c c o u n t e a s il y r e c o g n i z e s a n d d e p i c t s t h e g o s



a c c o u n t s o f a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l b u t as a b o d y of s a y i n g s / r u l i n g s a n a l o g o u s t o t h e

B u t m i g h t i t n o t s t i l l b e f e a s i b l e t o r e m o v e t h e a n a c h r o n i s t i c " J e s u s v e r s u

J u d a i s m " f r a m e w o r k o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y st o r i e s a n d t o m a k e t h e m d e r i v a t i v e

e x c h a n g e s o f o p i n i o n s b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s c r i b a l c o ll e a g u e s as

s u g g e s t e d ?

1 9

W i t h B u r t o n M a c k , t h e r e i s a m u l t i t u d e o f r e a s o n s t o s ay n o .

F i r s t , t h e s e e x c h a n g e s t e e m w i t h a n a c h r o n i s m s . J e s u s e x p r e ss e s t h e o p i n i o n

t o d e d i c a t e o n e ' s p r o p e r t y t o t h e t e m p l e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f o n e ' s f a m i l y f o r c e s a

t h e c o m m a n d m e n t t o h o n o r o n e ' s p a r e n t s , a n d h e n c e , p r e s u m a b l y , o u g h t t o b e

n u l l a n d v o i d ( M a r k 7 : 1 1 - 1 3 ) . L e a v i n g a s i d e t h e t e l l i n g f a c t t h a t J e s u s i s m a

c i t e t h e G r e e k S e p t u a g i n t o f I s a i a h t o p r o v e h i s p o i n t ( t h e H e b r e w w o u l d

a p p l y ) , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m w i t h t h e s a y i n g g o i n g b a c k t o J e s u s , n a m e l

s a m e o p i n i o n w a s r e m e m b e r e d a s a n i n n o v a t i o n , a n d a c o n t r o v e r s i a l o n e , c r e d i t e d

b e n H y r k a n u s , a l a t e r f i g u r e . I t i s t h u s n o t a n i s s u e t h a t h a d b e e n h o t l y d e b

E l i e z e r 's t i m e , e . g . , b y J e s u s a n d t h e s c r i b e s . T h e M i s h n a h h a s n o t r o u b l e h a v

a d o p t a v i e w f i r s t p r o p o u n d e d b y J e s u s w h e n i t w a n t s t o . H a d E l i e z e r a d o p t e

f r o m J e s u s ' h a l a k h a h , t h i s w o u l d h a v e p r o v i d e d a l l t h e m o r e r e a s o n f o r t h e s a ge s

i t , b u t o f t h i s w e h e a r n o t h i n g . S u c h a d o u b l e a t t r i b u t i o n is r e m i n i s c e n t o f

a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c o n q u e s t of J e r u s a l e m f i r s t t o J o s h u a a n d t h e n t o D a v i d . I t



l i k e l y t h a t t h e a t t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e a r l i e r f i g u r e i s t h e l a t e r v e r s i o n .

I ron ica l ly , i t does no t w o r k t h e o t h e r w a y a r o u n d , a s s o m e a p o l o g i s t s h a v e s u g

a q u e s t i o n o f h a l a k h a h i s r i g h t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s ( a t l e a s t t o s o m e p r e - 7 0 C .E

i f i t d e a l s w i t h a p o i n t of t e m p l e p r o t o c o l , l i k e t h e c o i n i n t h e f i s h ' s m o

1 7 : 24 —2 7 , a b l a t a n t l e g e n d i n a n y c a s e ), w h i c h t r e a t s o f t h e t w o - d r a c h m a t e m p l e -

L i k e w i se t h e " R e n d e r u n t o C a e s a r" p e r i c o p e ( M a r k 1 2 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) , w h i c h d o e s g i v e t h e

o f b e i n g a s e r i o u s b i t o f c a s u i s t i c a l h a l a k h a h . P a y i n g a R o m a n t a x e n t a i l s n

c o m p r o m i s e s in c e , a s t h e v e ry p r e s e n c e o f m o n e y c h a n g e r s a t t h e t e m p l e d e m o n s

" f i l t h y l u c r e " (b e c a u s e o f i t s i d o l a t r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n ) c o u l d n o t b e r e n d e r e d t o G o d

n o t b e u s e d t o p u r c h a s e s a c r if i c i a l a n i m a l s ) a n y w a y . A p o l o g i s t s f o r t h e s a y i n g g o i

J e s u s o r t h e p r e - 7 0 c h u r c h m a i n t a i n t h a t s u c h n i c e t ie s ( a s t h e y v ie w t h e m ) w o u l d

m o o t a f t e r t h e f a l l o f t h e t e m p l e . B u t n o , f o r t h e s i m p l e r e a s o n t h a t P h a r i s e e s

a s s u m e d t h e t e m p l e w o u l d s o o n b e r e b u i l t ( a s p e r h a p s i t

was

u n d e r B a r

w h e r e u p o n a ll t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w o u l d b e a n y t h i n g b u t m o o t . O f c o u r s e i t w a s

a n a l o g o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t t h e H o l i n e s s C o d e , E z e k i e l , a n d t h e L e v i t i c a l C o d e s

u p —

s a n s

t e m p l e

Second , we cann ot over look num ero us gospe l ca r i ca tures o f Jud a i s m : J esu



c o m b a t i n g o p i n i o n s ( o r a p p e a l i n g t o o p i n i o n s i n a c i r c u m s t a n t i a l

ad hominem

f ash ion

una t t es t ed fo r Ju da i sm . As to the case o f hea l ing on the Sabba th , r epea ted ly b roa

four gospe l s , t he s c r ibes p roh ib i t ed on ly the p rofes s iona l p rac t i ce o f a medica l doc tor

rou t in e cases. Em erg enc y rel ief w as l ici t , as was , expl ici t ly , "he al ing by wo rd" as J

anyone ever gave h im gr i e f over the i s sue , we never hear o f them in J ewish t r ad i t io

I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e g o s p e l c o n t r o v e r s i e s , J e s u s a s s u m e s t h a t h i s o p p o n e n

h a v e e n o u g h c o m p a s s i o n t o a l l o w s o m e o n e t o e x t r i c a t e a p o o r b e a s t f r o m a p i t i n

h a s f a l le n , S a b b a t h o r n o S a b b a t h ( L u k e 1 4 : 1 - 6 ; M a t t . 1 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) . B u t w e h e a r o n

b o t h a m o n g t h e r a b b i s a n d a t Q u m r a n , t h a t t h e a n i m a l m u s t b e f e d t h e r e a n d r e s

R e g a r d i n g l e n i e n c y o n t h e S a b b a t h in g e n e r a l , J e s u s is m a d e t o q u o t e a c o

" T h e S a b b a t h w a s m a d e f o r m a n , n o t m a n f o r t h e S a b b a t h " ( M a r k 2 :2 7 ) . C o m p

r a b b i n i c v e r s i o n : " T h e S a b b a t h i s d e l i v e r e d u n t o y o u , n o t y o u u n t o it . " E v e n t h e S

journey , f a r f rom b e in g a b i t o f r es t r i c t ive l ega l i sm , was ins te ad a p iec e o f

stretching

o f t h e l a w . G r a n t e d , n o o n e e x p r e s s e s s u c h a n o p i n i o n u n l e s s t h e r e a r e s

i o n s t o o p p o s e w i t h i t . B u t t h e p o i n t i s t h a t t o f o c u s o n J e s u s a s i f t h e s e n t

u n i q u e t o h i m i s t o c a r ic a t u r e J u d a i s m .

C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s a n d f e m i n i s t s s t i ll d o t h e s a m e t h i n g , q u o t i n g R a b b i E l i



c o n t e x t t o t h e e ff e c t t h a t a m a n s h o u l d s o o n e r t e a c h h i s d a u g h t e r h a r l o t r y t h a n t e

Tora h . In f ac t he was s ay ing i t wo uld be b e t t e r no t to ins t ru c t h er in the Torah i

( as h i s op po ne nt sugg es te d) was to a l low he r to c i r cu m ve nt th e p roof o f adu l t e ry .

g o a l , t h e n y o u m i g h t a s w e l l g o t h e w h o l e w a y a n d t e a c h h e r t h e t r i c k s o f t h e

t r a d e w h i l e y o u ' r e a t i t W a s J e s u s a f e m i n i s t , t h e s c ri b e s m i s o g y n i s t s ? N o .

T h i r d , i n t h e g o s p e l c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r i e s t h e c r i t e r i o n t o s e t t l e h a l a k h i c q u e s t i o n

t h e a u t h o r i t y o f J e s u s .

2 1

J e w s , o b v i o u s l y , w o u l d n o t a c c e p t s u c h a n a r g u m e n t , so

c a n n o t s t e m f r o m a c t u a l J e s u s - s c r i b e s d e b a t e s : " B e c a u s e I

say

s o , i s w h y " T h e y p

C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t . E v e n w h e n i t i s n o t j u s t J e s u s p u l l i n g r a n k — " T h e S o n o f M a n

t h e S a b b a t h , " ( M a r k 2 : 2 8 ) — o r a r u l e m i r a c l e ,

2 2

t h e l o g i c o f t e n s o u n d s g o o d

c h e e r i n g C h r i s t i a n d o t i n g o n J e s u s : " W h i c h i s l e g a l o n t h e S a b b a t h : t o d o g o o d o r

T o s a v e l i f e o r t o k i l l ? " O n e m i g h t a s w e l l i m a g i n e t h e a n c i e n t A m m o n i t e s ' a n

a s s e s s m e n t s of t h e I s r a e l i t e t h e o r y o f t h e i r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s ( G e n . 1 9 : 3 0 - 3 8 )

W e m u s t n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r i e s d o s o m e t i m e s e m p l o

p r o o f t e x t s , a t t r i b u t i n g t h e m t o J e s u s ( M a r k 2 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) . D o e s t h i s a t t e s t a n e a r li

w h i c h J e s u s h i m s e l f o f f e r e d s u c h a r g u m e n t s t o f e l l o w s c r i b e s , a s s p a r r i n g s a g e s d o

a n e c d o t e s ? N o , t h e y c a n b e s h o w n t o b e s e c o n d a r y . F i r s t , a g a i n , M a r k 7 ' s p r o o f c e x t

i n t h e S e p t u a g i n t v e r s i o n o f I s a . 2 9 : 1 3 . S e c o n d , t h e is s u es t h e r e ( w a s h i n g p o t s ,



w h e n r e t u r n i n g f r o m t h e Gentile m a r k e t p l a c e ) a ro s e o n l y i n D i a s p o r a J u d a i

M a t t h e w h a s a d d e d s o m e p r o o f t e x t s t o M a r k ( M a t t . 1 2 : 5 - 7 ) , i n d i c a t i n g t h e t r e

t h e m .

W h i l e o n e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d a n a t u r a l s h i f t f r o m s c r i p t u r e q u o t e d b y J e s

h i m s e l f b e i n g a p p e a l e d t o a s t h e p r o o f t e x t , a s C h r i s t o l o g y g r e w h i g h e r , w h a t w e s

i n t h e e v i d e n c e i s r a t h e r a d e b a t e o v e r t r a d i t i o n a l le g a l a n d p u r i t y r u l e s w i t h i n t h

c o m m u n i t y ( e . g . , R o m . 1 4—1 5 ). " T h e P h a r i s e e s i n t h e G o s p e l w h o o p p o s e J e s u s a r e

p r o t o t y p e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s ( l i k e t h e P h a r i s e e s i n A c t s 1 5 : 5

P h a r i s a i c o p p o n e n t s i n t h e G o s p e l stand for t r a d i t i o n a l l y J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s . "

2 i

s i d e s o f i n t r a - C h r i s t i a n d e b a t e s a p p e a l e d t o J e s u s ( e v e n t o s u p p o s e d s a y i n g s o f

c r i t e ri a m u s t b e s o u g h t o u t t o s e t t l e t h e p o i n t . T h u s M a t t h e w a u g m e n t e d J e s

c i t a t i o n o f s c r i p t u r e . L i k e w i s e , a l a M a t t . 5 : 1 7 - 1 9 , t o h a v e J e s u s q u o t i n g s c r i p t

h a v e J e s u s e n d o r s e s c r i p t u r e o v e r a g a i n s t C h r i s t i a n a n t i n o m i a n s .

F o u r t h , a s B u l t m a n n p o i n t e d o u t l o n g a g o , t h e f a s t i n g , h a n d - w a s h i n g , a

g l e a n i n g s t o r ie s a l l h a v e t h e s c r i b e s / P h a r i s e e s o b j e c t i n g n o t t o J e s u s ' o w n p r a c t i c e

h i s d i s c ip les . T h us th e i s sues a rose in the ear ly ch ur ch , no t in the t im e of J e su s .

T h e n t h e r e a r e b r o a d e r h i s t o r i c a l a n a c h r o n i s m s t h a t se e m t o v i t i a t e t h e g o s p e l



s t o r i e s: G e n e r a l l y , t h e w h o l e d e p i c t i o n o f J e s u s p r e a c h i n g i n " t h e i r " s y n

a n a c h r o n i s t i c , as t h e r e w e r e v i r t u a l l y n o s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g s i n G a l i l e e t i l l l a t e

c e n t u r y C .E ., a f t e r t h e f l i g h t o f P h a r i s e e s a n d o t h e r r e f u g e e s i n t o G a l i l e e ( w h i c h

T o r a h " ) . L u k e e v e n h a s a G e n t i l e ( a c l o n e of h i s C o r n e l i u s c h a r a c t e r , A c t s 1 0 : 1 - 4

f o r b a n k r o l l i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f o n e s y n a g o g u e (L u k e 7 : 5 ) . A p o l o g i s t H o w a r d

a d m i t s t h i s o n e is a p r o b l e m b u t m a i n t a i n s t h a t , o t h e r w i s e , i n g o s p e l u s a g e " s y n a g

m e a n n o m o r e t h a n " a s s e m b l y " o r " m e e t - i n g . "

2 4

Bu t i s th i s r ea l ly l ike ly? Ma rk ha

p r e a c h i n g " i n " s y n a g o g u e s b e c a u s e t h e c r o w d s a r e t o o l a r g e , p r e s u m a b l y , f o r

a c c o m m o d a t e . H e n c e h e assembles t h e J e w s a t t h e s e a s id e o r i n t h e o p e n . W o u l

" r u l e r s o f t h e s y n a g o g u e , " li k e J a i r u s , i f t h e s y n a g o g u e i n v i e w w e r e m e r e l y s o m e o

H o w a b o u t " t h e se a t o f M o s e s " a n d t h e " c h i e f se a t s i n t h e s y n a g o g u e s " i n M a t t . 2 3

s o m e o n e ' s N a u g a h y d e c o u c h ?

N eus ne r speaks o f the t end ency to anachron i s t i ca l ly " r abb in iz e" ear li e r f ig ure

t r ad i t io ns do E l i ezer . Th i s sure ly has hap pene d wi t h J esus whe n h e i s ca l l ed Ra bb i ,

are told only began to t ake on t i tu l a r use som et im e in the second cen tu ry C .E .

25

M

his " scr ibes d i s c ip led un to the k in gd om of heaven" (Mat t . 13 :52 ) no t to be ca ll e

A b b a ( M a t t . 2 3 : 8 - 9 ) , si n c e t h e s e a r e t h e p r a c t ic e s o f a c o m p e t i t o r t y p e o f J u d a i s m

ti t les are already established\ a n d M a t t h e w w a n t s h i s p e o p l e t o break with convention o n



M any do ub t tha t the gosp e l s ' p i c tu re o f Pha r i s ees in Gal i l e e i s any mo re to

tha n the i r p i c tu re o f r abb i s o r syn ago gue s there in J esu s ' day , s ince the sp i

P h a r i s a i s m w a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t e m p l e p u r i t y c o d e s i n t o t h e surrounding hom es o

J e r u s a l e m , t h e n , w a s w h e r e t h e a c t i o n w a s f o r t h e P h a r i s e e s, n o t G a l i l e e . T h e p i c t u

d e b a t i n g w i t h s c r ib e s a n d P h a r i s e e s c o m i n g d o w n f r o m J e r u s a l e m s e e m s t o m e

s c e n a r io s l ik e G a l . 2 : 1 2 a n d A c t s 1 5 : 1 . T h e i m p l i e d Sitz-im-Leben w o u l d s e e m t o b

l i k e t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n R o m . 1 4 - 1 5 , A c t s 1 5 , i n A n t i o c h a s d e s c r i b e d i n G a l . 2 ,

c r i t i c a l i n t e r f a c e i m p l i e d i n t h e M a t t h e a n r e d a c t i o n ( M a t t . 1 5 : 1 7 ) of M a r k 7 : 1 9 ( o

of wh eth er J es us dec la red a l l foods c l ean) . Th us these mate r i a l s s eem to me no t to

s t a g e a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y o f H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n i t y e m e r g i n g f r o m



di rec t he i rs o f t he Je ru sa l e m church .

2 6

I t shou ld be recognized tha t t h i s ev ide

Wal t e r Bauer ' s t hes i s

27

into Palestine itself: Th e ear li es t "Ch r i s t i an i ty" a t t es t ed for t h i

reg ion , as wi th Edessa , Egypt , and Asia Minor , i s what would l a t e r be branded "h

chang es no th i ng to po in t ou t t ha t t he Ebioni t es and o the rs were preceded by Ja m

He i rs and th us mu st have been l a t e r , here t i ca l Joh nny -co me - l a t e ly s , s ince th i s i s j us

a t i ssue : W h a t bes ides Eu seb ian apologe t i cs would a l low us to assume

2 8

tha t

ear l ie r Gal i l ean Jew ish Chr i s t i ans li ke Ja m es m us t have been "or thod ox"?

I sugg es t we m ig ht be ab le t o t race th ree m ajo r s t ages of so-ca l l ed G al i l ean

F i rs t , we can envi s ion a per iod of ren ow n of Jes us as a char i sm at i c has id in G



Vermes shows how wel l many of t he most charac t e r i s t i c gospe l images of Jesus c

t h e t r a d i t i o n of c h a r i sm a t i c G a l i l e a n h o l y m e n . V e rm e s m a y j u m p t h e g u n a n d

h i s tor i c i ze wh en h e der ives an has id i c Jes us f ro m gosp e l l egen ds , wh ich ma tch h as

of Ho ni t he Ci rc l e -Dra we r and Ha ni na ben- Do sa . Al l we can say, t h ou gh a l l

here , i s t ha t Jesus was

remembered

in such w ays , de no t in g h i s venera t ion in po p

circles.

I t m a y b e f ro m t h i s p e r i o d t h a t t h e M a rk 6 : l - 3 a p e r i c o p e s t e m s , w h e re J

wa rm rece pt ion as a l oca l boy ma de good . Th e or ig ina l po in t seems to be to

credent i a l l i s t fo r t he re l a t ives ( i . e . , t he dynas ty) of Jesus , whom paras i t i c wr i t e rs



r e p e a t e d d o o m c ry o f t h e N i e t z s c h e a n m a d p r o p h e t J e s u s b e n A n a n i a s ( J o se p h u s ,

6 : 3 0 0 - 3 0 9 ) , t ip p e d o f f to J e r u s a l e m ' s d o o m b y t h e d e a t h o f J a m e s t h e J u s t , t h e b u l

r e m o v a l m e a n t t r o u b l e .

3 1

Th e orac le wo uld th en have been r ew r i t t en and a t t r ib u

Chr i s t i an J esus in the fo rm of the L i t t l e Apo ca lypse o f Ma rk 13 .

As var ious s cho lar s have surmised ,

3 2

t h e f l i g h t t o P e l l a t r a d i t i o n i s m e a n t t o f u

f o u n d a t i o n l e g e n d f o r t h e P e l l a c h u r c h , t r y i n g t o c l a i m f o r i t se l f t h e s t a t u s o f t h

c h u r c h o f t h e P i l la r s i n e x i le . R i g h t e n o u g h , b u t t h i s n e e d n ' t m e a n t h e y d i d

m ak e such an exodu s . Perh aps on ly th e o racu la r d i r ec t io n to do so need hav

l e g e n d a r y e l e m e n t . O t h e r w i s e i t m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d l i k e c o w a r d i c e . I s e e t h e P e l l a



l e g i t i m i z i n g a C h r i s t i a n v e r s io n o f t h e Y a v n e h r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n , w i t h S i m e o n b

t a k i n g t h e p l a c e o f J o h a n n o n b e n Z a k k a i as p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e n e w S a n h e d r i n . T

b o t h a r e l i k e n e d t o M o s e s , a n o t h e r " e x o d u s " la w g i v e r , b o t h o f t h e m d y i n g a t

M o s e s d i d . I t h i n k t h e c o m m i s s i o n o f S i m e o n C e p h a s , c o n f u s e d w i t h S i m e o n b a r -

e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n ,

3 3

a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o n e w i t h t h e k e y s o f h a l a k h i c b

l o o s i n g s t e m s f r o m t h e e l e c ti o n o f S i m e o n b a r - C l e o p h a s t o t h e t h r o n e v a c a te d b y

J a m e s t h e J u s t . I t i s i n t h i s t h i r d p e r i o d t h a t w e m i g h t m o s t p r o b a b l y l o

Sitz-im-Leben o f the ev o lu t ion of the gosp e l s ay ings t r ad i t io n a long para l l e l l i nes w

t h e M i s h n a h , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e Y av n e h S a n h e d r i n .

I a m t e m p t e d t o r e g a r d t h e s t o r y o f t h e G a d a r e n e D e m o n i a c ( M a r k 5 : 1 -

a n o t h e r c o m p e t i n g f o u n d a t i o n l e g e n d f o r t h e P e l la (D e c a p o l i s ) c h u r c h / s a n h e d r i n , o

m e e t i n g t h e o b j e c t i o n o f it b e i n g o n p a g a n s o il , a s w e l l a s p o s s i b l y d e f e n d i n g t

c r e d e n t i a l s a g a i n s t c h a r g e s of c o w a r d i c e in t h e R o m a n W a r . I t al s o e s t a b l i s h e s

l i n k o f a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s i o n . F i r s t , n o t e t h a t i n t h i s ta l e J e s u s h i m s e l f o r d a i n s a

d i s c ip le to go and preach h i s g lo r i es (Mark 5 :19) some for ty year s before the a r r

J e r u s a l e m i n t e r l o p e r s i n G a l i l e e a n d t h e D e c a p o l i s i n t h e w a k e o f t h e f a l l o f

S e c o n d , J e s u s d r i v e s o u t t h e R o m a n s s y m b o l i c a l l y i n t h e f o r m o f u n c l e a n s w i n e p

( R o m a n ) " l e g i o n s " o f d e m o n s .

3 5

T h u s , J e s u s h a d s a n c t i f i e d a n d f u m i g a t e d t h e D e c



s o t h a t i t w a s n o t u n c l e a n t e r r i t o r y ( o v e r c o m i n g o n e o f t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s B r a n d o

t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e P e l l a H e g i r a t r a d i t i o n , t h a t P e l l a i n t h e D e c a p o l i s w o u l d h a

i m p r o b a b l e p l a c e f o r p i o u s J e w s t o s e e k s h e l t e r . )

3 6

T h e M ark 5 :1—20 s to ry , as

e v i d e n c e s e m b a r a s s m e n t o v e r j u s t t h a t p o i n t .

S o J e r u s a l e m - s t y l e C h r i s t i a n i t y g o t i n t o G a l i l e e t h e s a m e w a y a n d a t m o r e

s a m e t i m e J e r u s a l e m - s t y l e P h a r i s a i s m d i d , a f t e r t h e f a l l o f J e r u s a l e m i n 7 0 C .E

t h e r e t h a t w e m a y i m a g i n e t h e g o s p e l s a y i n g s t r a d i t i o n t o h a v e f o r m e d b y

a s s i m i l a t i o n o f e a r l i e r C h r i s t i a n s a y i n g s t o t h e c o l le c t i v e a n d a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r i t

C h r i s t " i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a n d f o r m u c h t h e s a m e r e a so n t h a t t h e r a b b i n



trustwo rthy, and indeed are to be judge d mo re as propa gand a tha n as statem ents of f

gives them an historical value of their own; for propaganda, too, has i ts history" (p. 260).

4. Rudolf Bul tmann,


(New York: Harp er & Row, 19

Jeremias, The Parables ofJesus (New York: Scribners, 1954 ); Ha rald Riesenfeld, The Gospel

its Beginnings: A S tudy in the Limits of

'Formgeschicbte'

(London: A. R. Mowbray, 195

Tradition

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1970); Birger Gerhardsson,

Mem ory and Manuscript: O

and Written Tradition in Rabbinic Judaism and Early C hristianity (Uppsala and Lund: C. W.

1964); Gerhardsson, The Origins of the Gospel Tradition (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979).

5. A. H. McNei le ,

An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament

, 2d ed ., revised



Williams (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 54.

6. E.g. , Jacob Neusner , In Search of Talmudic Biography: The P roblem of the Attrib

Brown J ud aic Studies 70 (Chico, Calif . : Scholars Press, 1984).

7. E.g. , Jacob Neusner , Why No Gospels in Talm udic Judaism? Brown Judaic Studies

Scholars Press, 1988).

8 . Hermann Hesse , Magister LudilThe Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara W

York: Bantam Books, 1970), p. 4.

9. Heinz Joachim Held, "Mat thew as Interpreter of the Miracle Stor ies ," in T

Interpretation in M atthew's Gospel, ed. Gu nthe r Bo mk am m, G erhard Bar th, and Heinz Jo

(London: SCM Press , 1963) , pp. 275-95.

10. Agehananda Bharat i ,

The Light at the Center: Context and P retext of Modern My

Barbara: Ross-Erikson, 1982), p. 78.

11. Hugo Odeberg, ed. and t rans . ,

3 Enoch, or The Hebrew Book of Enoch

(1928 ;

York: Ktav Publ ishing House, 1973) , pp. 85-86.

12 . Bul tmann ,


, pp . 122 , 136-37 ;

Jesus and the Word



Scr ibners , 1958), pp . 30 -3 1; H . E. Tod t , The Son of Man in the Synoptic Tradition

W estmins ter Press, 1965), p . 295; Ferdinand Ha hn , The Titles of Jesus in Chris ology: Th

Earliest Christianity

(New York: World, 1969) , pp. 21-27.

13. No rm an P err in,

A Modern Pilgrimage in New Testament Christology

(Phila delp hia: F

1974); Maurice Casey, Son of Man: The Interpretation and Influence of Daniel 7 (London:

Geza Vermes , Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels (London: Fo ntana/Collin

1 6 0 - 8 5 .

14. Gerd Theissen, Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity, pp . 24-30 .

15. Joach im Jeremias , New Testament Theology: The Proclamation of Jesus (New Yor

1971) , pp. 35-36.

16. Wal ter Schmithals , The Office of Apostle in the Early Church (New York: Ab ingdon

198-217 f f .

17. Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christian

University of Chicago Press, 1981).

18. Calvin, Reply to Sadolet: "Thy Christ was indeed w orshipped as God and retaine

of Saviour; but where he ought to have been honoured, he was left almost destitute of



spoiled of his own vir tue, he passed unn oticed am ong t he crowd of saints , l ike one of

of them." In J . K. S. Reid, trans., Calvin, Theological Treatises. Library of Ch rist

(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1965), p. 247.

19. Harvey

FAk, Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus

(Mah wah:

1985).

20. Leibel Reznick,

The Mystery of Bar Kokhba: An Historical and Theological Invest

Last King of the Jews

(Nor thvale, N.J . : Jason Aronson Inc. , 1996) , pp. 65-76.

21 . Mack , A Myth of

Innocence

, p. 203.

22. Gerd Theissen, T he Miracles of the Early Christian Tradition (Philadelphia: Fo

1983) , pp. 106-11.

23. Jack T. Sanders,

The Jews in Luke-Acts

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), PP- 95

24. Ho ward Clark Kee, "Early Ch ristianity in the Galilee: Reassessing the Eviden

Gospels," in The Galilee in Late Antiquityed. Lee I . Levine (Ne w York: Jew ish Theolog i

and Cam bridg e: Harva rd Unive rsity Press, 1992 ), p. 9. Watch O verm an squ irm : " 'Th e se

is a symbolic expression of authority. The actual seat as part of the synagogue architect

later ." J . Andrew Overman, Ma tthew's G ospel and Formative Judaism: The Social W orld of



Community (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990), p. 47.

25. Overman,

Matthew's G ospel and Formative Judaism

, p. 46. The apologetical atte m pt

to sidestep the implications for gospel dating strikes me as comical: "The Gospels revea

honorific, and nontechnical understan ding of th e te rm."

26. Sean Freyne, Galilee from Alexander the Great to Hadrian, 323 B.C.E. to 135 A.D.

Second Temple Judaism. Univers i ty of Notre Dam e Cen ter for the Study of Juda ism and

in An t iqui ty 5 (W ilmin gton , Del . : Michael Glazier , and Univers i ty of N otre D ame Pre

350 . Gerd Liidem ann, too, rejects the l ink, bu t distances himself from those who

theological apologetical grounds: Oppcsition to Paul in Jewish Christianity (Minneapolis: F

1989), p. 213.

27. Walter Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, ed. Rob ert K raft

Krodel, trans, the Philadelphia Seminar on Christian Origins (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,

28. As do Ray A. Pritz, Nazarene Jewish Christianity (Jerusalem: Magnes Press/Leiden

1988), who can actually speak of "Trinitarianism" in such a context, p. 108, and Freyne

350.

29. In fact , s ince these towns were decimated in the war wi th Rom e, the denunciat i

must rather be seen as gloating, or, if one wishes to dignify i t , as examples of the m



used by th e Kora n, wa rning sinners to repent lest the disastrous fate of heathen cit i

overtake them as well (e.g., 89:5).

30. Vermes , Jesus the Jew, p. 90.

31. Rober t Eisenman, James the Brother of Jesus (New York: Viking,

1 9 3 , 3 5 7 - 5 8 , 9 4 9 , 9 5 9 - 6 0 .

32. S. G. F. Brandon,

The Fall of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Church

(London: SPC K

172-73; F reyne , Galilee from Alexander the Great to Hadrian, p. 250.

33. Eisenman, James the B rother of Jesus, p. 816.

34. Th e po int is exactly parallel to that of the legend of th e Holy Gra il , wh

provide an inde pen den t apostolic ( i .e., pre-R om an Catholic) fou nda tion for British C h

Joseph of Arim athea , unde rstood as Jesus ' uncle com missioned to take the G rail to

Arthur Edward Waite , The Hidden Church of the Holy Graal: Its Legends and Symbo

Rebm an LTD, 1909) , book 7, "The Holy G raal in the L ight of the Cel t ic Ch urch," pp.

35. Theissen, Sociology

of Earliest Palestinian Christianity

, pp . 101-102 .

36. Brandon, T he F all of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Church, p. 169.



Chapter 5

THE LOST GOSPEL

THE Q QUESTION



v

cho la r s have a lways f e l t t ha t wi th Q they we re espec ia l ly c lose to the h is

J e s u s . I n t h e h e y d a y o f th e t w o - d o c u m e n t h y p o t h e s i s t h a t M a t t h e w a n d L u k e

s e p a r a t e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d b o t h M a r k s g o s p e l a n d Q i n t o t h e i r o w n , M a r k sh a r e d t h e

Q . S c h o l a rs t e n d e d t o g r a n t M a r k p r i o r i t y a s b e i n g m o r e l i k e ly h i s t o r i c a l th a n

Luke . A nd one can a t l eas t show t ha t a t s evera l po i n t s Mark ' s theo lo g ica l con

ear l ie r and l ess soph i s t i ca t ed (or l ess ex t rava gant ) t han those of M at th ew and Lu

the changes the two l a t e r gospe l s made to t he i r source , Mark , a re eas i ly seen

Wi l l i a m Wre d e (S c h w e i t z e r ' s " t h o ro u g h g o i n g sk e p t i c " )

1

show ed ho w Mark was fa r

a cu t -an d-p as t e co mpi l e r , much l ess a repor t e r . W red e d i scerned a com plex

theologica l rew ri t i ng a l ready ev iden t i n Ma rk . In fac t , com pare d w i th Mar k , t he

who used h im seem

less

sophi s t i ca t ed on some p oin t s , such as Mark ' s e l abora t e

secre t " t heme which they appear no t t o have p i cked up on .

Th i s l e f t Q as t he bes t cand ida t e for a pregos pe l l ook a t t he h i s tor i ca l Je

Mac k cer t a in ly th in ks so. Ind eed , he be l ieves tha t t he h i s tor i ca l Jesu s revea led



gospe l i s so d i f fe r en t f rom the Jesus of Chr i s t i an dog m a as t o necess i ta t e t he roo

re j ec t ion of t h e l a t t e r as deb un ke d by the former .

2

Of course , t ha t i s no th in g

pre t ty mu ch th e same way the or ig ina l l i bera l Pro t e s t an t ques t e rs v iewed the mat t

new, however , i s t he por t ra i t o f Jesus tha t emerges f rom the carefu l work of

Klo p- pe nbo rg , Le if E . Vaage , and o thers on the " s t ra t ig r aph y" of Q .

3

For i t turns

i s no t s imply a pr i s t i ne , un t racked snowfie ld e i ther . L ike Mark , t he Q source see

un der go ne theologica l re too l ing . Bu t Mac k and h i s fe l l ow Q-q ues t e rs a re reasonabl

they can peel back the subsequent layers and reach back to the original saying

they ca ll Q l .

A l o n g w i t h F. G e r a l d D o w n i n g , L e i f E . V a a g e , a n d o t h e r s , M a c k s ee s Q a s e

c o l l e c t i o n of s a y i n g s a n d a n e c d o t e s r e f l e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t p o p u l a r p h i l o s o p h y o f

f o u n d e d b y A n t i s t h e n e s o f A t h e n s a n d D i o g e n e s o f S i n o p e i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n a f t

C y n i c s w e r e i r r e v e r e n t r a d i c a l s w h o m o v e d f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e w i t h o u t f a m i l y

p o s s e s s i o n s , p r e a c h i n g , o f t e n w i t h s a r c a s t ic i n v e c t i v e , t h e i r m e s s a g e of t h e e x c e l l e n

i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h n a t u r e ' s p l a n . O n e n e e d f e a r n o t h i e f i f o n e h a s n o p r o p e r t y

n o t b o t h e r w i t h j ea l o us y or w i t h d o m e s t i c d r u d g e r y i f o n e h a s n o m a r r i a g e . G

p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , c l o t h i n g , a n d e s p e c i a l l y m o n e y , a r e a l l a r t i f i c i a l c o n v e n t i o n s c o

peo ple too c lever fo r the i r ow n go od . Go d ' s wi l l fo r the c rea t ion i s r evea led c le

for a l l t o s ee in the f r ee do m of th e b i rd s o f th e a i r an d t he beas t s o f the f i e ld w



fo r a l l t o s ee in the f r ee do m of th e b i rd s o f th e a i r an d t he beas t s o f the f i e ld w

j o b s o r k i n g s o r w o r r i e s . N o t h i n g u n n a t u r a l c a n b e g o o d , a n d n o t h i n g n a t u r a l c

C y n i c s b l e s s e d t h o s e w h o c u r s e d t h e m a n d l o v e d t h e i r p e r s e c u t o r s . S o m e w e r e a s c

w e r e l i b e r t i n e s , h e e d l e s s o f t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n s o f t h e b o u r g e o i s . T h e y p r

g o v e r n m e n t of Z e u s (t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d ) , l i v i n g i n a c c o rd w i t h n a t u r e b y s i m p

s e n s e . T h e y u r g e d t h e i r h e a r e rs t o l e t g o o d s a n d k i n d r e d g o , a n d w a n d e r t h r o u g

w o r l d . T h e y li v e d b y b e g g i n g a n d o f c o u r s e e n c o u r a g e d g e n e r o s i t y .

M a c k a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t b e n e a t h t h e p r e s e n t t e x t o f t h e r

Q c a n b e d i s c e r n e d a n o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t i o n d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e n t h e m a t i c s e c t i o n s , n o n

i n c l u d e s a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e a u t h o r i t y of J e s u s o r t h r e a t s o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g m e n

S u b s e q u e n t la y e r s o f Q i n c l u d e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e c o m i n g o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c S o n o

no Q sa y ing s r e fe r to the ear t h ly J esu s as the Son of Ma n or M ess iah . N o Q say in

s t r a t u m e v e r m e n t i o n s J e s u s ' d e a t h , m u c h l es s h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n . S o Q w o u l d s e e

b e e n o n l y s u b s e q u e n t l y C h r i s t i a n i z e d , a n d n e v e r n e a r l y s o t h o r o u g h l y a s M a r k .

M a c k r e a s o n a b l y a s k s w h y t h e c o m p i l e r s of Q w o u l d h a v e l e f t o u t a l l m e n

s a v i n g l i fe , d e a t h , a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s h a d t h e y b e l i e v e d i n th e s e t h i n g s . A n

a s s u m e th e y r e c o r d e d w h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d t o b e o f i m p o r t a n c e a b o u t J e s u s . W

e v i d e n c e o f t h e Q c o m m u n i t y b e l i e v i n g a n y t h i n g t h e y d i d n o t r e c o r d , o b v i o u s l y . W

r i g h t s i m p l y t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e Q c o m p i l e r s a ls o b e l i e v e d t h e s a m e d o c t r i n e s a s w



e x a m p l e , i n t h e E p i s t l e t o t h e R o m a n s , if they do not say so. T h e r e is s i m p l y n o

a s s u m e t h a t a l l e a r ly J e s u s f o l l o w e r s b e li e v e d t h e s a m e t h i n g s . J u s t t h e o p

m i n i m a l l y c h r i s t o l o g i c a l Q c o u n t s a s s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t a t l e a s t t h i s q u a r t e

C h r i s t i a n i t y (i f t h a t i s e v e n t h e p r o p e r w o r d f o r t h e Q c o m m u n i t y ) h a d n o

d o c t r i n e a b o u t J e s u s o r C h r i s t a t a l l . Q ( e s p ec i a ll y Q l ) i m p l i e s a r a d i c a l l y m u l t

C h r i s t i a n i t y .

T h e p o w e r o f B u r t o n M a c k ' s ca se i s s u c h t h a t h e h a s m a n a g e d t o c o n v i n c

p r o p o n e n t o f t h e C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r y i n o u r d a y , G e o r g e A . W e l l s , t o a b a n d o n t h e

d e f e n d e d f o r s o l o n g . W e l l s n o w s i g n i f i c a n t l y q u a l i fi e s h i s o w n a r g u m e n t t o t h e

w h i l e th e r e w a s a C y n i c - s t y l e s a g e n a m e d J e s u s u n d e r l y i n g Q l , t h i s s h a d o w y f i g

g i v e r is e to t h e f u l l - b l o w n m y t h i c C h r i s t o f t h e g o s p e l s , a n d t h a t w e m u s t l o o k e

t h e a n t e c e d e n t s o f t h e l a t t e r .

4

A n d M a c k w o u l d a g r e e . W e w i l l b e a s k i n g i n w

w he the r Mack ' s thes i s , as p lau s ib le as i t i s , i s neces sar i ly s t ron g e no ug h to p rev a i l

o r i g i n a l v i e w p o i n t . B u t i t w i l l t a k e a w h i l e t o g e t t h e r e .

M ack ' s es t im ate o f the (non) theo log ic a l p roc l iv i t i es of Q m ig ht b e s a id to r ec

o f c o r r o b o r a t i o n f r o m a n e g l e c t e d s o u r c e : t h e I s l a m i c A g r a p h a , o r S u f i S a y i n g s o f

a r e s c or e s o f a p h o r i s m s a n d a p o p h t h e g m s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s a m o n g t h e w r i t i n g s

a s c e ti c s. H e r e is a c o m m u n i t y o f w a n d e r i n g a s c e ti c s , m u c h l i k e t h a t l o o se a l l i a n c e



c h a r i s m a t i c s p o s i t e d b y G e r d T h e i s s e n , t a k i n g J e s u s a s t h e i r e x a m p l e a n d a t t r i b

s a y i n g s t o h i m . I n t h i s Q - l i k e m a t e r i a l , J e s u s i s f r e q u e n t l y a d d r e s s e d " O S p i r i t of G

d e n o t e s n o t t h e d i v i n e n a t u r e o f J e s u s ( i m p o s s i b l e i n I s l a m ) , b u t r a t h e r h i s u n w o r l

i t i n e r a n t a s c e t i c i s m , as M a r y D o u g l a s ' s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l - s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s is o f " s p i r

w o u l d a l so c o n f i r m . S h e n o t e s,

5

on the bas i s o f her charac te r i s t i ca l ly exha us t ive

r e s e a rc h , t h a t r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s w h o d e v o t e a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n t o t h i n g s o

nam ely , d ie t a ry r es t r i c t io ns and sexua l ru l es — espec ia l ly ce l ibacy , d i s t i nc t ive d r

o n — a r e t h e r e b y r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r o p e n n e s s , o r l a c k o f i t , t o w a r d t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d



t o g e t h e r i n t h e lo o s e st o f " c o m m u n i t i e s " b u t r ea l ly c o n s t i t u t e d a l e a g u e of h e

f e l l o w s h i p s w o u l d c o u n t a s " w e a k g r o u p " b u t " h i g h g r i d . " A s t r o n g s e n se o f s e

s e rv e s i n s u c h a ca s e t o a l i e n a t e m e m b e r s b o t h f r o m t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d a n d

m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p . T h e Q i t i n e r a n t s w o u l d f i t s u c h a s k e t c h , a s w o u l d t h e a n

prea cher s and the Suf i s o f I s l am. T hu s the i r J esu s i s the "Spi r i t of G od ," and h i s

t h o s e i n Q a n d t h e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s , p r e s u p p o s e a n d i n c u l c a t e s u c h a r a d ic a l l if e

SUFI Q



I p r o p o s e t o m a k e a f e w o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e S u f i - p r e s e rv e d s a y i n g s of J e s u s

re levance to the Q que s t ion . I have dra wn o n var ious s econd ary sources fo r th em

r e p r o d u c i n g t h e m f r o m t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f D . S . M a r g o l i o u t h ,

A r a b i c a t O x f o r d , a s t h e y a p p e a r e d i n The Expository Times, 1 8 9 3 - 1 8 9 4 . A s i t

M a r g o l i o u t h h a d i n a d v e r t e n t l y o m i t t e d s e v er a l s a y i n g s f r o m h i s m a i n s o u r c e ,

Revival of the Religious Sciences',

I h a v e f i ll e d t h e m i n f r o m o t h e r s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e

J a v a d N u r b a k h s h ' s Jesus in the Eyes of the Sufis a n d T . J . W i n t e r ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f Rem

Death and the Afterlife , b o o k 4 0 of A l - G h a z a l i ' s l a r g e r w o r k .

6

I h a v e r e t a i n e d M

n u m b e r i n g , a d d i n g t h e s a y in g s d r a w n f r o m N u r b a k h s h a n d W i n t e r w i t h lo w e r

a t t a c h e d a t t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e i n t h e s e q u e n c e f r o m A l - G h a z a l i . I b e l ie v e t h e s e

p r o v e m o r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e Q q u e s t i o n t h a n h a s g e n e r a l l y b e

O n e t h i n g t o k e e p i n m i n d w i l l b e t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l C r i t e r i o n o f D i s s i m i l a r i t y , s o

b y N o r m a n P e r r i n , b u t a s t a p l e o f f o r m c r i t i c i s m b e f o r e a n d a f t e r h i m .

7

The ide

say ing a t t r ib u t ed to J es us is m ore l ike ly to be au the n t i c a l ly h i s i f i t con t r as t s wi th

o r p r a c t i c e s o f b o t h c o n t e m p o r a r y J u d a i s m a n d t h e e a r ly C h u r c h . T h o u g h o n

s u p p o s e J e s u s to h av e h e l d n o t h i n g in c o m m o n w i t h e i t h e r t h e re l i g io u s c o m m

wh ich he was bo m or th a t to wh ich he gave r i se , the goa l of the C r i t e r ion of Dis



t o w e e d o u t s a y i n g s t h a t m a y h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d f r o m J u d a i s m ( o n t h e a s s u m p t

i t sou nd s go od , J es us mu s t h ave sa id i t " ) o r tha t may ha ve been ascr ibed t

i n v e n t i v e C h r i s t i a n s e a g er t o a u t h o r i z e t h e i r o w n v i e w p o i n t s (o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n

t r u e , J e s u s w o u l d h a v e s a id i t " ). T h o u g h y o u m i g h t l o s e s o m e g e n u i n e s a y i n g s t h

w o u l d b e l e f t w i t h a c o r e o f m a t e r i a l y o u c o u l d w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e a t t r i b u t e t o

o u g h t t o r e p r e s e n t h i s m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e m e s s a g e . T h e r e s u l t s o f a p p l y i n g t h i s c r i t e

t r a d i t i o n h a v e b e e n s u r p r i s i n g l y a m b i g u o u s , P e r r i n h i m s e l f a p p l y i n g m o r e t h a n

w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g . B u t I t h i n k i t w i l l b e a w o r t h w h i l e e x e r c is e t o i n v o k e t h e



i t s e e m s t o r e p r e s e n t a b a c k t r a c k i n g f r o m a h i g h C h r i s t o l o g y : " t h e S o n " m i g h t

e x p e c t e d t o h a v e h a d i n f a l l i b l e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e e s c h a t o n , a n d y e t h e d i d n o t ,

g e n e r a t i o n " p a s s ed a w a y w i t h o u t s e e i n g t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f h i s p r e d i c t i o n s . P e r h a p s

r e s o r t e d t o t h e e a r ly s a y i n g , n o w p r e s e r v e d o n l y i n t h e S u f i t r a d i t i o n , t o c o r r e c t

r a s s m e n t i n t h e M a r k a n A p o c a l y p s e ( c h a p t e r 1 3 ) , b u t h e h a d t o r e w r i t e i t i n l

h i g h e r C h r i s t o l o g y o f t h e c h u r c h i n h i s o w n da y , l e a v i n g u s t h e s t r a n g e s p e c t a c l e o

clueless revealer .

2 . J e s u s s a i d : T h e w o r l d i s a p l a c e o f t r a n s i t i o n , f u l l o f e x a m p l e s ; b e p i l g r i m s t

t a k e w a r n i n g b y t h e t r a c e s o f t h o s e t h a t h a v e g o n e b e f o r e . ( J a c u t ' s Geographical Le



T h i s s a y i n g p r e s u p p o s e s t h e w a n d e r i n g li f e s t y l e o f t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n

i t i n e r a n t s , as d o s e v e ra l s a y i n g s i n t h e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s a n d t h e Q c o l l e c t i o n . A

i n c l u d e d m a n y w a n d e r i n g m e n d i c a n t s , t h e s a y i n g m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o i n e d b y t h e m

p a s s e d o n f r o m th e i r p r e - C h r i s t i a n o r C h r i s t i a n p r e d e c e s s o r s .

3 . J e s u s s a i d , B e in t h e m i d s t , y e t w a l k o n o n e s i d e . ( B a i d a w i , Comm entary on th

7 1 , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e e d . )

T h e r e fe rence to "w alk ing " aga in r eca l l s the i t ineracy of asce t i cs .

4 . In th e s e rm on s of J esus , son of Mary , i t i s w r i t t en : Bew are how ye s i t w

( Z a m a k h s h a r i , Comm entary on the Koran, p . 9 8 6 )

W i l l i a m M o r r i c e q u i p s : " a s i f J e s u s w r o t e s e r m o n s . "

8

B u t t h e s a m e m i g h t b e

S e r m o n o n t h e M o u n t , a d i s t i n c t c o l l e c t i o n o f s a y i n g s a l r e a d y i n Q . Z a m a k h s h a r i

t o h a v e d r a w n t h e s a y i n g f r o m a l a r g e r c o l l e c t i o n . T h i s , as w e w i l l se e , m a

s i g n i f i c a n t .



5 . J esu s s a id : I have t r ea ted th e l eprou s and the b l in d , and have cured t he m ; bu t w

t rea ted the foo l , I have f a i led to cure h im . (E l - M u s t a t r a f )

A s w e s e e i n t h e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s , J e s u s h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d w i t h

p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f W i s d o m .

9

J e s u s s p e a k s h e r e a s L a d y W i s d o m d o e s i n P r o v e r b s c h

a s J e s u s / W i s d o m d o e s in T h o m a s , s a y i n g 2 8 : " J e s u s s a i d : I t o o k m y s t a n d i n t h

t h e w o r l d a n d i n fl e s h I a p p e a r e d t o t h e m . I f o u n d t h e m a l l d r u n k , I f o u n d n

t h e m a t h i r s t . A n d m y s o u l w a s a f f l i c t e d f o r t h e s o n s o f m e n , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e b l i

h e a r t a n d d o n o t s e e t h a t e m p t y t h e y h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e w o r l d ; e m p t y t h e y s e e k

o f t h e w o r l d a g a i n . B u t n o w t h e y a r e d r u n k . W h e n t h e y h a v e s h a k e n o f f t h e i r

t h e y w i l l r e p e n t . " T h e s a y i n g , h o w e v e r , d o e s p r e s u p p o s e t h e g o s p e l t r a d i t i o n o f

m i r a c l e w o r k e r a n d t h u s i s p r o b a b l y n o t s o e a r ly as s o m e w o u l d m a k e t h e p r e c

Q

6 . G o d r e v e a le d t o J e s u s : C o m m a n d t h e c h i l d r e n o f I s ra e l t h a t t h e y e n t e r n o t m y

w i t h p u r e h e a r t s , a n d h u m b l e e y e s , a n d c l e a n h a n d s ; f o r I w i l l n o t a n s w e r a n y o

a g a i n s t w h o m a n y h a s a c o m p l a i n t . (El-Hadaic El- Wardiyyah, i . p . 27 .)

T h o u g h t h e s e n t i m e n t r e ca ll s M a t t . 5 : 2 3 - 2 4 , i t i s e v e n c l o se r to I sa . 1 : 1 0 - 1 7 .

e v e n s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s S u f i s a y i n g a n d M a t t . 5 : 2 3 - 2 4 a r e i n d e p e n d e n t e x a m p l e s o f t



of ear ly C hr i s t i an s to m isa t t r ib u te , o r to r ea t t r ib u te , f am i l i a r s c r ip tu ra l mater i a l to

s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m .

7 . J es us s a id : Whoso knows a n d d o e s a n d t e a c h e s s h a l l b e c a l l e d g r e a t i n t h e

h e a v e n . ( A l - G h a z a l i , Revival of the Religious Sciences i. 8)

H e r e is a n a b r i d g e d v e r s i o n o f M a t t . 5 : 1 9 ( " W h o e v e r t h e n r e la x e s o n e o f

t h e s e c o m m a n d m e n t s a n d t e a c h e s m e n s o , s h a l l b e c a l le d l e a st i n t h e k i n g d o m

b u t h e w h o d o e s t h e m a n d t e a c h e s t h e m s h a l l b e c a ll e d g r e a t i n t h e k i n g d o m o

a l r e a d y it s e l f a r e d a c t i o n a l c r e a t i o n a i m e d a t P a u l i n i s t a n t i - T o r a h l i b e r t i n e s . B u

v e r s i o n h a s d r o p p e d t h e s p e c i fi c r e f e r e n c e t o T o r a h c o m m a n d m e n t s , n o l o n g e r t h e

l a t e r s e t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e p o i n t o f t h e s a y i n g is m a d e m

a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f J a m e s 1 : 2 2 ( " B u t b e d o e r s o f t h e w o r d , a n d n o t h e a r e r s o n l

y o u r s e l v e s" ) . A g a i n , w e a r e l a t e r t h a n t h e c o n j e c t u r e d d a t e f o r a p r e c h r i s t o l o g i c a l Q

T h e m a r k e d w o r d s i n t h i s s a y i n g p r o v i d e " c a t c h w o r d s , " m n e m o n i c p e g s o n

n e x t s a y i n g d e p e n d s f o r i t s s e q u e n c e , a p a t t e r n w e w i l l o b s e r v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e

Suf i s ay in gs con s idere d here .



7 a . J e s u s s a i d : " G o d h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t t h o s e w h o o b s e r v e t h e c a n o n i c a l d e v o t i o n w i

w h i l e th o s e w h o p e r f o r m s u p e r e r o g a t o r y w o r s h i p , w i l l b e d r a w n c l o s e t o h i m . "

N u r b a k h s h )

L e t n o o n e d i s m i s s t h i s s a y i n g a s l a t e , s i n c e t h e l a n g u a g e of c a n o n i c

t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r e s c r i b e d — r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s n e e d i m p l y n o m o r e t h a n t h e J e w

c o m m a n d m e n t s , w h i l e t h e " w o r k s of s u p e r e r o g a t i o n " m a y r e f e r t o a c t s s u c h as t h

t h e r ic h y o u n g r u l e r b y J e s u s : T h e m a n h a d a l r e a d y d o n e w h a t t h e T o r a h c o m m a n



B u t t h e n a g a i n t h e s a m e r e s e r v a t i o n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n h e l d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n m o n

w h o w e r e a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e u p o n S u f i s m .

W e m i g h t t r a c e t h e s a y i n g b a c k e v e n f u r t h e r , t h o u g h , s in c e it m a y e a s il y

i n c u l c a t i n g e n c r a t i t e a s c e t i c i s m . T h i s e a r ly C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t , e sp e c i a l ly s t r o

M i n o r i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C .E ., r e g a r d e d t h e se x u a l e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n A d a m

t h e p r i m o r d i a l s i n t h r o u g h w h i c h d e a t h e n t e r e d t h e w o r l d . S a l v a t i o n r e q u i r e d

C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a n d b a p t i s m b u t a ls o c e l ib a c y . T h e y w e r e q u i t e s im i l a r t o t h e A m

o f t h e S h a k e r s . I n s u c h a f r a m e w o r k , i t w o u l d b e t h e f r u i t o f t h e T r e e o f K n

G o o d a n d E v i l ( i .e . , s e x ) w h i c h p r o v e d u n p r o f i t a b l e . T h i s w a s t h e o n e f r u i t t r

f o r b i d d e n t o t h e f i r s t c o u p l e .



9 . J esus s a id : Commit not wisdom to tho se w ho are no t m ee t fo r i t , l es t ye ha

w i t h h o l d i t n o t f r o m t h e m t h a t a r e m e e t f o r i t , l e s t y e h a r m t h e m . B e l i k

p h y s i c i a n , w h o p u t s t h e r e m e d y o n t h e d i s e a se d s p o t .

According to another version'.

W h o s o c o m m i t s w i s d o m t o t h e m t h a t a r e n o t m e e t f o r i t , i s a f o o l ;

w i t h h o l d s i t f r o m t h e m t h a t a r e m e e t f o r i t , i s a n evil-doer. W i s d o m h a s r i g h t s , a

ow ners ; an d g ive each h i s du e . ( Ib id . , i. 30)

T h e t h e m e of " c o m m i t t i n g w i s d o m " t o o t h e r s l i n k s t h i s s a y in g w i t h n u m b e

above .

The sub jec t o f s ay ing 9 i s eso te r i c sp i r i tua l wisdom or doc t r ine . I t i s a lw

s h a r i n g it : O n e m u s t k e e p m u m a r o u n d t h e i m p e n e t r a b l y o r t h o d o x l es t t h e y p u t o

f o r h e r es y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n e b e a r s h e a v y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r w i t h h o l d i n g t h e

t h o s e r i p e t o h e a r i t . O n e h a s n o r i g h t t o d e p r i v e t h e m o f s p i r i t u a l n o u r i s h m e n t

o n e ' s o w n sa f e ty . T h i s c o n c e r n l e d m a n y M i d d l e E a s t e r n s e c t s, l i k e t h e D r u z e ,

w h a t i s c a l l e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f d i s s i m u l a t i o n . O n e m a y d e n y o n e ' s f a i t h i n t i m e s o f

s o a s n o t t o t e m p t p e r s e c u t o r s t o t h e s i n o f m u r d e r . S i n c e t h e y c a n n o t b e



u n d e r s t a n d t h e h i g h e r k n o w l e d g e , i t w i l l b e t h e G n o s t i c ' s o w n f a u l t i f h e g e t s h

t r o u b l e . T h e S u f i s c e r t a i n l y h a d r e a s o n to f e a r : O n e o f t h e i r g r e a t e s t , t h e m y s t i

w a s c r u c i f i e d f o r p r o c l a i m i n g "I a m t h e R e a l [ i .e . , G o d ] , " s o m e t h i n g t h e p a n t h

u n d e r s t o o d b u t y o u r a v e r a g e M u s l i m i n t h e s t r e e t d i d n o t .

A n d y e t t h e s a y i n g m a y e a s il y b e p r e - S u f i . C l a i m s o f e s o t e r ic k n o w l e d g e a r e

t h a n S u f i s m . T h o m a s sa y i n g 13 k n o w s t h e d a n g e r : " N o w w h e n T h o m a s c a

c o m p a n i o n s , t h e y a s k e d h i m , W h a t d i d J e s u s s ay t o t h e e ? T h o m a s s a id t o t h e m : I



n o t d r i n k t h e w a t e r , n e i t h e r d o e s i t le t t h e w a t e r f l o w t o t h e f i e l d . A n d t h e y a

c o n d u i t o f a l a t r i n e w h i c h i s p l a s te r e d o u t s i d e , a n d f o u l i n s i d e ; o r l i k e g r a v e s , t h e

w h i c h i s d e c o r a t e d , w h i l e w i t h i n a r e d e a d m e n ' s b o n e s . ( I b i d . , i. 4 9 )

T h i s s a y i n g h a s b e e n j o i n e d t o n u m b e r 9 a b o v e b a s e d o n t h e c o m m o n o c

" s c ho l a rs " h e r e a n d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f w i s d o m , o r m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f i t , a n

s a y i n g 9 . T h e v a r i a n t v e r s i o n of s a y i n g 9 c o n t a i n s a n e x p l i c i t r e f e re n c e t o

a n t i c i p a t i n g " e v i l s c h o l a r s " h e r e .

T he say ing i s obv ious ly ano ther v er s ion of a pa i r of Q say ings aga ins t th e Phar

Jew ish sc ribes . M at th ew a nd Luk e have used th em bo th , each in h i s ow n words

d i f f e ren t o rder . M at t . 23 :13 , 27 : "Bu t woe to you , sc r ibes and Phar i s ees, hypocr i t es



nei the r en te r your se lves, nor a l low those wh o wou ld en te r to go in . " "W oe to yo u ,

P h a r is e e s, h y p o c r i t e s f o r y o u a re w h i t e w a s h e d t o m b s , w h i c h o u t w a r d l y a p p e a r b e

wi th in they a re fu l l o f dead men ' s bones and a l l unc lean ness . " Lu ke 11 :52 , 44 : "W

lawyers fo r you have t aken away the key of kn ow ledg e ; you d id n o t en te r your se lv

h ind ered those who were en te r ing . " "W oe to you for you a re l ike g raves wh ich a

and m en wa lk over the m w i th ou t kn ow ing i t . " I t i s hard to kno w wh ich ver s ion

the Q o r ig ina l , s ince Luke has the r edac t iona l t ende ncy to f l a t t en po e t ry in to

M a t t h e w t e n d s t o m a k e t h e p r o s a ic m o r e p o e t ic . H a s L u k e a d d e d t h e " k e y o f

me taph or? Th om as a l so has i t ( say ing 39 : "Th e Phar i s ees and the s c r ibes have r ece iv

of k now ledg e , they have h idd en th em . Th ey d id no t en te r , and they d id n o t l e t

wh o wished" ) . Th om as has add ed a no th er to the s am e say ing : "W oe to the m , the P

they a re l ike a dog s l eep ing in the m ang er : ne i th er does he ea t nor does he a l low

ea t " ( s ay ing 102) . In the s ame way , the Suf i ver s ion add s the imag e of th e b oulde r b

f low of wa ter .

11 . J esu s s a id : H ow can h e be a

scholar who

, w hen h i s journey i s un to th e nex t

for the things of this world} How can he be a s cho lar who seeks for words in order to

by them, and not to act according to them? ( Ibid. , i . 50)



T h i s s a y i n g ' s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e " s c h o l a r w h o . . . m a k e s f o r t h e t h i n g s o f

f o l l o w s u p " e v il sc h o l a r s " i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s a y i n g .

1 1 a . J e s u s s a id : O n e w h o t e a c h e s h i g h e r k n o w l e d g e a n d d o e s n o t p r a c t i c e i t s w i s d

a c l a n d e s t i n e a d u l t e r e s s w h o s e s w e l l i n g c o n d i t i o n b e t r a y s h e r t o s h a m e . S u c h a

d o e s n o t a c t o n t h e p r e c e p t s h e k n o w s , w i l l b e s h a m e d b y t h e L o r d b e f o r e a l l

t h e D a y o f J u d g m e n t . ( Ib i d . , 1 8 8 , N u r b a k h s h )

O n e m u s t l o c a t e t h e a r i s i n g o f t h i s l o g i o n a m o n g t h e r a n k s o f t e a c h e r s , a n

t h e i r o w n f r a t e r n i t y , w h e t h e r o r i g i n a l l y S y r ia n C h r i s t i a n m o n k s o r S u f i s . T h e s i

a d u l t e r e s s i n c l u d e s b o t h t h e e l e m e n t s o f o n e 's l i f e s p e a k i n g l o u d e r t h a n o n e 's w o

p u b l i c e x p o su r e . ( G i v e n t h e g r e a t n u m b e r o f a d u l t e r e r s li a b le to b e e x p o s ed o n

D a y , o n e m a y a t le a s t h o p e t o b e r e l a t i v e l y a n o n y m o u s , l o s t i n t h e s h u f f l e . )

1 2 . G o d s a i d u n t o J e s u s :

Exhort thyself, and tf Thou hast profited by the exhortation,

others; otherwise be ashamed befo re m e. ( Ib id . , i. 52)

T h e n o t i o n o f a s a g e e n t r u s t e d w i t h w o r d s o f w i s d o m b u t p o s s i b ly n o t t

s e r ious ly in h i s ow n case p rov ides the l ink be tw een th i s s ay ing and nu m be r 11 ab



t h i s , we m ig ht observe how th i s s ay ing r e f l ec t s the id iom of th e K oran in which

a r e a s c r ib e d n o t t o M u h a m m a d h i m s e l f , b u t t o h i s L o r d . A l l a h a d d re s s e s t h e P

M u h a m m a d , s ay , . . . " I n t h e g o s p e l t r a d i t i o n , J e s u s is n o t s h o w n t e l l i n g p e o p l e w h a

13 . J es us s a id : I f a m an sen d away

a beggar

e m p t y f r o m h i s h o u s e , t h e a n g e l s w

tha t house fo r s even n igh t s . ( Ib id . , i . 77)



T he r es igne dness o f J esu s before the win ds o f p ro v ide nce is ce r t a in ly ch ara

Suf i sm spec i f ica l ly , I s l am in genera l , and of p re t ty m uc h any an d a l l p i e ty . Th us

m u c h h e l p u s d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s a y i n g .

1 5 . G o d r e v e a l e d t o J e s u s : T h o u g h t h o u s h o u l d s t w o r s h i p w i t h t h e d e v o t i

i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e h e a v e n a n d t h e e a r t h , b u t h a d s t n o t

love in G od and hate in G o

a v a i l t h e e n o t h i n g . ( I b i d . , i i . 1 1 9 )

M i n u s t h e u n p l e a s a n t n o t e a b o u t h a t i n g , t h i s s a y i n g m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s d e r

1 C o r . 1 3 : 1 - 3 , t h e id e a o f " w o r s h i p p i n g w i t h t h e d e v o t i o n o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s

e c h o i n g " s p e a k i n g w i t h t h e t o n g u e s of a n g e l s " f r o m 1 C o r . 1 3 : 1 . " H a t i n g i n G o d



crep t in by as s im i la t ion to the nex t s ay ing , wh ich wo uld in any case be connec

ca tc hw ords " love in G od " (s ay ing 15) and "be loved of G od " (s ay ing 16) . Th e or

say ing in a Pau l in e Epi s t l e r a the r than the J esus t r ad i t i on i s a t t es t ed by the f ac t t

i t s p resen t fo rm i t is , aga in , ma de a r eve la t ion to J e s u s , n o t from h i m .

1 6 . J e s u s s a id : m a k e y o u r s e l v e s

beloved of God by hating the evil-doers.

B r i n g y o u r s

t o G o d b y r e m o v i n g f a r f r o m t h e m ; a n d s e e k G o d ' s f a v o u r b y t h e i r d i s p l e a s u r e . T

Spi r i t of G od , t hen wi th w ho m sha l l we converse? Th en h e sa id : Conv erse wi th

p re se n c e w i l l r e m i n d y o u o f G o d , w h o se words wi l l increase your works, and whose

make you des i re t he next wor ld . ( Ib id . , i i . 119)

Gone i s t he " f r i end of s inners" we are used to f rom the canonica l gospe l s .

o r i g i n a t e d a m o n g m o n a s t i c s , h e rm i t s , a n d a sc e t i cs , w h e t h e r o r i g i n a l l y S y ri a n C

M u s l i m S u f i s. T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a t t i t u d e b e t w e e n t h i s sa y i n g a n d t h e g o sp e l s m

b e t w e e n t h e g o sp e l s a n d C h r i s t i a n d e v o t i o n a l li t e r a t u re l i k e T h o m a s a K e m p i s ' s

Christ,

and for t he same reason . A l a Ma ry Do ugla s , aga in , we shou ld recogn ize th

to be addressed as "Spi r i t of G od " in t h i s contex t is no co inc id ence . Th e express

jus t t he sor t o f unear th l iness we would expec t f rom asce t i cs .



"W ork s" l inks th i s say ing wi th the f i r s t and l as t o f t h i s subsec t io n , 14 and 19

17. Jes us sa id to t he apos t l es : W h a t wo uld you do i f you saw your br o th er s l eep i

win d had l i f t ed up h i s ga rm en t? Th ey sa id : W e shou ld cover h im up . H e sa

w o u l d u n c o v e r h i m . T h e y sa i d : G o d fo rb i d W h o w o u l d d o t h is ? H e sa i d : O n e o

hears a word con cern ing h i s b ro the r , and add s to i t , and re l a t es i t w i th add i t i on

134)

T h i s s t r i k i n g s a y i n g , in c i d e n t a l l y , d e a l s w i t h t h e i ss u e o f e x a g g e r a t i o n i n t h e

o r a l t r a d i t i o n I t h a s t h e r i n g o f m a n y o f t h e s i m i l e s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s i n

w h e r e h e p u t s f o r t h a l a u g h a b l y a b s u r d c o u r s e o f m u n d a n e a c t i o n w h i c h n o

f o l lo w , a n d t h e n d i r e c t s t h e h e a r e r t o a n a l o g o u s b e h a v i o r o n a s p i r i t u a l p l a n e in

h a b i t u a l l y e n g a g e .

T h i s s a y i n g o w e s i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e s e q u e n c e t o i t s u s e of " a w o r d , " r e f l e c

w o r d s " i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s a y i n g .

1 8 . T h e y s ay t h a t t h e r e w a s n o f o r m o f a d d r e s s J e s u s lo v e d b e t t e r t o h e a r t h a n

( Ib id . , i i . 154)



W h a t is s a id h ere o f J esu s i s cha rac te r i s t i c , fo rm ula ic , o f the Suf i s and or ig

t h e m , o r a m o n g t h e i r S y r i a n m o n a s t i c p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h e s e c o n d a r y c h a r a c t e r o f t h

a g a i n e v i d e n c e d b y t h e r e l u c t a n c e of t h e t r a d i t i o n t o m a k e t h i s s a y i n g i n t o a s a y i n

t h a n o n l y a b o u t , J e s u s . A n o t h e r v e r s i o n m a k e s J e s u s h i m s e l f t h e s p e a k e r , a s u s u a l :

I p r e f e r d e p r i v a t i o n a n d d e s p i s e w e a l t h . W h e n a s k e d w h i c h e p i t h e t h e l i k e d b e s t

C a l l m e , P a u p e r " ( M a k k i , Qut al-qolub, v o l . I I , p . 4 0 2 , N u r b a k h s h )

" P o o r m a n " l i n k s t h e s a y i n g w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g , n u m b e r 1 9 , a s w e l l as w i t h



S c r e w t a p e s t y le , w i t h h i s i n f e r n a l s u b o r d i n a t e s , in t h e w a k e o f J e s u s ' a d v e n t ) . H e r

i s no t p rec i se ly Ch r i s to log y b u t r a ther the use o f J es us as the idea l asce t i c . T he

o u g h t t o t a k e J e s u s ' e x a m p l e . A n d t h e n w e m u s t lo o k b a c k a t t h e t h r e e f o l d Q

s t o ry . I s i t n o t a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e p o i n t t h e r e , t o o , i s a s c e t i c i s m ? T h e " S o n o f G o d "

i n t h e s t o r y m a y b e s a p i e n t i a l i n o r i g i n a n d c o n n o t a t i o n , a s i n W i s d . of S o l. 2 : 1 3

t h e p e r s e c u t e d r i g h t e o u s m a n is G o d ' s s o n . T h e p o i n t is r e i n f o r c e d w h e n w e r e m

t h e t h r e e q u o t a t i o n s J e s u s i n v o k e s ar e f r o m D e u t e r o n o m y a n d a l l d e a l w i t h h o w t

s h o u l d h a v e r e a c t e d t o t r i a ls i n t h e d e s e r t . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t o f e x e m p l a r y

t h e p i o u s , n o t a n e x c lu s i v e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t J e s u s a s t h e C h r i s t .

I n t h i s s a y i n g , w e h a v e t h e i d e a , p r e s e n t i n t h e Q t e m p t a t i o n n a r r a t i v e , t o o ,

t h e d e v i l c a n q u o t e s c r i p t u r e t o s u i t h i s p u r p o s e . " W e t h i n k o f J a m e s 2 : 1 9 : " Y o u



G o d i s o n e ; y o u d o w e l l . E v e n t h e d e m o n s b e l i e v e — a n d t r e m b l e . " " G o d i s o n e "

f ro m th e Shem a ( "H ear , O I s r ae l , t he Lord o ur G od i s on e . . . " ).

2 1 . W h e n J e s u s w a s b o r n , t h e d e m o n s c a m e t o

Satan

, an d sa id : T he ido l s

o v e r t u r n e d . H e s a id : T h i s i s a m e r e a c c i d e n t t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d ; k e e p s t il l . T h e n

h e h a d g o n e o v e r b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s , a n d f o u n d n o t h i n g . A f t e r t h a t h e f o u n d

M a r y a l re a d y b o r n , w i t h t h e a n g e l s s u r r o u n d i n g h i m . H e r e t u r n e d t o t h e d e m o n s

p r o p h e t w a s b o r n y e s t e r d a y ; n o w o m a n e v e r c o n c e iv e d o r b a r e a c h i l d w i t h o u t m

s a v e t h i s o n e . H o p e n o t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e i d o l s w i l l b e w o r s h i p p e d a f t e r t h i

a t t a c k m a n k i n d t h r o u g h h a s t e a n d t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s . ( I b i d . , i i i . 2 8 )

A s e l s e w h e r e i n I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e K o r a n , t h e J e s u s t r a d i t i

m a t e r i a l f r o m e x t r a c a n o n i c a l so u r c e s . T h e r e f e r e n c e o f t h i s s a y i n g is t o t h e t o p p

i d o l s o f E g y p t d u r i n g t h e s o j o u r n o f t h e H o l y F a m i l y t h e r e {Infancy Gospel

X X I I - X X I I I ) .

1 1

T h e n o t i o n t h a t J e s u s a l o n e w a s b o r n i m m a c u l a t e , w i t h o u t t h e

S a t a n , i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f b o t h I s l a m a n d C a t h o l i c C h r i s t i a n i t y .

2 2 . J e s u s la y d o w n o n e d a y w i t h h i s h e a d u p o n a s t o n e . Satan, pas s ing by , s a i

th ou a r t fond of th i s wo r ld . So he took the s ton e and c as t i t f ro m h i s head , s ay i



t h i n e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e w o r l d . ( A l - G h a z a l i ,

Revival of the Religious Sciences

, i i . 16 9)

H e r e w e f i n d e c h o e s o f d iv e r s e a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n s . J e s u s i s l i k e t h e p a t r i

s eek ing w hate ver r es t i s ava i l ab le up on a s tony p i l low ; on ly he i s no t so fo r tu

p r e d e c e s s o r i n c h a n c i n g t o m e e t G o d ( G e n . 2 8 : 1 2 ) . T h i s t i m e i t i s S a t a n w h o

c h a l l e n g e s J e s u s ' u s e o f t h e s t o n e , a s M a r a t h e T e m p t e r c h a l l e n g e d t h e r i g h t o f

B o d h i s a t t v a t o s i t u p o n t h e e a r t h a s h e s o u g h t e n l i g h t e n m e n t b e n e a t h t h e b o u

B o d h i T r e e . G o t a m a p l a c e d h i s h a n d u p o n t h e e a r t h a n d c a l le d h e r t o w i t n e s s , w h

v i n d i c a t i n g h i s r i g h t . B u t t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t p a r a l l e l i s t h a t o f D i o g e n e s , w h e n h

be l i eved h im se l f d ives te d of a l l b u t bare neces s i ti es , f e l t sh am e a t s ee ing a do g

wa ter and cas t h i s w ood en dr in k i ng bow l away . T he ver s ion in s ay ing 65 i s even

i s a s t r i k i n g C y n i c p a r a l l e l s u c h a s D o w n i n g , M a c k , a n d o t h e r s h a v e c o m p i l e d f o r

i t m a y h a v e a r i s e n a n y w h e r e a n d m o r e t h a n o n c e , a l o n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e v o l u t i o

C h r i s t i a n , a n d S u f i a s c e t i c i s m .

2 3 . J e s u s w a s a s k e d , W h o t a u g h t t h e e ? H e a n s w e r e d : N o o n e t a u g h t m e . I s a

ignorance o f the foo l was a shame, and I avoided i t . ( Ibid. , i i i . 52)

F r e q u e n t l y , " r e v e a l e d " r e l i g i o n s r e p r e s e n t t h e i r f o u n d e r s a s u n l e t t e r e d a n



h u m a n l y i n c a p a b l e o f a u t h o r i n g t h e i r o s t e n s i b l e r e v e l a t i o n s . T h e c l a i m h a s b e e n

J e s u s , P e t e r a n d J o h n , M u h a m m a d , a n d J o s e p h S m i t h . B u t t h a t s e e m s n o t t o b

t h i s t i m e . T h e c o n t r a s t i s n o t C h r i s t o l o g i c a l ( J e su s a s d i v i n e r e v ea l e r v e r s u s h u m a n

a s i n M a t t . 1 1 : 2 5 - 2 7 ) , b u t r a t h e r C y n i c i n n a t u r e : O n e h a r d l y n e e d s t h e s o p h i s t i

o f p h i l o s o p h e r s t o r e c o g n i z e f u n d a m e n t a l w i s d o m , t h a t f o o l i s h b e h a v i o r b r i n g s s h a m

24 . J esu s s a id : B les sed i s he wh o abandons a present pleasure fo r th e s ake of a p ro

w h i c h i s a b s e n t a n d u n s e e n . ( I b i d . )

A g a i n , J e s u s i s m a d e t o s p e a k t h e m a x i m s o f p o p u l a r p h i l o s o p h y , th i s t i m e

b u t E p i c u r e a n ( a n d r e m e m b e r , E p i c u r e a n i s m w a s i t s e lf a k i n d o f a s c e t i c i s m , t h e "

s o u g h t b e i n g t h a t o f m e n t a l t r a n q u i l l i t y a n d p h y s i c a l s e l f - c o n t r o l ) .

S a y i n g 2 4 f o l l o w s n u m b e r 2 3 b e c a u s e o f t h e p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n " a v o i d i n g i g n o r a

o n e a n d " a b a n d o n i n g p l e a s u r e " o n t h e o t h e r .

2 5 . J e s u s s a i d : O c o m p a n y o f a p o s t le s M a k e

hungry

you r l iver s , and bare y

p e r h a p s t h e n y o u r h e a r t s m a y s e e G o d . ( I b i d . , i i i . 6 5 ) .

T h i s s o u n d s l i k e a p a r a p h r a s e o f T h o m a s , s a y i n g 2 7 : " U n l e s s y o u f a s t f r o m



y o u s h a ll n o t f i n d t h e k i n g d o m ; u n l e s s y o u k e e p t h e S a b b a t h a s S a b b a t h , y o u s

t h e F a t h e r . " I f , a s S t e p h e n J . P a t t e r s o n

12

h a s a r g u e d , T h o m a s s t e m s f r o m t h e s

p r o t o - C h r i s t i a n i t i n e r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s a s Q d o e s , w e m a y m a k e t h e s a m e s u g g e s

sor t o f ma ter i a l in the Suf i source used b y a l -G haz a l i .

2 6 . I t i s r e l a t e d h o w J e s u s r e m a i n e d s i x t y d a y s a d d r e s s i n g h i s L o r d , without eating

thought of bread came into his mind, a n d h i s c o m m u n i o n w a s i n t e r r u p t e d , a n d h e

s e t b e f o r e h i m . T h e n h e s a t d o w n a n d w e p t o v e r t h e lo s s o f h i s c o m m u n i o n

b e h e l d a n o l d m a n c l o se t o h i m . J e s u s s a i d u n t o h i m : G o d b l e s s t h e e , t h o u s a i

P r a y t o G o d f o r m e , f o r I w a s i n a n ec s t a sy w h e n t h e t h o u g h t o f b r e a d e n t e r e d

a n d t h e e c st a s y w a s i n t e r r u p t e d . T h e o l d m a n sa i d : O G o d , i f t h o u k n o w e

t h o u g h t o f b r e a d c a m e i n t o m y m i n d s i n c e I k n e w t h e e , t h e n f o r g i v e m e n o t .

i t w a s b e f o r e m e , I w o u l d e a t i t w i t h o u t t h o u g h t o r r e f l e c t i o n . ( I b i d . , ii i . 6 7 )

T h e c a t c h w o r d p h r a s e " w i t h o u t e a t i n g " o b v io u s l y c o n n e c t s t h i s s a y i n g w i

b e f o r e i t , w i t h i t s " m a k e h u n g r y y o u r l i v e r s. "

T h e i s su e o f m e d i t a t i v e a b s o r p t i o n in G o d , u n d i s t u r b e d b y e v e n a s i n g l e

v i n t a g e S u f i s m . T h u s t h e sa y i n g is p r o b a b l y S u f i i n o r i g i n . T h e p o i n t of i t s e e m s

t h e s a m e as M a r t i n L u t h e r ' s c o m m o n s e n s e a d v i c e t o t h o s e w h o w o r r i e d u n d u l y a b o



o f t e m p t a t i o n . L u t h e r s a i d , r o u g h l y , y o u m a y n o t b e a b l e t o s t o p a b i r d f r o m

y o u r h e a d , b u t y o u s u r e c a n s t o p i t f r o m b u i l d i n g a n e s t i n y o u r h a i r

B u t n o t i c e t h a t t h e o l d m a n o u t d o e s J e s u s h i m s e l f : E v e n w h e n e a t i n g h i s c

o n G o d i s n o t i n t e r r u p t e d .

27 . J esu s s a id : Bew are o f g lance s ; fo r they plant passion in the heart, and th a t i s

t empta t ion . ( Ib id . , i i i . 81)

The p l an t ing of pass ion in t he hear t i n t h i s say ing i s t he l i nk to t he prev

w i th i ts l am ent of hu nge r ' s pow er to d i s t ra c t t he asce ti c f rom G od . Th ere i t was

a p p e a ra n c e o f t h e p a s si o n o f h u n g e r t h a t w a s b e m o a n e d . O t h e rw i se w e m a y s i m p l

say ing 27 appears t o be a paraphrase of Mat t . 5 :28 , "Everyone who looks a

l u s t fu l l y h as a l r ea d y c o m m i t t e d a d u l t e ry w i t h h e r i n h is h e a r t , " t h o u g h i t m

i n d e p e n d e n t s a y i n g t o t h e s a m e e f f e c t .

2 8 . J e s u s w a s a s k e d b y s o m e m e n t o g u i d e t h e m t o s o m e c o u r s e b y w h i c h

e n t e r P a ra d i se . H e sa i d : Speak not at all. T h e y sa i d : W e c a n n o t d o t h i s . H e sa i d

say what is good.

( Ib id . , i i i . 87)



L i k e M a rk 1 0 : 1 7 -2 2 , t h i s s a y i n g i s a c la s s ic a p h o p h t h e g m , c o m m o n t o a n c i

l i t e ra tur e . L ike the M ark an say ing , bu t espec ia l ly i n i t s s l i gh t ly mod i f i ed M at

(M at t . 19 :2 3- 30 ) , i t seem s to of fe r a counse l o f p er fe c t ion , im ply ing tha t a l esser

non ethe less acc epta ble. I t is best to dives t onesel f of al l w ea l th , bu t i t wi l l do t

co m m an dm en t s . L ikewise , one is on safest g r ou nd s fo rswe ar ing a l l speech (c f . Ja m

anyone makes no mis t akes in what he says , he i s a per fec t man" ) , bu t speaking onl

wi l l do.

29. Jes us sa id : De vot io n i s o f t en par t s . Nin e of t he m cons i s t i n silence, an d one

( Ib id . )

T he ca t chw ord " s i l ence" l i nks th i s say ing to t he one before . T he en um era t

e l e m e n t s of p i e t y is a c o m m o n S u f i d e v i c e , t h o u g h h a rd l y u n i q u e t o S u f i sm . A g a i n

c o m m e n d e d h e re i s m o r e i n t u n e w i t h The Imitation of C hrist than wi th tha t i n t h

30 . Jesus sa id : Whosoever

lies much

, loses his beauty; and whosoever

wangles

w i th

h i s honour ; and whosoever i s much t roubled , s i ckens in h i s body; and whosoev

disposed\ tortures himself. (Ibid. , i i i . 92)



T ho ug h if t h i s say ing had been inc lud ed a m on g canonica l sc r ip tur e we can b

wo uld ap pea l t o i t as a p rop het i c an t i c ip a t ion of t he d i scov ery of psyc hog enic

wo rry ing y ourse l f int o a case of can cer) , in fact the saying i s a f in e i l lu st r at io n o

sa y i n g s e m b o d y h o m e sp u n o b se rv a t i o n a l w i sd o m . P o p u l a r w i sd o m h a s a l w a y s b e

observe the ph ys i ca l e f fec t s o f a conte n t io us person a l i t y , j us t as people k new to ca

" c o f f i n n a i ls " l o n g b e fo re t h e su rg e o n g e n e ra l c a u g h t u p w i t h t h e m .

Inc ide nta l ly , i t i s w or th ask in g i f , i n l i g h t o f t h i s say ing , we ou gh t t o reco gniz

p o i n t i n t h e Q sa y i n g M a t t . 6 : 2 2 -2 3 / L u l t e 1 1 : 3 4 -3 5 , " T h e e y e i s t h e l a m p o f t h e

you r eye i s sou nd, yo ur who le bo dy wi l l be fu l l o f l i g h t ; bu t i f you r eye i s no t

who le bod y wi l l be fu l l o f darkn ess . I f t h en the l i gh t wh ich i s i n you is dark ness

i s t ha t darkn ess " Th e soun dness of t he eye may re fer t o gener os i ty as oppo sed

eye" of s t i ng ine ss (M at t . 20 :15 , " Is your eye ev i l because I am goo d?" ) . W e mi gh t

t he eye , be in g the win dow of t he soul , wou ld be spok en of as sy m pto m at i c of o

hear t o r li fe . Bu t ins t ead we read of t he eye ind ica t in g t he s t a t e of t h e body. Is t h

sam e as i n t he Suf i say ing , t ha t t he a t t i t u de de t e r m ine s the bod y ' s hea l th? (And

m a t e r i a l s t e m s f ro m w a n d e r i n g p re a c h e r s , w e c a n w e l l i m a g i n e t h e m w a r n i n g h o w

ences ' s t i ng ine ss m ig ht backf i re )



30a . Jo hn the Bapt i s t asked Jes us wh at was the mo st d i f f i cu l t t h i ng to bear .

r e p l i e d : T h e w ra t h o f G o d . T h e n , a sk e d Jo h n ,

what serves most to bring down G

Your own anger, answ ered Jesu s . An d w hat br in gs on one ' s ow n anger? asked Joh n .

Pr ide , conce i t , va ing lory and a r rogance . ( Ib id . , p . 183)

Ag ain , as i n t he prec edin g say ing , t he irony is t ha t you have only yourse l f t o

your t o rment , whether i n t h i s wor ld or i n t he next , s ince "God ' s wra th" toward you

m a g n i f i c a t i o n o f so m e a t t i t u d e o f y o u r o w n .



what He knows not. (Ibid. , i i i . 107)

Here i s more ev i l - speaking , o r a t l eas t t he condemnat ion of t he same. Thos

Go d ' s nam e in va in by swe ar ing a fa l se oa th , "Go d kno ws I d id n ' t s t ea l your don k

in fact he doesn't know, s ince you did s t ea l i t ) a re "ac cus tom ing the i r t on gue s to ev

33 . Mal ik , son of Dinar , sa id : Jesus one day walked wi th h i s apos t l es , and they p

carcass of a dog.

The ap ostles said: How foul

i s t he smel l o f t h i s do g Bu t Jes us

wh i t e a re i t s t ee th ( Ib id . , i i i. 108)

Th i s say ing shares wi th nu mb er 3 1 before i t and n um be r 34 fo l lowing i t t h

wh ich Jesu s ' rem ark i s pr om pte d by a "passing sight" (as Bu dd hism cal ls them ). In

might have been expected to make a negat ive remark but makes a posi t ive one



saying 31, the sight i s that of an unclean hog; in 33 i t i s that of a reeking dog c

story works a bi t b et ter in that Jesu s ' rema rk, superfluo us in i t sel f, i s mo t ivated by

rem ark of th e apost les. Jesu s would have k ep t si lent if they h ad, bu t as long as the

to say someth ing bad , he must counter i t w i th someth ing good.

W h y i s t h e s a y in g p re c e d e d b y a n a t t r i b u t i o n , l i k e t h e hadith, t rad i t i ona l a

t h e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ? P e rh a p s b e c a u se o f t h e t i n g e o f s i l l i n e s s , w h i c h m i g h t

as i r reveren t un less vou ched for by a person of we l l -kn ow n p ie ty .

3 4 . Christ passed by cer t a in of t he Jews, who spake ev i l o f h im; bu t he spake go

i n r e t u rn .

It was said to him: Verily

these speak

ill

of t hee , and dos t t hou speak

said: Each gives out of his store. (Ib id. , i i i . 134 )

Th i s t h i r d vers ion of t he t ra d i t i o n seen a l so in say ings 31 and 3 3 i s t he m o

wel l as t he most en l igh ten ing . I t seems to connec t two gospe l i deas i n such a

make one expla in the o ther . The advice of Luke 6 :28 i s t o "b l ess t hose who curs

Q sa y i n g L u k e 6 : 4 5 / M a t t . 1 2 : 3 4 b o b serv e s : " O u t o f t h e a b u n d a n c e o f t h e h e a r t

speaks . Th e good m an out of h i s good t reasure b r ing s for th go od , and the ev i l

h i s ev i l t reasure br ing s for th ev i l ." W h a t is t he conn ec t ion? Th e goo d-h ear t ed



not have to re ig n h imse l f i n when insu l t ed , cho kin g b ack a s t i n g in g re jo ind er

s i m p l y

not in him

to un leash invec t ives , even when deserved . He wi l l no more r

harsh words than he wi l l i n i t i a t e t hem.

35 . Jesus sa id : Take not t he

world

for you r lord, lest i t take y ou for i t s s laves.

treasure wi th h im who wi l l no t was t e i t , e t c . ( Ib id . , i i i . 151)



you\

raise her not up af ter m e. I t i s a m ark of th e fou lness of th is world t

d i sobeyed ther e in , and th a t t he future world cann ot be a t t a in ed save by ab an do nm

pass then through th i s wor ld , and l i nger no t t here ; and know tha t t he roo t o f e

love of t he w or ld . O f t e n does the p l easure of an ho ur bes tow on h im th a t en j

pain. (Ibid. )

H e re so m e o n e i s r e m e m b e r i n g t h e g i s t o f Jo h n c h a p t e r 1 6 , p a r t o f Jo h n

Discours e of Jes us to h i s d i sc ip l es , where Jesu s warns of t he en mi ty of t h e wor

i m m i n e n t d e p a r t u r e f ro m i t ( h e re : " a f t e r m e " ) . B u t t h e y a r e n o t t o b e i n t i m i d a t

wo r ld yo u have t r i b u la t ion , bu t be of goo d cheer : I have overc om e the wo r ld" (J

Bu t , i n accord w i th i t s asce t i ca l ben t , we a re no t surpr i sed to read in t h e Su

w arn ing , no t aga ins t pers ecut io n , bu t aga ins t wor ld l iness , be ing a t ease in Z ion .



T h e m e n d i c a n t w a n d e r i n g m o t i f a p p e a r s a g a i n h e re , a s d o e s a r e f le c t i o n o f

say ing "T he love of m one y i s t he m oth er c i t y of a l l ev i l s ." (Cf . 1 T i m . 6 :1 0 , "T

money i s t he roo t o f a l l ev i l s . " ) The theme of momentary p l easure cos t ing too m

long t e rm is an Epicure an t ru i sm .

37 . He sa id aga in : I have laid the world low for you, and ye are seated upon i t s ba

k i n g s a n d w o m e n d i s p u t e w i t h y o u t h e p o s s e ss i on of i t . D i s p u t e n o t t h e w o r l d w i t h

t h e y w i l l n o t o f f e r y o u w h a t y o u h a v e a b a n d o n e d a n d t h e i r w o r l d ; b u t g u a r d a g a

by f as t in g and prayer . ( Ib id . )

W e h a v e n o t r o u b l e r e c o g n i z i n g h e r e a n o t h e r v e r s io n o f t h e s a y i n g j u s t d i s

t h e r e c u r r i n g f e a t u r e s s u p p l y t h e c a t c h w o r d s l e a d i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t a r r a n g e m e n t

t h e J o h a n n i n e b a s is o f t h e s a y i n g , h o w e v e r , s e e m s t o b e t h e s a m e s e n t i m e n t w e

G o s p e l o f T h o m a s , s a y i n g 2 1 : " M a r y s a i d t o J e s u s : W h o a r e t h y d i s c i p l e s l ik e ? H e

a r e l i k e l i t t l e c h i l d r e n w h o h a v e i n s t a l l e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a f i e l d w h i c h i s n o t t h e i r s

ow ners o f the f i e ld co m e, they wi l l s ay : Re lease to us ou r f i e ld . Th ey w i l l t ak

c l o t h e s b e f o r e t h e m t o re l e a se i t t o t h e m a n d t o g i v e b a c k t h e i r f i e l d t o t h e m .

s ay : I f the lo rd o f the house kn ow s tha t th e th ie f i s co m in g , he wi l l s t ay aw ak

c o m e s a n d w i l l n o t l e t h i m d i g t h r o u g h i n t o h i s h o u s e o f h i s k i n g d o m t o c a rr



g o o d s . Y o u t h e n m u s t w a t c h f o r t h e w o r l d , g i r d u p y o u r l o i n s w i t h g r e a t s t r e n g

b r i g a n d s f i n d a w a y t o c o m e t o y o u , b e c a u s e t h e y w i l l f i n d t h e a d v a n t a g e y o u e x

T h i s p a s s a g e i n T h o m a s i s i n t u r n d e r i v e d f r o m a v a g u e m e m o r y q u o t a t i

c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l t e x t s . T h e f i r s t i s t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e w i c k e d t e n a n t s in M a r k

m a n p l a n t e d a v i n e y a r d . . . a n d l e t i t o u t t o t e n a n t s , a n d w e n t a w a y i n t o a n o t h

W h e n t h e t i m e c a m e , h e s e n t a s e r v a n t t o t h e t e n a n t s , t o g e t f r o m t h e m s o m e

of the v iney ard . . . ") . Th e second i s t he parab le of t he un fa i th fu l s t ewa rd towar d

t h e M a rk a n A p o c a l y p se , 1 3 : 3 4 -3 7 , w h i c h e n d s w i t h t h e e x h o r t a t i o n , " Wa t c h t h e re fo

do not kn ow wh en the m aste r o f t he hous e wi l l com e . . . , l es t he co me su dde nl

you as l eep . " Thomas ' vers ion makes the t enant s i n to the d i sc ip l es ra ther t han the

Jesus and b ids t hem acknowledge the c l a im of t he f i e ld ' s /v ineyard ' s t rue owner (pe

or t he Gnost i c Demiurge) . L ikewise , t he owner of t he house has become, no t t he

c o m i n g is a w a i t e d , b u t r a t h e r t h e o n e w h o a w a i t s t h e c o m i n g o f a n o t h e r— a t h i e f .

a l l egor i ca l cou nter pa r t s have sh i f t e d ro l es . O ne awa i t s no t G od bu t t he devi l (c f .

T he Suf i vers ion garb l es t h ing s fu r the r , ad din g to t he genera l asce t i c horro r of

w o r l d a sp e c i f ic w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e d e l i g h t s of w o m e n .

38 . H e said aga in : T he w or ld seeks and i s so ug ht . I f a ma n seeks the next wor ld ,



seeks h im t i l l he ob ta in the re in h i s fu l l sus t ena nce ; b u t i f a ma n seeks th i s wo r l

wor ld seeks h im t i l l dea th com es and t akes h im by the th ro a t . ( Ib id . )

T h i s is a n a l t e rn a t i v e v e rs i o n o f M a t t . 6 : 3 1 -3 3 / L u k e 1 2 : 2 9 - 3 1 . L u k e ' s v e r s i o

the c om m on Q or ig ina l , reads , "D o no t seek wh at you a re t o ea t and w ha t you a

nor be of anxious mi nd . For a l l t he na t ions of t he wor ld seek these th in gs ; and

kno ws tha t you need th em . Ins t ead , seek h is k in gd om , and th ese th i ng s sha l l

wel l . " Th e Fa ther ' s k ing do m i s , o f cou rse , t he "next wo r ld" of t he Suf i vers ion .

a b s t a i n i n g f ro m t h e p u r su i t o f w o r l d l y n e c e s s i t i e s , t h e p i o u s m a n b e c o m e s a m a g n

very provi s ions , t han ks to t he provide nce of G od . Th i s i s t he fa i th no t o f t he co

re l ig ious householder , bu t o f t he wander ing bre thren of t he Son of Man wh

g u a ra n t e e d p l a c e t o l ay t h e i r h e a d s (M a t t . 8 : 2 0 / L u k e 9 : 5 8 ) , w h o a re t h u s d e p e

s t rang ers t o pr ov ide for t he m (L uke 10:7) . Th e second p ar t o f t he say ing , t he coro

the L ukan parab le of t he Rich Fool (12 :1 6- 20 ) , i n wh ich we read of a m an ca

pu rsu i t o f wor ld ly secur i ty , un t i l t he Gr im Reap er s tops h im shor t on the eve of

39 . Jes us sa id : T he love of t h i s wor ld and of the next cannot agree in a be l i ever ' s

as f i re and water cannot agree in a single vessel . (Ibid. , i i i . 152)



A g a i n , i n d e n t u re d s e rv i c e t o t w o c o m p e t i n g m a s t e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y j u s t w i l l n

i n M a t t . 6 : 1 9 - 2 1 , a n d i n s a y in g 3 5 . T h i s s a y i n g o w e s i t s p o s i t io n a f t e r n u m b e r

recurrence here of t he phrase " the next (wor ld) . "

40 . Jesu s be ing asked , W h y dos t t hou no t t ake a house to shelter thee? said: The r

tha t were be fore us are good en ou gh for us. (Ibid. ii i . 153 )

Ag ain , t he Son of Man (and th ose wh o appea l t o h im as t he i r ex em plar )

p l ace to res t h i s head . I t is good en ou gh n ot t o have to go nake d . Actua l ly , som e

D i g a m b a r a ( " sk y -c la d " ) J a i n i s t asc e ti c s d i d g o a ro u n d n a k e d , w e a t h e r p e rm i t t i n g

reference to wear in g the rags of our fo rbears i n t he fa i th wo uld idea l ly f i t t he ear

p ra c t i c e o f a p p ro p r i a t i n g t h e sh ro u d s o f t h e d i s i n t e g r a t e d d e a d fo r c l o t h i n g . B u t t

i s mo st l i ke ly to t he han d- m e-d ow n p a tche d rob es of t he Suf i s , and the say ing

have a r i sen among the i r ranks .

41 . I t is recorded th a t one day Jes us was sore t roub led by the ra in and th

l i g h t n i n g , a n d b e g a n t o s e ek a shelter. H i s eye fe ll up on a t en t hard by ; bu t wh

there , f i n d in g a w om an ins ide , he tu rn ed away f r om i t . Th en h e no t i ced a

m ou nta in ; bu t wh en he cam e th i the r , t here was a l i on there . Laying h i s han d up o



he sa id : My Go d, t ho u has t g iven each th i ng a res t ing p l ace , bu t to me tho u

non e Th en Go d revea led to h im : Th y res t in g-p la ce i s i n t he abo de of my me rcy;

wed thee on the day of j u dg m en t . . . and m ak e thy br ida l feas t fou r t hou san

wh ich each day is l i ke a l i fe - t im e in t h i s p rese n t wor ld ; and t ha t I may co m m an

to proc l a im: W he re a re t hey tha t fas t i n this world? Co me to the b r ida l feas t o f

fas t ed in t h i s wo r ld ( Ib id . )

T h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s s a y i n g , c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p r e v i o u s o n e b y t h e s h e l t e r m o

r e g a r d e d a s a n a r r a t i v e p a d d i n g o u t of t h e p r e v i o u s s a y i n g , a s w e l l a s o f M a t t

9 :5 8 . N o te th a t , as a go od asce t i c , J es us is l ess a f r a id o f p hys ic a l da ng er , the l i

m o r a l , t h e w o m a n .

T h e s e c o n d p a r t , t h e p r o m i s e o f J e s u s ' m i l l e n n i a l r e c o m p e n s e b y G o d , m a y

R e v . 1 9 : 1 - 9 ( " B le s se d a r e t h o s e [ c e l i b a t e a s c e t i c s — 1 4 : 1 - 5 } w h o a r e i n v i t e d t o t

s u p p e r o f t h e l a m b " ) c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e G r e a t S u p p e r ( M a t t . 2

1 4 : 1 6 - 2 4 ) , e s p e c i a l l y M a t t h e w ' s v e r s i o n , i n w h i c h t h e b a n q u e t i s a w e d d i n g r e c e

k ing ' s son .

4 la . 'Ammar ebn Sa 'd r e l a t es tha t J esus a r r ived a t a v i l l age where the inhab i t an



l y ing dead in the pa thw ays and a ro und the h ouses . O com pan y of d i s c ip les , he d

c o m m u n i t y h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y t h e w r a t h of G o d ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e y w o u l d

proper ly bur i ed . O Spi r i t o f G od , they urg ed , l e t us have news of wha t has h

t h e m S o J e s u s i n v o k e d G o d ' s n a m e , a n d a r e v e la t i o n c a m e , w h e r e b y G o d t o l d h i m

t o t h e v i l l a g er s a f t e r n i g h t f a l l t o o b t a i n t h e a n s w e r . W h e n n i g h t c a m e , J e s u s w e n t u

an d ha i l ed t he dead p opu lace , and one of the v il l ager s answe red u p : A t your s e rv i

of G od Jesus asked what had h appen ed to t hem . Th e rep ly came: we spen t a pe

an d w oke up in the mo rn in g to f ind ourselves in the p i t of Hel l . Jes us asked why.

loved the world, came th e answer, and obeyed the behe st of s in ful people. In w h

you love the wo rld?, que ried Je sus. T he w ay a chi ld loves i t s mo the r, was the reply

i t came to , we were happy, and whenever i t went away, we became sad and wept .

asked , W h y do your com rades no t speak up? Harsh and bru t a l ange l s have c l amp

bi t s on the i r mouths , t he vo ice answered . Then how i s i t you a re ab l e t o speak

Jesus . I was no t o f t h em , sa id the o ther , even tho ugh I was wi t h the m. W h e n

descended , I rema ined a mo ng st t he m. At p resen t , I am a t t he edge of He l l , n

whe ther I sha l l be saved or cas t dow n in to the in ferna l dep ths . At t h i s po in t Jesu

his disciples and told th em : Ea t ing barley bread wi th rock sal t and w earin g sa

s l eep ing on dunghi l l s i n squa lor i s more than enough to assure one ' s wel l -be ing in



and the next . (Ibid. , iv . p . 562)

T h e t h e m e of " th i s w o r l d " c o n t i n u e s u n a b a t e d . T h i s s a y i n g a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g

brack e ted to ge the r by the i r com m on use of t he mo t i f o f t he reve la t ion of t he do o

to s inners . In t h e pres en t say ing , i t i s t he d i sc ip l es of Jes us who are sho wn the

fa t e of t he wor ld ly , po te n t i a l l y i n c lu din g them selves un less t hey watch t he i r s t ep .

say ing , t he i r fa t e is revea l ed to t ho se s inners a t dea th .

This say ing i s a k ind of min ia ture apoca lypse on the order of t he Apoca lypse

the Apoca lypse of Pe t e r , where the d i sc ip l es a re vouchsafed a t e r r i fy ing v i s ion

f ina l ly ge t t i ng the i r j us t rewards .

4 2 . J e su s s a id : W o e u n t o h i m w h o h a t h this world, see ing tha t he must d i e and l e

al l th at i s in i t I t deceives h im , yet he t rus ts in i t ; he rel ies up o n i t , and i t b

W o e u n t o t h e m t h a t a r e d e c e i v e d W h e n t h e y sh a l l b e sh o w n w h a t t h e y l o a t h e , a

aba ndo ned by wh at t hey love ; and sha l l be over t a ken by tha t wh ere wi th they a re

Wo e u n t o h i m w h o se c a re i s the world, and wh ose wo rk i s s in; seein g tha t one d

be d i sgr ace d by h i s s in . ( Ib id . )

Th i s t h rea t o f he l l f i re and w or ld ly vani ty fo l lows the prev ious say ing becau



c o m m o n u se o f t h e p h ra se " t h i s w o r l d . "

43 . Jes us sa id : W h o i s i t t ha t bu i ld s upo n th e waves of t h e sea? Such i s

the wo

not for your res t ing-p lace . ( Ib id . )

T h e i m a g e i s a d a p t e d f ro m t h a t i n M a t t . 7 : 2 4 -2 7 / L u k e 6 : 4 7 - 4 9 . T h a t i t i s n o

a l t e rna t ive , para l l e l , and independent say ing i s ev ident f rom the more fa r - fe t ched

t he meta pho r . Wh i l e no one could ev er im ag ine bu i ld ing on the sea , i t i s bar

t h a t so m e o n e m i g h t b e s t u p i d e n o u g h t o b u i l d u p o n sa n d y g ro u n d , a s e n v i s i o

M at th ea n vers ion . W he nc e the sea waves of t he Suf i vers ion? T he inru sh i ng wave

v e r s i o n w h i c h d e s t ro y t h e p o o r l y g ro u n d e d h o u se h a v e b e c o m e t h e m se l v e s

fou nd at io n of t h e hous e in t he Suf i vers ion . I t i s a case of gar b l ed me mo ry qu ota t

Th i s say ing has been jo ined to t he prev ious one by the i r com m on use of "

y

H i * T 4t - fefct * *

44 . Som e said to Jesus : Teach us som e doc t r ine for wh ich Go d wi l l l ove us . Jes us

the world, and God wi l l love you. (Ibid. )

A th i rd sa y ing f ea t ur in g " the wo r ld" has been app end ed here . T he say ing se t s



m a n , t h e e r ro n e o u s a s su m p t i o n t h a t G o d ' s f a v o r i t e s a r e t h o se w h o h a p p e n t o b e l i e v

creed . W i t h th i s fa l se ass um pt io n i s sw ept away the dep ic t ion of Jesus as pr im ar i ly

of doc t r ines . Do we read in t oo mu ch i f w e see here the re l ega t ion of t h eo log ica l

a par t o f t ha t wor ld l iness whic h G od and h i s l oved ones a l ike desp i se?

I t i s t empt ing to make the say ing l a t e because of t he poss ib l e re f l ec t ion o

ecu me ni sm tha t saw a l l pos i t i ve re l ig ion s as me re cocoons for t he sp i r i t ua l i t y

wi th in , an asce t i c sp i r i t ua l i t y , o f course . Bu t on the o th er h an d , t he wo r ld-n ega t i

qu i t e o ld , as wi tness 1 Jo h n 2 :15 : "Love not t h e wor ld , nor t h e th in gs in t he w

any man love the wor ld the love of t he Fa ther i s no t i n h im."

45 . Jes us sa id : Ye com pan y of apos t l es , be sa t i s f i ed wi th a hu m bl e po r t io n in th

you r fa i th be wh ole ; even as t he pe ople of t h i s wor ld a re sa t i s f i ed w i th a hu m bl e

fa i th , so this world be secured to t hem . ( Ib id . , i i i . 154)

Th i s i s a para l l e l wi th th e ind ep en de nt asce t i ca l say ing Luk e 16:8b , "For t he

age a re more shrewd in dea l ing wi th the i r genera t ion than the sons of l i gh t . " L

o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h s e e k i n g t h e n e x t w o r l d , o n e s i m p l y w i l l n o t b e

to deal wi th w orld ly affai rs , an d v ice versa.



46. Jesus sa id : O thou tha t seekes t

this world

to do cha r i ty , t o aband on i t

char i t ab l e . ( Ib id . )

Th i s say ing , l ike the l as t one , re fe rs t o " th i s wor ld" ; hen ce the i r l i n k in g here .

W h a t is t he in t en t ion Jes us reb ukes? Appa ren t ly , t he pe rson in v i ew does no

to g ive char i ty i n t h i s wor ld , bu t t o ga i n the wea l th of t he wor ld so as t o have



Th is say ing is a be t t e r vers ion of Ma t t . 6 :2 4 : "N o one can serve two mas te rs

he wi l l ha t e t he f i r s t and love the second, o r he wi ll be dev oted to t he f i r s t and

se c o n d . Y o u c a n n o t se rv e G o d a n d M a m m o n . " L o v i n g a n d h a t i n g t w o sl a ve m

som eho w bes ide the po in t . An d i f t he po in t i s no t t o t ry t o se rve tw o objec t s

devot ion , why say the s l ave must l ove the one and desp i se t he o ther? I f you ha

y o u r m i n d ' s m a d e u p : y o u r a f f e c t i o n s a r e

no t

d iv ided . The Suf i vers ion i s c l earer : T

tw o wom en sees no mor e conf l i c t i n l ov ing bo th tha n the r i ch re l ig ious person se

both Go d a nd money. I t is no t t ha t he loves e i th er ob jec t less , bu t ra the

t w o - t i m i n g a n n o y s b o t h o f

them.

E v e n so , w e m u s t i m a g i n e t h a t i t i s G o d a n d M

Buddhi s t Mara) who desp i se t he would-be s l ave of bo th , no t t he s l ave who desp i

the m wh i l e l ov ing th e o ther . I f he d id the l a t t e r , wh ence th e conf l i c t i n t he f i r s t

T h i s s a y i n g h a s b e e n p l a c ed a f t e r t h e p re c e d i n g b e c a u se t h e c o m p i l e



recogn ized the no t io n of ga in ing w eal th in orde r t o g ive (par t o f ) i t to

Nurbakhsh ' s t rans l a t ion : "O you who seek a f t e r wor ld ly goods , i n order t o

wo rks . . . . ") as a se l f -decept ive excuse to beco me or rem ain wea l thy w hi l e c l a im ing

s t r a t e g y i s t h u s an a t t e m p t t o c o u r t b o t h G o d a n d M a m m o n , fo o li sh ly i m a

n e i t h e r w i l l m i n d .



t he sp i r i t o f t he age wi l l o f t en f ind h imsel f a wid ow er"— to wh ich one mi gh t a

bet ter than the al ternat ive of necrophi l ia .

W h y has th i s say ing been a r rang ed to fo l low the one before i t ? Th e l i nk i s b

o u t e r g a rm e n t " i n n u m b e r 4 7 a n d t h e w o m a n ' s g a u d y " o rn a m e n t s " h e re i n n u m b e r

49 . Jes us sa id : Of a t ru th I say un to you , even as t he s i ck ma n looks a t t he fo o

not en joy i t , owing to t he v io l ence of h i s pa in ; even so the man of this worl

pleasure in worsh ip , ne i ther t as t es i t s sweetness for t he love of t h i s wor ld whic

An d of a t ru th I say un to yo u , t ha t even as a beas t , i f he be no t r i dd en an

becom es in t ra c t ab le and chan ges h i s charac t e r ; even so , i f t he hear t be no t sof t e

t h o u g h t o f d e a t h , a n d t h e f a t i g u e o f d e v o t i o n , i t b e c o m e s h a rd a n d ro u g h . A n d o

say unto you , t ha t even as a

bottle

, so lon g as i t is not re nt n or dry, i s f i t to



even so the he ar t , as i t i s no t t o r n by pass ion , nor b efouled by des i re , nor h

c o m fo r t , sh a l l b e c o m e a vessel for wi sdom. ( Ib id . , i i i . 161 . )

Th i s se t o f t h ree s imi l i t u de s i s l i nke d w i th the pre ced ing say ing by the prese

of t he "w or ld . " Beyon d th i s , t he say ing is perh aps rem ark ab le for i t s un usu a l an t

Schle i e rmacher ' s aes the t i c approach to re l ig ion , "a sense and t as t e for t he Inf in i t e . "

T h e ( to u s m o rb i d ) m e d i t a t i o n u p o n d e a t h , u rg e d h e re , i s sh o w n p ra c t i c e

h imsel f i n say ings 75 and 76 .

50 . Jes us sa id : H e th a t seeks a f t e r t h i s wor ld i s l i ke one tha t d r ink s sea-water, t

d r inks , t he th i rs t i e r he becomes , un t i l i t s l ay h im. ( Ib id . )

T h i s e x c e ll e n t s i m i l i t u d e is l i n k e d t o t h e p re v i o u s s a y i n g s b y t h e m e n t i o n i n

of "vesse l " and "bot t l e , " whi l e number 49 ment ions dr ink ing . The asce t i c couns

of t e n in Su f i sm , sou nds a lm ost B ud dh i s t : I t i s , w i t h t rag i c i rony , t he very

despera t e ly seeks for sus t enan ce tha t wi l l po i son one .

51 . T he ap os t l es sa id to Jesus : How i s i t t ha t t ho u ca ns t walk upo n th e

water

,



c a n n o t ? H e sa id u n t o t h e m : W h a t t h i n k y e o f the dinar and the dirham? Th ey sa i

prec iou s . H e sa id : Bu t t o me they a re equa l w i th the d i r t . ( Ib id . , ii i . 175)

W alk ing u po n the water i s a favor i t e Suf i t he me , and s om e Suf i my st i cs have

be ab le t o do i t . Th i s say ing pre suppo ses th e same l i nk we f ind in t he Apoc ryp

the Apo st l es be twee n doce t i c Chr i s to log y and asce ti ca l p rac t i ce . H ow has Jes us

defy grav i ty , o r i n o th er w ords to t ak e on the insub s t an t i a l i t y of a gh os t (c f . t he

Spi r i t o f God") so cha t mere water ho lds h im up? He has par t ed company once

wi th bo th the denar ius and the drachma. These , i n t he pocke t s of o thers , would a

a n c h o r s d ra g g i n g t h e m d o w n b e n e a t h t h e w a v e s .

52 . Jesus sa id : There a re t h ree dangers i n wealth'. F i rs t , i t may be t aken f rom

source . An d w ha t i f i t be t ake n f rom a l aw ful source? they asked . He an swer ed:

g ive n to an un w or thy perso n . Th ey asked: An d w hat i f i t be g iven to a wo r thy

answ ered: T he ha nd l ing of i t ma y d ive r t i t s own er f ro m G od . ( Ib id . , i i i. 178)

Saying 52 i s j o ined to 51 above because "weal th " here re f l ec t s " the d inar a nd

(R o m a n c o i n s ) t h e re .

53 . Jes us sa id : S tore up for yourse lves so m eth ing whic h the fire wi l l no t devour .



W h a t i s t ha t ? He an swe red: Mercy . ( Ib id . , i i i. 184)

In view here is an esc hatological scene l ike that in 1 Cor. 3:13 : "Each m a n s

bec om e man ifest ; for the D ay wi l l disclose i t , because i t wi l l be revealed w i th f

f i re wi l l test wh at sort of w ork each one has do ne." Pa ul warn s that wo od, hay

cannot surv ive such t empera tures , whi l e go ld , s i l ver , and gems wi l l p rove l as t i ng



bew i ldered ; as t ho ug h ye su m m on ed the inhab i t an t s of t h e wor ld to l eave i t t o

s t ay W oe unt o you W h a t does i t p rof i t a dark house tha t a l am p be se t on the

wh en a l l i s dark wi th in? Even so i t p rof i t s you not t ha t t he l i gh t o f t he w or ld

u p o n y o u r m o u t h s w h e n y o u r hearts are dest i tute thereof. Ye slaves of this wor

ne i th er fa i t h fu l s laves nor hono rable f reem en , soon wi ll t he wor ld pu l l you ou t b

an d cast you on you r faces; and then y our sins shal l take hold of you r fore locks

you f ro m beh ind , t i l l t hey hand you over naked and de s t i t u t e t o t he R oyal Ju dg

sha l l show you your w ickedness , and m ak e you asha med of yo ur ev i l deeds . ( Ib id . ,

Ha s som eone reco l l ec t ed ther e be in g a l ong den un cia t ion by Jesu s of t he

P h a r i s e e s su c h a s w e f i n d in M a t t . 2 3 a n d Jo h n 5 , b u t c o u l d n ' t r e m e m b e r i t ?

l i ke a k in d of pas t i che , d r aw ing on som e N ew T es t am en t mater i a l s , t o be

ju dg m en t" se rves to l i nk th e say ing w i th th e prec edin g one ' s re fe rence to t he re f i



Ju d g m en t Day, j us t as t he rep ea ted re fe rences to t he "hea r t " l i nk th i s one wi t h

say ing fo l lowing th i s one .

54a . Jes us to ld h i s d i sc ip l es : W he ne ve r one of you shou ld fas t , he shou ld sm ear gr

ha i r and face and l i ps , so tha t no one is aware of h i s fa s t ing ; and wh en he g iv

r ig h t ha nd , h i s l e f t han d should no t k no w wh at h i s r i gh t hand i s do ing ; and w he



55. Ch r i s t sa id : B lessed is he wh om Go d t eaches Hi s bo ok , and wh o does no t

(Ibid. , i i i . 256)

He re is a merc i fu l ly sho r t e r c om pla in t ag a ins t ev i l scholars , t hose who are l ea

t eaching of sc r ip ture bu t a re puffed up wi th conce i t over t he i r l ea rn ing .

T he note about p r ide , add ed to t he re fe rences to " the hea r t " i n t h e pre ce d

serves to l i nk bo th say ings 54 an d 55 wi th nu m be rs 56 and 57 , i n wh ich both t e rm

Nurbakhsh ' s t rans l a t ion , "Blessed i s he who surrenders as God ' s book guides ,

not die as an oppressor," gives a very di fferent sense, one paral lel to Col . 4:1.

55a . God revea led to Jesu s : "W he n I bes tow u po n you a b l ess ing , rece ive i t



g ra t i t u d e , t h a t I m a y l a v ish u p o n y o u m y e n t i r e b o u n t y . " ( Ib i d . , 1 4 , p . 9 4 5 , N u rb a

The sen t iment i s an o ld one , go ing back a t l eas t as fa r as Deut . 8 :17-18 , "

you say in your hear t , 'My power and the might of my hand have got t en me t

You sha l l rem em be r Yahve your G od , for i t i s he wh o g ives you po wer to ge t we

N o t e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e a d j e c t i v e

humble

in this saying, as of

proud

in t he

i t , s i nce bo th wi l l reappea r in t he fo l low ing say ing .

56 . Ch r i s t sa id : Th e reed grow s in t he p l a in , bu t does no t g row on th e roc

w i sd o m w o rk s u p o n t h e

heart

of the

humble

, bu t does no t work upon the hear t o

See ye no t , t ha t i f a man l i f t s h i s head to t he roof i t wounds h im, whereas i f he

h i s head the roof she l t e rs h im? ( Ib id . i i i . 261)

Again , no te t he ca t chword theme of pr ide in t he hear t .

57 . Jes us sa id : Be aut i fu l ra im ent i s pride of heart. (Ibid. i i i . 269)

T h i s s e n t i m e n t , t h o u g h r e a so n a b l e e n o u g h , s e e m s c o n t r a d i c t o ry t o t h e M a t t h e a

hidden p i e ty whereby one ought no t t o a l l ow inward p i e ty to be re f l ec t ed

dem eano r . For M at the w ' s Jesus , a publ i c d i sp l ay of p i e ty i s a g rea t e r t em pta t io n



t h a n a p u b l i c d i sp l a y o f w e a l t h a n d b e a u t y (M a t t . 6 : 1 6 -1 8 ) .

5 8 . J e su s s a i d : W h y c o m e y e u n t o m e w i t h t h e g a rm e n t s o f m o n k s u p o n y o u ,

hear t s a re t he

hearts of ravening wolves

? Pu t on the robes of k ing s , and m or t i f y

wi th fear. (Ibid. )

In view are the wool ga rm en t s of t he Suf i s (or Syr i an Ch r i s t i an m on ks) and

t rad i t i ona l warn ing aga ins t wolves in

sheep's

c l o t h i n g . A l so , t h e c a t c h w o rd c o n n

"hea r t " i s car r i ed s t i l l fu r ther . N ow we do hear som eth ing l i ke Mat th ew ' s h id de

t h a t p r e t e n d e r s t o p i e t y ar e r a t h e r t o d o n i m p i o u s g a r b u n t i l t h e i r s e l f -m o r t i f i c a t

them to the woolen habi t o f t he t rue peni t en t .

59 . I t i s nar ra t ed tha t t here was a robber am on g the c h i ldre n of I s rae l wh o had

h ig hw ay for ty years , wh en Jes us passed by h im w i th a p ious Is rae l i t e , wh o was

T he ro bber sa id in h is hear t : He re is t he Pro ph et o f G od pass ing wi t h h i s apo

s ide ; what i f I come out and make a t h i rd? Coming for th , he t r i ed to approach

a l l t he whi l e desp i s ing h imsel f and magni fy ing the apos t l e , and th ink ing tha t such

not wor th y to walk by the s ide of t ha t r i gh te ou s man . Th e apos t l e perce ived h im



t o h imse l f : Sha l l such a ma n walk by m y s ide? and ga the r in g h i s sk i r t s t oge the

and w alked by the s ide of Jesu s , so tha t t he robb er remain ed be hin d . Th en G

u n t o J e su s : S ay u n t o t h e m , th e y m u s t b e g i n t h e i r w o rk f ro m t h e b e g i n n i n g ,

cance led the i r p rev ious deeds ; I have cance led the good deeds of the apostle for hi

and the ev i l deeds of t he o the r for h is se l f -a base me nt . Th en Jesu s to ld the m o

took the robb er for h i s co mp ani on in h i s p i lg r im ag e , and m ad e h im one of h i s

ap

iv. 120)

Thi s t a l e essen t i a l l y recas t s t he parab le of t he Phar i see and the Publ i can (Luk

C h r i s t i a n i z i n g i t . N o t e t h a t t h e t h e m e of t h e a p o s t l e 's s e l f - c o n c e i t m a t c h e s t

hypocr i t i ca l monks in t he prev ious say ing .

60 . I t i s recorded tha t Jesus sa id : Ye company of the apostles fear t ransgr ess ion ,

Prophet s fear unbel i e f . ( Ib id . i v . 135)

The address t o " the company of apos t l es" here l i nks the say ing wi th the r

apos t l es i n t he prev ious one , as wel l as wi th the next say ing .

61 . Chr i s t sa id : Ye company of apostles, the fear of G od an d love of P arad ise give

t r i b u la t ion an d a l i en a t e men f rom the wo r ld . Ver i ly I say un to yo u , t ha t t h e



b a r l e y -b re a d a n d

sleeping

w i th dogs up on a du ng hi l l in t he search for Parad i se

t h ing . ( Ib id . i v . 143)

W e a re f a r f ro m t h e S o n o f M a n w h o c a m e e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g , w h o

plaus ib ly accused of be ing a dr un k and a g l u t to n (M at t . 11 :19) Th e neu ro t

m o n a s t i c e x t r e m i sm m e e t s u s h e re .

62 . Chr i s t passed in h i s wa nde r ing s by a m an asleep, wra ppe d in a robe . H e wok

sa i d : O t h o u t h a t s l e e p e s t , r i se a n d m a k e m e n t i o n o f G o d . H e sa i d : W h a t w i l t t

Ver i ly I have l e f t t he wor ld to t hem tha t a re

of the world.

H e sa i d u n t o h i m : T h e

my beloved. (Ibid. iv . 152)

W h a t seemed to be indo lence tu rn ed o ut t o be the s leep of t he jus t . A

s im i l a r anec dote occurs in C odex D , i n p l ace of Luk e 6 :5 : "O n th e sam e day he

p e r fo rm i n g a w o rk o n t h e S a b b a t h . T h e n h e s a i d u n t o h i m : M a n I f t h o u k n o w e s t

does t , t ho u a r t b l essed . Bu t i f t hou kno we st no t , t h ou a r t cursed and a transg re

l a w ." A p p e a ra n c e s a r e in su f f i c i e n t ; m o t i v e s a re w h a t m a t t e r s , so m e t h i n g t h e so m e t i m

S u f i s u rg e d t h e i r c o n t e m p o ra r i e s t o k e e p in m i n d .

The ment ion of " s l eep" here matches tha t i n t he preceding say ing , where



advi sed not t o t h ink twice about s l eep ing wi th the dogs .

63 . Chr i s t sa id : Look no t u n t o t h e wealth of t he people of this world\ for t he g l i t

wea l th t akes away the l i gh t o f t he i r fa i t h . ( Ib id . i v . 157)

The ment ion "of t h i s wor ld" here answers t o t he phrase "of t he wor ld" in t

say ing .

64 . Chr i s t sa id : Four t h ings can be a t t a ined only wi th to i l—si l ence , which i s t he b

devot ion ; hu mi l i t y ; cons t an t p rayer ; and poverty. (Ibid. iv. 173)

He re i s t he cu s tom ary Suf i en um era t ion of t h e aspec t s o f p i e ty . Th e e l em en t o

a c c o u n t s fo r t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e sa y i n g d i r e c t l y a f t e r n u m b e r 6 3 , w i t h i t s a d m o n

not un to . . . w ea l th . "

65 . Jes us used to t ake w i th h im no th i ng bu t a co m b and a p i t cher . O ne day , se

co m b h i s beard wi th h i s f i ngers , H e cast away the comb; an oth er day , see ing a ma

of the r iver wi th h i s hand s , H e threw away the pitcher. (Ibid. iv . 182)

T h e p o v e r t y o f t h e a sc e ti c i s a b so l u t e , d e m a n d i n g t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f e v e r



pre t ends to improve on na ture (as t he Cynics pu t i t ) o r on providence (as t he Su

wh ich a re i n t he f ina l ana lys i s dee me d to be the sam e th in g . Thi s s tory fo l lows

of "pover ty " in t he pr eced ing say ing w i th conc re t e exam ples of i t. Th e s tory

para l l e l t o t he fa mo us anec dote of Dioge nes , cons idered be low.



7 0 . J e su s w a s a sk e d : W h a t i s t h e b e s t o f w o rk s? H e a n sw e re d : R e s i g n a t i o n t o G o

of him. ( Ib id . )

Aske d abo ut good deed s , Jesu s respo nds ins t ead w i th a pa i r of d i sp os i t i on s ,

t h e re fo re m o re i m p o r t a n t . A s i m i l a r c o n t r a s t a p p e a r s i n Jo h n 6 : 2 8 - 2 9 : " W h a t m u s

be do ing th e wo rks of G od ? Jesu s answe red t he m , Th i s i s t he work of Go d: t ha t

i n h im w ho m he has sen t . " On ly h ere the v i r tue is no t t he C hr i s t i a n one of

Jesus bu t ra ther t he Is l amic one of submiss ion to t he wi l l o f Al l ah .

"Love of him" in this saying points back to " love of me [God]" in the previou

71. Jes us sa id : Blessed is t he eye tha t s l eeps and th in ks no ev i l , and wak es un t o

(Ibid. , iv . 284)



O n e w o n d e r s if p e rh a p s t h i s s a y i n g o r i g i n a l l y fo l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r n u m

wh ich case i t wo uld h ave per pe t ua t e d the ca t chw ord " s l eep . " I t may have been om

the say ings co l l ec t ion by a copyi s t e r ror , s ince the ca t ch wor d pr in c ip l e i t se l f i nv i t e

om iss ion : A scribe ' s eye may re tu rn to t he las t wo rd h e rem em ber s , bu t t he wr o

of i t . Th us he sk ips a say ing . Perha ps a proo fread er no t i ced the omiss ion an d c o



Thee? He answered: Yea; whosoever has for his speech prayer, and for h is silence m e d

for his

vision

tears, he is l ike me. (Ibid. , iv. 332)

Is t he a t t es t a t ion of t he anecdote by Ta 'us needed because i t i s no t Jesus w

the say ing? N o such need was fe l t i n o ther s im i l a r cases . At any r a t e , t he say ing a

nu m be r 73 because tha t say ing spoke of t h re e sor t s o f ac t ion , and so does th i s

m e d i t a t i o n , a n d p e n i t e n c e .

74a . I t is sa id tha t Jesu s once sa t do wn by an o ld m an w ho was d ig gi ng the

e

spade . Sa id Jesu s : O Lord Go d, t ake away h i s hope , and the o ld m an p ut dow

and l ay dow n. Af t e r an hou r had passed , Jes us sa id : O Lord G od , res tore hop e t

he a rose , and se t ab ou t h i s t ask . An d w he n Jes us asked h im co nce rn ing w ha t had

he sa id : Whi l e I was a t work my soul sa id to me, How much longer sha l l you

tha t you a re an o ld m an? so I cas t as ide my spade an d l ay dow n. Th en i t sa id



G o d , y o u m u s t live out that which is left to you. So , I a rose and took u p m y spade

( Ib i d . , W i n t e r t r a n s . )

T he re fe rence to "d igg ing t he ear th " provides the l i nk w i th the pre v ious say

use of t he phra se "on ear th . " T he co nte mp la t io n by the o ld man of h i s a l l o t t ed l i



o v e rw h e l m i n g l y f a m i l i a r to u s? T h e i s su e i s q u i t e i m p o r t a n t s i n c e Q c o n t a i n

reference to t he dea th of Jesu s , im pl i c i t o r exp l i c i t , wh ich impl i e s t he dea th of Je

no par t o f t he fa i th of whoever , wha tever mo ve m en t , comp i l ed Q . S t r ik ing ly

a m b i g u i t y m e e t s u s i n t h i s " S u f i Q . "

Fi rs t , does the re l ega t ion of t he th re e "de a th" say ings to t he end of t he sequ

tha t everyone knew a "gospe l , " even a nonnarra t ive say ings gospe l l i ke Q (or Tho

Suf i say ings source used by Al - Gh aza l i , ou gh t t o end wi th a Pass ion nar ra t ive , o r

non nar ra t ive eq uiva l en t t o one? Ma ybe , b u t t he n aga in it i s obv ious th a t ma ter i a l d

" the l ast t h in gs" should be p l aced l as t Th e presen ce of t he th ree "dea th" say in

need to be a re fe rence to t he fac t o f Jesus ' ( red em pt ive) dea th .

S e c o n d , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t m o rb i d i n t ro sp e c t i o n a b o u t o n e 's o w n e v e n t u a

a co m m on s p i r i t ua l exerc i se for Suf i s (and o thers ) , as wi tne ss say ing 49 . Th ere

re fe rence to t he Pass ion of Jesus , t hough the sweat ing of b lood has c rep t



m a n u sc r i p t s o f L u k e (L u k e 2 2 : 4 4 ) f ro m so m e a p o c ry p h a l t r a d i t i o n — l i k e

this

o n

perfec t sense to Suf i s t o read th i s anec dote as des cr ib in g Jesu s ' p rop er p ious an

dea th wi th no re fe rence to h i s ow n cruc i f ix ion — sinc e , as M usl im s , t hey b e l i eved

not been c ruc i f i ed

76. Jes us sa id : Ye com pan y of apos t l es , p ray un to G od tha t t h i s cu p may be e

for I fear death wi th a t e r ror which i s l i ke the pa ins of dea th . ( Ib id . , i v . 362)

Th e paral lels to the G eths em ane story are obvious: "Father . . . remove this

m e . . . " (Mark 14:36). "My soul is exceedingly sorr owfu l , even un to death" (M ark

again, no reference i s actual ly made to Jesus ' dying, though i t i s assumed that , l ike

one day he will . Is i t pos sible tha t such a saying as is preserv ed here first form ed t

the Gethsemane passages just quoted? I t would not be the only instance of the gos

taking a saying that original ly pertained to the common human lot in a prover

being subsequent ly worked up into a narrat ive about Jesus in part icular .

77 . Jes us , pass ing by a sku l l , k i cked i t w i th Hi s f oo t , and bad e i t speak by th e w

I t sa id : O S pi r i t o f G od , I was a k in g in pas t t im e . O ne day , wh en I was se



k i n g d o m o n m y t h ro n e o f s t a t e , w i t h m y c ro w n on m y h e a d a n d m y a rm i

c o u r t i e r s a ro u n d m e , t h e A n g e l o f Death a ppeare d to me . Th en each of my m

apar t , and my sp i r i t went for th to h im. Would tha t a l l t hose a rmies had been but

W o u l d t h a t a l l t h a t d e n se c o m p a n y h a d b e e n so l it u d e ( Ib i d . , i v. 3 6 3 )



t om orro w b e woe fu l am on g the ti e rs o f He// ( Ib id . , W int er t rans . )

W e are no t t o ld t ha t t h e possessors of t he se var ious exce l lences a re us in g th em

ends . Th e poin t seem s ra the r t o be tha t one oug ht no t t o be b l inded by today ' s

t o m o r ro w ' s p o s s i b le d a rk n e s s . O n e m u s t n o t p u t o ff c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f d e a t h a

r e p e n t a n c e .

T he fac t t ha t t he focus i s def in i t e ly no t on Jesu s ' ow n de a th imp l i es t ha t

a n t i c i p a t i o n s o f i t w e re a i m e d a t sp u r r i n g t h e r e a d e r / h e a re r t o c o n t e m p l a t i n g h i s o

In re t rospec t , t he th ing tha t j umps out a t t he reader of Margol iou th ' s se t o f

Jes us f r om Suf i sources i s how, once we ge t i n to the Jes us t rad i t i o ns f rom

Revival of the Religious Sciences

, w e f i n d a v i r t u a l l y u n i n t e r r u p t e d s e q u e n c e o f

con nec t ions de no t ing an or ig ina l ly ora lly t rans m i t t e d co l l ec t ion of Jes us mate

s tud ied M argo l iou th ' s l i s t , I won dered i f t he ca t chw ord sequ ence mig ht pro ve

d i spe l l ed on ce I res tored th e say ings sk ip ped by M arg ol io u th , bu t i n fac t t he i r



only served to co nt in ue and s t re ng the n the pa t t e rn . O n the o ther h and , t he f i r s t

i n M arg ol iou th ' s li s t d i sp l ay no s ign of ca t chw ord con nec t ion , as i ndeed we sho

s i n c e M a rg o l i o u t h c h o se t h e m f ro m d i sp a ra t e w r i t t e n so u rc e s . I f A l -G h a z a l i h a

drawn on d i spara t e sources ava i l ab l e t o h im, we should l i kewise expec t no



t h e t w e l f t h c e n tu ry , w h e n A l -G h a z a l i w ro t e , a n d t h a t m a n y m a y b e p re - I s l a m i c ,

S y r i a n m o n a s t i c t r a d i t i o n . A n d t h e n w e a re t a l k i n g a b o u t C h r i s t i a n a g ra p h a o r

so m e t h i n g v e ry m u c h l i k e T h o m a s .

An d as I have an t i c ip a t ed , t h i s Suf i Q w ould t end to i ncrease the p l a us ib i l i t y

Mac k ' s p rof i l e o f t he pro to- or p re-C hr i s t i a ns b ehin d Q. For t he com pi l e rs o f

and S uf i Q , Jes us was a Cy nic- l i k e t eacher of wi sdo m. Hi s dea th was no t appa ren

t h e i r f a i t h . T h e y m a y n o t e v e n h a v e k n o w n w h a t h a p p e n e d t o J e su s . S u f i Q

M a c k ' s a rg u m e n t t h a t if t h e Q c o m m u n i t y b e l ie v e d t h e d e a t h o f J e su s w a s i m p

had a funny way of showing i t . Yes , t hey might have cher i shed be l i e fs t hey d id

i n w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e a c h a r t e r d o c u m e n t , b u t w h a t e v i d e n c e c o u l d w e p o i n t t

b e l ie v e d w h a t is u n a t t e s t e d ? B u t t h e S u f i Q h a s b e e n t r a n sm i t t e d t o u s b y a

whose be l i e fs we know. As Musl ims , they certainly lacked any an d all belief in Jes

resurrection.



THE B IG BANG VERSUS THE B IG MACK

B u r t o n M a c k b i d s u s d a r e t o p a r t w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l of C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n s

B u l t m a n n a n d o t h e r s u p p o s e d r a d i c a l s , w h i c h h a s i t t h a t J e s u s w a s c r u c i f i e d u n

P i l a t e , a n d t h a t t h r e e d a y s l a t e r t h e d i s c i p l e s e x p e r i e n c e d v i s i o n s o f t h e R i s e n C h r

t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n w a s a h a l l u c i n a t i o n ; n o m a t t e r . I t w a s t h e " B i g B a n g " f r o m w h

d i v e r s e f o r m s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ( G n o s t i c , C a t h o l i c , E b i o n i t e - J e w i s h , a n d s o o n ) e

h o o k o r by c r o o k . A l l f o r m s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y w o u l d h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d v a r i o u

i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s " C h r i s t e v e n t . " S o s a y m o s t sc h o l a r s , w h e t h e r c o n s e r v a t i v e o r l i b e r

M a c k . H e s u g g e s t s i n s t e a d t h a t w h a t w e h a v e a l l b e e n d o i n g is g u l l i b l y a d

f o u n d a t i o n m y t h o f on e o f th e man y k in ds o f ear ly Ch r i s t i a n i ty . S ince ther e i s n

b e l i e v e t h e Q c o m m u n i t y ( o r t h a t w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e s i m i l a r G o s p e l o f T h o m a

s l i g h t e s t i n t e r e s t i n o r k n o w l e d g e o f a P a s s i o n , w h y s h o u l d w e a s s u m e t h a t t h e Q

o r t h e Q c o m m u n i t y s t e m s f r o m su c h a n o s t e n s i b l e d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n ? N o , M



i s t i m e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n w a s o n e o f m a n y o r i g i n m y t h s c h e r i s h

o n e of a w i d e d i v e r s i t y o f J e s u s m o v e m e n t s a n d C h r i s t c u l t s a l l o v e r P a l e s t i n e a n d

As d i scus sed in ear l i e r chap te r s , M ack se t s fo r th a typ o lo gy of the va

m o v e m e n t s a n d C h r i s t c u l t s t o w h i c h w e o w e v a r i o u s s e g m e n t s a n d s t r a t a o

T e s t a m e n t w r i t i n g s . H e u l t i m a t e l y s e e m s t o l e a v e o p e n t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r

d i f fe ren t Ch r i s t i an i t i es s t em f ro m a co m m on or ig in po in t i n t he h i s tor i ca l Jesu s .

we m ig ht ca l l t h i s co m m on gen es i s a "Li t t l e Bang, " s ince i t wo uld be the ma n Je

not t he theo logica l supernova of t he resurrec t ion , t ha t would be the pr imordia l

Bu t i t seems hard to im ag ine th a t Ma ck wo uld be wi l l i ng , i n e f fec t , j us t t o

t rad i t i ona l s ing le -o r ig in con cept b ack a few s t eps . T ho ug h he hes i t a t es t o say so ,

be im ply ing a mu l t ip l e - or i g in theory . Ch r i s t i a n i ty g rew f rom severa l roo t s , no t

K o e s t e r a n d R o b i n so n , i f w e p l o t t h e t r a je c t o r i e s o f C h r i s t i a n e v o l u t i o n t h ro u g

T e s t a m e n t d o c u m e n t s a s M a c k d o e s , w e w i ll c o m e u p w i t h m u l t i p l e C h r i s t i a n i t i e s

back, t he gradual federa t ion and ass imi l a t ion of d i spara t e Chr i s t myste ry cu l t s

m o v e m e n t s w h i c h

at first had nothing to do with each other.

We would , i n o ther words , have a s i t ua t ion exac t ly ana logous to t ha t o f

I s rae l i t e t r i ba l l eague (or

amphictyony).

I t has been clear for som e t im e tha t Isr



form ed as a con fede ra t ion of separa t e t r i bes , ma ny of t he m nam ed for t he i r t rad i t i

o r go ds (e .g . , Ze bu lon , Asher , and Ga d) , o ther s for t he i r hom elan d (Ep hra im for

on Mt . Eph ra t h ; Ben jam in for sons of t he sou th , as i n Yem en) or occ upa t ion (

bu rd en bearers ) . L ike s ix- o r twe lve- t r ibe l eagues a ll over t he anc ien t Me di t e r ra

t r ibes adopte d a com m on g od (Yahve) i n ad di t i o n to " s t a t e and loca l " de i t i es , and

t ook i t s t u r n t ak ing care of t he cen t ra l shr in e (Gi lga l , She chem , and S hi loh

t imes ) for one (or two ) m on th s a year . O nc e the twelve t r i bes of I s rae l had com

they sea led the i r bo nd by po s i t i n g a my th ica l epon ym ou s ances tor , I s rae l / Jacob , w

sons were imagin ed as t he pro gen i tors of each t r i be . Each t r i ba l pa t r i a rch was a

name of one of t he t r i bes , even though some were no t even persona l names .

Impl i c i t i n Mack ' s a l t e rna t ive to t he Big Bang model of Chr i s t i an or ig ins wou

be what we must ca l l t he

Big Mack

m o d e l : a n a s se m b l i n g o f v a r i o u s i n g re d i e n t s t

b i g , o o z i n g melange of C hr i s t i an i ty . An d Jesus wo uld be the ana logu e , i n t he

m o d e l , t o t h e e p o n y m o u s m y t h i c a l p a t r i a r c h Is r a e l /J a c o b . A n d su c h a J e su s f i g u re

f i t per fec t ly wi th the co mp osi t e f i gu re of t he gosp e l s who seems to be an a

i l l - f i t t i n g p i e ce s f ro m O l d T e s t a m e n t p ro o f t e x t s a n d b o r ro w i n g s f ro m c o n t e m p o ra

a n d p ro p h e t s . H i s p a t c h w o rk c h a ra c t e r d e r i v e s f ro m t h e c o n f la - t i o n a ry n a t

m o v e m e n t fo r w h i c h h e s e rv e s a s e p o n y m o u s f i g u re h e a d .



W H O IS THIS BROKEN M AN ?

L e t m e h a s t e n t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a m u l t i p l e - r o o t o r i g i n t h e o r y f o r C h r i s t i a n i t y

a u t o m a t i c a l l y m e a n t h e r e h a d b e e n n o o r i g i n a l h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s . I n d e e d , M a c k c e r

for , so to spe ak , a t l eas t one h i s to r i c a l J e su s , the s age wh ose s ay ing s have b een c

o u r e d i f i c a t i o n in Q l . B u t I w o n d e r if M a c k ' s w o r k d o e s n o t se t l o o s e i m p l i c a t i o

h i m s e l f d o e s n o t y e t a p p r e c i a t e . L e t m e o u t l i n e t h r e e f a c t o r s t h a t w o u l d i m p l y t

f r o m a l l o w i n g u s a c c es s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s , i s i n s t e a d i n c o n

a h i s to r i ca l J esus .

F i r s t , d o w e re c e i v e f r o m t h e Q l s a y i n g s a n d a n e c d o t e s a s t r i k i n g a n d c o n s i s

o f a h i s t o r ic a l i n d i v i d u a l ? M a c k t h i n k s w e d o . T h e r e is a s ly s e n s e o f h u m o r c o

c o m m o n s e n s e a n d p r o p h e t i c a n g e r . T h e r e is a d e f i n i t e o u t l o o k o n l if e . A n d t h u s ,

t h i n k , a d e f i n i t e p e r s o n a l i t y , a re a l c h a r a c t e r B u t n o . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t o n c e w e

p r o n o u n c e d C y n i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s a y i n g s , w e h a v e a n a l t e r n a t e e x p l a n a t i o n f o



s t r i k i n g , a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l " p e r s o n a l i t y " o f t h e m a t e r i a l . I t c o n v e y s n o t t h e p e r s o n

i n d i v i d u a l b u t t h a t of a m o v e m e n t , t h e s h a r p a n d h u m o r o u s C y n i c o u t l o o k o n l if

d e t e c t s o s t r o n g l y i n t h e t e x t s i s t h e i r C y n i c i s m . T h e f a c t t h a t s o m a n y Q l

s t r o n g l y p a r a l l e l s o m a n y C y n i c m a x i m s a n d a n e c d o t e s p r o v e s t h e p o i n t f o r t h e s i

t h a t

the Cynic m aterials used for comp arison stem from many different Cynic philosophers

centuries I f t hey do no t need to have co me f ro m a s ing le p erson , ne i th er do

a t t r i b u t e d t o J e su s w h i c h p a ra l l e l t h e m . L e t m e i l l u s t r a t e m y p o i n t b y su p p l y i n

t ex t o f t he hyp othe t i ca l Q 1 (m inu s a couple of say ings Mack and o th ers fee l en t i

f rom L uke , unpa ra l l e l ed by M at the w, bu t wh ich I regard as Lu kan redac t ion ) , wi

f ro m c o n t e m p o ra ry C y n i c -S t o i c p o p u l a r p h i l o so p h y (g le a n e d f ro m F. G e ra l d

e x h a u s t i v e c o m p e n d i u m

Christ and the Cynics.

13

Blessed are the poor, for theirs is the kingdom of God.

Only the person who has despised wealth is worthy of God. (Seneca)

We should not get rid of poverty, but on ly our opinion of it. The n we shall hav e plenty. (Epict

Blessed are those who hunger, for they shall be filled.



People used to see Diogenes shivering out in the open, often going thirsty. (Dio)

Herakles cared nothing about heat or cold, and had no use for a mattress or a woolly cape or a

in a d irty anim al skin, living hungry, he helped the good and punished the wicked.

(Dio)

Blessed are those who weep, for they shall laugh.

"Don't you want to know why I never laugh? It's not because I hate people, but because

wickedness. . . . You are astonished because I don't laugh, but I'm astonished at those who do,

wrong-doing when they ought to be dejected at failing to do what's right. (Pseudo-Heracl i tus)

I say to you, love your enemies.

Bless those who curse you.

Pray for those who mistreat you.

A rather nice part of being a Cynic comes when you have to be beaten like an a ss, and t

beating you have to love those who are beating you as though you were father or brother to them . (

How shall I defend myself against my enemy? By being good and kind towards him, rep

{Gnomologium Vaticanum)

Someone

gets angry with yo u. Challenge him with kindness in return. Enmity immediatdy tumb



one side lets it fall. (Seneca)

If someone slaps you on the cheek, offer him the other also.

If someone seizes your cloak, offer him your tunic as well .

Musonius said he would never indict anyone who'd injured him, nor would he advise anyon



Let each one here reflect how he feels towards those who try to do him do wn. That way he'll

idea of how others must fed about him, if that's how he behaves. (Dio)

If you love chose who love you, what credit is that to you? Do not even tax-collector

who love them? If you greet only your brothers, what more are you doing than other

everyone do likewise? If you lend only to those you expect to pay you back, what cred

you? Even evil-doers lend to their fellows expe cting to be repaid.

I never did a kindness to win a testimonial or to gain gratitude or any favor in return. (Dio)

. . . as though it were the done thing to be stingy and tight-fisted with impoverished strang

generously welcoming with hospitable gifts only to the wealthy, from whom you clearly expected mu

return. (Dio)

N o, love your enemies, do good , and lend w itho ut exp ecting repa ym ent. Your reward w

and you will be children of God. For he makes the sun rise on the evil and the good; he s

the just and the unjust alike.



By and large only humankind among living

creatures

is an image of God. . . . As God is ..

beneficent and humane (that's how we

conceive

him to be), so we must think of human beings a

long as they live

according

to nature, and are eager to. . . . (Musonius)

Diogenes said good men were images of the gods. (Diogenes Laertius)

The whole human race is held in high regard—and equally high regard—by God who gave it

Be merciful, even as your Father is merciful.

Judge not, lest you, too, be judged.

For you will be judged by the same standard you apply.

Someone asked how he could master himself. Diogenes replied, "By rigorously reproaching you

you

reproach

others with." (Stobaeus)

Can a blind m an lead a blind m an? Will they not both fall into a pit ?

Some people prefer to be provided with a blind guide rather than a sighted one. They're bou

tumble. (Philo)

You can no more have a fool as king than a blind man to lead you along the road. (Dio)

A student is not better than his teacher. I t is sufficient that he should be like his teache

When Diogenes saw a boy eating a savory snack, he rightly slapped the slave looking after him



lay with the one who'd failed to teach rather than with the one who hadn't learned. (Plutarch)

Ho w can you look for the splinter in your b rother 's eye while there is a two -by -fou r

eye? How can you say to your brother, "Let me remove the splinter from your eye," when

aware of the two -by-fou r in your own eye? Hy pocrite First take the two -by-fo ur out of y

and then you will be able to see to remove the splinter in your brother 's eye.

And you, are you at liberty to examine others' wickednesses, and pass judgment on anyone . . .

of others' pimples when you yourself are a mass of sores. . . . It's like someone covered in foul

the odd mole or w art on

someone

of real beauty. (Seneca)

When the Athenians do philosophy in your way they are like people promising to heal others

not managed to cure in themsdves.

(Pseudo-Diogenes)

A good tree does not bear bad frui t . A bad tree does not bear good fru it . Do they ga th

thistles, or thistles from figs? Every kind of tree is recognized by its frui t .

Who would think to be surprised at finding no apples on the brambles in the w ood? or be asto

thorns and briars are not

covered

in useful fruits? (Seneca)

The good man brings forth good things from his treasury; the evil man evil things. Fo

speaks from what f i l ls the heart .

Evil no more gives birth to good than an olive tree

produces

figs.

(Seneca)



Why do you call me, "Lord, lord," and not do what I say? Everyone who hears my wo

them is l ike a man who built his house on a rock. The rain fell , the flood broke agains

and it did not fall , for i t had a solid foun datio n. But everyone who hears my words and

them is l ike a man who built his house on sand. The rain fell , the flood broke against i t ,

and it was a total r uin.

Diogenes described himself as a hound of the kind much praised, but which none of its adm

take out hunting.

(Diogenes Laertius)

It was mostly people from a distance away who came to talk with Diogenes . . . the

common

m

to have heard him speak for a short w hile, so as to have something to tdl other people about . .

look for some

improvement

for

themselves.

(Dio)

If you are in good health and think yoursdf at last fit to be your own man, I am pleased. T

will be mine if I can pull you away from where you are floundering in the waves. But, my dear

begging you as well as exhorting you to pu t down philosophical foundations deep in your heart. T

progress But not by words that you speak or w rite. To see what strength of mind you have gai

unruly desires you've shed, you m ust test your words by your

deeds.

(Seneca)

A man said to him, "I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes hav

birds of the air have nests , but the sons of men have no place to lay their heads [for the

According to Theophrastus

Diogenes

had watched a m ouse running around, not bothering to find



its nest, not worrying about the dark, showing no particular desire for things one might suppo

enjoyable.

It was through watching this m ouse that he

discovered

the way to cope with

circums

Laertius)

No city, no

house,

no fatherland, a wandering

beggar,

living a day at a time. (Diogenes Lae

The whole earth is my bed.

(Pseudo-Anarcharsis)

I've no property, no house, no wife nor children, not even a straw mattress, or a shirt, or a

(Epictetus)

I have traveled around for so long, not only without hearth or home, but without even a single

take round with me.

(Dio)

An other m an said to him , "First let me go and bury m y fathe r." Jesus said to hi m , "

bury their dead."

Though the mass of people want the same results as the Cynics, once they see how difficult the

steer well clear of those who

propose

it. (Pseudo-Crates)

Someone wanted to do philosophy with Diogenes. D iogenes gave him a tunny-fish to carry ar

him to follow him. For shame the m uld-be disciple threw it down and left. Some time later Diog

"Our friendship was broken up by a tunny fish," he said with a laugh. (Diogenes Laertius)

Someone said to Diogenes, "I'm yours to command. " He took him along and gave him a h



cheese

to carry. He

refused.

"Our frietidship's been

shattered,

" said

Diogenes,

"by a piece of

che

half-obol. " (Diogenes Laertius)

It's not how you think it is.... You say, "I wear an old cloak already—I'll go on doing that

hard bed now, and I shall still. I'll get mysdf a satchel and staff, and I'll wander around, beg

people I meet...." If you think that's how it is, stay w ell clear of the whole

business; therms

n

you. (Epictetus)

If you die w ithout a servant to wait on you, who will take you away to bury you? Whoe

house,

said

Diogenes

(Diogenes Laertius)

Diogenes was harsher. . . . In Cynic style he spoke more crudely, giving orders that he was to

without burial. His friends asked, "For, the birds and wild animals?" "Certainly not. You're to

near me to drive them off with. " "How could you?" they asked. "You'll be past all feeling." "We

is there in being torn to

pieces

by wild beasts if I'm past all feeling?" (Cicero)

A little while before Demonax died someone asked, "What instructions have you given about yo

need to fuss," he said. "The stink will get me buried." (Lucian)

There's no need to thank your parents, either for your birth, or for being the sort of pe

(Pseudo-Diogenes)

Obeying your father, you're obeying the will of a fellow human being. Doing philosophy, you're

(Musonius)



If you're not accomplishing anything, there was not much point your coming in the first place

look after things at home . . . you'll have a bit more pocket money, and you'll look after your fath

age. (Epictetus)

H e said, the harvest is ab un da nt, bu t the laborers are few; therefore, beg the ma ster of

to send out more laborers into the harvest.

The problem may well lie with the so-called

philosophers.

Som e of them refuse point-blank to fa

won't make the effort. Perhaps they've given up hope of improving the masses. (Dio)

A true C ynic will not rest satisfied with having been well-trained himself He m ust realize he

God's

messenger

to his fellow hum ans to show them where they are going astray over what is rig

wrong . . . (Epictetus)

See, I send you ou t as lamb s am id wolves.

Crates said that people living with flatterers were in as bad a way as calves among wolv

Laertius)

Do not carry money, or a pouch, or sandals, or a staff .

And according to Diocles Antisthenes wa s the first to double his cloak, and use just that, and

and a satchel.

(Diogenes Laertius)



According to some, Diogenes was the first person to double his threadbare cloak,

because

he ha

sleep in, and he carried a satchel for his bread. . . but he took to carrying a staff for support

became infirm. (Diogene s Laertius)

When I'd chosen in favor of this C ynic w ay, Antisthenes took off the shirt and the cloak I

put a doubled threadbare cloak on me instead, slung a satchel on my shoulder, with some bread an

of food, and put in a cup and a bow l. On the outside of the satchd he hung an oil flask and

then, finally, he gave me a staff, too. (Pseudo-Diogenes)

Wearing only ever one shirt is better than needing two, and wearing just a cloak with no s

better still. Going bare -foot, if you can, is better than wearing sandals (Musonius )

By now Peregrinus had taken to long hair and a dirty threadbare cloak and a satchel, with a

hand.

(Lucian)

And do not greet anyone on the road.

Seek out the m ost crowded places, and when you're there, keep to yourself, quite unsociable, exch

with no

one,

neither friend nor

stranger.

(Lucian)

W hate ver house you enter, say, "Peace be to this h ouse " And if a m an of peace is

protection will rest upon him. But if not, let your blessing return to you.



"A good daimon {spirit} has come to stay in my house." {Diogenes' host speaking of his arriva

Laertius)

"Is it really

necessary

to have something written over your doorw ay?" "Yes, it is." "T hen h

'Poverty lives here, evil is debarred.' " (Pseudo-Diogenes)

Don't beg your

necessities

from

everyone,

and don't accept unsolicited gifts from just anyon

right for moral virtue to be fed by

wickedness.

A sk and accept only from p eople who've

accept

into philosophy

themselves. (Pseudo-Crates)

And remain in the same house, eating and drinking whatever they provide, for the labor

of his wages.

You're not asking for a free gift, still less for some worse bargain, but for a contribution to

of everyone . . . you are able to give back something very much better than what you go t. (Pseudo

A good soldier is never without

someone

to reward his efforts, nor is a laborer or a

cobbler.

any different for a good human being? Do you think God cares so little for the servants and wit

so much success with? (Epictetus)

Do not go from house to house.

It looks to me as though what you really want is to go into someone's house and stuff you

(Epictetus)



If you enter a town and they receive you, eat what is set before you. Heal the sick

them, "The Kingdom of God has come near you."

A Cynic's friend must share the Cynics

scepter

and his royal ride and be a worthy servant.

(E



Some people do not hesitate to address (Zeus} as Father in their prayers.

(Dio)

God. . . w ho gives us what we need to live, and life itsdf, and everything good, the comm o

savior and guardian of human kind. . . is addressed as King because he rides in power, and as

it, because of his care and gentleness. (Dio)

Another takes care to provide us with food. (Epictetus)

With peace proclaimed by God through reason . . . now no evil can befall m e. (Epictetus)

Ask and it shall be given you. Seek and you shall f ind. Kn ock , and the door shall be open

For every one who asks receives, and the one who seeks find s, and the door is opened to th

knocks.

Seek and yo u will find. (Epictetus)

W hi ch of you fath ers, if his son asks for bread, will give him a ston e, or if he asks

give him a snake? Therefo re, if you, bein g evil , know how to give good gift s to your c



much more will the Father in heaven give good things to those who ask him

And our parent has put close to hand whatever is going to be to our good. (Seneca)

People blame the gods

because

they don't make them rich with lots of nice things—but they do

own disposition to stupidity. They m ust b e blind to refuse the really good gifts the

(Pseudo-Heracl i tus)

N oth ing is hidden th at will not one day be mad e k now n, or secret tha t will not eventu

l ight .

The Cynic . . . ought to have nothing of his own that he wants to hide. Otherwise . . . he's

afraid about externals, he's begun to feel the need for concealment. And he couldn't possibly

concealed even if he wanted to. W here or how could he possibly hide himself? (Epictetus)

W ha t I tell you in th e dar k, speak in the l ight. An d wh at you hear w hispered in your

from the housetops.

/ shall remain for as long as there are cities and inhabited

countries,

my learning assuring th

silent. (Pseudo-Heracl i tus)

Diogenes lit a lamp in broad daylight a nd went around with it, saying, "I'm looking for an

(Diogenes Laertius)

Do not fear those who can kill the body, but cannot kill the soul.



Free under Father Zeus and afraid of none of the great lords. (Pseudo-Diogenes) What tyran

court can frighten anyone who do es not care about his body or its

possessions?

(Epictetus)

Are not f ive sparrows sold at mark et for tw o cents? Yet not a single one of th em f

gro un d escapes G od s watc hful eye. Th e very hairs of y our head each has i ts num ber. Ther

fear. You are worth more than many sparrows.

Isn't G od such that he

oversees

everything, and is present there with everything, and is able to

some way, with everything? (Epictetus)

Therefore I tell you , have no anxiety over your l ife, wh at you will eat, or about your

you will wear. Is not l ife more th an food, and the bo dy mo re than c lothin g? Consider the

neither sow nor reap nor gath er into barns, and God feeds the m . Are you not w orth m

birds? Which of you can add a single hour to your l ife by worrying about i t? And why

clothin g? Consider the l i lies of the field, how th ey grow. They neith er toil nor spin: y

even Solomon in all his finery was not arrayed as one of these If God clothes the grass

in this manner, though it is in the field today, only to be thrown into a furnace tomor

not clothe you, you of l i t t le faith?

Hunger, cold, contempt? Poverty doesn't

necessitate

any o f these. Not hunger, for lots of things

earth and can satisfy hunger; for the dumb b easts go w ithout clothes and don't feel it. (Pseudo-D



"Good Go d, that's all very well, but I'm a poor man without property. Suppose I have lots of

am I going to get food for them all?" "Well, where do the little birds go to get food from

young, though they're much worse off than you are—the swallows and nightingales and larks and

? Do they store away food in safe-keeping?" (Musonius)

Why not consider the beasts and the birds, and see how much more painlessly they live than hu

much more pleasantly and healthily. They are stronger, each lives the longest possible span for thei

lacking hands or human

intelligence.

. .. They have one

enormous

advantage to

counter-balance

suffer—they are free of property. (Dio)

Therefore I tell you, do not worry, saying to yourselves, "What shall we eat?" or "W

drink?" or "What shall we wear?" For the nations do that, and your Father knows you

thing s. Instead , seek his kin gd om , and all these thin gs will be provided as a m atte r of co

Since I keep my time

clear,

of the things others busy

themselves

with, come to me, if you need

to

offer.

I'll refund you

generously

for all the gifts you currently take so much pleasure in. (Pseu

"What's going to

become

of me? Is it impossible to find a traveling companion {through lif

and totally reliable?" Then you think to yourself, "If I comm it myself to God, I'll make the journ

(Epictetus)

We make a fuss about our little bodies, about our piffling property, about what Caesar think

about what's going on inside us? Not a thought (Epictetus)



The philosophic wise man . . . without being

concerned

or anxious about more than the bare

give his stomach and back wh at's due to them. C arefree and happy, he'll laugh at people busy w it

and at others scurrying around trying to get rich, and he'll say, "Why postpone being yotirsdf in

future?"

(Seneca)

Sell your possessions and give [the proceeds] to the poor.

Crates sold up all his property—he was from a prominent family—and realized about two hu

This he shared among his fellow citizens.

(Diogenes Laertius)

I gather that you brought all your wealth to the civic assembly and handed it over to your nat

standing in the middle, you shouted out, "Crates, son of Crates, sets C rates free " (Pseudo-Diogene

Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust corrupt and thie

and steal. But store up for yourselves treasure in heaven, where moths and rust do not

thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, your heart will be there also.

Our soul knows, I tell you, that wealth does not lie where it can be heaped

together.

It is the

we ought to fill, not our

money-chest.

It is the soul that we may set above all other things, and

possession

o f the universe . . . when it has taken itself off to the great heights of heaven.

(Seneca

Someone who is eag er for riches is also fearful for them. But no one stops to enjoy such a w

they're always at pains to add something

more.

(Seneca)

Where the "I" a nd the "mine" are, that's the direction in which the living being is bound to inc



in the flesh, that's going to dominate,; if they're in one's moral choice, that's dominant. (Epictetus

He said, What is the kingdom of God l ike? To what can one compare i t?

{Pheidias the sculptor claims he has tried to represent something of the accepted character of

extent that a mortal man can understand and represent the inconceivable nature of God.

(Dio)

It is like a grain of mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his garden. It grew

a tree, and the birds of the air made nests in its branches.

These words should be scattered like seeds. How ever small a seed is, once it's sown in suitab

potential unfolds, and from som ething tiny it spreads out to its maximum size ... I'd say brie

seeds have much in common. Great results come from small beginnings.

(Seneca)

Once a man gave a great banquet and invited many. When time came for the banquet

slave to say to those who had been invited, "Come, for everything is now ready." But t

began to make excuses. The first said to him, "I have bought a farm, and I must go and

Please have me excused." An othe r said, "I have bou gh t five pair of oxen, and I need to

Please have me excused." Another said, "I have just married a wife, and I cannot come." Th

and reported this to his master. Then the owner said in anger, "Go out quickly into the s

town and bring in as many people as you find." And the slave went out into the streets an

everyone he could find , till the house was filled with gue sts.

We've no end of excuses ready for our base behavior— it's our children, our mother, ou r brothe



He who does not hate his father and mother cannot be my disciple. He who does not

and daughter cannot be my disciple.

If you'd seized his property, Diogenes would h ave let it go rather than follow you for it. If

hold of his leg, he'd have let that go—and his . . . body, his family, his friends, his na

(Epictetus)

He who does not carry his cross and follow me can not be my disciple.

If you w ant to be crucified, just wait. The cross will come. If it seems reasonable to co

circumstances

are right, then it's to be carried through, and your integrity maintained.

(Epictetus)

He who tries to preserve his life will lose it;

bu t whoeve r loses his life on acc oun t of m e will preserve it .

Socrates cannot be preserved by an act that is shameful. ... It is dying that preserves him

(Epictetus)

Salt is good but if the salt loses its savor, how can it be salted again? It is good ne

land nor for the manure heap, and they throw it out.

Why have you made yoursdf so usdess and worthless? . . . When some household article has be

intact and serviceable, anyone who finds it will pick it up and prize it. But no one will do

Everyone will think you a dead loss. (Epictetus)



THE AUTHOR AS TITLE

A d d i t i o n a l l y , I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e v e ry n a t u r e o f Q 1 (o r Q period, f o r tha t m

s a y i n g s c o l l e c t i o n w o u l d i m p l y t h a t t h e n a m e t o w h i c h t h e m a x i m s a r e a t t r i b u t e d

f i g u r e h e a d , l i k e K i n g S o l o m o n i n t h e B o o k o f P r o v e r b s , t h e W i s d o m o f S o

Q o h e l e t h / E c c l e s i a s t e s ( t o s ay n o t h i n g o f t h e O d e s of S o l o m o n , t h e P s a l m s o f S

S o n g o f S o l o m o n , t h e T e s t a m e n t o f S o l o m o n , o r t h e K e y o f S o l o m o n ) . T h e W i s d o

b e n - S i r a is o n l y a n a p p a r e n t e x c e p t i o n s in c e , w h i l e t h e w h o l e c o l l e c t i o n m a y w e l l

t h e p e n o f J e s u s s o n o f S i r a c h , w e m u s t i m a g i n e h i m a s a c o l l e c t o r o f t r a d i t i o n

t h a t i s , o f t h e v e n e r a b l e s a y i n g s o f o t h e r , a n o n y m o u s sa g e s b e f o r e h i m .

I n d e e d , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f a c o l l e c t i o n o f m a x i m s t o a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e n a m e b e t

s u b s e q u e n t s t a g e o f " c a n o n i c a l " a n x i e t y w h e n s c r i b e s o r t h e o l o g i a n s h a v e f o r g o t t e n



m a x i m , a p r o v e r b , is . T o a sc r i b e t h e sa y i n g t o a " b i g n a m e " i m p l i c i t l y a s s u m

c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e s a y i n g d e p e n d s u p o n t h e a u t h o r i t y f r o m w h o m i t s t e m s . Y o u

J e s u s ' o r S o l o m o n s o r A b e L i n c o l n 's w o r d f o r i t . T h i s m o d e o f t h i n k i n g I c a ll

b e c a u s e i t p r e s u p p o s e s a m i n d s e t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e o l o g i a n s w o r k i n g w i t h a s a c re

w r i t i n g s w h i c h h a v e b e e n t h e o l o g i c a l l y h o m o g e n i z e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f f i n e r g e n r e

" B i g n a m e " a t t r i b u t i o n s o r i g i n a t e d w i t h p r o p h e c i e s a n d r e v e l a t io n s , a s s e r ti o n s t h a t

be emp i r i ca l ly ver i f i ed and so r es t ed upo n th e p r io r c r ed ib i l i ty o f the r evea le r.

c o u r s e , w h y t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s a l l w r o t e u n d e r t h e n a m e s o f a n c i e n t a u t h

Eno ch or Moses . Bu t such a t t r ibu t io ns a re in the na tur e o f th e case fo re ign and i

t h e m a x i m g e n r e . P r o v e r b s e n s h r i n e w i s d o m , n o t r e v e l a t i o n . T h e y c r y s t a l l iz e i n s i g h t

t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y r i n g t r u e t o e x p e r i e n c e o n c e w e h e a r t h e m , t h o u g h c h a n c e s a r e w

wo uld never hav e th ou gh t o f th em . I f the i r t r u t h r esona tes de ep ins ide us , they

w e r e , t h e i r o w n e m p i r i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n a n d d o n o t r e l y u p o n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a g r e

i s on ly l a t e r , once s c r ibes s eek ex t r a neo us the o log ica l l eg i t im at io n fo r a co l l ec t ion of

a t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t , t h a t t h e s a y i n g s c o l le c t i o n c o m e s t o b e j u d g e d a n d l e g i

a n a l o g y t o r e v e l a t i o n s a n d p r o p h e c i e s . I t m i g h t t a k e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f J e s u s t o

b e l i e v e t h a t o n e ' s o w n g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d l i v e t o s e e t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , b u t i t

r eq u i r e anyon e ' s s ay- so to conv ince one tha t "he who h es i t a t es i s los t . " Th us , aga



m a t e r i a l o r i g i n a l l y m u s t n o t h a v e h a d t h e n a m e "J e s u s ," o r a n y o t h e r n a m e , o n i t .

T h i n k o f t h e r a b b i s w h o s e s a y i n g s a r e p r es e r v e d i n t h e P i r k e A b o t h . M o s t of

f i g u r e s a r e c r e d i t e d w i t h o n e or t w o m e m o r a b l e s a y i n g s a p i e c e . ( W e w i l l b e c o

n u m b e r o f t h e m , p a r a l l e l i n g t h e g o s p e l s a y i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s , i n c h a p t e r 8 .)

c o m p l a c e n c e w i t h w h i c h C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a rs h a v e c r e d i t e d J e s u s w i t h s u c h a h u g e s

say ings on ly r evea l s ane w the im pl ic i t t heo log ica l b ias o f sup pos ed ly c r i t i ca l s ch

h a v e j u s t a s s u m e d t h a t J e s u s w a s W i s d o m i n c a r n a t e , a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e a n i n f i n i t e

w i s e a n d p i t h y s a y i n g s m i g h t b e a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m , w h i l e o n l y o n e o r t w o c a m e

m o r t a l s l i k e t h e r a b b i s o r t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s .

A s f o r t h e s h e e r n u m b e r o f m i r a c l e h e a l i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s , t h e o

c o m p e t i t o r w o u l d b e A s c l e p i u s , s o n o f A p o l l o a n d p a t r o n o f n u m e r o u s h e a l i n g

t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h e g r e a t n u m b e r o f A s c l e p i u s s t o r i e s s t e m s f r o m t h e g r e a t

A s c l e p i u s f r a n c h i s e s , e a c h o f t h e m g e n e r a t i n g a d v e r t i s i n g p r o p a g a n d a i n t h

t e s t i m o n i a l s o f s a t i s f i e d c u s t o m e r s . B y a n a l o g y , t h e g r e a t v o l u m e o f h e a l i n g a n d o

s t o r i e s a b o u t J e s u s s t e m s n o t f r o m r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f a n h i s to r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l b u t

m u l t i p l e c e n t e r s o f e v a n g e l i s t i c a n d h e a l i n g p r o p a g a n d a i n t h e n a m e o f t h e h

J e s u s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , c h u r c h e s .



T h e s a m e g o e s f o r t h e r e m a r k a b l e v o l u m e of w i s e s a y i n g s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s

d e n o t e s t h e f i g u r e h e a d f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n ( as i n Poor Richard's A l

t h a t o f a h i s t o r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l . A n o t h e r a n a l o g y w o u l d b e a l l t h e s i x h u n d r e d t h

" o f M o s e s " i n t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e . D o e s a n y h i s t o r i a n t h i n k M o s e s w r o t e a l i o r

o f t h e m ? I t is a g o o d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r h e w r o t e a s i n g l e o n e .

CRUCIFIED SOPHIST

T h o s e w h o c o n t e n d t h a t J e s u s h i m s e l f w a s t h e C y n i c - l i k e f o u n t a i n h e a d o f t h e

p r e s u p p o s e t h a t C y n i c i s m w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o J e s u s g i v e n t h e c

H e l l e n i s m o f G a l i l e e i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y C .E . B u t t h e p o i n t h a s o c c a s i o n e d m

T h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o d e c i s i v e e v i d e n c e e i t h e r w a y. D o w n i n g i s c o n t e n t t o

u n r e a s o n a b l y , t h a t s i n c e w e d o k n o w C y n i c i s m w a s w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e g e n e r a l

a n d i n t h e g e n e r a l a re a ( e . g . , M e l e a g e r t h e C y n i c , a c t i v e i n n e a r b y b u t t h o r o u g

G a d a r a , d i e d i n 5 0 B .C .E .) t h e b u r d e n of p r o o f i s o n t h e o n e w h o w o u l d e x e m

f r o m b e i n g a f l o a t o n t h e w i n d s o f d o c t r i n e s w e e p i n g t h e H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d . A

r e a s o n s D o w n i n g , t h e s a y i n g s t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b l e e v



C y n i c i s m h a d p e n e t r a t e d P a l e s t i n e , s i n c e t h e r e i s j u s t n o m i n i m i z i n g t h e C y n i c

t h e m .

B u t E . P. S a n d e r s a n d R i c h a r d A . H o r s l e y

H

a r e p r e t t y c o n f i d e n t t h e y c a n s

b u r d e n o f p r o o f D o w n i n g a s s i g n s t h e m . S a n d e r s m a k e s a g o o d c a se t h a t i n t h e f

t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y C . E., P a l e s t i n e , i n c l u d i n g G a l i l e e , w a s t h o r o u g h l y r e s i s t a n t t o H

o u t s i d e o f t h e s e v e ra l n e w c i t i e s H e r o d t h e G r e a t h a d b u i l t a n d s e t t l e d w i t h G e

m i g h t s u m u p t h e g i s t of S a n d e r s 's a r g u m e n t b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t i f M e l e a g e r ' s

G a d a r a i s n o r m a t i v e f o r G a l i l e e i n J e s u s ' d a y , t h e n p i g h e r d i n g m i g h t a s w e l l h a v

(M ark 5 : 11 f f . ) . Bu t i t w asn ' t . I t is a d i f f i c u l t i s sue , on e no t to b e r eso lved here . B

S a n d e r s i s r i g h t , t h a t G a l i l e e i n J e s u s ' d a y w a s

no t

w h e r e o n e m i g h t r u n i n t o

C y n i c p h i l o s o p h y . W h a t d o e s o n e d o w i t h D o w n i n g ' s e v i d e n c e o f t h e C y n i c c o l o

g o s p e l s a y i n g s ? W e l l , t h e y d o n o t s u d d e n l y s t a r t s o u n d i n g l e s s C y n i c , m o r e a p o

r a b b i n i c a l . H a v e w e r e a c h e d a n i m p a s s e ?

N o t a t a ll . T h e a n s w e r is c l e ar , t h o u g h s o m e w i l l n o t l i k e t h e s o u n d o f i t :

o f Q 1 a r e C y n i c a l l r i g h t ;

they just don't come from Jesus.

If w e m u s t l o c a t

e l s e w h e r e i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d , a n d i f Q 1 b e a r s a m p l e m a r k s o f C y n i c o r i g

m u s t c o m e f r o m s o m e w h e r e e l s e i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d . W h y n o t v ie w i t a s

o f o r i g i n a l l y a n o n y m o u s C y n i c s a y i n g s o n l y l a t e r a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s , j u s t a s



E p i s t le s c o n t a i n n u m e r o u s C y n i c t e a c h i n g s o n l y s u b s e q u e n t l y g i v e n t h e n a m e s

C y n i c s i n c l u d i n g C r a t e s , S o c r a t e s , a n d D i o g e n e s ?

A s A b r a h a m J . M a l h e r b e h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d ,

1 5

t h e P a u l i n e E p i s t l e s g i v e a m p l e

C h r i s t i a n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h C y n i c , S t o ic , a n d E p i c u r e a n c o m p e t i t o r s . T h u s w h y n o t

Q l c o m e s f r o m t h e s a m e a r ea s a s t h e E p i s t l e s ? A l l w e n e e d t o s u p p o s e is w h a

f r o m o t h e r so u r c e s a n y w a y , t h a t s o m e C y n i c s w e r e a t t r a c t e d , f o r r e a s o n s o f t h e i r

C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t . I n h i s r u t h l e s s l a m p o o n o f P r o t e u s P e r e g r i n u s , L u c i a n o f S

1 5 0 C .E .) t e l l s u s t h a t P r o t e u s , a C y n i c , h a d a ls o j o i n e d t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y

a n d a t l e n g t h r o se t o s u c h p r o m i n e n c e i n i t t h a t h e b e c a m e re v e r e d a l m o s t a

f o u n d e r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t , h e l d i n r e v e r e n c e o n l y b e l o w " t h e c r u c i f i

h i m s e l f . L u c i a n g o e s o n t o s ay t h a t P r o t e u s h a d w r i t t e n b o o k s t h a t b e c a m e

C h r i s t i a n s c r i p t u r e {The Passing of Peregrinus 1 1 ) . T h e o n l y s c h o l a r l y a t t e m p t t o m a

t h i s l a s t n o t e t h a t I k n o w o f w a s t h e t h e o r y o f D a n i e l V o l t e r t h a t P r o t e u

p s e u d o n y m o u s a u t h o r o f t h e I g n a t i a n E p i s t l e s . A t a n y r a t e , L u c i a n ' s r e p o r t

p l a u s i b i l i t y o f s u p p o s i n g t h a t C y n i c s c o u l d b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s a n d c o n t r i b u t e t

l i t e r a t u r e w r i t i n g s s t i l l m a n i f e s t l y C y n i c i n c o n t e n t .

S o m e o n e m i g h t o b j e c t , p o i n t i n g t o t h e J e w i s h t e r m s a n d c o n c e r n s p r e s u p p o s e d

Q s a y i n g s . B u t a l l w e n e e d t o a s s u m e i s t h a t C y n i c i s m c a m e i n t o H e l l e n i s t i c C h r



w a y o f t h e G o d f e a r e rs a t t a c h e d t o t h e m a r g i n o f H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s .

a f t e r a l l , d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d b y P l a t o n i s m a n d S t o i c i s m . J e w i s h e l e m e n t s i n Q l h a r

t h a t t h e s a y i n g s i n q u e s t i o n o r i g i n a t e d w i t h J e s u s .

I have a l r eady sug ge s ted in cha p te r 2 th a t Q is a l a t e de po s i t o f the t ea ch ing

i t i n e r a n t s . T h i s w o u l d h o l d e v e n f o r t h e p r e c h r i s t o l o g i c a l Q l . N o w I w o u l d g o

p r o p o s e t h a t a t f i rs t Q c o n s i s t e d s o le l y o f a p h o r i s m s a n d p r o v e r b s w i t h n

i n t r o d u c t i o n s , in o t h e r w o r d s , n o a p o p h t h e g m s , n o p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o ri e s , n o cbreia

s a y i n g s , t h e n , w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n a t t r i b u t e d , o r e l s e ( p e r h a p s s u b s e q u e n t l y ) a s c r

W i s d o m o f G o d , t h e s p e a k e r w e c a n s t i ll g l i m p s e b e h i n d t h e s a y i n g M a t t . 2 3

1 3 : 3 4 - 3 5 ; 1 1 : 4 9 - 5 1 . R e m e m b e r N o t h ' s r e d u n d a n c y p r i n c i p l e : S i n c e , a s w e n o w

s a y i n g , J e s u s i s t h e s t a r o f t h e sh o w , w h a t is t h e W i s d o m o f G o d d o i n g t h e r e (

o m i t t e d b y M a t t h e w ' s r e d a c t i o n ) a t a l l — u n l e s s s h e h a d f i r s t b e e n a t c e n t e r s t a

o n l y s u b s e q u e n t l y s h o v e d a si d e ? I n t h e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s t h e r e f a s h i o n i n g of W

J e s u s h a s b e e n m u c h s m o o t h e r , t h o u g h a l s o m o r e o v e r t .

O n w ha t bas i s can I sug ge s t tha t an ear l i e r ver s ion of Q l ack ed any of t

s e t u p s f o r t h e s a y i n g s ? S i m p l y t h a t , a s B u l t m a n n

1 6

s h o w e d l o n g a g o , t h e s to r y p o r t

p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o r i e s o f t e n d o n o t q u i t e f i t t h e p u n c h l i n e s t h e y o s t e n s i b l y l e a d

t h u s m u s t h a v e o r i g i n a t e d a s e x e g e t i c a l g u e s s e s a t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s a y i n g s . ( T h a



i n s o m e q u a r t e r s a n u r g e n c y t o g e t t h e m r i g h t c a n b e d i s c e r n e d i n t h e f i r s t s a

G o s p e l of T h o m a s : " W h o e v e r f i n d s th e i r m e a n i n g s h a l l n o t t a s t e d e a t h . " ) F o r

M a r k 2 : 1 5 - 1 8 , w e re a d t h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s c r i b e s c a r p e d a t J e s u s ' p r a c t i c e o f d

s i n n e r s . Y e t o n e m a y a s k h o w t h e y k n e w t h i s w i t h o u t c o m m i t t i n g t h e s a m e s i n , b e

o n t h e sc e n e t h e m s e l v e s ? L i k e w i s e , M a r k 2 : 2 3 ff h a s t h e sc r i b es o b j e c t i n g t h a t J e

h i s d i s c i p l e s t o g l e a n g r a i n o n t h e S a b b a t h . W h a t w e r e th e y d o i n g , h i d i n g

h e d g e r o w s , s p y i n g ? T h e w o r s t i s t h e c u m b e r s o m e s c e n e i n L u k e 7 : 3 6 - 5 0 . I n i t J e

a s i n f u l w o m a n w h o n o n e t h e l e s s s h o w e d g r e a t lo v e a n d j u s t i f i e s h i s l e n i e n c y w i t h

th a t show s ins tead th a t g re a t love i s the r esu l t , no t the occas ion , fo r g rea t fo rg iv

f i t o f q u e s t i o n t o a n s w e r s e e m s f o r c e d i n t h e s e a n d o t h e r c a s e s, i m p l y i n g s o m e b o

the car t b efore th e h or se .

P i c t u r e t h e e a r ly c h u r c h e x e g e t e p o n d e r i n g , " W h a t ' s t h e p o i n t h e r e ? W h a t i

s a y i n g s u p p o s e d t o b e a c o m m e n t on ? W e l l , s u p p o s e t h e s a y i n g w a s a c o m m e

r e s p o n s e t o

B.

T h e n i t w o u l d h a v e m e a n t

C."

I t w o u l d b e l i k e t h e t e l e v i s i o n

Jeopardy, w h e r e t h e c o n t e s t a n t is g i v e n a n a n s w e r , a n d h e m u s t s u p p l y a r e l e v a n t

w h i c h t h e a n s w e r w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d . I n e x a c t l y t h e s a m e f a s h i o n d i d t h e o r i g i n a

b e c o m e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o ri e s . T o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t , I w i l l t a k e o n e g o s p e l a p

s o m e h o w n e v e r a t t r a c t e d a n a r r a t i v e s e t u p , M a t t . 7 : 6 : " D o n o t g i v e d o g s w h a t i s h



n o t t h r o w y o u r p e a r l s b e f o r e s w i n e , l e s t t h e y t r a m p l e t h e m u n d e r f o o t a n d t u r

y o u . " I w i l l s u p p l y a f e w l e a d - i n s t o r i e s , e a c h o f w h i c h w o u l d c a s t a s i g n i f i c a n t

l i g h t o n t h e s a y i n g . I w i l l b e r e c a p i t u l a t i n g t h e r o l e o f t h e a n c i e n t g o s p e l t r a d e n t s

1 . T h e c h i e f p r i e s t s a n d t h e s c r i b e s c a m e t o h i m , s e e k i n g t o d i s p u t e w i t h h i

h e w o u l d n o t . A n d w h e n h e w a s a l o n e w i t h h i s d i s c i p l e s , t h e y a s k e d h i m

i t . H e s a i d , " D o n o t g i v e d o g s w h a t is h o ly , a n d d o n o t t h r o w y o u r p e a r l s

s w i n e , l e s t t h e y t r a m p l e t h e m u n d e r f o o t a n d t u r n t o a t t a c k y o u . "

2 . An d as they were ea t ing , he took bread , and b les sed an d broke i t , and he

to the m , s ay ing , "Take : th i s i s my body ." A nd he took a cu p , and he gav

them, s ay ing , "Dr ink ye o f i t : t h i s i s my b lood ." Pe te r s a id to h im, "Lord ,

r em em bra nce fo r us , o r fo r a l l ?" J esus answered h i m , "D o no t g ive dog s

ho ly , and do no t th row your pear l s before swine , l es t they t r am ple th em un d

and tu rn to a t t ack you ."

3 . A l l t h i s J e s u s s a i d t o t h e c r o w d s i n p a r a b l e s . A n d w h e n h e h a d d i s p e r s

c r o w d s , t h o s e w h o w e r e a b o u t h i m w i t h t h e d i s c i p l e s a s k e d h i m c o n c e r n i

para b les . A nd he s a id to the m , "To you i t has been g iv en to kn ow the s e

t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d , b u t f o r t h o s e o u t s i d e a l l i s i n p a r a b l e s . D o n o t g i v



w h a t is h o l y, a n d d o n o t t h r o w y o u r p e a r l s b e f o r e s w i n e , l e s t t h e y t r a m p l e

u n d e r f o o t a n d t u r n t o a t t a c k y o u . "

4 . J e s u s s e n t o u t t h e T w e l v e , c h a r g i n g t h e m , " G o n o w h e r e a m o n g t h e G e n t i l

e n t e r n o t o w n o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s , b u t g o r a t h e r t o t h e l o s t s h e e p o f t h e h o

I s ra e l . D o n o t g i v e d o g s w h a t is h o l y , a n d d o n o t t h r o w y o u r p e a r l s b e f o r e

l e s t t h e y t r a m p l e t h e m u n d e r f o o t a n d t u r n t o a t t a c k y o u . "

5 . A t t h i s t i m e m a n y o f h is d i s c i p l e s w i t h d r e w a n d n o l o n g e r w e n t a b o u t w i t

P e t e r s ai d t o h i m , " L o r d , i t ha s h a p p e n e d t o t h e m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o v e r

d o g t u r n s b a c k t o i ts o w n v o m i t , a n d t h e so w is w a s h e d o n l y t o w a l l o w

m i r e . " A n d h e h a d c o m p a s s i o n u p o n t h e m . B u t J e s u s r e b u k e d h i m , s a y i n

no t g ive dog s w ha t i s ho ly , and d o no t th ro w you r pear l s be fore sw ine , l e

t r a m p l e t h e m u n d e r f o o t a n d t u r n t o a t t a c k y o u . "

6 . A n d f r o m t h a t t i m e o n , m a n y s o u g h t t o k i l l t h e m . A n d t h e d i s c i p le

ga t her ed tog e th er wi th the door s locked , and th ey asked h i m , "Sha l l w

wi tnes s even to the dea th?" And Jesus answered , s ay ing , "Do no t g ive dogs

ho ly , and do no t th ro w yo ur pear l s before swine , l es t they t r a m ple th em un d



and tu rn to a t t ac k y ou ."

T he f i r s t ver s ion wo uld m ak e the s ay ing warn aga ins t ge t t in g invo lved in

deb a te wi th those who do no t apprec ia te one ' s be l i e fs , m uc h in the sp i r i t o f T

"Avoid s tup id con t rover s i es , genea log ies , d i s sens ions , and quar re l s over the l aw, f

un pro f i t ab le and fu t i l e . As fo r a m an w ho is f ac t ious , a f t e r ad m on ish ing h im onc

have no th i ng m ore to do wi th h i m , kn ow ing th a t such a per son i s perver t ed a nd

s e l f - c o n d e m n e d . "

T h e s e c o n d w o u l d a p p l y t h e s a y i n g t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f s e c re c y s u r r o u n d i n g t h

T h e n o n b a p t i z e d w e r e n o t t o b e a d m i t t e d .

T h e t h i r d a p p l i e s t h e s a y i n g t o t h e g u a r d i n g o f e l i t e gnosis s o t h a t t h e u n

w i l l n o t h e a r i t , b e a l a r m e d , a n d p e r s e c u t e t h e illuminati. T h e p o i n t is t h e s a m e

1 3 o f th e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s : " W h e n T h o m a s r e t u r n e d t o h i s c o m p a n i o n s , t h e y

' W h a t d i d J e s u s s ay t o y o u ? ' T h o m a s s a id t o t h e m , ' If I t e l l y o u o n e o f t h e t h i

t o m e , y o u w i l l p i c k u p s t o n e s a n d t h r o w t h e m a t m e . " '

T h e f o u r t h v e r s i o n w o u l d r e i n f o r c e t h e e a r ly J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n r e l u c t a n c e t o

g o s p e l a m o n g n o n - J e w s : " N o w t h e a p o s t l e s a n d t h e b r e t h r e n i n J u d e a h e a r

G e n t i l e s a l s o h a d r e c e i v e d t h e w o r d o f G o d . S o w h e n P e t e r w e n t u p t o J e r u



c i r c u m c i s i o n p a r t y c r i t i c i z e d h i m , s a y i n g , ' W h y d i d y o u g o t o u n c i r c u m c i s e d m

w i t h t h e m ? " ' ( A c t s 1 1 : 1 - 3 ) .

T h e f i f t h s e t u p m a k e s t h e s a y i n g a d v o c a t e t h e D o n a t i s t - s t y l e i n t o l e r a n c e m a n y

f e l t t o w a r d t h o s e o f t h e i r n u m b e r w h o h a d d e n i e d t h e i r f a i t h u n d e r t h r e a t o f p e r

h e l l w i t h t h e m

T h e s i x t h l e a d - i n m a k e s t h e s a y i n g a d v o c a t e t h e p r u d e n t d i s s i m u l a t i o n c e r t a i n

a l w a y s p r a c t i c e d d u r i n g p e r s e c u t i o n : W h y a d m i t y o u r b e li e f w h e n t h e p e r s e c

p o s s i b l y b e e x p e c t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d y o u ? Y o u k n o w h e w i l l j a il o r k i l l y o u , a n d

h a v e p r e v e n t e d i t I t w i l l b e y o u r f a u l t . S o k e e p m u m .

M a c k p o i n t s o u t t h a t it w a s c o m m o n i n H e l l e n i s t i c s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r

i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r g r a s p o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c st y l e a n d t h o u g h t of a f a m o u s s a g e b y f

p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o r y s t a r r i n g t h a t s a g e . H e v e n t u r e s th a t v a ri o u s g o s p e l a

o r i g i n a t e d t h i s w a y . P r o b a b l y s o . I h a v e j u s t e n g a g e d i n a s i m i l a r e x e r c i se ,

B u l t m a n n i m a g i n e d e a rl y C h r i s t i a n e x e g e t e s p r a c t i c i n g . H e w a s p r o b a b l y r i g h t , t o o

T h e b r i e f n a r r a t iv e i n t r o d u c t i o n s w o u l d h a v e e n t e r e d t h e Q t r a d i t i o n o n l y

c o l l e c t i o n h a d c o m e t o r e p l a c e t h e Q i t i n e r a n t s / s a g e s t h e m s e l v e s , j u s t a s t h e K o r



r e p l a c e t h e li v i n g v o i c e o f t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d . H a d t h e Q s a g e s t h e m s e l v

h a n d , t h e y c o u l d h a v e , a s o n c e t h e y n o d o u b t h a d , e x p l a i n e d t h e i r e n i g m a t i c

p e r s o n . T h u s t h e i n c l u s i o n lof t h e l e a d - i n s t o r i e s m u s t b e la t e r a d d i t i o n s . A n d

o n c e th e s a y i n g s e x p a n d e d i n t o p r o n o u n c e m e n t s t o r ie s t h a t J e s u s s e e m e d t o

h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s to r i e s . J

s i t u a t i o n s a r e " i d e a l " s i t u a t i o n s , i m a g i n a r y , " h y p o t h e t i c a l , " a s i n a l a w c l a s s , s o t h e

i s an idea l f igu re .

NOTES

1. Wil l iam Wrede, The M essianic Secret, t rans . J . C. G . G reig (Al t r incham : James C

Schweitzer saw the alternatives for l ife-of-Jesus studies as posed betwee n his own "th

eschatology" and Wredes " thoroughgoing skept icism." In our day, Bur ton Mack comes cl

a skeptic in Wrede's mold, while there are certainly many scholars who sti l l accept Schwe

of the apocalypt ic Jesus , including A. J . Mat t i l l J r . , who is pret ty m uch an un

Schweitzerian. Evangelical apologist N. T. Wright claims to follow in Schweitzer 's train,

merely strategic pretense. Like those Schweitzer crit icized, Wright refuses to take Jesus



sayings with any sort of l i teralness. Wright, l ike a whole generation of post-Schweitzer

retrenchers, has merely used Schweitzer 's Jesus as a cloak to sneak reformed theology b

mouth of the "his tor ical Jesus" ventr i loquis t dummy.

2. Charlotte Allen, "The Search for a No-Frills Jesus," Atlantic Monthly (December 19

3. Leif E. Vaage, "The Son of Man Sayings in Q: Stratigraphical Location and Sign

Semeia 55, Early Christianity, Q and Jesus

(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991), pp. 103-

Kloppenborg , The Formation of Q: Trajectories in A ncient Wisdom C ollections. Studies in A

Chris tianity (Philad elphia: Fortress Press, 1987); Burton L. Ma ck, The Lost Gospel: The Bo

Christian Origins

(San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995 ), pp . 10 5- 10 ff .

4. George A. Wells , The Jesus Myth (Chicago: Ope n Cou r t , 1999) , p . 10 2-1 03 .

5. Mary Douglas, Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology (New York: Pantheon Bo

162.

6. D. S. Ma rgol iouth, "Chr ist in Is lam: Sayings At t r ibu ted to C hr is t by Mo ham me d

The Expository Times

, vo l. 5 , 198 3-1 894 , pp . 59 , 107 , 17 7-7 8 , 50 3-5 04 , 561 ; J avad N urb

in the Eyes of the Sufis (London: Khan iqahi- Nim atul lah i Pu bl icat ions , 1983) ; Al-G

Remembrance of Death and the Afteilife , book 40 of The Revival of the Religious

Scienc



Winter (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1989).

7 . Norman Per r in , Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus (New York: Harper & Row, 197

8. Wil l iam Morr ice, Hidden Sayings ofJesus: W ords Attributed to Jesus Outside the

(Peabody: Hendr ickson, 1997) , p . 192.

9. Stevan L. Davies, The G ospel of Thomas and Christian W isdom, (Ne w York: Se

1983) , pp . 81-99 .

10. Jesus and the Co nstraints of History (London: Du ckw orth, Ph i ladelphia: We stm

1982) , p . 100, quoted in Craig Blomberg,

The Historical Reliability of the Gospels

(Dow

InterVarsity Press, 1987), p. 91.

11. Usually called "The Gospel of Pseud o-M atthew ," as if we had any reason to

writer of the canonical gospel was actually Matthew, or that the writer of this infancy

trying to impersonate the canonical author.

12. Stephen J. Patterson, The G ospel of Thomas and Jesus (Sonoma: Polebridge Press,

13. F. Gerald Do wning , Christ and the Cynics: Jesus and Other Radical Preachers in

Tradition.

JS O T M anuals 4 (Sheff ield: JS O T Press, 1988) .



14. E. P. Sanders, "Jesus in Historic al Co ntex t,"

Theology Today

50, no. 3 , (October 19

Richard A. Horsley, Archaeology, History and Society in Galilee: The Social Context of Jesus

(Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996).

15. Abraham J . Malherbe, Paul and the Popular

Philosophers

(Minneapolis: Fortress Pr

16. Rudolf Bul tmann, History of the Synoptic Tradition, 2d e d., trans. Jo hn Marsh

Harper & Row, 1968) , pp. 39-40.

17. See Robert M. Price,

The W idow Trad itions in Luke-Acts: A Feminist-Critical

Dissertation Series 155 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), pp. 101-103.



Chapter 6

SACRED SCAPEGOAT

REN£ GIRARD: DOING SACRED VIOLENCE TO THE

f o r m - c r i t i c a l s t u d y o f d u s t j a c k e t b l u r b s a n d b o o k r e v i e w s m i g h t -

t h e m o s t o f t e n u s e d c o n c l u d i n g l i n e i s: " E v e n if o n e f i n d s h e c a n n o t a g r e

F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s t h e s i s , o n e m u s t t a k e i t s e r io u s l y ." A r h e t o r i c a l a n a l y si s w o u l d m a

A



t h a t s u c h a l i n e i s a e u p h e m i s t i c d a m n i n g w i t h f a i n t p r a i s e . T h e p o i n t s e e m s t

c razy , bu t he did p u t a l o t o f w o r k i n t o i t . " A n d y e t w h e n o n e re a d s B u

a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e w o r k o f R e n e G i r a r d , " M a n y b i b l i c a l s c h o la r s w i l l b e t r o u b l e d

theory . . . . B ut no ne wi l l be ab le to . . . avo id h i s cha l l eng e , "

1

o n e c a n n o t h e l p

t h i s t i m e h e m e a n s i t . I n L u k a n t e r m s , G i r a r d ' s t h e o r y of m i m e t i c v i o l e n c e a n d t h

/

m e c h a n i s m h a s b e c o m e "a s i g n s p o k e n a g a i n s t . . . t h a t t h o u g h t s o u t o f m a n y h e a

l a i d b a r e . " H i s h e r m e n e u t i c o f s u s p i c i o n f o r c e s u s t o r e t h i n k t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r

i t s e l f , a n d n o t j u s t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t e x t s . I n d e e d t h e c h a l l e n g e o

s o w i d e - r a n g i n g t h a t I c a n t a k e u p b u t t h e t i n i e s t f r a g m e n t h e r e . T h e r e s t I w i l l

t o t h e r a n k s o f d i s s e r t a t i o n w r i t e r s .

W h a t I i n t e n d t o d o is , f i r s t , t o s u m m a r i z e G i r a r d ' s m a i n t h e s i s i n b r o a d o

t o i n d i c a t e w h e r e h i s o w n a p p l i c a t i o n o f i t t o t h e g o s p e l s s e e m s t o g o a s t r ay , a n d

s u g g e s t s o m e r e s u l t s o f a c o n s i s t e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e G i r a r d i a n p a r a d i g m t o t h e

G i r a r d ' s o w n t e r m s I w i l l b e e n g a g i n g in a m i m e t i c r i v a lr y w i t h G i r a r d h i m s e l f

s e e k i n g t o e m u l a t e h i s m e t h o d b u t t o d o h i s t r i c k b e t t e r t h a n h e d o e s .



LET NOT Y O U R LEFT H A N D K N O W .

Re ne G i ra r d s theo r i es a re s e t fo r th in a s e r i es o f boo ks inc lud ing

D eceit, Desire, an

( o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n F r e n c h , i n 1 9 6 1 ) , V iolence and the Sacred ( 1 9 7 2 ) , Things

the Foundation of the World ( 1 9 7 8 ) , "To Double Business Bound" ( 1 9 7 8 ) , Th

( 1 9 8 2 ) ,

Job, the Victim of his People

( 1 9 8 5 ) , a n d

Violent Origins: Ritual Killing an

Formation ( w i t h W a l t e r B u r k e r t a n d J o n a t h a n Z . S m i t h , e d i t e d b y R o b e r t G . H a m

1 9 8 7 ) . F o r t h e b e g i n n i n g G i r a r d i a n , Violence and the Sacred o r The Scapegoat o u g h t

q u a t e t o g i v e a g o o d , d e t a i l e d i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e t h e o r y . H i s h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t

c i v i l i z a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l o r d e r , c u l t u r a l f o r m s , a n d m o s t e s p e c i a ll y a l l r e l i g i o n b e g a

v i o l e n t r e s o l u t i o n o f a p r i m o r d i a l H o b b e s i a n " w a r o f a ll a g a i n s t a l l . " T h a t r e s o l u t i o

f o r m of t h e c o l l e c t iv e m u r d e r o f a n a r b i t r a r i l y c h o s e n s c a p e g o a t u p o n w h o m a l l

b l a m e m i g h t b e f o c u s e d a n d s o e l i m i n a t e d . " C a s t o u t t h e s c o r n e r , a n d d i s s e n s i o n w

( P r o v . 2 2 : 1 0 ) . T h i s o r i g i n a r y a c t o f v i o l e n c e m a y b e re p e a t e d a s n e e d e d

s o c i a l / r e l i g i o u s o r d e r c r e a t e d a f t e r t h e f i r st s c a p e g o a t m u r d e r b e g i n s t o w e a k e n a n

in a t i m e of " sacr i f i c i a l c r i s i s . " O rd er w i l l t hen be r es to red or r e in fo rced , chaos h

A n d t h o u g h t h e s a v i n g a c t o f m u r d e r i s e v e r a n d a g a i n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o r m



sacr i f i ce , the t ru e na tu re o f the deed as the f r enz y of a lync h m o b wi l l be h

u n d e r v a r i o u s m y t h i c a n d t h e o l o g i c a l v e il s . T h e o n e s a c r i fi c e d b e c o m e s a d i v i n e s

d e a t h w a s v o l u n t a r y o b e d i e n c e t o t h e d i v i n e p l a n . I n t h i s w a y v i o l e n c e i s

m y s t i f i e d . G i r a r d s t a n d s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f D u r k h e i m , w h o c h a r a c t e r i z e d r e l i g i o n

m y s t i f i c a t i o n o f s o c i al e x i s t e n c e . T h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n p r o v i d e s a t r a n s c e n d e n t s a n c t

s o c i e t y 's l a w s a n d m o r e s . B o t h t h e c a r r o t a n d t h e s t i c k a r e m a d e m o r e e f f e c t i v e

G i r a r d h a s , s o t o s p e a k , t a k e n D u r k h e i m ' s t h e o r y f a r t h e r i n e x p l a i n i n g h o w s o

beg an and w hy i t sho uld be th a t r e l ig i on is the f r ig h t m ask soc ie ty wea r s . Co nc r

m u n d a n e d a n g e r s a r e h e r e m a g n i f i e d t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of R u d o l f O t t o ' s " n u m i n o

t h e Mysterium Tremendum, f ea r o f th e d i s so lu t ion of a l l t h i ng s . I f th e s an c t io ns of

a r e n o t o b e y e d , t h e d a m w i l l c o l la p s e a n d C h a o s a n d O l d N i g h t w i l l r a m p a g e a g a

T h o u g h G i r a r d i s u n c l e a r a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n i n g b e f o r e t h e i n i t i a l

t h e o r y s e e m s t o i m p l y t h a t m o s t p r i m i t i v e c o l l e c t i v i t i e s b e g a n as p e a c e f u l a n a

p r o b a b l y b e f o r e t o o l o n g , t r o u b l e b e g a n , a s t h e C a i n a n d A b e l m y t h i n d i c a t e s .

w a s m i m e t i c d e s ir e . G i r a r d t h e o r i z e s t h a t d e s i re i s a l w a y s a f u n c t i o n o f o n e 's i

a n o t h e r a s a m o d e l . O n e b e g i n s w a n t i n g t o e m u l a t e a n o t h e r , p e r h a p s a p a r e n t . N a

b e g i n s t o d e s i r e w h a t t h e m o d e l d e s i r e s , s i m p l y i n o r d e r t o b e l i k e t h e m o d e l . O

t h e t a s t e s a n d t h e v a l u e s o f t h e m o d e l . B u t a t s o m e p o i n t t h e o b j e c t o f d e s i r e



o b s t a c l e b e t w e e n m o d e l a n d i m i t a t o r ( o r " d i s c i p l e " ). T h e y c a n n o t b o t h h a v e i t . A

p o i n t m o d e l a n d i m i t a t o r b e c o m e ri v a l s. S o o n t h e d e s i r e d o b j e c t b e c o m e s i r r e l e v a

t h e f o c u s a g a i n b e c o m e s o b v i o u s l y w h a t i t a l r e a d y w a s i m p l i c i t l y : I t is t h e m o d e l h

t h e i m i t a t o r c o v e t s . C a s t i n g a s i d e h i s o w n b e i n g , t h e d i s c i p l e s e e k s t o g a i n j u s t i f i

b e i n g , f r o m t h e m o d e l w h o a l r e a d y h a s i t .

2

T h e d i s c i p l e s e e k s n o l o n g e r t o b e like

b u t a c t u a l l y t o

become

, t o

supplant

, t h e m o d e l . S t r i k i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l

p h e n o m e n o n w o u l d b e t h e m a n y c a s es o f a f a n w h o i d o l iz e s a c e l e b r i t y t o t h

s t a lk i ng h im or her and f ina l ly k i l l in g the ce leb r i ty , as i f i n so do in g , the

s u p p l a n t t h e i d o l /r i v a l. M a r k D a v i d C h a p m a n w a s t h e m i m e t i c r i v al o f J o h n

t h i n k o f R u p e r t P u p k i n i n The King of Comedy, o r o f E d w a r d N i g m a , m i m e t i c

o f B r u c e W a y n e i n Batman Forever.

As a l r eady an t i c ipa te d , such mim et i c conf l i c t r ap id ly becom es v io len t . Som et im

thu s spreads th ro ug ho ut soc ie ty , and we have the war o f a ll aga in s t a ll . Berg ma n ' s

i l lus t r a t es th i s cond i t ion . So do cur r en t ev en t s in Bosn ia and Serb ia . In any case

v io lence , whether be tween two an tagoni s t s o r be tween whole count r i es , t he mimet ic

any r ea l d i s t i nc t ion f rom one ano ther . The y b ecom e mim et ic tw ins . N o one i s any lo

r igh t o r the wrong . Bosn ia s eems to us more s inned aga ins t than s inn ing , bu t one

they have the i r own record of a t roc i t i es to p lace bes ide Serb ia' s . W h o c ould su ppo r



Sandin i s t as o r the Cont ras wi th a c l ear consc ience?

Since rec iproca l v io lence has l eve led the p lay ing f i e ld , i t becom es no t on ly imp

a l so me aning les s For e i ther par ty to ad m i t to b e ing a t f a u l t . So how can the tu r

T he c row d sud den ly s e izes on someo ne , e i ther a th i rd par ty , som eon e marg ina l to th

any one of the f ace les s f igures in the genera l melee , and pu t s h im or her (o r th em

be a minor i ty e thn ic o r r e l ig ious g roup) up as the s ecre t cu lpr i t . Th i s s capegoat has

"m ons t rou s dou ble " o f a l l i nvo lved in th e con f l i c t . In th i s f igure they see the i r ow

culpab i l i ty , and they see i t wr i t l a rge . An d s ince a l l d i s t inc t ions have been ob l i t e r a te

no t , s t r i c t ly speak in g , wrong in s ee ing the gu i l t any place , in any f ace , they look . Bu t

chosen m us t be ma rg ina l i zed or o the rwise ins ign i f i ca n t s ince o therw ise the v ic t im 's p

take r eveng e fo r h i s dea th , and the cyc le o f r ec iproca l v io lence wi l l co n t inu e una ba te

T h e a n t a g o n i s t s c a l l a h a l t t o t h e f i g h t i n g , f o r m i n g a u n i t e d f r o n t a g a i n s t t

p e r c e i v e d a s t h e re a l c u l p r i t . T h e h a p l e s s s c a p e g o a t ta k e s t h e b l a m e . ( O n e m i g h t

M a h a t m a G a n d h i t o h av e a c t e d a s a s e l f - c h o s e n s c a p e g o a t w h e n h e u n d e r t o o k a

h u n g e r s t ri k e to s t o p t h e H i n d u - M u s l i m r i o t i n g i n n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t I n d i a . )

The scapegoat mus t have c rea ted the whole mess by some secre t and ins id ious

app le o f d i s cord tos sed in w he n no one was loo k in g , a po i son er o f the we l l o f go

t h e e v i l s c h e m e r c a n b e d o n e a w a y w i t h , e v e r y t h i n g o u g h t t o r e t u r n t o n o r m a l .



d o e s . T h e c r a s h i n g s i l e n c e o f n e w l y w o n e q u i l i b r i u m s e e m s a l m o s t m i r a c u l o u s . E v e r y

second look a t the s capegoat . H e mu s t have bee n a pow er fu l be in g indee d , n

bew i tch e veryone in the f i r s t p l ace , bu t now t o hea l everyon e by h i s s t r ipes as we

d e a t h b r o u g h t p e a c e , d e m o l i s h e d t h e d i v i d i n g w a l l t h a t h a d k e p t u s a p a r t ( E p h . 2 : 1

before the v ic t im was jud ge d a male f i cen t m agi c ian , now he i s s een as a be nef i ce n t

scapegoat i s r e t roac t ive ly exonera ted .

B u t w h e r e d o e s t h e g u i l t t h e n g o ? P e r h a p s t o th e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m

hav ing ac ted in t r ag ic ignora nce . "W e es teemed h im s t r i cke n of G od and a f f l i c t ed ,

our t r ansgre s s ions th a t h e bore" ( Is a . 53 :4 -5 ) . But th a t i s a hard th in g to a

s e c o n d a ry s c a p e g o a t m a y b e id e n t i f i e d . A n d a l l b l a m e i s p u t o n h i m . He's t h

dece ived us in to s l ay ing the s av ior O f f wi th h i s head (O r i t ma y be tha t , as H ya

s u g g e s t s i n

The Sacred Executioner,

the s econdary s capegoat wi l l r ece ive exonera t ion , to

T h e c o m m u n i t y o w e s i t s p e a c e a n d o r d e r , t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f p e c k i n g o r d e r s , s o

a n d b o u n d a r y l i n e s , t o t h e d e a t h o f t h e s c a p e g o a t . S o t h e s c a p e g o a t i s f o r e v e r a f t e

by r epe a ted sac r i f i c i a l an am nes i s . Al l we l ike she ep had go ne as t r ay ( I s a. 53 :6 ) , bu

b r o u g h t u s b a c k t o g e t h e r i n o n e f o l d as a c o m p a s s i o n a t e s h e p h e r d w h o g a v e h i s

s h e e p (J o h n 1 0 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . T h e " s u r r o g a t e v i c t i m " e m p l o y e d m a y b e a n o t h e r h u m a n o

su bs t i t u t e , b u t e i t he r way he i s an ac tor in a Pas s ion p lay . By th i s expe die n t



sacr i f i ce the dan ge r of c haos i s r eca l l ed as wel l as th e mea ns o f i t s s t em m in g .

o r d e r is p e r i o d i c a l l y r e i n f o r c e d , a n d p e o p l e a re w a r n e d n e v e r t o r o c k t h e b o a t a g a i

O nl y th e s av ing deed i s r eca l l ed in a m yth ica l ly r ev i sed fo rm , on e in w h

b l a m e i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e c o m m u n i t y , a t l e a s t n o t f o r t h e a r b i t r a r y a c t o f m o b v

p u t ou t the f i r e . I t mu s t be so , becau se i f the f ac t s we re to be co m e k no w n, the

m y s t i f i c a t i o n w o u l d b e s t r i p p e d a w a y . A l l t r a n s c e n d e n t re f e r e n c e , w i t h i ts p o w e r f u l

f u n c t i o n , w o u l d b e g o n e . T h e r e w o u l d n o t b e s u f f i c i e n t f e a r i f t h e s a c r e d

i m p e r a t i v e w e r e t o b e r e d u c e d t o a m e r e l y p r u d e n t i a l h y p o t h e t i c a l i m p e r a t i v e . T h e

I s l a m h a s m o r e s p e c t a c u l a r s u c c e s s i n g e t t i n g p e o p l e o f f d r u g s t h a n d o h u m a n i

a g e n c i e s . " P a y n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m a n b e h i n d t h e c u r t a i n . " S o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o

s y s t e m d e p e n d s o n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d b e n e f i c i a r i e s n o t k n o w i n g h o w a n d w h y i t

B u t G i r a r d k n o w s h o w i t w o r k s . A n d h e b e l i e v e s h e i s a b l e t o d i s c e r n i n v a

a n d r i t u a l s t h e e f f a c e d s i g n s of t h e o r i g i n a r y m o b v i o l e n c e t h a t s e c r e t l y m a k e s

w o r k . H e i s a b l e t o d i s c l o se " t h e f i g u r e i n t h e c a r p e t " ( H e n r y J a m e s ) b y a

scru t iny . As E l i s abe th Sch i i s s l e r F iorenza

3

s ays , G i ra rd has l ea rne d to l i s t en to the

t h e m y t h i c t e x t s , a w a r e t h a t t h e y a r e o f t e n m o r e e l o q u e n t t h a n t h e w o r d s . " T

s p e e c h , n o r a r e t h e r e w o r d s ; t h e i r v o i c e i s n o t h e a r d , y e t t h e i r v o i c e g o e s o u t t h r o

ear th , and the i r words to the end of the wor ld" (Ps . 19 :3—4) .



In h i s ana lyses o f m yth s G i ra rd i s a ided by ins igh t s der ived f rom tw o o ther

class ical t raged y and th e persec ut ion tex t . A p ersecu t ion text i s the record of

wr i t t en by the per secu tor s in h i s to r i ca l t imes (h i s f avor i t e example i s Gu

M a c h a u t sJu dg m ent of the King of Navarre, four t e en th cen tury) . I t ma y c redu lous ly rec

p lag ue was b rou ght to a ha l t by a pog rom , o r how the bu rn in g of wi tches pu t an

ep idem ic . Th e "double t r ans fe rence , " whereb y th e scapegoat is f i r s t l aden wi th the g

co m m un i ty and the n r ehab i l i t a t ed as a s av ior a f t e r h i s dea th , i s r epresen ted in per se

only up to th e second t ransfer . Th e wri te r of a perse cut ion te xt s t i l l dee m s the Jew

the he ret ic as the gu i l ty par ty. Go od r iddan ce So such texts of fer us only a half -para

Gi rard envis ions goin g on in my ths . But , as far as i t goes , Gira rd feels tha t the pers

does at tes t to the his tor ical real i ty of the bas ic scap ego at ing m ech an ism . By def

per secu t ion t ex t can go no fu r ther toward dep ic t ing the s econd s t age of t r ans fe rence t

A n d y e t w e m a y w o n d e r w h e t h e r G i r a r d d o e s n o t u n d e r m i n e h i s o w n c a s

s u g g e s t s t h a t w e la c k h i s t o r i c a l t e x t s d e p i c t i n g t h e s e c o n d s t a g e o f tr a n s f e r e n

" m y t h o l o g i c a l p e r s e c u t o r s [a r e ] m o r e c r e d u l o u s t h a n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l e q u i v a l e n t s " a n

la t t e r a r e no t to be exp ec te d to b e suf f i c i en t ly cow ed by the s capegoa t ' s e f f ec t iv

d e i f y a n d w o r s h i p h i m .

4

T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t w e p e r h a p s o u g h t n o t



h i s t o r i c a l a n a l o g y t o t h e p o s t m o r t e m t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s c a p e g o a t , t h a t n

p l a u s i b i l i t y a t t a c h e s t o t h i s e l e m e n t o f t h e m y t h s .

( T h i s is a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d e m b a r r a s s i n g l a c u n a . B u t p e r h a p s i t m a y y e t b e f

m i g h t b e r e c e n t h i st o r i c a l t e x t s w h i c h d o a t t e s t t h e s e c o n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , t h o u g

t h e n t h e y w o u l d n o l o n g e r b e p e r s e c u t i o n t e x t s , n o t t h a t i t m a t t e r s . F o r i n s t a n c e ,

r e c or d o f r e p e n t a n t C a l v i n i s t s e r e c t i n g a m o n u m e n t t o M i c h a e l S e rv e t u s , t h e n

r e f o r m e r w h o m C a l v i n b u r n e d a t t h e s t a k e , m i g h t q u a l i f y : S e r v e t u s , o n c e a d e t e s t a

had no w take n on th e ha lo o f a ma r ty r even in the eyes o f tho se who se fo

h o u n d e d h i m t o d e a t h . )

C l a s si c a l t r a g e d i e s h e l p t o d e c o d e m y t h s b e c a u s e t h e d r a m a t i s t s h a v e t h e m s e l v e

i n t e r p r e t t h e m y t h s a n d t o r e h i s t o r i c i z e t h e m . I t i s t h e y w h o f i l l i n b a c k g r o u n d

c o l o r , i n c l u d i n g s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r s t o s u p p l y v e r i s i m i l i t u d e f o r t h e i

T h e tr a g e d i e s , e v e n w h e n t h e y i n v o l v e d s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s , h a d t o s e e m p

h a p p e n i n g i n t h e r ea l w o r l d . I n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e p o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n s

t h e t r i b u l a t i o n s of O e d i p u s , S o p h o c l e s w a s a b l e , i f n o t t o r e s t o r e t h e a c

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e o r i g i n a r y a c t o f v i o l e n c e G i r a r d p o s t u l a t e s , t h e n a t l e a s t t o t e l l

o f t h i n g t h a t w o u l d h a v e s u r r o u n d e d s u c h e v e n t s i n h i s w o r l d . A n d o n c e w e l e a r

o f r e a l i ti e s a r e a p t t o l ie b e h i n d t h e m y t h s , w e c a n e x t r a p o l a t e i n t h e c a se s o f t



t o w h i c h n o d r a m a t i c c o u n t e r p a r t s u r v i v e s . W e w i l l k n o w w h a t t o l o o k f o r , w h a t

c lue .



W e r e ca l l b o t h L e v i - S tr a u s s, w i t h h i s p a r a d i g m a t i c a p p r o a c h , a n d V l a d i m i r

h i s s y n t a g m i c a p p r o a c h , w h e n w e r e ad G i r a r d ' s a n a ly s i s o f O e d i p u s ' a c t a n t i a l e q u

other charac te r s in h i s s to ry :

All th e episodes of the O edip us m yth are repetition s of one another. . . . Oe dip us, na

monster [a parricide and engaging in incest] , but Tiresias is a monster, too: as a hermaph

sphin x is a m onster . . . w ith its wom an's head , lion's body, [etc.]. O n first glance there is

ference between this imaginary c reature and th e h um an protagonists , b ut th is difference

closer inspection. Th e sphinx plays the same role in relation to Oed ipus as do all the h um a

Like Laius, like the drunken Corinthian earlier in the story and Creon and Tiresias later

dogs Oedipus 's tracks—whenever, that is , Oedipus is not dogging the sphinx's tracks. Like th

sphinx catches Oedipus in an oracular trap; in short, the episode of the sphinx recapitula

episodes. The sphinx appears as the incarnation of maleficent violence, as Oedipus himself

later on. The sphinx has been sent by Hera to punish Thebes, just as the plague is visi

city by order of A p o ll o .. . . Th e episode of the sphinx shows Oed ipus in the role of mo n

executioner. Later a monster himself, he will assume the role of surrogate victim. Like all in



sacred violence, Oedipus can and does play every part in succession ?

Ind eed , th i s i s jus t the ty pe of th i ng we ou gh t to expec t in w ha t Todorov ca l ls a "

sub s t i tu t io ns" fo l low ing " r i tua l log ic , " one based on a s acred r i tua l , whe re there

de ve lop m en t , on ly cyc l i ca l r ep e t i t io n . "T he or ig in o f th e r i t e i s los t in the o r ig in o f

T w o e x a m p l e s h i g h l i g h t e d i n

The Scapegoat

p r o v i d e a g o o d p i c t u r e o f G i r a r

i n a c t i o n . T h e f i r s t i s t h e N o r s e m y t h o f t h e d e a t h o f B a l d e r . S o b e lo v e d i s t h e

o f A s g a r d t h a t h i s m o t h e r F r i g g a s e e k s t o e n s u r e h i s s a f e t y b y p e r s u a d i n g e v e r y

n e v e r t o h a r m B a l d e r . T h e y r e a d i l y a g r e e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , F r i g g a h a s n e g l e c t e d t o

o a t h o f a y o u n g s p r i g o f m i s t l e t o e , w h i c h s e e m e d a l r e a d y t o o h a r m l e s s t o t h r e a t e n

p r i n c e . O n e d a y t h e m i s c h i e f m a k e r L o k i b e h o l d s h i s f e l l o w A e s i r a t s p o r t . T h e y

l a u g h i n g B a l d e r , t h r o w i n g a l l m a n n e r o f s p e a r s, s w o r d s , a n d j a v e l i n s a t h i m . B

t u r n a w a y a t t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t , s i n c e t h e b i t s o f w o o d i n t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e m

to b reak the i r vow of h arm les sn es s . L oki d i s l ik es to s ee such a spec tac le and ca l

s t o p . U n h e e d e d , h e d e p a r t s a n d w h e e d l e s f r o m F r i g g a t h e s e c r e t o f t h e l o n e m i s

T h i s h e f i n d s a n d f a s h i o n s i n t o a d e a d l y d a r t . P l a c i n g it i n t h e h a n d o f B a

b r o t h e r H o t h e r , L o k i g u i d e s h i s c a s t t o i t s f a t a l t a r g e t . O f c o u r s e t h e m y t h s o f S



A c h i l l e s c o m e r e a d i l y t o m i n d .

Bu t Gi r a rd sme l l s som eth ing am is s . L ike a de te c t ive he is su re there i s m ore

the eye here a t the c r im e scene . Th ere m us t have been an ear l i e r vers ion of th

wh ich the enc i r c l ing c ro wd of god s execu ted Balder , w ho m they r ega rded as a

me ans of the i r f i r ing squad . An in i t i a l c lue i s tha t in the ex ta n t ver s ion Loki f i r s t

t he ga m e, as i f he an t i c ipa te s a dan ge r the o ther s do no t see . H ow the n has he

v i l l a in o f the p iece? Note , too , the var ious "d i s t anc ing dev ices . "

1 1

W e seem to have

pr im ary scapeg oat , Ba lder , bu t a s econdary s capegoat as wel l , H oth er . An d ye t H ot

i s exon era ted , f i r s t , s ince he i s b l i nd , and thu s may have l anded the dar t acc iden ta

s ince he i s ign ora n t , no t kn ow ing the s ecre t o f th e spr ig un t i l t oo l a t e ; and

s u b s e q u e n t r e t e l l i n g , s i n c e i t w a s t h e p e s t i f e r o u s L o k i w h o p u t h i m u p t o it .

becomes a t e r t i a ry s capegoat

T h e G r e e k m y t h o f t h e i n f a n t Z e u s a n d t h e C u r e t e s p r e s e n t s b a s i ca l l y t h e sa

I n i t , t h e g o d l i n g i s i n d a n g e r f r o m h i s h u n g r y f a t h e r C r o n o s . T o h i d e h i m

d e v o u r e r , t h e C u r e t e s , f i e r c e w a r r i o r s , f o r m a c i r c l e a r o u n d t h e c h i l d . T h i s p r o t e c t

h o w e v e r , i s e n o u g h t o f r i g h t e n b a b y Z e u s , s o h e b e g i n s t o c ry . T o d r o w n o u t t h e

C u r e t e s s t a r t c r a s h i n g t h e i r s p e a r s a g a i n s t t h e i r s h i e l d s , r a i s i n g a t e r r i b l e d i n t h



t h e b a b y e v e n m o r e . T h e l o u d e r h e b a w l s t h e l o u d e r t h e y g e t , u n t i l C r o n o s g o

s o m e p e a c e a n d q u i e t e l s e w h e r e . G i r a r d s u s p e c t s t h a t s u c h a c o m m o t i o n w o u l d b e

a s a c a m o u f l a g e s t r a t e g y . O r i g i n a l l y i t m u s t h a v e m e a n t s o m e t h i n g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t .

i t m u s t h a v e b e e n a s c e n e i n w h i c h t h e C u r e t e s t h e m s e l v e s s u r r o u n d e d t h e d i v i n

c l o s e d r a n k s , s l a u g h t e r i n g h i m . B u t l a t e r p i e t y c o u l d n o t b r o o k t h i s , s o C r o n o s w

o n s t a g e as t h e v i l la i n , w h i l e t h e C u r e t e s b e c a m e a n h o n o r g u a r d f o r t h e g o d l i n

p i c t u r e m o r e in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e d i v i n e d i g n i t y .

Bu t is such a my th of t he co l l ec t ive s l augh ter o f a d iv ine c h i ld r ea lly like ly?

r ep l i es Gi ra rd , s ince we have prec i se ly such a myth s t i l l ex tan t , i n which the

s u r r o u n d b a b y D i o n y s u s ( " y o u n g Z e u s " )

1 2

a n d d i s m e m b e r h i m . L a t e r Z e u s t a k e s r e v

T i t a n s a n d r e s u r r e c ts D i o n y s u s in a n o t h e r f o r m . P e r h a p s t h i s r e sc u e is s i m p l y a n

w a y o f c l e a n i n g u p t h e d e i c i d a l m y t h . H e r e t h e o r i g i n a l ( h u m a n ) l y n c h m o b

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a g r o u p o f c u l p a b l e d i v i n i t i e s . I n t h e m y t h s of Z e u s a n d t h e C

s o l u t i o n i s t h e d o c e t i c o n e f a m i l i a r f r o m e a rl y C h r i s t i a n i t y : T h e r e w a s n o d e a t h .

kno ws b e t t e r . I t i s w r i t t en p la in ly be tw een th e l ines . Perh aps in an in te rm ed ia te ve

m y t h t h e C u r e t e s w e r e t r y i n g t o p r o t e c t h i m , b u t Z e u s was k i l l ed , w i th Cro

s e c o n d a r y s c a p e g o a t , t h e no i sy r u s e h a v i n g f a i l e d . ( " H e y W h a t i n H a d e s is g o i

t h e r e ? W e l l , w h a t h a v e w e here?") In th e s am e way , in the Balder m yt h th e o r ig



s la y e rs o f t h e o r i g i n a l h u m a n s c a p e g o a t w e r e , l i k e t h e T i t a n s , m a d e i n t o d i v

inno cen t ones . H en ce the need for a s econdary ( and t e r t i a ry) s cap egoat .

. . . WH AT YO U R R IGHT H A ND IS D O ING

T h e e x a m p l e s c i t e d a n d d i sc u s s e d b y G i r a r d a r e p l e n t i f u l a n d w e l l a r g u e d . I

l a rge ly co nvin ced in m os t cases . A t l eas t I am eager to t ry the p ar ad ig m on for

a g a i n , I w i l l n o t s e e k t o d e f e n d t h e a p p r o a c h h e r e . M y g o a l is m o r e m o d e s t .

v e n t u r e a c o n s i s t e n t a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e G i r a r d i a n p a r a d i g m t o t h e g o s p e l P a s s io n t

G i r a r d h i m s e l f c o m i n g u p s h o r t a t t h i s p o i n t . A t t h e e n d of Violence and the

w r i t e s , " N o a t t e m p t w i l l b e m a d e h e r e t o c o n s i d e r t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n t e x t s i n

th i s theory , o r v ice ver sa ; tha t mus t be l e f t t o a fu tu re s tudy . However , I ho

s u g g e s t e d h e r e t h e c o u r s e t h a t s u c h a p r o j e c t m i g h t t a k e . "

1 5

T h o u g h t h e a n t i c i

m i g h t h a v e t a k e n t h e d i r e c t i o n i m p l i e d i n Violence and the Sacred, i n f ac t i t d i d

w h e n o n e v e n t u r e s i n t o t h e p a g e s o f

Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the Wor

Scapegoat, o n e f e e l s o n e h a s m a d e a w r o n g t u r n s o m e w h e r e , o r t h a t G i r a r d h a s . I n

G i r a r d u n f u r l s t h e b a n n e r o f C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g e t i c s , s p e c i f i c a l ly w h a t I c a l l



a p o l o g e t i c s .

W e are to ld tha t the cano nica l gosp e l s have once and for a l l ca l l ed the b

s c a p e g o a t m e c h a n i s m o n w h i c h a l l p r e v i o u s r e l i g i o n r e s t e d , w h i c h a l l p r e v i o u s m y

e m b o d i e d . I t h as d o n e t h i s b y t h e s i m p l e e x p e d i e n t o f d e p i c t i n g J e s u s as i n n o c e n

ra i l roade d in t o h i s s capeg oat de a th . Th e very op po s i t e of a per se cu t io n t ex t , t he

w r i t t e n f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e v i c t i m . J e s u s e v e n a t t a c k s t h e s c a p e g o a t i n g

h e a d - o n , b y d a m n i n g t h e J e w i s h sa c r i fi c i a l s y s t e m a n d c a l l i n g f o r t h e e n d o f v

c o u n t e r v i o l e n c e i n f a v o r o f t u r n i n g t h e o t h e r c h e e k a n d l o v i n g t h e e n e m y . J e s u s

f o r t h e e n d o f t h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n o f v i o l e n c e a s t h e S a c r ed . G r a n t e d , h e s o m e t i m

c h o i c e b u t t o e m p l o y v i o l e n t a n d s a c ri f ic i a l m e t a p h o r s i n o r d e r t o h a v e a n y c o m m

w i t h h i s h e a re r s , a n d g r a n t e d , t h i s m a y b e w h y i t h as t a k e n a n y o n e t h i s l o n g t

J esu s and the gospe l s were ge t t in g a t . Bu t there i t i s . A nd i f we den y the r esu l t s

exeges i s , we a re on ly co n t i nu in g the consp i r acy of s acred s i l ence and forg e t fu lne

ke p t the cyc le o f con t ro l l ed r e l ig ious v io lence go ing a l l t hese ages .

A g r o w i n g g r o u p o f G i r a r d i a n d i sc i p l e s h a s f a n n e d o u t t h r o u g h t h e t o w n s

I s ra e l t o s p r e a d t h i s w o r d . B o o k s w r i t t e n f r o m G i r a r d ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , p r o m o t i n g h i s

t h e n o n v i o l e n t g o s p e l , i n c l u d e R a y m u n d S c h w a g e r , Must There be ScapegoatsJa



W i l l i a m s , The Bible, Violence, and the Sacred: Liberation from the Myth of Sanctio

R o b e r t G . H a m e r t o n - K e l l y ,

Sacred Violence, Paul's H ermeneutic of the Cms

a n d

The

the Sacred, Poetics of Violence in M ark, and G i l Ba i l i e , Violence Unveiled, Huma

CrossroadsB urto n M a c k a n d L u c ie n S c u b l a h a v e b o t h u n d e r t a k e n d e t a i l e d t h o u g

l i m i t e d a n a l y s e s o f G i r a r d ' s g o s p e l e x e g e s is a n d f o u n d i t s e v e r el y w a n t i n g .

1 5

I

g o s p e l s s e e m t o s ay w h a t G i r a r d s a y s o n l y if t h e r e a d e r a l re a d y b e l o n g s t o t h a t

o f i n t e r p r e t e r s

1 6

in f a t u a t e d w i t h t h e G i r a r d i a n k e r y g m a . H a m e r t o n - K e l l y ' s e x e ge s

s e e m s a l m o s t p a r o d i c , a c a se o f h e r m e n e u t i c a l v e n t r i l o q u i s m a t i t s w o r s t . P a g e a f

h i s w o r k ( a n d t h a t o f o t h e r G i r a r d i a n s ) b r i n g s i n e v i t a b l y t o m i n d t h e

pesher

exe

D e a d S e a S c r o l ls . L i k e s c r ib e s t r a i n e d u n t o t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n , t h e y a

a l t o g e t h e r n e w g o o d s o u t o f t h e o l d s t o r e h o u s e ( M a t t . 1 3 : 5 2 ) .

Ind ee d , as in Gi r a rd ' s ow n theory , the re i s a c ruc ia l f ac t concea led f ro m the

w h i c h a l o n e m a k e s t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e p o s s i b l e . T h e y a r e l i k e t h e P r o c e s s T h e o l o g i

1 9 7 0 s w h o p r o c l a i m e d J e s u s t h e C h r i s t b e c a u s e h e h a d d i s c l o s e d t h e v i s i o n o f w

u p t o in t h e w o r l d : c r e a t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e ir o n y w a s , t h e y h a d t h e w r o

S u r e ly A l f r e d N o r t h W h i t e h e a d d e s e r v e d t h e d i a d e m S u r e ly i t w a s h e , a n d n o t

f i r s t s e t f o r t h t h e v ie w t h e y e s p o u s e d . N o o n e w o u l d e v e r g e t P r o c e s s C h r i s t o l o g

g o s p e l s a s D a v i d G r i f f i n a n d J o h n C o b b

1 7

d i d u n l e s s W h i t e h e a d h a d p r o v i d e d



k e y. I n t h e s a m e w a y , t h e r e v e a l e r o f t h e s c a p e g o a t m e c h a n i s m i s n o n e o t h e r

G i r a r d . L i k e t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n p r o p h e t s p o s i t e d b y B u l t m a n n , G i r a r d h a s p

o r a c l e s o n t h e li p s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s . J e s u s r e m a i n s t h e v e n t r i l o q u i s t d u m m y o

d o g m a , t h o u g h t h e s c r i p t i s u p d a t e d n o w a n d t h e n .

DISSIMILARITY APOLOGETICS

I h a v e c a ll e d G i r a r d ' s h a n d l i n g o f t h e g o s p e l s " d i s s i m i l a r i t y a p o l o g e t i c s . " H e r e is

i n m i n d . N o r m a n P e r r i n d u b b e d a w i d e l y u s e d f o r m - c r i t i c a l t o o l t h e " c

d i s s i m i l a r i t y . " T h a t i s, t h e c r i t i c c a n n o t b e s u r e o f t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f a g o s p e l l o

i t c o n t r a d i c t s t h e b el i ef s o f b o t h c o n t e m p o r a r y J u d a i s m a n d t h e p r i m i t i v e c h u r

J e s u s m a y h a v e o v e r l a p p e d a t m a n y p o i n t s w i t h h i s J e w i s h c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d

e a r ly C h u r c h m a y a c t u a l l y h a v e t a k e n h i m s e r i o u s l y h e r e o r t h e r e , w e w i l l n o t

w a s u n i q u e t o t h e m e s s a g e o f J e s u s u n l e s s w e e m p l o y t h e c r i t e r i o n o f d i s s i m i l a r

t h i s a s s u m p t i o n l u r k s t h e o r t h o d o x b e l i e f t h a t J e s u s m u s t h a v e h a d s t a r t l i n g l y

th in gs to s ay s ince he was a d iv ine r evea le r. A nd , no t surp r i s ing ly , Per r in and h i

t e n d e d t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n J u d a i s m a n d J e s u s , m a k i n g o f



a b s u r d c a r i c a t u r e i n t h e p r o c e s s ( as w h e n G e r h a r d E b e l i j i g i m a g i n e s t h a t t h e s i m p l

o f a l o v i n g G o d w o u l d h a v e s o i n f u r i a t e d r e l i g i o u s J e w s a s t o g o a d t h e m i n t

J e s u s T h e s e a r e t h e h o r n e d J e w s o f t h e O b e r a m e r g a u P a s s i o n p l a y ) .

O n e c a n d e t e c t t h e s a m e d i s s i m i l a r i t y a p o l o g e t i c s in p l a y t o d a y i n t w o o f t

s u b f i e l d s o f N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s h i p : f e m i n i s t a n d s o c i a l s c i e n t i f i c c r i t i c i s m . J e

a n d p r a c t i c e s c o n c e r n i n g w o m e n a r e d i s t o r t e d b y s e l e c t i v e p r o o f - t e x t i n g o f t h e

t h a t J e s u s a p p e a r s b y c o n t r a s t t o h a v e b e e n a r a d i c a l p r o t o f e m i n i s t . T h e g o s p

c e r t a i n l y s h o w s t h a t J e s u s w a s n o t a f a n a t i c a l m i s o g y n i s t , f o r w h a t t h a t ' s w o r t h . B

h a r d t o s e e h i m a s f i t t i n g i n w i t h o r d i n a r y J u d a i s m a t t h i s , a s s o m a n y o t h e r p

s h o u l d t h i s m o r e m o d e s t v e r d i c t d i s a p p o i n t ? I s u s p e c t b e c a u s e t h e s c h o l a rs i n q u e

of J es us as the d iv in e r evea le r , so he mu s t h ave been a t l eas t as en l ig h te ne d as

T h e a p p r o a c h i s n o t u n l i k e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t e f f o r ts t o s h o w t h a t G e n e s i s 1 really

B ig Bang or the spher i c i ty o f the ear th i f you jus t r ead i t t he " r igh t " way .

S o c ia l s c i e n c e c r i t i c s t a k e g r e a t p a i n s t o c o n s t r u c t a p a r a d i g m o f M e d i t e r r a n

c u l t u r e w h i c h t h e y a s s u m e m u s t h a v e h e l d s w a y i n J e s u s ' d a y . O n c e t h i s p

e m p l o y e d i n g o s p e l e x e g e s i s , m a n y t h i n g s a re s e e n i n a n e w l i g h t . B u t w h a t d o y o

t u r n s o u t t h a t J e s u s " r a d i c a l l y r e v e r s e d " o r " r a d i c a l l y t r a n s c e n d e d " t h i s o r t h a t s



J u s t w h a t o n e w o u l d e x p e c t o f t h e d i v i n e r e v e a le r . S o m e o n e h a s f o r g o t t e n w h a t

u s e a p a r a d i g m . P a r a d i g m s a r e " s u r p r i s e - f r e e . "

, 8

I f t h e r e is s e e m i n g l y a n o m a l o u s d

m o d e l c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r o r w o u l d n o t h a v e p r e d i c t e d , i t m u s t m e a n t h e p a r a

a d j u s t m e n t o r r e p l a c e m e n t , o r t h a t w e a re m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e . O n e c a n

p a r a d i g m a g a i n s t it s e l f , a s i f a f u t u r o l o g i s t s h o u l d b e s o s u r p r i s e d a t t h e a p p e a r

u n f o r e s e e n t r e n d a s t o d e c l a r e t h e r e h a d b e e n a d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n h i s t o ry . I

G i r a r d a n d h i s m i m e t i c d o u b l e s h a v e p u l l e d t h e s a m e c h e a t as t h e s e o t h e r "

apo log i s t s . " I f the gospe l s appe ar to def y the typ e of ana lys i s Gi ra r d ins i s t s can

o t h e r s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s a s s c a p e g o a t m y t h s , t h e n I a m w i l l i n g t o b e t t h a t e i t h e r

b u c k l e d h i s p a r a d i g m t o o t i g h t l y , o r h e i s g i v i n g p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t t o a p a r t i

m y t h s — w h i c h j u s t h a p p e n t o b e t h e s c r i p t u r e s o f h i s o w n p e r s o n a l r e l i g i o u s f a i t h .

I t is a s i m p l e m a t t e r o f s h a v i n g w i t h O c c a m ' s r a z o r: I f w e f i n d t h a t t h e g o s p

a f t e r a l l b e ea s il y a c c o m m o d a t e d b y t h e m e t h o d G i r a r d u s e s t o s u c h e f f e c t o n t h

B a l d e r , O e d i p u s , t h e C u r e t e s , a n d t h e i n f a n t D i o n y s u s , t h e n w h y l o o k a n y f u r t h

w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e g o s p e l s f i t t h e p a t t e r n q u i t e w e l l . Y e s , J e s u s i s d e p i c t e d

f r o m t h e s t a r t , r a i l r o a d e d a n d e x p l o i t e d a s a s c a p e g o a t . B u t t h i s i s s i m p l y b e c a u s

m y t h s a r e j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e o f p e r s e c u t i o n t e x t s . P e r s e c u t i o n t e x t s o n l y g o u p

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( t h a t o f t h e i n n o c e n t i n t o t h e " m o n s t r o u s d o u b l e " ) b e c a u s e t h e y a r e

t h e p e r s e c u t o r s w h o s t i ll v i e w t h e p e r s e c u t e d a s t h e r e a l c u l p r i t s . B u t s c a p e g o a t m



p r o v i d e b o t h s ta g e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a s G i r a r d i m p l i e s , b u t r a t h e r o n ly t h e s e c o n

p r e s u p p o s e t h e f i r s t , b u t t h e n t h a t i s w h a t G i r a r d s a ys w e m u s t c o a x o u t . T h e f i

m a t i o n is n e v e r d e p i c t e d a s s u c h i n t h e m y t h s . I n d e e d , t h a t is h i s w h o l e p o i n t .

l e a s t s o m e t i m e s ) d e p i c t e d i s t h e s u b s e q u e n t t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e " e v i l" s c a p e g

sanc t i f i ed s av ior .

B u t o f t e n t h e r e is n o t e v e n a n i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f g e n u i n e c u l p a b i l i t y b e c a u s e t h e

s a n c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s c a p e g o a t h a s c o m p l e t e l y p e r m e a t e d t h e m y t h . H e r e o n e t h i n

K i i n g s s c h e m a w h e r e b y t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n of J e s u s t r a n s f o r m e d h i m r e t r o a c t i v e l y f

p r o p h e t t o t h e M e s s i a h .

1 9

G i r a r d e v e n r e c o u n t s a n u m b e r o f i n s t a n c e s f r o m c

o b s e r v a t i o n i n w h i c h s ac r ed t r i b a l k i n g s a n d c o n d e m n e d p r i s o n e r s t r e a t e d a s k i n g

are ven era ted and ac corded spec ia l p r iv i l eges even whi le they a re b la m ed

c o m m u n i t y ' s i l ls . T h i s a m b i v a l e n c e , h e e x p l a i n s , i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e r e t r o j e c t i o

s t i l l - f u t u r e s a n c t i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e p r e s e n t .

2 0

H o w m u c h m o r e n a t u r a l f o r t h i s r e t

occur in the r e t e l l ing of a myth?

As a com mu nity moves away from its violent origins, . . . moral du alism is reinforc

comes a t im e . . . w hen men wan t only m odels of mo rality and dem and gods purified of

[Such desires] reflect the disintegration of the primitive notion of the sacred, the tend



dualism that only w ants to m aintain the beneficent aspect of th e gods. . . . Th e tendenc

transfo rm s or effaces all the stereotypes: the crisis, the signs that in dica te a vic tim , collec

and of course the victim's crime. This can be seen clearly in the myth of Baldr. The god

collectively killed cannot be a guilty god . He is a god whose crime has been comp lete

perfectly sublime god, devoid of all fault.*'

S o w h y c o n s i d e r t h e J e s u s st o r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e B a l d e r s to r y ? I

d i v i n e h e r o is u n a m b i g u o u s l y g o o d a n d t h e n s la i n b y t h e m a c h i n a t i o n s of

s c a p e g o a t f i g u r e .

" A g u i l t y c o n s c i e n c e i s i t s o w n a c c u s e r. " J u s t s o , G i r a r d h i m s e l f a n t i c i p a t e s

" T h e u p r o o t i n g [ o f t h e s c a p e g o a t m e c h a n i s m ] i n t h e g o s p e l s b e a rs t h e s a m e r e l a

t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l c o n j u r i n g t r i c k s o f a B a l d r o r t h e C u r e t e s as t h e c o m p l e t e r e

t u m o r t o a v i l l a g e q u a c k ' s ' m a g n e t i c ' t r i c k s . "

2 2

A nd ye t on wh ich s ide o f th i s ana

does J esu s b e lo ng ? P erh ap s no t t he s ide G i ra rd in te nd s . " Jesus . . . does as exp

w a n d e r i n g m a g i c i a n . "

2 3

G i r a r d s e e m s t o h a v e l e a r n e d a f e w M e s m e r i c c o n j u r i n g t

o w n . T h o u g h h e h i m s e l f r e m a r k s , " T o o g r e a t a n e f f o r t t o h i d e s o m e t h i n g a l w a y s

d e c e p t i o n , "

2 4

t h e r e a r e m a n y w h o d o t a k e G i r a r d ' s sp e c i a l p l e a d i n g s e r io u s l y , a s w e

T o t h e m t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s c a p e g o a t m y t h s a n d t h e g o s p e l s i s



H a m e r t o n - K e l l y ' s t e l l i n g p h r a s e ) " s t u p e f y i n g l y c l ea r. "

2 5

J u s t a s t r i v i a l i t i e s s e e m p



THE RIGHT M A N AT THE RIGHT TIME

H o w d o e s J e s u s m e a s u r e u p a s a G i r a r d i a n s c a p e g o a t ? D o e s h e b e t r a y a n y o f

" s i g n s of t h e v i c t i m " ? I t s e e m s h e is q u i t e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e r o l e . T h e s c a p e g o a t m

a m b i v a l e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e c o m m u n i t y . I f h e i s n o t a m e m b e r , h e c a n n o t b e a r

a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ( c f . A n s e l m ' s S a t i s f a c t i o n t h e o r y o f t h e a t o n e m e n t ) . O n t h e o t h

m u s t b e s o m e h o w o n t h e f r i n g e s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y s o a s t o b e s a fe t o p i

c o l l e c t i v e m u r d e r m u s t n o t e n g e n d e r r e p r i s a l s o r t h e c y c l e o f r e c i p r o c a l v i o l e n c

c o n t i n u e . A s w e h a v e s e e n ,

2 9

J e s u s i s c o n s i s t e n t l y d e p i c t e d i n t h e g o s p e l s a s

p r e a c h e r a f t e r t h e m a n n e r o f E l i s h a o r t h e C y n i c s . H e h a d n o h o m e o r

p o s s e s s i o n s , r o o t s , o r v e s te d i n t e r e s t s . G i r a r d m e n t i o n s h o w t h e s c a p e g o a t " p a s se s

t h e i n t e r i o r t o t h e e x t e r i o r a n d b a c k a g a i n . T h u s t h e s u r r o g a t e v i c t i m c o n s t i t u t e s

a n d a b a rr i e r b e t w e e n t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e s a c r e d . "

w

S tevan L . Da vies su m s u

p o s i t i o n o f i t i n e r a n t s l i k e J e s u s : T h e y v i s it e d s e t t le d c o m m u n i t i e s b u t t h e i r



c o n t a i n e d n o h e l p f o r c o m m u n i t i e s s in c e t h e i t in e r a n t ' s e t h o s i n c u l c a t e d i n

a s c e t i c is m . S u c h p r e a c h i n g w o u l d u n d e r m i n e t h e c o m m u n i t y o r f a l l o n d e a f

i t i n e r a n t p r o p h e t s w e r e m a r g i n a l i z e d e v e n a m o n g t h e i r o w n s u p p o r t e r s.

3 1

T h a t p r e t

G i r a r d ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e s c a p e g o a t .

Sco t t D. Hi l l

3 2

d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w i t i n e r a n t h o l y m e n h a v e t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r

c o m m u n i t y m e d i a t o r s a n d a r b i t e r s s i n c e p e o p l e r e g a r d e d t h e m a s b o t h d i v i n e l y i

i m p a r t i a l , h a v i n g n o w o r l d l y i n t e r e s t s ( cf . L u k e 1 2 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; M a r k 1 2 : 1 4 ) . I n t h i s

m u c h l i k e t h e l i v i n g B o d h i s a t t v a s o f M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s m , w h o s e s u b l i m e d i s i n t e r

t h e m t o h a v e d i v i n e c o m p a s s i o n o n a l l b e i n g s w i t h o u t f a v o r i t i s m . G i r a r d s h o w

scap ego at , whi l e s t i ll a "k in d of par i a h , as sum es the ro le o f sup rem e arb i t e r . In t

a n i r re s o l v a b l e s t r u g g l e h e is c a ll e d u p o n t o ' d i f f e r e n t i a t e ' t h e i r r e c o n c i l a b l e a n t a g

p r o v i n g t h a t h e i n c a r n a t e s t h e s ac r e d v i o le n c e t h a t is s o m e t i m e s m a l e f i c e n t ,

b e n e f i c e n t . "

3 3

A nd ye t i t i s th i s very m arg ina l i ty tha t ma kes h im the pe r fec t cho

scap ego at : H e be long s to ne i the r s ide in the g rea t c r i s i s , so h i s m ur de r wi l l

r e t a l i a t io n . In a s ense , as G i ra r d im pl ies , h i s eve n tu a l de a th as a s cape goat i s a k in

e x t e n s i o n a n d c o m p l e t i o n o f h i s r o le a s m a r g i n a l i z e d a r b i t e r b e t w e e n t w o d i s p u t i

A g a i n , J e s u s f i ll s t h e r o l e r e m a r k a b l y w e l l .



T h e r e a r e m o r e o b v i o u s m a r k s o f a s c a p e g o a t . " W e n e e d o n l y t h i n k o f

c a t e g o r i e s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t p r o v i d e t h e v i c t i m s in sc a p e g o a t r i t e s — v a g a b o n

[ b o t h o f th e s e f i t a n i t i n e r a n t p r o p h e t ] , c r i p p l e s — t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t d e r i s i o n of o

a n o t h e r p l a y s a l a r g e p a r t in t h e n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s t h a t f i n d e x p r e s s i o n in t h e c o

r i tu a l s acr i f i ce an d th a t a r e f ina l ly pur i f i ed an d p urg ed by i t . "

M

R e c a l l t h e H u

N o t r e D a m e .

3 5

T o t h e s e c at e g o r ie s w e m i g h t a d d m e m b e r s h i p i n a m i n o r i t y o r f o r

T h e c r o w d b e g i n s t o i n t i m i d a t e P e t e r o n c e t h e y c a t c h h i s G a l i l e a n a c c e n t ( M a r k 1

2 6 : 7 3 ) . J e s u s , t o o , w a s a G a l i l e a n i n J u d e a . W a s h e a c r i p p l e ? E a s t e r n O r t h o d o

m a d e h i m h o b b l e , o n e l e g b e i n g s h o r t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r .

G i r a r d d o e s n o t l i m i t m a s s i v e o u t b r e a k s o f m i m e t i c v i o l e n c e , r e q u i r i n g t h e

c o l l e c t i v e m u r d e r , t o t h e d a w n o f h u m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . H e s a y s t h e y c o n t i n u

r e p e a t e d l y t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y w h e n e v e r t h e s a c r i fi c i a l s y s t e m e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e p r e

b e g i n s t o b r e a k d o w n . V i o l e n c e i s n o l o n g e r b e i n g " m a n a g e d " i n t h e p r o p e r

c h a n n e l s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n " g o o d " v i o l e n c e ( t h a t w h i c h p r o c e e d s a l o n g

c h a n n e l s a n d a t t h e h a n d s o f d u l y d e s i g n a t e d f u n c t i o n a r i e s ) a n d " b a d " v i o le n c

v e n d e t t a s , r i o t i n g ) h a s b r o k e n d o w n . G i r a r d r e c o g n i z e s t h a t s a c r i fi c i a l c r is e s

im po r ta n t ro le in th e h i s to ry of b ib l i c a l I sr ae l .

Amos, Isaiah, and Micah denounce in vehement terms the impotence of the sacrificial



ritual in general. In the most explicit manner they link the decay of religious prac

deterioratio n of conte mp orary behavior. Inevitably, the erod ing of the sacrificial system seems

the emeigence of reciprocal violence. Neighbors who had previously discharged their aggr

third party, joining together in the sacrifice of an "outside" victim [i.e., the sacrificial anima

to sacrifice one another.

36

S i g n s of s a c r i f ic i a l c r i si s a r e a b u n d a n t i n t h e g o s p e l s ( a n d t h i s m u c h , o f c o u

w o u l d b y n o m e a n s d e n y ) . W e c a n se e t h i s m o s t c l e a r ly i n t e r m s o f t h e J e r u s a

c u l t u s . S p e a k i n g of t h e s a c r if i c i a l c r i si s i n g e n e r a l , G i r a r d e x p l a i n s , " I f t h e g a p b

v i c t i m a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y g r o w s t o o w i d e , a l l s i m i l a r i t y w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d . T h e

no lon ge r be cap ab le o f a t t r a c t in g th e v io len t im pu lses to i t s e l f ; t h e s acr i f i ce w

serve as a ' good co nd uct or , ' i n the s ense tha t m eta l i s a goo d co nd uc tor o f

B r u c e C h i l t o n a r g u e s t h a t w h a t s o d i s t u r b e d J e s u s a b o u t t h e t e m p l e s a c r if i c es w

t h a t p e o p l e n o l o n g e r b r o u g h t t h e i r o w n a n i m a l s f r o m h o m e t o b e s a c r i f i c e d ,

s i m p l y p a i d m o n e y f o r " g o v e r n m e n t i n s p e c t e d m e a t " o n c e th e y g o t t o t h e t e m p l

w a s n ' t e v e n t h e i r o w n m o n e y t h e y u s e d t o p a y f o r i t T h e y h a d t o c h a n g e

R o m a n c o i n s f o r

un£\

i l t hy lucre , wi thout images . ( I th ink i t mos t l ike ly tha t J esu

t h i s p r a c t i c e w h e n h e d i s m i s s e s t h e i s s u e o f w h e t h e r p a y i n g R o m a n t r i b u t e



r e l i g i o u s c o m p r o m i s e , s i n c e t h e c o i n u s e d t o p a y t h e t a x w a s a R o m a n c o i n t h a t

used to buy an im al s i n t he t emp le . S ince you co uld n ' t rende r your den ar ius t o G

w h y

no t

render i t t o Caesar?) C hi l to n has descr ib ed prec i se ly a s i t ua t ion in

d i s t an ce be twee n th e of fe rer and h i s sacr i f i ce had g ro wn too gre a t fo r t he sac

m ea nin gf u l . Sacr i f ic i a l c r i s is , here we com e.

Gi r ard goes on to add: "O n the o ther ha nd , i f t here is too much c o n t i n u i t y

wi l l overf low i t s channel s . ' Impure ' v io l ence wi l l mingle wi th the sacred v io l ence o

turn ing the l a t t e r i n to a scandalous accompl i ce in t he process of po l lu t ion , even

c a t al y st i n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of f u r t h e r i m p u r i t y . I s u s p e ct t h i s is t h e i ss u e u n d

t w o t a l e s i n w h i c h S a u l d i s a p p o i n t s h i s p a t ro n S a m u e l (1 S a m . 1 3 : 5 -1 5 ; 1 5 : 1 -3 5 )

h i s hands fu l l o f Ph i l i s t i n e b loo d , t o have t ake n on h imse l f t he t ask of of fe r

sacr i f i ce was to t respass t he b oun dar y be tw een prof ane and h oly v io l ence . I t was f

reason tha t Yahve wo uld l a t e r forb id the red -han ded Dav id to bu i ld h i s t em ple

22:8 , a p r i es t ly redac t iona l dev e lo pm en t of 1 Kin gs 5 :3 , whe re Dav id had s im p

t im e du r in g h i s busy ba t t l e sche dule to bu i ld t he t emp le) . An d w he n Saul had of f

Am alek i t es as hu m an sacr i f i ces t o Yahve , t hu s fu l f i l l i n g a du ty of sacred v io l e

spared the li fe of K ing A ga g, p re sum ably to use as som e sor t o f d ip lom at i c ace

and gave the ca p tur ed l i ves tock to h i s m en . Sam uel was d i sp l ea sed because a ll a



have been of fe red up . To m ak e except ions ou t o f wor ld ly con s idera t ions was to

t h e p u r e l y s a c re d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e v io l e n c e . O n e m a y i m a g i n e p o o r A g a g f o l

t h e o l o g i c a l d e b a t e w i t h k e e n in t e r e s t , t h o u g h h e p r o b a b l y w a s d i s a p p o i n t e d w i t h t h

D o w e s e e a n y t h i n g o f t h e k i n d i n t h e g o s p e l s ? I n d e e d w e d o . A t le a s t p r e

t h e g o s p e l s is t h e f a c t o f q u i s l i n g c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e t e m p l e a u t h o r i t i e s , e s

H i g h P r i e s t ( l ik e t h e R u s s i a n O r t h o d o x P a t r i a r c h a p p o i n t e d b y t h e K G B

R o m a n s / H e r o d s . *

5

T h e h y p o c r i s y d i d n o t e s c a p e t h e p e o p l e . L i k e t h e p r i e s t s o f M

w h o p i o u s l y s c r u p l e o v e r w h e t h e r r i t u a l l y i m p u r e b o u n t y m o n e y m a y g o b a c

t e m p l e t r e a s u r y o r s h o u l d g o f o r a c h a r i t a b l e s e c u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h e t e m p l e

s t r a i n e d o u t a g n a t a n d s w a l l o w e d a c a m e l w h e n t h e y t o o k c a r e t o e x c l u d e h e a t

f r o m t h e t e m p l e w h i l e g e t t i n g in b e d w i t h C a e s a r a n d h i s f l u n k i e s t o k e e p t h e i r

p o s i t i o n . A g a i n w e m a y i m a g i n e t h e d i s g u s t o f J e s u s i n t h e " r e n d e r u n t o C a e s a r "

c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n s a cr e d a n d p r o f a n e v i o l e n c e i n t h e t e m p l e f i n a l l y l e d t o t h e c u

t h e s a c ri f i ce f o r C a e s ar a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e a n t i p r i e s t l y J e w i s h r e b e l s , s i g n a l i n g

w a r w i t h R o m e . L i k e w i s e , t h e s t o r y o f J e s u s ' " c l e a n s i n g o f t h e t e m p l e " m u s t b e

l eas t Gi ra rd w ou ld sure ly s ee i t ) i n the con tex t o f im pe nd in g sacr i f i c i a l c r i s i s .

T h e roo t p rob lem in a t im e of s acr i f i c i a l c r i s i s i s the b rea k in g do w n of t r a d i



g e n d e r , r a ce , a n d s o c i a l b o u n d a r i e s . W e w i t n e s s t h e s a m e s o r t o f t h i n g t o

f u n d a m e n t a l i s t p a n i c o v e r g a y r i g h t s , w o m e n ' s e q u a l i t y , a n d e v e n t h e t h e o r y o

w h i c h s e e m s t o t h e m t o e r o d e t h e w a l l b e t w e e n a n i m a l s a n d h u m a n s . E v e r y

d e f i n e d b y w h e r e i t d r a w s it s l i n e s . A n d w h e n t h e l i n e s s t a r t t o b e e r a s e d , t h e r e

b e t ro u b l e , i n c l u d i n g v i g i l a n t e v io l e n c e. W h e n p e o p l e l os e c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e p r o p

f o r m e d i a t i n g v i o l e n c e , w h e n , a s i n o u r so c i e ty , t h e y f e e l t h e j u s t i c e s y s t e m c o d d l e

( t h u s e x p u n g i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n i n n o c e n t a n d g u i l t y ) , t h e n p e o p l e b e g i n

l a w i n t o t h e i r o w n h a n d s , a n d c h a o s e r u p t s . I f t h e p r o p e r c h a n n e l s f o r v i o l e n c e a

a n d r i t u a l i n c h a r a c t e r , t h e n t h e b r e a k d o w n o r c o m p r o m i s e o f t h i s s y s t e m w i l l r e s

as we have jus t seen.

The prim itive m ind . . . has no difficulty im agin ing an affil iation betwee n v

nondifferentiation and, indeed, is often obsessed by the possible consequences of such a u

differenc es are conceived in term s of cu ltu ral d ifferenc es, and vice versa. . . . Because th er

difference between the various modes of differentiation, there is in consequence no differ

the m anne r in which thin gs fail to differ; the disappearance of natura l differences can th

mind the dissolution of regulations pertaining to the individual 's proper place in society

instigate a sacrificial crisis.

41

W e se e s o m e t h i n g o f t h i s e r o s i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e g o s p e l s , t



i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g i s t h a t J e s u s h i m s e l f i s d e p i c t e d a s t h e c h i e f c u l p r i t i n e r a s in g

I f w e t a k e s e r io u s l y r e c e n t w o r k b y E l i z a b e t h S c h t is s le r F i o r e n z a , J o h n D o m i n

W e r n e r K e l b e r , a n d o t h e r s , J e s u s a p p e a r s t o h a v e p r o c l a i m e d a " d i s c i p l e s h i p

b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n , w e l c o m e d t h e U n t o u c h a b l e s a s G a n d h i d i d , r e ce iv e d d e

t i l es in t o f e l low ship , acce p ted t ax co l l ec to r s an d as soc ia ted wi t h s inne r s to the pu

the t r ad i t iona l ly p ious . J esu s , as pa in te d by Sch i' is s le r F ioren za , R ic hard A . Ho rs le

a n d o t h e r s , e v e n s o u g h t t o a b o l i s h t h e p a t r i a r c h a l f a m i l y ( M a t t . 1 0 : 3 4

H a m e r t o n - K e l l y f i n d s i n M a r k a n i d y ll ic p i c t u r e of " t h e c o n f r a t e r n i t y o f t h e k i n g d

t h i s n e w c o n t e x t , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y is a n a n a c h r o n i s m . T h e n e w r a d i ca l f a t h e r h o

re la t iv izes the c l a im s of ear th ly p aren t s and f am i ly ob l iga t ion s , wh ich were i

o rgan ized fo r th e m os t par t acc ord in g to the fo rm s of s acred v io lence . "

4 2

W h i l e t h i s w h o l e r a f t o f p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t e x eg e s e s m i g h t b e c h a l l e n g e d

p r o b l e m i n a t t r i b u t i n g s u c h n o t i o n s t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s i s t h a t s a y i n g a f t e r r e l e

h a s l o n g a g o b e e n s h o w n t o b e a r e d a c t i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n o r a c o m m u n i t y f o r m a t i

i n p a r t i c u l a r s e e m s f u l l y a s c r e d u l o u s a b o u t t h e a c c u ra c y o f t h e g o s p e l s a s G i r a

B u t le t u s s u p p o s e t h e e x e g e s i s o f t h e p a s s a g e s i s c o r r e c t , t h o u g h t h e i r a t t r i b u t i o n

no t . W h a t we a re l e f t w i th i s a co l l ec t io n of soc ia l ly d i s ru p t i ve s ay in gs f a l s e ly

J e s u s so a s t o p i n t h e b l a m e f o r t h e c u r r e n t s o c i a l /s a c r i fi c i a l c r is i s s q u a r e l y u p o n



t h i n k a l s o o f t h e i m p r e s s i o n g i v e n in t h e g o s p e l s t h a t J e s u s s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y

t e m p l e c r i si s . N e i t h e r t h e s a c r i fi c i a l p r o g r a m o f J e s u s e d u c e d b y C h i l t o

s o c i o p o l i t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f p r i e s t ly c o m p r o m i s e r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y H o r s l e y i s g i v e

i n t h e g o s p e l t e x t s . W h y n o t ? T h e l a r g e r s o c ia l c o n d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n m y t h i c a l l y

w i d e r p r o b l e m s a t t r i b u t e d t o o n e m a n a l o n e : t h e s c a p e g o a t .

U p t o t h i s p o i n t I h a v e b e e n w i l l i n g t o g r a n t f o r t h e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t t h a

c o r r e c t i n s e e i n g J e s u s p o r t r a y e d a s u n a m b i g u o u s l y i n n o c e n t i n t h e g o s p e l a c c o u n

t h a t w e r e s o , w e n e e d s i m p l y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e g o s p e l s r e p r e s e n t a n a d v a n c e

m o r a l l y d u a l i s t i c r e w r i t i n g o f t h e e a r l i e r v e rs i o n o f t h e s c a p e g o a t m y t h . " I i m p l i

o r i g i n a l ' c r i m i n a l ' B a l d r m u s t h a v e e x i s t e d i n a m o r e p r i m i t i v e v e r s i o n o f t h e

s u g g e s t t h a t , i n G i r a r d i a n t e r m s , t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r h e t o r i c o f J e s u s i n t h e g o s p e l s

surv iv in g ves t iges o f the ear l i e r ver s ion of the Pas s ion t a l e in w hic h the re was a

J e s u s . T h i n k a l so o f t h e d i s c o m f o r t o f t h e v a r i o u s e v a n g e l i s t s o v e r w h a t t o d

" f al s e" c h a r g e t h a t J e s u s h a d t h r e a t e n e d t o d e s t r o y t h e t e m p l e ( M a r k 1 4 : 5 7

2 6 : 5 9 - 6 1 ; A c t s 6 : 1 2 - 1 4 ; J o h n 2 : 1 8 - 2 2 ) . J o h n i n p a r t ic u l a r m a k e s i t c le a r h i s

r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o c c u r r e d t o h i m l o n g a f t e r t h e f a c t , a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e o f G i r a r d ' s

r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l s c a p e g o a t .

Can Jesus r ea l ly have been s ing le -handedly r espons ib le fo r the s acr i f i c i a l c r i s i s



N o t l ike ly . G i ra rd ' s exp lana t ion of the O ed ip us m yt h f i t s jus t as n ice ly here :

If the crisis has dropped from sight, if universal reciprocity [of violence} is eliminated,

of the unequal distr ib utio n of th e very real parts of th e crisis . In fact, noth ing has

abolished, nothing added, but everything has been misplaced. The whole process of mythic

leads to a transferal of violent undifferentiation from all the Thebans to the person of Oed

becomes the repository of all the com mu nity's i l ls. In th e m yth , the fearful transgression

individu al is sub stitute d for the universal onslau ght of reciprocal violence. Oe dipu s is respon

ills that have befallen his people. He has become a prime example of the human scapegoat.

So has J esu s . G i ra rd o ug ht to have seen th a t .

I AM HE AS YOU ARE HE AS YOU ARE ME AND W

ALL TOGETHER

As we hav e seen , an o th er m aj or s ign of the r i s e o f r ec ip roca l v io lence to c r i s i s p r

t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f d o u b l e s o r t w i n s . T h i s i s a t e r m G i r a r d e m p l o y s in s e v e ra l r



F i r s t , i n t h e p r o c e s s o f m i m e s i s , w h e n o n e i n d i v i d u a l m o d e l s h i m s e l f u p o n a n o t h e r

a n d t h e i m i t a t o r a r e m i m e t i c t w i n s . S e c o n d , G i r a r d s p e a k s of t h e t w o s i d e s o f a

w h e t h e r i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t iv e , a s d o u b l e s o r m i m e t i c t w i n s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a n y

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o h a s b e e n lo s t . R e c i p r o c a l v i o l e n c e le v e l s t h e p l a y i n g

p e o p l e m a y e v e n f o r g e t w h a t t h e v i o l e n c e w a s a l l a b o u t . T h i r d , i n t h i s p r o c e s s

occas ion of th i s p roces s , a l l t r a d i t i on a l d i f f e ren t i a t i on s a re los t , as w e have seen .

e v e r y o n e h a s b e c o m e e v e r y o n e e l s e' s t w i n o r d o u b l e . I n f a c t , s i n c e e v e r y o n e , l i k e

Y o u n g G o o d m a n B r o w n , h a s c o m e t o s e e t h e f i e n d i n e v e r y f a c e , e v e r y o n e

e v e r y o n e e l se ' s " m o n s t r o u s d o u b l e . " F o u r t h , o f t e n t h i s s o r t o f c o l l e c t i v e d o u b l i n g

i n m y t h s r e d u c e d s y m b o l i c a l l y t o a p a i r o f m a t c h e d c h a r a c t e r s , u s u a l l y a n t a g o n i s

o r t w i n s .

F i f t h , o n c e t h e m a s s s e t t l e s o n a h a p l e s s v i c t i m t o se r v e a s i t s s c a p e g o a t , t h i s

b e c o m e s t h e b l o t t e r t o s o a k u p e v e r y o n e ' s g u i l t a n d p a r a n o i a , a n d h e o r s h e b

m o n s t r o u s d o u b l e o f t h e s o c ie t y . T h i s is t h e f i r s t a c t o f t r a n s f e r e n c e . W i t h t h e s e c

scap ego at is s anc t i f i ed an d idea l i z ed as a s av ior. B ut w ha t i s to be do ne w i th

p r e v i o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m ? S i x t h , i t i s p r o j e c t e d o n t o a s e c o n d a r y s c a p e g o

h a p p e n s , t h e n w e m a y s p e a k o f t h e n e w s c a p e g o a t as t h e m o n s t r o u s d o u b l e o f t h e

b i l i t a t e d s c a p e g o a t . G i v e n t h e r e t u r n of d u a l i s t m o r a l i s m a f t e r t h e c r is i s s u



s c a p e g o a t i s t h u s b i f u r c a t e d , a n d h i s e v i l t w i n m a y b e a s e c o n d s c a p e g o a t e d i n

g r o u p : J e w s , a c c o r d i n g t o b o t h M a c k a n d M a c c o b y ) o r a m y t h i c c r e a t i o n ( a

a l o n g s i d e H o t h e r ) .

I w a n t t o f o c u s h e r e o n t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e g o s p e l s o f m a t c h e d / o p p o s i n

c h a r a c t e r s w h o s e f u n c t i o n i s t o s y m b o l i z e a n d c o n c r e t i z e t h e m i m e t i c d o u b l i n g o

s o c i e t y i n t h e r e a l cr i si s t h e m y t h r e f l e c t s , t h e f o u r t h u s e o f t h e d o u b l e s m e t a p h

l i t e r a r y d o u b l e s of J e s u s i n c l u d e J o h n t h e B a p t i s t a n d L a z a r u s , b u t I m u s t l e a v e

h e r e . I w i l l c o n s i d e r S i m o n P e t e r a s a d o u b l e o f J e s u s , t h e n J u d a s I s c a r i o t as a n o t h

G i r a r d i s q u i c k t o n o t e i t w h e n p a i r s o f m i m e t i c t w i n s i n a m y t h h a v e e q u i v

o r d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f t h e s a m e n a m e . I n t h e P a s s i o n of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , e

c h a r a c t e r sa v e f o r t h e b a p t i z e r h i m s e l f i s n a m e d H e r o d : H e r o d A n t i p a s , H e

( i m p l i c i t l y ) H e r o d , t h e b r o t h e r f r o m w h o m H e r o d A n t i p a s h a d w o o e d a w ay

S i m i l a r l y , R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s a r e v a r i a n t s o f t h e s a m e n a m e . W e m i g h t a ls o t h

p u n n i n g r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n J a c o b a n d t h e n a m e o f th e ri v e r w h o s e r e si d e

w r e s t l e s , t h e J a b b o c k . A n d t h e r i v a ls E v o d i a ( " S u c c e s s f u l " ) a n d S y n t y c h e ( " L u c k y

4 : 2 - 3 , w h o a r e t o b e r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f n o n e o t h e r t h a n S y z y g u s ( "Y

M a c c o b y e x p l a i n s w h y i n s u c h c a s e s t h e n a m e s i n d i c a t e t h e s p l i t t i n g o f a n o r i g i

c h a r a c t e r . A s t h e v a r i o u s t r a n s f e r e n c e s a n d b i f u r c a t i o n s o c c u r d u r i n g t h e e v o l u t



m y t h , tr a i t s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r c o m e t o b e m u l t i p l i e d o r

Th ere a re too m an y ac ta n t i a l ro les fo r a s ing le char ac te r to p lay any m ore . So th e

m u l t i p l i e d , a ll k e e p i n g t h e s a m e n a m e as a v e s t i g e of t h e i r o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y .

4 5

S i m o n P e t e r , J e s u s ' n u m b e r - o n e d i sc i p l e , m i g h t , s e e n t h r o u g h G i r a r d i a n l e n se

c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e m b l a n c e t o S i m o n t h e b r o t h e r o f J e s u s m e n t i o n e d i n M a r k 6 : 3 . T

p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s l i s t o f n a m e s o n c e f u n c t i o n e d l i k e t h e l i s t o f t h e T w e l v

3 : 1 4 - 1 9 — t h a t i s , a s a n o f f ic i a l l i s t o f t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e H e i r s of J e s u s — i t i s d i f f

m u c h r e as o n f o r m e n t i o n i n g t h e m b y n a m e — u n l e s s s o m e o n e h a s pa s se d a l o n g

h i n t o f S i m o n b e i n g J e s u s ' m i m e t i c t w i n . H e f u n c t i o n s i n t h e g o s p e l s as a s o u n d i n

a m p l i f y J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s , s i n c e , l i k e H o l m e s ' s D o c t o r W a t s o n , h e a s k s J e s u s t h e q

r e a d e r s a r e a s k i n g . T h u s h e i s a n a r r a t i v e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e s a y i n g s o f J e s u s

p o i n t i s m a d e i n t h e d o c t r i n e s o f e x t r e m i s t I s m a i l ' i s w h o s e e J e s u s a n d P e t e r

s y z y g i e s e m a n a t e d f r o m A l l a h , J e s u s b e i n g t h e " p r o c l a i m e r " o f a n e x o t e r i c r e v e l

b e i n g t h e " f o u n d a t i o n " w h o e x p l a i n s t h e e s o t e r i c a s p e c t o f t h e t e a c h i n g a f t e r w a r d .

M o r e t h a n t h i s , h o w e v e r , S i m o n P e t e r s e e m s t o b e t h e e x t e r n a l i z e d v o i c e o f

i n d e c i s i o n a n d d o u b t . W h e n a t C a e s a re a P h i l i p p i S i m o n v o ic e s h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o

J e s u s ' c o m i n g d e a t h , d o w e n o t c a t c h t h e h i n t t h a t h e h a s s t r u c k a n e r v e ? J e s u

h i m w i t h c u r s e s b e c a u s e h e h i m s e l f i s t h i n k i n g t h e v e r y s a m e t h i n g a n d i s t r y i n



t h e t e m p t a t i o n . T h i s i s e x a c t l y w h a t w e s e e l a t e r i n t h e G a r d e n o f G e t h s e m a n e

v o i c e s o v e r t d o u b t s : I f a t a l l p o s s i b l e , c a n n o t J e s u s a v o i d t h e h e m l o c k c u p ? O f c

d o e s e m e r g e f r o m t h e G a r d e n w i t h h i s r e so l v e i n t a c t . H e w i l l g o t h e w a y o f t h e c

case . A nd S im on e m bo die s th i s , t oo . For he i s a l so S im on of Cy ren e , w ho car r i es

J e s u s .

A n d h e is S i m o n t h e Z e a l o t . B e a r i n g i n m i n d t h a t i n t h e G r e e k t e x t a " z e a l o

a " j e a l o u s o n e " a re t h e s a m e w o r d , w e c a n se e a n o t h e r s i g n o f P e t e r a s a m i m e t i c

o f J es us . W e have a l r eady seen th i s in the s cene of Pe te r ' s confes s ion (where th e

o f J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y m a y t h u s d e n o t e J e s u s ' ow n r e a l i z a t i o n of h i s i d e n t i t y ) a n d i t s a

w h i c h J e s u s r e b u k e s h i s o w n d o u b t , c a l l i n g i t S a t a n . W e o u g h t a l s o t o r e m e m b

S u p p e r a t w h i c h P e t e r a c c e p t s t h a t J e s u s w i l l h a v e t o d i e b u t sw e a r s h e w i l l se e h

t o t h e e n d , h i s o w n d e a t h a s w e l l as J e s u s ' — f o r t h e t w o a r e t h e s a m e . W h e n J e s u

P e t e r ' s i r o n c l a d f i d e l i ty , i s h e a g a i n q u e s t i o n i n g h i s o w n ? B u t i n G i r a r d ' s t e r m s ,

p r o t e s t of l o y a l ty d e n o t e t h a t P e t e r h a s s o u g h t t o a d o p t a s h i s o w n t h e d e s t i n y o f

I n f a c t , P e t e r d o e s d i e b y c r u c i f i x i o n i n e a r ly C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n ( b e g i n n i n g

2 1 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . D r a w i n g o n B a s i li d e s ' r e d a c t i o n o f t h e m y t h , w e m i g h t s ay t h a t S i m o n

o f C y r e n e ) n o t o n l y s h a r e s t h e f a t e o f h i s L o r d b u t s u p p l a n t s i t , a c t u a l l y t a k i n g

o n t h e c r o ss . A n o t h e r s e t o f b r o t h e r s , J a m e s a n d J o h n , w a n t t o m i m e t i c a l l y a p p

d e s t i n y of J e s u s , t o o ( M a r k 1 0 : 3 5 - 4 1 ) .



S i m o n P e t e r w i l l m e e t h i s o w n d o u b l e l a t e r o n i n t h e f o r m o f t h e a n t i - S i m

M a g u s , w h o a p p r o a c h e s P e t e r a n d a s k s t o d u p l i c a t e h i s p o w e r s o f t r a n s m i t t i n g

( A c t s 8 : 1 8 - 2 4 ) . T h e r e a re s t i l l m o r e c o u n t e r p a r t s t o S i m o n P e t e r , b u t w e m u s t

l a t e r t o m e e t t h e m .

JUDAS GOAT

Ju da s i s su re ly the mo s t com plex of J esu s ' dou bles . W e have a l r eady no ted tha t h

ro le o f the s econdary s capegoat once J esus has been r e t roac t ive ly exonera ted . Macco

the idea ind epe nd en t ly o f Gi r a rd , th ou gh he s ays p rec i se ly wh at Gi r a rd o ug ht to h

t h e s u b j e c t . M a c c o b y c i t e s n u m e r o u s m y t h s i n w h i c h t h e e x e c u t i o n e r o f t h e h e r o i

b ro ther ( e .g . , Ca in and A bel ) . T he po in t o f such a sym bo l i s to b i fu rca te the o r i

so tha t the execu t ioner m ay b e s een to bear away th e ev il o r ig ina l ly a t t ached to

Th e or ig in a l s capego at has been sp l i t i n to two , on e go ing to Yahve , the o the r

T h o u g h G i r a r d c a n n o t b r i n g h i m s e l f t o a p p l y i t t o J e s u s a n d J u d a s , h e i s a w a r e

t r a j e c t o r y o f m y t h i c e v o l u t i o n :



Similarly, the Aztec god Xipe-Totec demonstrates the ability of the incarnation of t

assume different roles in the system. Sometimes this god is killed and flayed in the person

offered as substitute for him; at other times the god becomes the executioner, flaying vict

to don their skin. Evidently religious thought perceives all those who participate in

interplay, whether actively or passively, as doubles.

47

In l i gh t o f t hese ana lyses we can p lo t ou t t he t ra j ec tory of t he "Big Bang"

the mu l t ip l i ca t ion of Jud as f igures . Ju da s is o f course " the Iscar io t , " t he Fa ls

Bet rayer . (Here I must s ide wi th Ber t i l Gar tner aga ins t Maccoby, who

in t e rpre t a t ion in favor of " the S icar ius . "

4 8

) He i s the sacred execut ioner. But to pl

to t he fu l l e s t , he sho uld be Jesu s ' b ro ther , t oo , and he i s . H e is t he Ju da s num be

Jesus ' s ib l ings in Mark 6 :3 . More spec i f i ca l ly , he i s even a

twin

b r o t h e r , D i d

Th om as , Ju da s the Twin . An d of course Ju da s mu st be one of t he d i sc ip l es as we

t o b e w i t h i n s t r i k i n g d i s t a n c e w h e n t h e m o m e n t c o m e s .

Bu t as Luk e knew (and as Sc hm i tha l s and Gi in t e r Kle in kne w even be

remains a problem count ing out one of t he Twelve i f t here i s t o be a subsequent

twelv e apos t l es . Ho w can they a l l have been ap po in t ed by the Ri sen Jesu s (1 C



o n e o f t h e m h a d a l r e a d y h a n g e d h i m s e l f ? J u d a s w a s s i m p l y b i f u r c a t e d i n t o " J u d

a n d " J u d a s n o t Is c a r i o t " ( J o h n 1 4 : 2 2 ) . A f e w m a n u s c r i p t s o m i t " n o t " i n J o h n 1 4

s h o u l d c h a n c e t o b e t h e o r i g i n a l r e a d i n g , s u p p r e s s e d b y h a r m o n i z i n g s c r i b e s

r e a s o n s , t h e n h e r e w e w o u l d a c t u a l l y b e w i t n e s s i n g a s t a g e i n t h e o n g o i n g d o u b l i n

P e r h a p s t h e t w o r e s u l t a n t J u d a s e s c o u n t e d a s n u m b e r s t w e l v e a n d t h i r t e e n , w i t h T

o n e o f t h e f i r s t e l e v e n . B u t la t e r , s o m e h o w T h a d d a e u s w a s a s s i m i l a t e d t o J u d a s

T h i s l e f t t h e f a m o u s g a p , w h i c h L e b b a e u s a n d N a t h a n i e l m i g h t h a v e b e e n a t t e m

S p e a k i n g o f o d d m a n u s c r i p t s , a f e w h a v e t h e r e a d i n g " J u d a s t h e Z e a l o t " a t M a t

s o m e O l d L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s ) a n d a t J o h n 1 4 : 2 2 ( in s o m e S a h i d i c m a n u s c r i p t s ) .

w o u l d b e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e s a m e w a y " S i m o n t h e Z e a l o t " w a s , t h e e p i t h e t i n d

n e o - G i r a r d i a n e x e g e s i s a t a n y r a t e , m i m e t i c r i v a l r y : J u d a s t h e J e a l o u s .

I f t w i n s a r e l i t e r a r y / m y t h i c p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e m i m e t i c d o u b l i n g i n

soc ia l / s acr i f i c i a l c r i s i s , Gi ra rd observes , the s capegoat ( the mons t rous double o f s

wh ole) ca n jus t as we l l be a p ro du c t o f o r a par tn er in inces t , j us t l ike Oed ipu

e q u i v a l e n t i m a g e f o r t h e h o r r i f i c e f f a c i n g o f d i f fe r e n c e s a n d b o u n d a r i e s . W e se e

t h e m y t h e m e s p i n n i n g i t se l f o u t in t h e g r o w t h o f t h e J u d a s t r a d i t i o n . L a t e i n t h

i n T h e G o l d e n L e g e n d , w e f i n d J u d a s m a r r i e d t o h i s m o t h e r , h a v i n g k i l l e d h i s

l i k e O e d i p u s , a n d f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n . I n t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y B a l l a d o f J u d a s



e t y m o l o g y ?

Som e t rad i t i o ns repo r t t ha t i t was Ju da s who d i ed on th e c ross i n Jesu s ' s t

been mi raculous ly t ransformed in to h i s l i keness . Abu Ja ' fa r a l - Tabar i (d i ed 923 C

Ibn Ishaq as re l a t in g ho w "Some of t h e C hr i s t i an s a l lege tha t it was Ju da s Iscar i

ma de {Jesus' } sem blanc e to t hem a nd th a t t hey c ru c i f i ed h im desp i t e h i s say ing

o n e o f h i s c o m p a n i o n s I a m t h e o n e w h o p o i n t e d h i m o u t t o y o u ' "

51

I t is s

su c h C h r i s t i a n d o c e t i sm su rv i v e d l o n g e n o u g h i n r e m o t e ar e as fo r M u h a m m a d t o

i t up f ro m C hr i s t i a ns whe n they con ver t ed to Is l am . An d so here i s a Ch r i s t i a

a c c o rd i n g t o w h i c h Ju d a s ' m i m e t i c r i v a l ry w i t h h i s L o rd c a m e t o a n i ro n i c f r

po in t is ac tua l ly ra ther imp or t a n t . T he cho ice of t he scapego at by the m ob is usua

mu ch l i ke the p i ck ing of S im on of C yrene out o f t he c rowd to car ry Jes us ' c ross

aga in of Bas i l i des ' read ing: S imon ha d been p i cked a t ran do m to be c ruc i f i ed) .

any bod y because in t he c r i s i s o f rec iproca l v io l ence none is par t i cu l a r ly m ore

inno cen t t han anyo ne e lse ; i nde ed , t hese t e rm s have for t he t im e be in g los t t he

The scapegoat i s , however, s t i l l falsely accused since he cannot be totally a

responsible as charged. But i t could as easi ly be anybody.

An d th i s mean s i t could jus t as eas i ly have been Jud as as Jesus Th i s

i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e i r b e i n g m i m e t i c t w i n s . G i r a rd m a k e s th i s p o i n t in d i s c u s s i n g t



s to r y. O e d i p u s h a s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p l a g u e in T h e b e s is a d i v i n e j u d g m e n t f o r

o f L a i u s , h i s p r e d e c e s s o r o n t h e t h r o n e . T h e t a s k i s n o w t o s m o k e o u t t h e r

p u n i s h h i m . O f c o u r s e O e d i p u s h i m s e l f i s e v e n t u a l l y d i sc l o s e d a s t h e m u r d e r e r

u n w i t t i n g o n e . B u t , s ay s G i r a r d , t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f O e d i p u s as t h e c u l p r

ine v i t a b le , a t leas t no t in wh ate ver r ea l s e t o f eve n t s the s to ry r e f l ec t s . T h e b la

d e a t h c i r c l e d l i k e a v u l t u r e f o r a w h i l e . I n i t i a l l y O e d i p u s t r i e d t o p i n t h e b l a m e

a n d C r e o n , b u t h e c o u l d n ' t m a k e i t s t i c k . T h e y r e t u r n e d t h e b l a m e t o h i m , a n

m a n a g e t o m a k e i t s t i c k . D i d O e d i p u s " i n f a c t " c o m m i t t h e d e e d ? H e h i m s e l f w a s

a d m i t h e d i d , b u t t h i s o n l y m e a n s h e a l l o w e d h i m s e l f t o b e p e r s u a d e d o f t h e i r

e v e n t s . H e k n e w h e k i l l e d s o m e o l d m a n , b u t a t t h e m o m e n t h e d i d n o t k n o w

I t m a y o r m a y n o t h a v e b e e n L a i u s : w h o k n o w s ? B u t t h e t a i l h a s f i n a l l y b e e n p i n

don key , an d tha t ' s whe re it wi l l st ay . O ed ip us i s e l ec ted as the s cape goa t to s ave T

Ha ving oscillated freely am ong th e three protag onists , the fu ll burde n of gu ilt f inally se

It m ig ht very well have settled on a nothe r, or on none. . . . Th e attr ib utio n of gu ilt t ha

passes for "true" differs in no way from those a ttr ibu tion s th at w ill hencefo rth be regarde

except tha t in the case of t he "tru e" gui lt no voice is raised to pro test any aspect of th

particu lar version of events succeeds in imposin g itself; i t loses i ts polem ical natur e in b

acknowledged basis of the myth, in becoming the myth itself .

52



Judas i s forever v i l i f i ed as a t h i e f ( John 12:6) , bu t remember tha t Jesus wa

a m o n g t h e t h i e v e s (M a rk 1 4 : 4 8 ; 1 5 : 2 7 ) , t o o . A n d if Ju d a s w a s c a l le d d e m o n -p o sse

13:27 ; Luke 22:3) , so was Jes us (Jo hn 8 :48) . N ei t he r se t o f i nvec t ives cou nt s a

than tha t . One s tuck , t he o ther d idn ' t . Or should we not say , t he charges s tuck f i r

t he pr im ary scapego at , t he n were reappl i ed to Ju da s , t he secondary sca pego at .

To t ake i t one s t ep fu r th er , t he supp osed possess ion of Jud as by Sa tan ma y

y e t a n o t h e r d i s t a n c i n g d e v i c e t o sh i f t so m e m e a su re o f t h e b l a m e f ro m Ju d a s a

execu t ioner . "Th e con di t i o n ca l l ed ' possess ion ' i s i n fac t bu t one par t i cu l a r i n t e rp

the mo nst r ou s do uble . . . . Som e presence see ms to be a c t ing through h i m — a g o d ,

o r wh atever c rea ture i s i n t he process of i nves t ing h i s bo dy . " " Th us Sa tan becom e

st rou s do ub le of Ju da s , and a t e r t i a ry scapegoat in h i s beha l f . In t h e C op t i c f r ag m

G o sp e l o f B a r t h o l o m e w w e r e a d t h a t i t w a s Ju d a s ' n a g g i n g w i fe w h o p u t h i m

mischief .

5 4

A n o t h e r m o n s t r o u s d o u b l e .

I t on ly rem ains to t i e u p a sur pr i s ing loose end . I f t he panic ky w ords of Ju

by Ib n Ishaq (" I am n ot one of h i s com panio ns " ) shou ld rem ind one of Pe t e r ' s de

14 :66 -7 1) , t h i s may be no acc iden t , because Pe te r and Jud as would seem to be



one anothe r , t oo . I f Jud as Iscar io t i s Ju da s the Ze a lo t , and i f S imo n P e ter i s

Zea lo t ; i f Ju da s i s one of t he b ro the rs of Jesus , and i f S im on is ano ther , t hen we

another l ook a t t he ep i the t " Judas of S imon Iscar io t " ( John 13:2) , which could

den ote " Jud as , b ro th er of S im on " as " Jud as , son of S i m on . "" But S im on P e ter t he

P e t e r I s c a r io t ? T h a t w o u l d a p t l y d e sc r i b e t h e c o w a rd l y d e n i e r o f M a rk 1 4 :

a f t e rw a rd b re a k s i n t o w e e p i n g j u s t a s Ju d a s a f t e rw a rd r e p e n t e d (M a t t . 2 7 : 3 ) . A n

J o h n 6 : 6 6 - 7 1 w i t h M a r k 8 : 2 7 - 3 3 . I n P e t e r v a n G r e e n a w a y s n o v e l The Judas Gos

Dead Sea Scro l l , a Tes t ament of Judas , revea l s t ha t i t was Pe te r , no t Judas , who

out , and tha t Pe t e r successfu l ly f ramed Judas for t he deed .

5 6

Is t ha t po ss ib l e? W as

H oth er , a secondary scapeg oat la t e r rep l aced by Ju da s , a t e r t i a ry scapeg oat ( l i ke Lo

PARTNERS IN MIME

Ju d a s a n d S i m o n P e t e r m a y b e t h e m o s t o b v i o u s ca se s o f m i m e t i c t w i n s a m o n g t h

bu t t he gospe l s do not he s i t a t e t o cas t t he who le gr ou p of t he m in the ro l e. Al

Greek chorus , t he d i sc ip l es of t en speak as one wi th the vo ice of mimet i c des i re



f o r e v e r s q u a b b l i n g o v e r w h o is t h e g r e a t e s t , o r w i l l b e t h e g r e a t e s t . A n d t h e y p i n

o f g re a tn es s on the coa t t a i l s o f J esu s ( " If on ly I can touc h t he h em of h i s ga rm

T h e y g e n e r o u s l y l e a v e t h e c e n t r a l t h r o n e f o r J e s u s b u t b i c k e r o v e r t h e s ea t

a l o n g s i d e h i m . M a r k p i c t u r e s t h e m a l w a y s d u m b f o u n d e d , r e b u k e d f o r m i s u n d e r s t

w h e n t h e y t h o u g h t t h e y ' d g o t i t s t r a i g h t . I t a l l f i t s G i r a r d ' s f r a m e w o r k p e

m i m e t i c d o u b l e s e e k s t o b e j u s t l i k e h i s m o d e l , b u t a s h e c l o se s i n , t h e m o d e l t r

some d i s t ance , s e t s up some obs tac le . "A d i sc ip le i s no t above h i s t eacher , nor a

h i s m as te r ; i t i s en ou gh for a d i s c ip le to b e l ike h i s t each er , an d the s l ave l ike

( M a t t . 1 0 : 2 4 - 2 5 a ) . " A r e y o u a b l e t o d r i n k t h e c u p t h a t I d r i n k , o r t o b e b a p t i z e

b a p t i s m w i t h w h i c h I a m b a p t i z e d ? " ( M a r k 1 0 :3 8 ) . A n d s ee 2 K i n g s 4 : 1 1 - 3 7 , M a

a n d v a r i o u s ta l e s o f A e s c l e p i u s , A s c l e p i a d e s , a n d P a n c r a t e s w h e r e t h e d i s c i p l e s p

i n c a p a b l e of m i m i c k i n g t h e f e a t s o f t h e m a s t e r . O r t h i n k o f J o s h u a w h o f i r s t

p e o p l e , " T h e r e f o r e f e a r Y a h v e , a n d s e r v e h i m i n s in c e r i t y a n d i n f a i t h f u l n e s s " ( J o

an d t he n cas t s th i s in the i r t e e th : "You c an no t s e rve Yahve , fo r he i s a ho ly g

j e a l o u s g o d ; h e w i l l n o t f o r g i v e y o u r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o r y o u r s i n s " ( J o sh . 2 4 : 1 9 ) . T

d i s c i p l e f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a d o u b l e b i n d .

5 7

I n c r e a s i n g l y f r u s t r a t e d , t h e i m i t a t o r g r a d u a l l y s l ip s f r o m a d o r a t i o n o f t h e m

l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m o d e l , w h o i s i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r c e i v e d a s a c o m p e t



o b s t a c l e , u n t i l u n a l l o y e d h a t r e d f i n a l l y e m e r g e s .

By a strange but explicable consequence of their relationship, neither the model nor th

disposed to acknowledge the inevitable rivalry. The model, even when he has openly

imitation ["If any one would come after me, let him take up his cross and follow me"],

to f ind him self en gaged in com petit io n. He concludes that th e disciple has betrayed his c

following in his footsteps. As for the disciple, he feels both dejected an d hum iliate d, judg

by his model of participating in the superior existence the model himself enjoys.

51

" D e p a r t f r o m m e , O L o r d , f o r I a m a s i n f u l m a n " ( L u k e 5 :8 ) .

" C o n f l i c t u a l m i m e s i s w i l l i n e v i t a b l y u n i f y b y le a d i n g t w o o r m o r e i n d i v i d u a l s

on one and the s am e adver sary tha t a l l wi sh to s t r ike dow n."

5 9

The d i sc ip les o f

b e e n i m i t a t o r s of J e s u s a n d t h u s r i va l s o f o n e a n o t h e r , a n d a s J e s u s c o n t i n u e s

t h e m , w h a t i s t h e i r n e x t s t e p g o i n g t o b e ? G i r a r d s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e m t o u n i t e a

N o m o r e b i c k e r i n g a b o u t w h o is t o b e g r e a t e s t W e w i l l n o t h a v e t h i s m a n t o r e

T h e y s h a r e h a r m o n i o u s f e l l o w s h i p o n c e a g a i n a s t h e y j o i n t l y d e v o u r t h e f le sh a n

t h e i r e r s t w h i l e m a s t e r , t h e i r s c a p e g o a t , t h e l a m b o f G o d w h o t o o k a w a y t h e i r s i n

J . W e e d e n a r g u e d t h a t M a r k p o r t r a y s t h e d i s c i p l e s f i n a l ly b e c o m i n g t h e e n e m i e



b e t r a y i n g , d e n y i n g , a b a n d o n i n g h i m , n o t e v e n v i s i ti n g h i s to m b .

6 0

I be l i e

n e o - G i r a r d i a n s c r u t i n y o f t h e P a s s i o n w i l l m a k e t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s e e m m i l d i n d e e

fo l lows I wi l l a t t em pt t o show how Gi ra rd ' s met ho ds should d i sc lose an ear l i e r

w h i c h i t w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e d i s c ip l e s o f J e s u s w h o c o n s p i r e d t o k i l l h i m .

W E ESTEEMED HIM SMITTEN OF G O D

S i f t i n g t h r o u g h t h e m o s a i c t il e s o f t h e P a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e s , I b e l i e v e t h e n e

i n v e s t i g a t o r w o u l d h a v e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i t w a s t h e a n o i n t i n g i n B e t h a n y t h a t p r

t h e b a c k b r e a k i n g s t r a w . H e r e t h e d i s c i p l e s f i r s t r e c o g n i z e d t h e i r i d o l 's c la y f e e t .

l a p s e c o n v i n c e d t h e m t h a t t h e y h e l d m o r e f i r m l y t o h i s r a d i c a l e t h o s t h a n h e h

T h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y ? W i t h t h e i n f l e x i b l e p e d a n t r y o f t h e s m a l l - m i n d e d z e a l o t , " s o

1 4 : 4 ) o n t h e s c e n e o b j e c t e d t o t h e w a s t e o f t h e f a n c y o i l : " W h y w a s t h e o i n

w a s t e d ? F o r t h i s o i n t m e n t m i g h t h a v e b e e n s o l d f o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e h u n d r e d d

[ t h e p r o c e e d s } g i v e n t o t h e p o o r " ( M a r k l 4 : 4 b - 5 ) . I s n ' t t h i s t h e v e r y p o l i c y J e s u s

o n so m a n y o t h e r s ? T h e is s u e i s n o t q u i t e t h a t t h e y w e r e b e i n g h o l i e r t h a n J e s u s ;



w e r e b e i n g m o r e li k e J e s u s t h a n J e s u s A n d c o n s i d e r t h e r e s u l t a n t d o u b l e b i n d

b e e n c a u g h t o u t . T h i s d i s c o v e r y c o n v i n c e s t h e m t h a t t h e y a re b e t t e r t h a n J e s u s i n

h i s e t h i c . M i m e s i s s e e m s t o h a v e g a i n e d i t s o b j e c t B u t i n t h e s a m e m o m e n t ,

m ou rn the loss o f th e i r ido l . As the i r ido l has p ro ven t o be les s th an per f ec t , t he

c h e a p e n e d b y t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y h a v e o n l y s u r p a s s e d s o m e o n e w h o w a s r e a ll

t h a n t h e m a l l a l o n g A n d s o h o w f a r h a v e th e y c o m e ? T h e y s c o rn t h e m o d e l n

d i s a p p o i n t i n g t h e m b u t a l so fo r d e p r i v i n g t h e m o f t h e g o a l t h e y t h o u g h t t h e y

p u r s u i n g a n d f i n a l l y g a i n e d . " C h r i s t l i k e n e s s " h a s b e e n d e v a l u e d .

B u t c a n w e b e s o c e r t a i n t h a t t h o s e o b j e c t i n g f r o m t h e p e a n u t g a l l e r y w e r

T h a t w a s a p p a r e n t l y M a t t h e w ' s i n f e r e n c e , s i n c e h i s v e r si o n h a s " t h e d i s c i p l e s " as

( 2 6 : 8 ) . W h o e l s e w o u l d l i k e l y h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t o n t h e s c e n e? B e s i d e s , i n M a r k

m i r a c u l o u s f e e d i n g , i t i s a ls o t h e d i s c i p l e s w h o s p e a k i n d i g n a n t l y a b o u t g i v i n g

w o r t h g r e a t a m o u n t s o f d e n a r i i t o t h e h u n g r y .

I t c o u l d b e t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e c r i t i c s w a s k n o w n t o M a r k b u t t h a t h e

i t , i m p l y i n g t h a t J u d a s w a s t h e o n l y d i s c i p l e t o t a k e u m b r a g e , s i n c e i t i s h e w

goes to the p r i es t s to m ak e h i s o f f e r . M at th ew leaves th e d i s c ip les as th e cu lpr i t s ,

t r i e d t o s o f t e n t h e b l o w i n a n o t h e r w a y . J e s u s ' h o s t o n t h e o c c a s io n , a c c o r d i n g t o

a t M a t t h e w ' s d i s p o s a l , w a s o n e " S i m o n t h e l e p e r . " B y n o w o u r G i r a r d i a n i n s t i n c t



c i en t ly hone d to de t ec t here anot he r vers ion of S imon Pe ter . I t is S im on P e ter ' s

d i sg u i se h i m a s a l e p e r? S u c h a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s e rv e s n o a p p a re n t n a r r a t i v e p u rp

w e are b e i n g su b t l y d i r e c t e d t o N u m b e r s 1 2 : 1 -1 5 , a s t o ry i n w h i c h M i r i a m a n d

to c r i t i c i ze Moses on account of a woman, h i s Cushi t e br ide . For her meddl ing ,

turn ed in to a l eper . I s S im on m ade a l eper by M at t he w because he dared c r i t i c i

a c c o u n t o f a w o m a n ? I w o u l d n ' t b e su rp r i s e d .

Luk e has concea led S im on Pe ter ' s i de n t i t y un de r a d i f f e re n t mas k . H e has ma d

Sim on the Phar i see (Luke 7 :3 6 -4 0 f f) . Exeg etes have noted tha t t h i s wo uld be

ins t an ce of Jes us addres s ing a Phar i see or o the r ou t s id er by nam e. An d ye t he e l s

S i m o n P e t e r b y n a m e ( e . g . , L u k e 2 2 : 3 1 ; M a t t . 1 6 : 1 7 ; 1 7 : 2 5 ) . Wh i l e n o e v a n g e l i s t

mu ch hav ing Jes us rebu ke Pe te r , t h i s t im e L uke fee l s t h in gs have go ne too fa r :

seem ingly los t h i s fa i t h i n Jesu s a l toge ther . " I f t h i s ma n were a pro ph et . . . " So

s o m e

other

S i m o n .

I t is by no mean s d i f f i cu l t t o see how the d i sc ip l es mig ht have t ake n of fen

saying "You a lways have the poor wi th you , and whenever you wi l l , you can

the m ; bu t you wi l l no t a lways have me" (Mark 14:7) . Th e hear t l ess a r rogan ce of

has always t roubled pious readers, a l l the way back to the late f i rst or early seco

wh en th e Did ach e warne d i t s readers t o e j ec t as a fa l se pro ph et any i t i ne ran t who



d i v i n e a f f l a t u s , " G i v e m e m o n e y , " w h i c h i s p r e t t y m u c h t h e s a m e se n t i m e n t . T h e

saying i s on ly the cap t ion of t he scene of ex t ravagant anoin t ing . The ac t ions sp

loudly . Note tha t Luke has c lumsi ly t r i ed to change the subjec t , red i rec t ing

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e su p p o se d b a d c h a ra c t e r of t h e w o m a n . I t b e c o m e s a n i n c o h e re n t m

them es f ro m o ther t a l es i n which Je sus forg ives s ins . As G i rar d says , "T he only

even conce ivable response seems to be tha t t he vers ion of t he myth we are ana l

the first."

61

My Gi rar d i a n gues s i s t ha t a f t e r th i s i nc ide nt , it i s no t Jud as a lone wh

engineer t he dea th of Jesus , bu t h i s apos to l i c compat r io t s as wel l .

SCAPEGOATS GRUFF

I would next l i ke to dea l wi th a se t o f four per i copae which seem perhaps

scapego at t hem es , t ho ug h they do not b ear d i rec t ly on Jes us as t he scapeg oat . W h

doi ng here? Perhap s , as e l sewhere in t he gospe l s , i t was s im ply a vagu e bu t

k i n sh i p o f t h e m e w h i c h a c c o u n t e d fo r t h e m b e i n g i n c l u d e d i n t h e g e n e ra l v i c i n i

own Pass ion .



T h e f i r s t e p i s o d e i s t h a t o f b l i n d B a r t i m a e u s ( M a r k 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 2 ) . O n c e w e s

m e n a c i n g a b l i n d b e g g a r , a d o u b l y g o o d c h o i c e f o r a s c a p e g o a t , a n d t h e b e g g a r

f o r m e r c y , w e k n o w t h e g a m e i s a f o o t . W h o k n o w s b u t t h a t o r i g i n a l l y t h e s to r y

t h e r e c o v e ry of B a r t i m a e u s ' s i g h t , b u t r a t h e r h i s n a r r o w e s c a p e f r o m a n a n g r y m o b

m a n in t h e G a r d e n of G e t h s e m a n e w h o j u s t m a n a g e d t o e s c a p e b y t h e s k i n o

g l a d e n o u g h t o l ea v e h i s o n l y g a r m e n t b e h i n d , g i v e n t h e a l te r n a t i v e ( M a r k

B a r t i m a e u s p i t c h e s a s i d e t h e s u p e r f l u o u s b a l l a s t o f h i s t h r e a d b a r e c o a t t o r u n f o r h i

W e mu s t cas t our ne t wide : Could i t be tha t the s imi la r s to ry o f J esus ' hea l

man ou t s ide o f Bethsa ida (Mark 8 :22—26) was ano ther ver s ion of the Bar t imaeus

s o m e p e o p l e b r o u g h t t o h i m a b l i n d m a n . " T h a t h a s a n o m i n o u s r i n g a b o u t i t, r e m

t h e p a r i a h p e r i c o p e J o h n 7 : 5 3 - 8 : 1 1 , t h a t o f t h e w o m a n t a k e n i n a d u l t e r y . " T h

b r o u g h t a w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n c a u g h t i n a d u l t e r y ." T h e y m e a n t t o c a r r y h e r o u t

b l ind m an of Bethsa ida be in g scapeg oated , too? I f so , som ehow he ge t s o f f the ho ok

te l l s h im n o t to t ake any chances : "D o no t even en te r the v i l l age . "

T h e s e c o n d a d j a c e n t s c a p e g o a t e p i s o d e i s M a t t . 2 1 : 1 8 - 2 0 , t h e c u r s i n g o f t h

a l o n g w i t h 2 1 : 3 3 - 3 9 , t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e W i c k e d T e n a n t s . I t o n l y t a k e s a

r e s h u f f l i n g t o m a k e t h e p a r a b l e a s t o r y i n w h i c h s t r i f e b r e a k s o u t a m o n g t h e s



t h e m se l v e s , w h o t h e n g a n g u p o n a f i g u re m a rg i n a l l y a s so c ia t e d w i t h t h e v i n e y a r

they k i l l does no t work th ere b u t i s t he son of t he absentee l and lord . H i s dea th p

to the i r s t r i fe . H e i s d r ive n out s id e the ga t es t o be k i l l ed , l ike the anc ien t Gre ek

or , fo l low ing Ma rk 12 :8 , he i s k i ll ed and then cas t for th . An d i f we add the s tory

t ree , we might even de t ec t a t race of some ear l i e r vers ion of Jesus ' own dea th i

was b l am ed for a was t in g agr i cu l tu ra l d i sease a l a Joe l 1 :11—15, wh ere v ined

wi the red f ig t rees a re m ent i on ed in t he sam e b rea th .

Ne xt we may br i e f ly cons ider M at th ew s parab le of t he Gu es t wi th ou t a We ddi

(22:2,11-14). Before the rejoicing of the wedding feast could begin in earnest , had

been a need to choose someone for a scapegoat , in this case marked out by his poo

so, i t wou ld be a reflect ion of the ma rriage fest ival custo m of the N iqu as in

marriage i s sealed by the scars won by relat ives of the bride and groom in a bat t le

ceremony. O ft en the r i tual violence culmin ates in the prearra nged de ath of a slave

general melee. The slave i s a perfect scapegoat to banish the interfami l ial tensions

helpless and wi l l have no one to avenge his murder.

6 2

Nei ther d id the poor ma

22:12 , wh o no do ub t wondered why he had been hus t l ed in a t t he l ast mom en t

found out the hard way.

F i n al ly , t h e re i s t h e c o n u n d ru m p u t t o J e su s b y t h e S a d d u c e e s i n M a t t . 2 2



parab le of t he woman wi th seven husbands , i f I may venture to ca l l i t t ha t

exeges i s , i t seems to me, ought t o grow susp ic ious a t t he p i c ture of t he woma

wh en a l l seven husb and s have com e to a bad en d in rap id success ion . I s she Lady

Perh aps the shroud i s on the wro ng corp se here . W e mig ht spe cula t e t ha t i n

vers ion , t he seven husbands were a l l very much a l ive , and i t i s t he dea th of

wh ich i s a t i ssue. Ins t ea d of br ing ing th i s r i dd le t o Jes us , suppose in t he or ig ina l

w a s t h e w o m a n h e r sel f w h o w a s b ro u g h t — b y t h e se v e n m e n . S u d d e n l y w e ar e d

so m e t h i n g t h a t so u n d s r e m a rk a b l y l i k e t h e a d u l t e r e s s p e r i c o p e a g a in . S h re w d p o p u

long ago sugge s t ed tha t no one took Jesu s u p on h i s i nv i t a t i on to cas t t he

prov ided one was s in l ess— beca use a ll o f t hem had s inned w i th her P lu g in h

w i l l , t h e i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n Je su s a n d a v e ry s i m i l a r c h a ra c t e r in Jo h n 4 : 1 6 - 1 8

y o u r h u s b a n d a n d r e t u rn h e re . ' T h e w o m a n a n sw e re d h i m , ' I h a v e n o h u sb a n d . ' J e

her , 'You are r i gh t t o say , " I have no hus ba nd . " Th e fac t i s , you have had f ive hu

t h e m a n y o u h a v e n o w i s n o t y o u r h u sb a n d . ' " P e rh a p s t h e se p re v i o u s " h u sb

s o m e o n e else's h u sb a n d s . P e rh a p s t h e s e v en " h u sb a n d s" o f t h e w o m a n i n M a t t . 2 2 : 2

tha t wom an ' s hu sba nd s e i ther . As in t he "cas t t he f i r s t s tone " per i cope , perh aps th

seven had com e to resen t one ano the r fo r t he i r co m m on da l l i ance wi t h her . Th e o

hea l t he breach be tween the r iva l s was to e l imina te t ha t which s tood be tween them



a s G i r a r d w a s a b l e t o c o r r o b o r a t e h i s re v e r sa l o f t h e m y t h o f t h e C u r e t e s a n d

( t h a t o r i g i n a l l y t h e y c o n s p i r e d t o d e s t r o y h i m , n o t t o p r o t e c t h i m ) b y c o m p a r i n g

s u r v i v i n g p a r a l l e l i n w h i c h t h e T i t a n s d o g a n g u p o n a n i n f a n t g o d t o k i l l h i m , I

t o r e c o n s t r u c t a n o r i g i n a l s c a p e g o a t v e r s i o n o f t h e w o m a n w i t h s e v e n h u s b a n d s b y

i t w i t h t h e r e l a te d s t o r y o f t h e w o m a n t a k e n i n a d u l t e r y .

O N E LAST MEAL

A s t o t h e L a s t S u p p e r , w e c a n d i s p e n s e w i t h t w o n o t a b l e b u t f a i r l y s i m p l e i t e m s q

f i r s t i s t h e W o r d s o f I n s t i t u t i o n . I t is c le a r e n o u g h , o n a n y c r i t i c a l r e a d i n g , t h a t

d e a l i n g w i t h a c e r e m o n i a l e t i o l o g y . A s L o is y n o t e d l o n g a g o , t h e v e r y w o r d s "

b o d y , t h i s i s m y b l o o d " i m p l y a r i t u a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h a c e l e b r a n t e x p l a i n s t h e

the var iou s i t e m s of the l i tu rgy . T h e case i s no t en t i r e ly c losed , as w i tne s

d i s c u s s i o n i n

The Temple of Jesus

,

63

bu t I wo uld s ee th e wor ds as pa r t o f a

l i t u r g y . T h e q u e s t i o n t h e n b e c o m e s , w h a t w a s t h e s a c r i fi c i a l v i o l e n c e t h a t f i r s t g

t h i s m a s k e d l i t u r g i c a l c o m m e m o r a t i o n ? H e r e t h e v ei l i s r a t h e r t h i n : i t i s t h e d e a



But no te t ha t i t must be the dea th of Jesus as a co l l ec t ive murder , on ly l a t e r san

sacr i f ic i a l r i t ua l . Th e key i s t he add ed wo rd , "D r ink ye a l l o f i t . " Gi r a rd exp

sacr i f ic i a l cere mo ny req ui res a show of co l l ec t ive par t i c ipa t ion , if on ly in pure l

for m . Th i s assoc i a t ion of t he co l l ec t iv i ty wi th the sacr i fi c i a l v i c t im i s fou nd i

i n s t a n c e s—n o t a b l y i n t h e D i o n y s i a c sparagmos. . . . A l l t he pa r t i c ipa nt s , w i th ou t ex

requi red to t ake par t i n t he dea th scene . "

6 4

The reason , even i f no longer under

r e f l e c t t h e l o g i c o f t h e o r i g i n a l m o b l y n c h i n g . T h e e n t i r e g ro u p m u s t t a k e p

v io l ence wi l l remain on the l eve l o f "b ad "— tha t is , secu lar and p erso na l— v

concre t e t e rms, a murder i n which only some par t i c ipa t e would l eave i t se l f open f

aga in s t t he ind iv idu a l k i l l e rs and the i r fam i l i es . Bu t i f t he wh ole co l l ec t iv i ty has

in i t , wh at a re you goi ng to do? Vengean ce i s sho r t -c i r cu i t e d , and peace re turn s . T

for a l l p resen t a t t he euchar i s t t o commune echoes the un i ty of t he d i sc ip l es i n t

o f Jesus . Th i s may sou nd fa r - fe t ch ed , bu t as Mac coby says ,

65

i t rem ains t ru e

C h r i s t i a n s a r e q u i t e h a p p y fo r J e su s t o h a v e d i e d , n o m a t t e r h o w m u c h t h e y m a y

same event . But t ha t i s t he whole log ic of t he scapegoat , i sn ' t i t ?

In Luke ' s vers ion of t he Sup per scene he has Jes us quo te Isa . 53 :1 2 (L uke 22:3

reckoned among the t ransgressors . " Here i s t he t i p of a l a rge i ceberg , t he ear ly C

of the Deutero- Isa i an ic Servant Song. Le t us s imply note t ha t one could ask



so a s t o p re v e n t a n y d i s t u rb a n c e . A n d t h a t i s n o d o u b t t h e F o u r t h E v a n g e l i s t s i n t

M a c c o b y

6 6

be l i eves he can sn i f f ou t an ear l i e r vers ion in which Jesus en gine

han ded over t o t he au tho r i t i es (m uch as i n Kaz antzaki s ' s The Last Temptation of

giv ing the sop to Ju da s he was m ak ing t he dec i s ion as t o wh o wou ld do the

W h i l e t h i s su g g e s t i o n is a t t r a c t i v e , I c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g t h a t fo r J e su s t o h a n d

Ju d a s , i m p l y i n g t h a t it w a s J e su s ' o w n d e c is i o n t o m a k e , r e p re se n t s a r e d a c t i o n a l

cover up an earl ier version, s t i l l visible in Mark 14:20 ("It i s one of the twelve,

d i p p i n g b re a d i n t o t h e s a m e d i sh w i t h m e " ) a n d M a t t . 2 6 : 2 3 ( " H e w h o h a s d i p p e

in the d i sh w i th m e, wi l l be t ray m e") , i n which Jes us had l e f t i t t o chance , mu ch

1:26 , where the apos t l es cas t l o t s to de t e r m ine Jud as ' rep l a cem ent . ( I t i s even p

the Act s scene i s a rewri t t en vers ion of t he Las t Supper scene . ) S ince chance

moves in myste r ious ways , i t i s em ploy ed l i ke G ideo n ' s f l eece to l e t Go d express

a l so 1 Sam . 6 : 7- 9) . I t is t o open up a zone of i nde te rm inac y , b rea king the l i nk

cause and e f fec t , so tha t G od may have a wi nd ow of i n t e r ven t ion . "Th e v i c t im i s

lo t [whose] expul s ion wi l l save the communi ty . "

6 7

But in Jesus ' case i t i s not precisely the vict im who is chosen, but rather

execu t ioner . I sug ges t , a long Gi r ard i an l i nes , t ha t t he lo t i s be ing cas t here (by

only d isc losed a f t e rw ard so as t o preve nt any a t t e m pt t o i n f lu enc e the ou tco me )



c h o o se b y d i v i n e p ro v i d e n c e who is to make the choice of victim. A g a i n , t h i s w o u l d

to ensure the v i c t im was t aken by surp r i se and co uld no t f l ee forew arne d , as he

the lo t e lec t ed h im there on the spo t . Bu t was n ' t Jes us a l ready the chose n v i c

sc h e m i n g T w e l ve w h o w e re s i c k o f h i m ? A c c o rd i n g t o m y r e c o n s t ru c t i o n o f t h

scene , yes. Bu t as Gi r ard i s t he f i r s t to ad m i t , t h e same or ig in ary even t leaves i

ma ny and var ious my ths . As de Maup assa nt observ ed , i t i s d i f f i cu l t t o k eep one ' s

con s i s t en t wi th one ano ther . An d here in t he d i pp in g in t he d i sh scene I am w a

wh at we have i s an oth er vers ion of t he s tory in wh ich m im et i c r i va l r ies have

betw een th e d i sc ip l es t hemse lves as wel l as be tw een t he m and Jes us . In a ll t he b i c

which was the grea t es t , one might as eas i ly po in t t o James and John (Mark 10

l ig h t n i ng rods of cont roversy (Ma rk 3 :17) , and th us the bes t choices for e l im ina

10:39) . But t hen there was Pe te r wi th h i s t i resome c l a ims to pr imacy . Bes t t o ca

scorner so d i ssens ion w ould go out . At t h e very l eas t i t ou gh t t o pro vide a d

fu r t h e r a rg u i n g P e o p l e s t i l l r e m e m b e re d t h e s t o ry o f K o ra h (N u m . 1 6 ; Ju d e 1 1

b u t m a y b e t h e y n e e d e d a r e m i n d e r .

I t t u rn s ou t t o be Jesu s , as he d i scovers t oo la t e i n t he G ard en . "Fr i e nd , wh

c o m e ? " (M a t t . 2 6 : 5 0 ) . O h ,

that's

w h y . P e rh a p s Ju d a s h i m se l f d i d n o t k n o w

moment . "The one I k i ss i s t he man; se i ze h im" (Mat t . 26 :48) . As many exege tes h



over t he years , i t makes no sense a t a i l t o suppose tha t t he guards have come to

no t kn ow ing w hat he looks l i ke T he whole reason for t he c l and es t ine a r res t i s

be tha t Jesus is so popu lar t ha t everyone k n o w s h i m M a c c o b y t a k e s t h i s i n c o n g ru i t

t he l a t e r and su per f luo us ad di t i o n of Ju da s to a scene in wh ich or ig ina l ly h e d id

L ike ly enough. But i t could a l so be tha t t he au thor i t i es s imply want t o make an

someone, and the c hoice i s up to Juda s , who can ma ke no choice t i l l t he m om

W h e n i t does , he k i sses Jesu s , p re t ty mu ch a t rand om , and the ma t t e r i s se t t l ed .

W h y th en does the canon ica l vers ion have both the dea th of Jes us and the ro

in br ing ing i t abo ut p reo rda in ed , l ocked in to a d iv in e p l an? "T he or ig ina l ac t o f

un iq ue and spo ntane ous . R i tua l sacr i f ices , however , a re mu l t ip l e , endless ly repea ted

aspec t s o f t he or ig ina l ac t t ha t had escaped man ' s cont ro l—the choice of t ime and

se l e c ti o n o f t h e v i c t i m — o re n o w p r e m e d i t a t e d a n d f i x e d b y c u s t o m . "

6 8

In prec i se

way, t he l i t u rg i ca l rec i t a t i on of t he Pass ion of Jesu s cam e to have a preord a ine

s ince everyone a l ready knew what happened , and th i s expec ta t ion en te red the

m ak ing a l l t he event s par t o f a d iv in e scr ip t , bo th wi th in and w i th ou t t he nar ra t iv

MESSIAHS BY THE SACKFUL



M e d i e v a l M u s l i m c o m m e n t a t o r s o n t h e P a s s i o n o f J e s u s , w h i c h t h e y u n d e r s t o o d i

f r a m e w o r k , h a d t h e i r o w n c l e v e r e x p l a n a t i o n a s t o w h y J u d a s h a d t o t e l l t h e g u

o f t h e s e m e n w a s t h e n o t o r i o u s J e s u s . A s s o o n a s J u d a s a n d h i s g o o n s q u a d a r

t r a n s f o r m e d a l l t h e d i s c ip l e s i n t o t h e p h y s i c a l li k e n e s s o f J e s u s T h u s t h e n e e d t o

t h e r e a l J e s u s p l e a s e s t a n d u p ? " I n t h e c o n f u s i o n , J e s u s h i m s e l f a s c e n d e d i n t o h e a

o n l y a c h o i c e a m o n g c o u n t e r f e i t s . A n d i t w a s o n e of t h e m , i n s o m e v e r si o n s J u d

w h o w o u n d u p o n t h e c r o s s .

6 9

W h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t t h i s v e r s i o n f r o m

s t a n d p o i n t is t h a t i t p r o v i d e s a n u n p a r a l l e l e d e x a m p l e o f t h e m y t h i c c o n c r e

m im et ic dou ble s in t o l i t e r a l , phys ica l do ub les , and on a l a rge s ca le . " I f v io lenc e

l e v e l e r o f m e n a n d e v e r y b o d y b e c o m e s t h e d o u b l e , o r ' t w i n , ' o f h i s a n t a g o n i s t ,

f o l l o w t h a t a l l t h e d o u b l e s a re i d e n t i c a l a n d t h a t a n y o n e c a n a t a n y g i v e n m o m

t h e d o u b l e o f a l l t h e o t h e r s . "

7 0

" A c c o r d i n g t o F r e u d , t h e c r o w d o f d o u b l e s s t a n d s

o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e a b s o l u t e s p e c i f i c i t y o f t h e h e r o , "

7 1

b u t G i r a r d w o u l d m o d i f y t h i s

s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t : T h e h e r o ( a c t u a l l y , t h e v i c t i m ) s t a n d s o p p o s e d t o a c r o w d o f d

are h i s ow n d o u b l e s a s w e l l , s i n c e i n t h e c r i s is o f r e c i p r o c a l v i o l e n c e , a l l d i s t i n g u i s

h a v e f a d e d a w a y . G i r a r d p r e f e r s t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f F r e u d a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h w

c r o w d o f p e o p l e a l l w i t h t h e s a m e n a m e a n d s i m i l a r l y a t t i r e d . "

7 2

T h a t is s a i d s t r



in the Islamic version of the arrest .

AND SO SAY ALL OF US

Bu t le t us hypoth es i ze anoth er vers ion of t he a r res t i n t he Ga rde n in which no Ju

Ju da s , a f t e r a l l , wo uld have to be a l a t e r ad di t i o n , as a secon dary scapego at t

de i c ida l b l a me f ro m the shou lders of t he com m un i ty as a who le . Supp ose there wa

a c c o u n t i n w h i c h t h e d i s c i p l e s s i m p l y t u rn e d o n Je su s en masse, a m b u sh i n g

sena tors d id Ju l iu s Caesar . He re we m us t take our h in t f ro m Gi rard ' s compa r i

C u re t e s m y t h w i t h t h e m y t h o f t h e in f a n t D i o n y su s . T h e C u re t e s a p p e a r i n

vers ion as a pha lanx of a rm ed w arr iors for m ing a c i rc l e a ro und the go dl in g to p

B u t c o m p a r i so n w i t h t h e D i o n y su s m y t h , i n w h i c h t h e T i t a n s c l ose a ro u n d D i

d i s m em be r h im , l eads Gi rard to i n fer t ha t o r ig ina l ly t h e C ure t e s d id th e sam e.

l a t e r t ha t t he s tory was c l eaned up by the s im ple exped ien t o f m ak ing th e C u

bodyguards ins t ead of h i s assass ins .

In the G eth se ma ne scene we have s im i l a r e l em ent s . Jes us is wi th a c rowd , h



a t l eas t som e of wh om are car ry ing w eapon s . Sud den ly Jesus is me na

w e a p o n -b ra n d i sh i n g c ro w d . T h e o n ly o n es a c t u a l ly s ai d t o e m p l o y a n y w e a p o n s in

melee a re Jesus ' d isc ip l es . Jesu s sees t ha t res i s t ance i s fu t i l e and a l lows h im sel f

away peaceably , t ho ug h h e i s s tu ng by the fee l ing of be t raya l . Of course wh en

spec i f i c de t a i l s t he way th e evange l i s t s do , we see tha t t he a rm ed d i sc ip l es on ly

pro tec t Jesus f rom ar res t by an inv ad ing second gr ou p . Bu t perh aps th a t i s no t t h

to f i l l in the blanks.

Surpr i s ing ly l i t t l e would change i f t he s tory were to be rewri t t en as t ha t o f

a m b u s h e d a n d a p p re h e n d e d b y h is o w n d isc i p le s . A n d a s a n e o - G i ra rd i a n , I a m

tha t t he a l t e ra t ion wen t i n t he o the r d i re c t io n . At t a cke rs have been conver t ed in to

In M a t t h e w , M a rk , a n d Jo h n , t h e re i s n o p re p a ra t i o n w h a t e v e r fo r t h e su d d e n a p

the d i sc ip l es ' swords . Presu ma bly th i s would have f it be t t e r a vers ion in wh ich t

cam e as j us t as m uc h a surp r i se t o Jesu s as t o t he reader . I t wou ld ma ke m ore

for Jesus to say to t he "crowd"

of disciples,

"Ha ve y ou co me out as aga in s t a r

sword s and c lubs to ca p tur e me? Day af t e r day I was with you in t he t emple t e

you d id no t se i ze m e" (Ma rk 14:49) . M at th ew ( 26:5 5) has chan ged the c ruc i a l

"Day af t e r day I sa t i n t he t emp le t ea chin g , " wh ich seems to me an mere ly , "You

to f ind m e. " Perh aps M at th ew rea l i zed Ma rk ' s t ex t could b e read as me an ing so m



s o m e t h i n g h e d i d n o t l i k e .

I f w e p i c t u r e t h e g r o u p o f d i s c i p l e s a s t h e m u r d e r e r s o f J e s u s , a s I b e l ie v e

G i r a r d i a n e x e g e s i s w o u l d r e q u i r e , t h e n m u s t w e w r i t e o f f t h e s e r ie s o f t r i a l s

S a n h e d r i n a n d P i l a t e as f o r m i n g n o p a r t of t h e o r i g i n a l ? N o t q u i t e . A s f o r J e s u

h e a r i n g , o r i n t e r r o g a t i o n ) b e f o r e t h e S a n h e d r i n , i t b e a r s c l e a r m a r k s o f h a v i n g

i n v e n t e d , b u t t r a n s f o r m e d . M o s t li k el y , p l a y i n g b y G i r a r d i a n r u l e s , t h e g r o u p b

J e s u s i s b r o u g h t i s o n c e a g a i n h i s o w n d i sc i p l e s . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h i s w o u l d a t a s

r i d u s o f t h e v e x i n g p r o b l e m o f t h e S a n h e d r i n h o l d i n g a c a p i t a l t r ia l o n P a s s o

i n c o n g r u i t y t h a t a lr e a d y h a s m a n y s c h o l a r s w i l l i n g t o d i s m i s s t h e w h o l e s c e n e a s

f i c t i o n a n y w a y .

I s t h e r o l e o f t h e c h i e f v i l l a i n C a i a p h a s a c o m p l e t e f i c t i o n , t o o ? A g a i n , n o .

m i t e r is o n t h e w r o n g h e a d , t h o u g h . H i s v e s t m e n t s d o n o t q u i t e f i t t h e i r w e a r e r

t h a n S a u l' s a r m o r f i t D a v i d . I f w e l i f t t h e t u r b a n f r o m o v e r t h e c o n c e a l e d

r eco gniz e a f ami l i a r f ace , fo r "Ca iaph as , " a t l eas t here , i s ye t ano th er do ub le o

S i m o n P e t e r , b i n d i n g a n d l o o s i n g as h e s ee s f i t . T h e " r e a l " P e t e r , t h e S i m o n P e

w h o f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f a l a t e r p i e ty c a n n o t b e i m a g i n e d l e a d i n g a d r u m h

m a r t i a l a g a i n s t t h e C h r i s t , i s n o n e t h e l e s s o n t h e s c e ne . H e h a s b e e n m o v e d f r o m c

b u t n o t v e r y fa r W e f i n d h i m o n l y a f e w y a r d s a w a y , i n t h e h i g h p r i e s t ' s c o u



even there he is an unde rs tud y , p l ay in g essen t i a l l y t he sam e ro l e , on ly tone d d ow n

am on g the "wr ong c row d," and th i s m uc h, o f course , Gi ra r d does see.

73

E r i c A u

the c ont ra s t b e twe en Jesus on t r i a l i ns ide and Pe te r on t r i a l ( t h ou gh in a l ower

side.

7 4

B u t I a m u rg i n g a c o m p a r i so n b e t w e e n C a i a p h a s in s i d e a n d C e p h a s o u t s

C a i a p h a s c o n d e m n s Je su s t o d e a t h , so d o e s C e p h a s : " I d o n o t k n o w t h e m a n "

here ca t ch an echo of Jesus ' own sen tence of doom upon h i s enemies? "Depar t f

curse d ; I never kne w you "

John , t ry ing to supply some narra t ive ver i s imi l i t ude , has Pe t e r admi t t ed to

qua rters by the Beloved Discip le because the lat ter is kno wn to the h igh pries t : " I t

w i t h m e . " Wh a t o n e a r t h i s g o i n g o n here? An yo ne wo uld have to st rain pre t ty

this f ly ba l l C . S . Gr i f f in even ident i f i ed the Beloved D i sc ip l e as Ju da s h imse l f

7 5

cer t a in ly expla in the Beloved Di sc ip l e 's chum min ess wi th th e powers t ha t be . B

Gir ard ian lenses, we can spot anoth er int r i gu ing possibi l i ty . T h e detai l of the Belov

whispering to the bouncer i s a vest ige of the earl ier version in which this disciple,

d i sc ip l e , be longed to t he gro up before wh om Jesus was be ing t r i ed , because he

brought before the d i sc ip l es

Simi l a r ly , reca ll how M at t he w and Jo h n m ake Jos ep h of Ar im ath ea a secre t

J e su s , Jo h n a d d i n g N i c o d e m u s t o t h e l i s t. O f c o u r se th e t w o e v a n g e l i s t s a r e t ry i



s e n s e o f w h a t s e e m s t o t h e m a c o n t r a d i c t i o n : h o w c o u l d t h e m a n a n x i o u s t o

p r o p e r l y b u r i e d b e a m e m b e r o f t h e g r o u p t h a t c o n d e m n e d h i m ? B u t t h e i n c o n

o n l y o n c e t h a t g r o u p w a s t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m t h e d i s c i p l e s i n t o t h e S a n h e d r i n . A c c o r

s c a p e g o a t t h e o r y , i t i s q u i t e n a t u r a l t h a t t h e c r o w d o f m u r d e r e r s s h o u l d c o m e t o t

s y m p a t h e t i c v i e w o f t h e s c a p e g o a t a f t e r h i s d e a t h , s i n c e h i s d e a t h d i d h e a l t h e

J o s e p h w a s a n o t h e r v e s t i g e o f t h e s t a g e w h e n t h e k i l l e r s w e r e t h e d i s c ip l e s . H i s

r e c a ll s t h a t o f a n o t h e r f a m o u s b i b l i c a l s c a p e g o a t b e t r a y e d b y h i s ( n e a r ly a ) d o z e n

W h e n J e s u s i s l i b e l e d b y " f a l se w i t n e s s e s " w h o c l a i m t h e y h e a r d h i m t h r e a t e n

t h e t e m p l e , m o s t s c h o l a r s a l r e a d y se e s o m e t h i n g a m i s s . A s n o t e d a b o v e , t h i s f e a t u r

r e c o g n i z e d a s a n a t t e m p t t o d e f u s e a n a p o l o g e t i c a l b o m b . T o u s e C r o s s a n ' s f e l i c i t

i s " d a m a g e c o n t r o l . " J e s u s m u s t h a v e s a id s o m e t h i n g o f t h e k i n d , t h o u g h C h r

c a m e t o w i s h h e h a d n ' t . O r a t l e a st t h e y w e r e c h a g r i n e d t h a t e a r li e r C h r i s t i a n s

J e s u s a p p e a r t o sa y i t . I a m s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o r i g i n a l l y t h e s c e n e s h o w e d t h

t h e m s e l v e s b r i n g i n g J e s u s ' w o r d s b a c k t o h a u n t h i m . H i s w o r d s a re r e t u r n i n g t o

tha n vo id . (Pau l a l so r a i s es the the ore t i ca l po s s ib i l i ty o f apo s t l es be i ng " fa ls e wi tn

Cor . 15 :15 . In the case o f th e P i l l a r s , he s eem s to have de em ed i t no me re

p o s s i b i l i t y )

T o th e s e a c c u s a t i o n s J e s u s r e p l ie s , " A s k t h o s e w h o h a v e h e a r d m e , w h a t I s a



Th ey kno w wh at I sa id" (Joh n 18:21 ) . Pre sum ably they a re pres en t t o be asked ,

way th e scene reads now. I t may o nce have read d i f fe ren t ly . S imi l a r ly , wh en Jes us i

i nqui s i t o r ' s ques t ion , "Are you the Chr i s t , t he son of t he Blessed One?" and he an

say tha t I am," i s i t poss ib l e he i s answer ing Peter, who indeed did say so, back

Phi l i pp i? That might make more sense than the mess exeges i s usua l ly makes of Jes

W h e n w e re a d in M a rk 1 4 : 6 4 t h a t "t h e y a ll c o n d e m n e d h i m a s d e se rv i n g d e

i t t o mean a l l t he d i sc ip l es , and for t he reason Gi r ard g ives : Th e mu rd er m us t b

by a l l . As Benjamin Frankl in sa id , "Gent l emen, i f we do not hang toge ther , we sh

assured ly hang separa t e ly . " Mark , a l a t e r re t e l l e r o f t he t a l e , t r i es t o ge t t he d i sc ip

b e fo re t h e S a n h e d r i n s c e n e c a n b e g i n . H e so f t e n s " T h e y a l l c o n d e m n e d h i m a

dea th" to "The y a l l fo rsook h im and f l ed" (Ma rk 14:50) , bu t " they " were s im

ru nn in g fo r t he i r d res s ing roo ms to chan ge for t he next scene . An d of cou

a t t r i b u t e d t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n t o t h e d i s c i p l e s ' " m o n s t ro u s d o u b l e s , " t h e S a n h e d r i n

d i sc ip l es wh o cond em ne d, and w ho mock ed an d bea t Jes us (M ark 14:65) . T he i ron

mo re po ign an t i f it i s h i s e rs tw hi l e d i sc ip l es who mock h i s p r op he t i c ab i l i t ie

" rece ived h im " (c f . Jo hn 1 :1 2) — w i th the i r f i s t s .

Was there a second t r i a l , before P i l a t e? Probably no t . As many have noted ,

dep ic t ed in t he gospe l s i s p re t ty mu ch a do ub le t o f t he San hed r in t r i a l , and th e



t he gu ard s is t he same. So i t a ll reduces to t he kan garo o cou r t of t he d i sc ip les . As

a s a n e o -G i ra rd i a n a c c o u n t m a y se e m , r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e P i l a t e p a s sa g es s e e m

scholars to invi te radical surgery just as urgent ly as the Sanhedrin texts . If i t

im agin e the San hed r in ho l d in g a t r i a l on the eve of P assover, i s i t any mo re l ike

t ius P i l a t e t o l i f t a f i nge r t o t ry t o save Jes us , mu ch l ess t o l e t Barab bas

insurrec t ion i s t , go f ree?

I t i s co m m on to sug ges t t ha t t he b l a me for Jes us ' dea th has been passed

Ro ma ns , wh om Ch r i s t i ans th ou gh t i t bes t no t t o of fe nd , t o t he Jew s. Bu t scholars

i t i ncreas in g ly d i f f i cu l t t o produ ce a p l aus ib l e reason tha t e i t he r Jew ish or Rom an

sh o u l d h a v e w a n t e d J e su s d e a d . P e rh a p s t h a t is b e ca u se

neither of them did.

T h e R

as eas ily have been the seconda ry scapegoat used by ear ly C hr i s t i a ns to sh i f t t he

thems elves . An d t ha t shou ld c om e as no surpr i se , t he scapegoat ga m e be ing wh at

rem arks th a t " there is reason to be l i eve tha t t h e wars descr ibe d as ' fo re ig n wars ' i n

narra t ives we re in fac t forme r ly c iv il s t r i fes . Th ere a re many t a l es t ha t t e l l o f t

c i ti e s o r n a t i o n s , i n p r i n c i p l e i n d e p e n d e n t o f o n e a n o t h e r— T h e b e s a n d A rg o s ,

A l b a , H e l l a s a n d T ro y — w h o se c o n f l i c t s b r i n g t o t h e su r f a c e so m a n y e l e m e n t s

di rect ly to the sacri f icial cri si s and to i t s violent resolut ion that i t i s hard not to

s tor i es as myth ic e l abora t ions of t h i s same cr i s i s , p resen ted in t e rms of a ' f i c t



t h r e a t . "

7 6

I s u s p e c t t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e of R o m a n a u t h o r i t y i n t h e P a s s i o n i s a m y t h

of p rec i se ly th i s k in d .

BETTER HIM THAN ME

T h e B a r a b b a s i n c i d e n t , h o w e v e r , d e m a n d s s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t . I t d o e s n o t s t a n d o

P i l a t e 's i n v o l v e m e n t . H y a m M a c c o b y s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s c e n e , h o w e v e r , d o e s i n v

Ma ccob y ven t ures tha t an ear l i e r ver s ion of the s to ry de p ic te d no t a we ak and

P i l a t e , t r y i n g t o p a s s t h e b u c k , b u t r a t h e r a c r u e l R o m a n s u c h a s w e k n o w P i l

b e e n . H e d i d n o t o f f e r a c h o i c e t o t h e c r o w d b u t o n l y r e j e c t e d t h e i r p l e a d i n

re lease o f J esu s Th i s was in the days before C hr i s t i ans ch ose J ew s to t ake the

J e s u s ' d e a t h . O n c e J e w s w e r e r e t r o a c t i v e l y d r a f t e d a s C h r i s t - k i l l e r s , h o w e v e r , t h e

n o t b e le f t s h o w i n g J e w s i n a s y m p a t h e t i c l i g h t . T h e s o l u t i o n , M a c c o b y h y p o t h e s i

b i f u r c a t e t h e J e s u s c h a r a c t e r i n t o J e s u s t h e N a z a r e n e a n d J e s u s B a r a b b a s , a n d t

J e w s ask fo r the r e l ease o f th e wro ng one . Th e or ig ina l ide n t i t y o f the tw o Jesuse

h i n t e d , a g a i n , i n t h e c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e t w o n a m e s . I n s o m e O l d L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s



f rom ear l i e r Greek or ig ina l s t han we possess , Barabbas appears i n Mat t . 27 :16 , 1

Barabb as , " and so the Ne w Eng l i sh Bib le renders i t . An d of course , "Bar-A

susp iciously l ike "Son of th e Father ."

Bu t t here a re o the r poss ib i l i t ies whic h pre sen t t hem selves once we d i sso lve th

c h a ra c t e r o f B a ra b b a s . W e w o u l d h a v e t o a sk , o n M a c c o b y s r e a d i n g , w h y t h e " w

is st i l l "Jesus th e Son of t he Fath er." Thi s is s t i l l too close. Is i t po ssible to ta ke

an early p i ece of doc e t i sm ? C ould i t have me ant t h a t t he right J e s u s escaped c ru c

resu l t i s no t t oo fa r f rom the Ch r i s t i an t rad i t i on s repor t ed by Ib n Ishaq . Bu t t hen

the "wron g" Jes us s ti l l be ca l l ed " the Ch r i s t ?" N ote th a t P i l a t e re fe rs t o h im in M

22 as "Jesus who is called C h r i s t , " a t e rm t h a t a d m i t s o f so m e a m b i g u i t y , r e m

Josephus ' re fe rence to " Jesus the so-called Ch r i s t " ; o r o f Luke 3 :2 3 , " the son , as w

of Joseph" ; o r Rom. 8 :3 , " sending h i s own son in

the likeness of

s infu l f l esh . " P

mea ns the same th in g th e Ko ran says : "The y d id n o t k i l l h im an d they d id n o t

b u t a s e m b l a n c e w a s m a d e t o t h e m " (4 : 1 5 7 ) .

D o c e t i c i n t e rp re t a t i o n s o f t h i s so r t a r e b y n o m e a n s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h

perspe c t ive . T he ex tan t vers ion of t he m yt h of Zeu s and th e C ure t e s seems to h

the dea th of t he god fe a tured in t he hyp othes i zed ear l i e r vers ion . Com par ed wi t



o f t h e A k e d a h I sa a c h y p o t h e s i z e d b y se v e r a l s c h o l a r s , " i n w h i c h I s a a c a c t u a l l y d i

r a i s e d , t h e p r e s e n t c a n o n i c a l v e r s i o n o f G e n . 2 2 w o u l d a l s o q u a l i f y a s a d o c e t i c

order to p ro tec t the s ens ib i l i t i es o f l a t e r r eader s .

B u t t h e r e a r e a c o u p l e o f o t h e r e l e m e n t s i n t h e B a r a b b a s s to r y s u g g e s t i n g

n e o - G i r a r d i a n v e r s i o n . O n e i s t h e c l e a r d e p i c t i o n o f a c r o w d h o w l i n g f o r t h e b l o o

W h e r e s u c h a s c e n e m e e t s u s , a s c a p e g o a t r e a d i n g c a n n o t b e f a r b e h i n d . M a c c o b y

t h a t l a t e r C h r i s t i a n s c o u l d n o t b r o o k a s c e n e w h e r e J e w s c l a m o r e d f o r t h e r e le a

M y o w n s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e s to r y d e p i c t e d J e s u s ' o w n d i s c i p l e s c a l l i n g f o r h i s d e a

f r o m P i l a t e o r n o t ) s e e m s e q u a l l y h a r d t o a c c e p t , t h o u g h f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s —

t h i s h as b e e n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e a d i n g u n t i l r e c e n t l y M o s t r e a d e r s h a v e a l w a y s u n d

u g l y c r o w d a t t h e P r a e t o r i u m t o b e t h e s a m e c r o w d w h o h a d h a i l e d J e s u s a t h i s

the c i ty on ly days be fore . A nd th i s was , as th e gos pe l s c l ear ly s t a t e , a g r ou p of d

a d m i r e r s o f J e s u s . " E c u m e n i c a l l y c o r r e c t " e x e g e s is h a s r e c e n t l y w a n t e d t o s e e t h e c

u n r u l y b u n c h o f l o c al p o o l - h a l l r o w d i e s a n d h o o l i g a n s (" b a s e f e l lo w s , " J u d g . 1 9

a t t e m p t t o d i s t a n c e t h i s c r o w d f r o m J e w s o r J e r u s a l e m i t e s i n g e n e r a l , s o a s t o

l a t t e r f r o m M a t t h e w ' s c h i l l i n g i m p r e c a t i o n i n 2 7 : 2 5 . ( W h e t h e r t h i s m a n e u v e r is m

i n t e r f a i t h s e n s i t i v i t y o r b y f a c e - s a v i n g a p o l o g e t i c s , I w i l l l e a v e t h e r e a d e r t o d e c i

h i m s e l f i d e n t i f i e s t h e P r a e t o r i u m c r o w d w i t h t h a t i n t h e T r i u m p h a l E n t r y , b u t



ma ke the f ina l s t ep : I t was Jes us ' ow n d i sc ip l es wh o p u t h i m to de a th .

The e l ement t ha t Jesus had been "de l ivered up out o f envy" (Mark 15:10

Gi r ard i an resonan ces of mi m et i c des i re . Supp ose we try one of Gi ra rd ' s reversa l

tha t i n t he ear l i e r vers ion the choice be ing made here was no t which wi l l live,

w h i c h w i l l die. An d w as the choice or ig ina l ly be twee n only two candida t es? No t

T h e t w o Je su se s , r e m e m b e r , a r e m i m e t i c t w i n s , m y t h i c c i p h e r s fo r a c o n d i t i o n w h

having degenera t ed to a sp i ra l o f rec iproca l v io l ence , everyone i s everyone e l se ' s

v i c t im m ig ht as wel l be anyo ne , chosen f ro m the whole g rou p .

Everything suggests a crowd whose intentions were init ial ly pacific [as on Palm Sund

disorganized mob that for unknown reasons (of no real importance to our argument) cam

pitch of mass hysteria. The crowd finally hurled itself on one individual; even though he

ticular qualifications for this role [i.e., was no more guilty than anyone else], he served to

the fears, anxieties, and hostilities of the crowd . Hi s violent death provided the necessa

the mass anguish, and restored peace.

71

KING FOR A DAY



I t i s i n t he scene of t he mo ck c oro na t ion a nd vene ra t ion of Jesu s , and h i s sha m

before the c row d, t ha t scholars have seen the c l eares t ev iden ce of Jes us ' dea th

scapeg oat . In t he R om an Sa turna l i a as i n t he Babylon ian Sacaea (and m any o th er

a l l over t he wor ld , as Frazer and Gi rar d descr ibe) som eon e , o f t e n a cond em ned

chosen to be wined and d ined , wai t ed on and honored , as King of t he Wood

Fool s , and so on . Af t e r t h i s , he i s sum ma ri ly exec uted . G i ra r d re j ec t s Frazer 's t heor

"corn k in gs" were me ant t o m im e the pass ing of t he seasons . Th i s ima gery d id

en te r t he p i c ture l a t e r , as a secondary assoc ia t ion , bu t , Gi ra rd says , t he or i

cerem ony m us t have been the ac t o f gene ra t ive v io l ence , t he co l l ec t ive m ur

scape goat . Th i s i s t he on ly way to expla in the un iqu e ambiv a lenc e of t hese ri t es .

mo ck k in g venera t ed as sacred and ye t rev i led as a c r im ina l and unc lea n? Gi ra

" the k in g i s bo th very ' bad ' and ex t re me ly go od ' ; t he

historical

a l t e rna t ion of v

peace i s t ransfer red f rom t ime to space . "

79

That i s , t he r i t ua l mock k ing s t an

anc ie n t scapegoat wh o was regar ded s im ply as a v i ll a in a t f i r s t , and sh ow n no

subsequent ly venera t ed pos thumously . And jus t as t he s l a in scapegoat i s re

und ers to od as a ma r tyre d sav ior , t he la t e r mo ck k in g r i t ua l canno t he lp bu t v i ew

story of t he scapegoat re t rospec t ive ly . Thus they a l ready t rea t t he scapegoat -sur rog



m e a s u r e o f re v e r e n c e " u p f r o n t , " b e f o r e t h e y k i l l h i m . K i l l h i m t h e y m u s t , b u

they kn ow w ho i t i s they a re ab ou t to k i l l .

N o w h o w a r e w e t o r e l a t e t h e m o c k k i n g r i t e s t o t h e m o c k e r y o f t h e t h

J e s u s ? T h e r e a r e a f e w o p t i o n s , e a c h w i t h d i f f e r e n t i m p l i c a t i o n s . If w e r e m a i n e

i g n o r a n t of t h e v a r i o u s h i s t o r y - o f - r e l i g i o n s p a r a l l e l s , w e m i g h t b e s a t i s fi e d t o t a k e

a t f a c e v a l u e : J e s u s h a s a b s u r d l y c l a i m e d t o b e k i n g , a n d t h e r o w d y g u a r d s m e

hi m h i s fo lly . Bu t the c lose r ese mb lan ce of the gosp e l Pas s ion to th e para l l e l s m ak

s i m p l e . A r e t h e y j u s t c o i n c i d e n c e ? T h e m o c k e r y o f a p o o r m a n w i t h d e l u s i o n s o

n o t u n a t t e s t e d . I n f a c t , s o m e s o u r c e o r e a r li e r v e r si o n of L u k e s e e m s t o b e q u o t i n

f r o m D i o d o r u s S i c u l u s ( 3 4 : 2 , 5 - 8 ) , w h o h a s a c h a r a c t e r m o c k a s l a v e w i t h r o y a l

" R e m e m b e r m e w h e n y o u c o m e i n t o y o u r k i n g d o m . " B u t t h e r e i s n o e l a b o r a t e

c h a r a d e h e r e .

N o t even Ph i lo ' s acc oun t o f th e moc k k in g Ca rabb as he l ps here : There was a cer

nam ed Carabbas . . . , the sport of idle c hildren and wa nton youth s; and they {the Alexa

dr iving the poor wretch as far as the publ ic gymnasium, and set t ing him up there on

might be seen by everybody, f lattened out a leaf of papyrus and put i t on his head

diadem, and clothed the rest of his body with a common door mat instead of a cloak an



a scepter they pu t in his h and a sma ll stick of . . . papyru s . . . and when he had been

like a king, the young men bearing sticks on their shoulders stood on each side of him

spear bearers . . . , and then others came up , some as if to salute h im , and others as

wished to plead the ir causes befo re him . . . . Th en from the m ult itu de . . . there arose a

men call ing out "MarisI" And this is the nam e by which it is said tha t they call the king

Syrians; for they knew that Agrippa was by birth a Syrian, and also that he was possesse

district of Syria of which he was the sovereign. ( Against Flaccits VI , 36-3 9)

Insofar as t h i s rowdy d i sp l ay seems to be a spontaneous prank , l i ke tha t o f Je

mo ckers on the t rad i t i ona l read ing , i t hap pen s no t t o be d i rec t ed a t any roya l c l a i

Cara bbas h im sel f , fo r he ma de none , bu t a t t he ac tua l k in gs hip , j us t c rea t ed by

H e ro d A g r i p p a I . T h e c ro w d s t a g e d t h i s e m b a r ra s sm e n t fo r t h e b e n e f i t o f A g r i p p

on h i s way thro ug h Alexan dr i a a t t he t ime . A nd , o f course , Ca rabba s was no t

Jesu s ' mo cker y been para l l e l t o t ha t o f C arabb as , we shou ld exp ec t t he R om an l e

have d i sp l ayed h im brazenly b efore He rod A nt ip as , wh om Luk e does p lace in J

t h e t i m e , t o m o c k him. B ut no th i ng i s sa id of t h i s .

I f one se i zes on the eer i e s imi l a r i t y of t he name Carabbas to t ha t o f Barabb

have unders t andably done , t hen the on ly conc lus ion i s t ha t t hey represen t two lo



of the t i t l e a lways g iv en to a m ock k i ng in on e of those r i tua l s , and th a t b r in g

n e x t o p t i o n .

P a u l W e n d l a n d a n d S i r J a m e s F r a z e r s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e g o s p e l a c c o u n t is

acc ura te , an d ( im pl ic i t ly ) th a t J es us was s im ply th e poor joker p res sed in to s e rv ice

m o c k k i n g i n a b a r r a c k s S a t u r n a l i a p a r t y o r t o i m p e r s o n a t e H a m a a n in a h y p o t h e

adapta t ion of the Babylon ian Sacaea f es t iva l .

8 0

T h o u g h C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t s h a v e b

t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , i t is a t f i r s t h a r d t o s ee w h y . O n e w o u l d t h i n k t h e w h o l e

m e m b e r o f t h e s a m e s p e c ie s a s t h a t w h i c h t r i e s to v i n d i c a t e M a t t h e w ' s a

d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t h e B e t h l e h e m s t a r w a s r e a ll y a s u p e r n o v a o r a p l a n e t a r y a l i g

t h e o r y w o u l d s e e m o n ly t o a d d h i s t o r ic a l p l a u s i b i l i t y t o t h e g o s p e l a c c o u n t s b y

bo th h i s to r i ca l para l l e l s and a s ens ib le mo t iv a t io n fo r the so ld ie r s ' ac t io n . In f ac

reason no t exp la ined very wel l , Gi ra rd h imse l f d i sda ined Frazer ' s v iew a t l eas t pa

i t i m p l i e d t h e P a s s io n a c c o u n t s w e r e f i r s t h a n d t e s t i m o n y

8 1

W h a t is s o d i s t u r b i n g h

I s u s p e c t t h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t i n t h i s c a s e a p o l o g i s t s c o u l d n o l o n g e r a r g u e , a

d i d ,

8 2

t h a t J e s u s m u s t h a v e c l a i m e d ( a t l e a s t i m p l i c i t l y ) t o b e t h e M e s s i a h o r h e n

h a v e b e e n e x e c u t e d a s " k i n g of t h e J e w s . " B u t o n t h e F r a z e r / W e n d l a n d t h e o r y , J e s

a m o c k k i n g w o u l d i m p l y n o t h i n g a t a l l a b o u t a n y m e s s i a n i c c l a i m s o f J e s u s .

b u s i n e s s w o u l d s i m p l y b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c r u e l r i t u a l i n w h i c h h e h a d b e e n f o r



t i c i p a t e . W h y w o u l d t h i s m a k e a n y d i f f e r e n c e t o G i r a r d e i t h e r w a y ? B e c a u s e i f

m e r e l y b e e n f o r c e d t o p l a y a r o le i n a t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l , t h i s w o u l d s e e m t o c o m

p i c t u r e o f h i s d e a t h a s t h a t o f a s c a p e g o a t . G i r a r d a g r e e s t h a t J e s u s w a s p u t t o

s c a p e g o a t ; h e c l a i m s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e g o s p e l s d o n o t a c c e p t t h e s c a p e g o a t m e c

r a t h e r e x p o s e i t . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h e m o c k k i n g r i t u a l is t o o f a r r e m o v e d

o r i g i n a l s c a p e g o a t i n g a c t i t c o m m e m o r a t e s . I t s m o c k k i n g i s m e r e l y p l a y i n g t h e d r

of th e s cape goat o f th e pas t . H i s ow n de a th i s no t tha t o f an ac t ua l s cap ego at . R

t h e " m a n a g e d v i o l e n c e " o r " s a c r e d , " " g o o d v i o l e n c e " of t h e s a c r i fi c i a l s y s t e m f o u n

o r i g i n a r y v i o l e n c e o f l o n g a g o . A n d G i r a r d w a n t s J e s u s h i m s e l f t o h a v e d i e d a s

n o t j u s t p l a y i n g o n e .

G i ra r d ' s v iew, as we l l as h i s d i sd a in fo r F razer ' s theory , w ou ld n o t ex c lud e the

t h a t J e s u s a c t u a l l y d i d d i e a t a t i m e o f s a c r i f i c i a l c r i s i s , b u t t h a t t h e g o s p e l a c

f r o m a s u b s e q u e n t C h r i s t i a n r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a C h r i s t i a n m o c k k i n g r i t u a l . B

G i r a r d ' s r e a d i n g t h e r e w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e n o r ea s o n t o t h i n k C h r i s t i a n s e v e

r e p e a t e d r i t e s o f h u m a n s a c r i f i c e — o t h e r t h a n sy m b o l i c a l l y i n t h e e u c h a r i s t , w h i c h

m o c k k i n g e l e m e n t . E v e n t h e l a t e r l i tu r g i c a l P a s s i o n p l a y s p r o v i d e n o h e l p , s i n

s i m p l y d r a m a t i z a t i o n s o f t h e s u p p o s e d e v e n t s o f t h e P a s s io n , i n c l u d i n g t h e m o c k

o f t h e J e w s ; t h a t is , t h e y a l r e a d y p r e s u p p o s e t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f J e s u s ' s c a p e g o a t



i t s d i sg u i se d fo rm . T h e y d o n o t h i n g t o e f f e ct t h a t t r a n s fo r m a t i o n .

Is t here another op t ion? Some of Frazer ' s contemporary c r i t i cs reac t ed to h i s

a b i t t oo veh em ent ly , appar en t ly co nfu s ing h i s i deas wi t h those of t he Ch r i s t -M yth

th i s Frazer resp ond ed thus ly : "Th e do ub t s which have been cas t on the h i s tor i ca

Je su s a r e i n m y j u d g m e n t u n w o r t h y o f s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n . "

8 3

B u t i t m i g h t n o t b e so

to l i nk G i rard ' s t heory to t he C hr i s t - M yth theory . Gi r a rd i s happ y to c i t e and

the most anc i en t and fan ta s t i c my ths (and th e trage dies based on them ) as d i m re

ac tua l scapego at i nc iden t s . H e does no t for a m in ut e suppose tha t t her e was

P e n t h e u s , B a ld e r , O e d i p u s , R o m u l u s , D i o n y su s , o r Z e u s l y in g b e h i n d t h e m y t h s

t h e se m y t h s ( a n d d ra m a s ) s t e m u l t i m a t e l y f ro m re a l e v e n t s a b o u t w h i c h w e c a n

kno w a ny th in g spec i f i c . I am t ry in g to trea t t he gospe l s as Gi r ard t rea t s t hese o t

espec ia l ly t he dra ma s . The se a t t em pt ed to reh i s tor i c i ze the i r my th ic sources i

p ro v i d e v e r i s i m i l i t u d e b y sh o w i n g t h e kind o f t h i n g t h a t might h a v e h a p p e n e d ,

t he cu s tom s of t he i r ow n day . Ju s t as Gi ra rd im agin es tha t Sophocles may ha

e l e m e n t s o f A t h e n i a n pharmakos r i t es t o f l esh ou t h i s O ed ip us cyc le , t he evan gel

ima gin ed to have borro wed de t a i l s o f cur ren t Sa turn a l i a r i t es t o em bel l i sh a m y

the scapegoa t sav ior , s ince the r i t e wo uld be k no w n to the i r readers and was

s a m e kind o f t h i n g . T h u s i t w o u l d h a v e l e n t a m e a su re o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e t o th e



m y t h .

I sh o u l d i m a g i n e t h a t fo r t h e p u rp o se s o f G i r a rd ' s m e t h o d o l o g y , i t h a r

whether t here had been a h i s tor i ca l Jesus any more than there had been a h i s tor i c

I am not even sure tha t Gi ra rd ' s ac tua l v i ews of t he gospe l s as a reve l a t ion of t h

me cha ni sm (no t , as I a rgu e , an exam ple of i t ) wo uld requ i re a h i s tor i ca l Jes us , e

Gi ra rd every whe re speaks of Jes us h im se l f as t he revea le r. I supp ose a f i c t i on a l ex

scap ego at ing m ech ani s m w ould be as ge nu ine a reve l a t ion as a h i s tor i ca l ly based o

" the reve la t ion of t he fo un din g v i c t im was f i r s t ach ieved in this text."

94

BA PT IZED IN THE RIVER LETHE

Gira rd t a lks qu i t e a b i t abou t t he wi l l fu l fo rg e t t i n g on which sacr i f i c i a l re l i g io n i

supp ress ion of t h e or ig ina ry v io l ence do ne to t he scapegoat . H e c l a ims tha t t he g

at last revealed th e ruse , that " to this day . . . th at sam e vei l rem ain s un l i f ted , b

thr ou gh Ch r i s t is i t t aken away " (2 Cor . 3 :14) . An d ye t i t seems to me tha t G i r

i s gu i l t y of t r y in g to draw the ve il back over t he corpse of t he scapeg oat , a



s t r i p p e d i t o f f f o r a m o m e n t , i n t h a t h e w i l l n o t se e h o w t h e g o s p e l s e m b o d y

g o a t i n g m e c h a n i s m i n s t e a d o f e x p o s i n g a n d e x p l o d i n g i t . I n d e e d , t h e r e l i g i o n o

a n d t h e b r u t a l i z e d v i c t i m w o u l d s e em t o b e t h e u l t i m a t e e p i t o m e a n d t r i u m p h o

l i b e r a l P r o t e s t a n t c a l l e d " t h e b u t c h e r s h o p r e l i g i o n o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s . " A n d

the s cape goa t theory in t o an ap o lo ge t i c fo r the very th i ng i t t r ies to expose is a

i n d e e d . O n e m i g h t c o m p a r e G i r a r d w i t h a m a n w h o f o u n d h i m s e l f d iz z y , t e e t e r

e d g e o f t h e y a w n i n g a b y s s h e h a s u n c o v e r e d , a n d t h e n c a r e f u l l y b a c k i n g a w a y . H e

h a v e f o u n d t h e a b y ss a n d c o u l d e v e n p o i n t o u t t h e l o c a t i o n , b u t a s h e h a d b e e n

d r a w t h e l id b a c k o v e r i t , h e h a d m a d e i t o n c e a g a i n i m p o s s i b l e t o s e e — u n t i l o n e

u n s u s p e c t i n g l y , a s p e o p l e h a d f o r m a n y c e n t u r i e s .

NOTES

1. Bu rton L. Mac k, "The Innocen t Transgressor: Jesus in Early C hristian M yth a

Semeia 33 (1974 ), p . 137.

2. Eric Hoffer, The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movem ents (New Yo



Row, 1951) , pp. 12-13.

3. Elisabeth Schiissler Fiorenza,

In Mem ory of Her: A Feminist Theological

Reconstructio

Origins (Ne w York: Crossroad, 1984), p. 41.

4. Rene Girard, Th e Scapegoat (Baltimore : Joh ns H opk ins Univ ersity Press, 1986 ), p.

5. Ibid., p. 162.

6. Ren£ Girard, Violence

and the Sacred

(Bal t imore: Johns Ho pkins , 1977) , p . 245.

7. Girard,

Scapegoat

, p. 73

8. Girard, Violence and the Sacred, p. 310.

9. Ibid., p. 252.

10. Tzvetan Todorov, The P oetics of Prose (Ithaca: C ornell Unive rsity Press, 1977 ), p.

11. Hyam Maccoby, The Sacred Executioner: Huma n Sacrifice and the Legacy of Guilt

Thames and Hudson, 1982) , pp. 50, 97.

12. Gilbert Murray, Five Stages of Greek Religion (Garde n City: Doubleda y An chor, 19

13. Girard,

Violence

and the Sacred, p. 309.



14. Raymund Schwager, M ust There be Scapegoats? Violence and Redemption in the Bibl

L. Assad (San Francisco: Ha rpe r & Row, 1987 ); Jam es G . Willia ms , The Bible,

Violence,

Liberation from the Myth of Sanctioned Violence

(Valley Forge, P enn.: Trinity Press Interna

Rober t G. Hamerton-Kel ly, Sacred Viclence: Paul's Herrneneutic of the Cross (Minn eapolis:

1992) ; Hamerton-Kel ly, The Gospel and the Sacred, Poetics of Violence in M ark (Philadelp

Press, 1994); Gil Bailie,

Violence Unveiled, Hum anity at the

Crossroads (New York: Crossroa

15. Ma ck, "The Innocen t Transgressor"; Lucien Scubla, "Th e Ch ristianity of Rene G i

Nature of Rel igion," in Violence and Truth: On the W ork of R ene Girard, ed. Paul Dum

York: Athlone Press , 1988) , pp. 160-78.

16. Stanley Fish, Is There a Text in Th is Class? Th e Authority of Interpretive

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), p. 272.

17. David R. Gr if f in , A Process Christology (Lanham , Md .: Univ ersity Press of Am

John B. Cobb J r . ,

Christ in a Pluralistic Age

(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1975).

18. Herm an Kahn and Anthon y J . Wiener , Th e Year 2000—A Framew ork for Spec

Next Thirty-three Years

(New York: M acm illan, 1967); cited in Peter L. Berger,

A Rumo

Modern Society and the Rediscovery of the Supernatural (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor, 197



19. Hans Ki ing,

On Being a Christian

(Garden Ci ty: Doubleday, 1976) , pp. 34

Wol fhar t Pannenberg , Jesus-God and Man, 2d ed. (Phi ladelphia: Westmins ter Press , 1977) ,

20. Girard, Violence and the Sacred, pp . 276 -78 , 302 .

21. Girard, Scapegoat, p. 79.

22. Ibid. , p . 103.

23. Hamerton-Kel ly, The G ospel and the Sacred, p. 101.

24. Girard,

Scapegoat

, p. 69.

25. Hamerton-Kel ly, Gospel and the Sacred, p. 68.

26. Hyam Maccoby, Judas Iscariot and the Myth of Jewish Evil (New York: Free Pre

98.

27. Maccoby, Sacred Executioner, p p . 4 9 - 5 1 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 .

28. Mack, "Innocent Transgressor ," pp. 154-57.

29. Gerd Theissen, Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress

Gerd Theissen, Social Reality and the Early Christians: Theology, Ethics, and the World



Testament (Philade lphia: Fortress Press, 1992); F. Gerald Do wn ing, Christ and the C yni

Other Radical Preachers in First-Century Tradition. JS O T M anuals 4 (Sheffield: JS O T

D o w n i n g , Cynics and Christian Origins (Edinbu rgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992) ; John Do min ic

Historical Jesus, The Life of a M editerranean Jewish Peasant

(New York: HarperCo l l ins , 1991


31. Stevan L. Davies,

The Revolt of the Widow s, The Social World of the Ap

(Carbondale: Southern Ill inois University Press, 1980), p. 36.

32. Scott D . H ill , "The Local He ro in Palestine in C om parative Perspective," in Elija

in Socioliterary Perspective, ed. Robert B. Coote (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992), pp. 37-74.


34. Ibid., p. 254.

35 . E rv ing Gof fman , Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Engle-

Prentice-Hall , Inc., 1963).

36. Girard, Violence

and the Sacred

, p. 43.

37. Ibid., p. 39.



38. Bruce Chi l ton,

The Tem ple of Jesus, His Sacrificial Program Within a Cultura

Sacrifice

(State C ollege: Penn State Press, 1992). For Chilto n's analysis of Girard in p

Chi l ton, "Rene Girard, James Wil l iams, and the Genes is of Violence," Bulletin for Biblic

(1993) , pp. 17-29.

39. Girard,

Violence and the Sacred

, p. 39.

40. Richard A. Horsley,

Jesus and the Spiral of Violence: Popular Jewish Resistan

Palestine (Philadelp hia: F ortress Press, 1993 ), pp . 3-1 5 .

41 . Gi ra rd ,

Violence and the Sacred

, p. 56.

42. Hamerton-Kel ly,

Gospel and the Sacred

, p. 83.

43. Girard,

Scapegoat

,

p. 79.


45. Maccoby, Sacred Executioner, pp . 126 -30 .

46. Ibid., p. 128.

47 . Gi ra rd , Violence

and the Sacred

, p. 251.



48. Bertil Gartner, Iscariot (Philad elphia: Fortress, 1971); Maccoby, Judas, p. 135.

49. Frank Kermode, The Genesis of Secrecy, On the Interpretation of Narrative (Cambr

Un iversity Press, 1979), p . 95; Maccoby, Judas, p. 106.

50. Maccoby, Judas, p. 107.

51. Neal Robin son, Christ in Islam and Christianity (Albany: State Un iversity of N ew

1991), p. 131.

52. Girard , Violence

and the Sacred,

p. 78.

53. Ibid., p. 165.

54. Maccoby, Judas, p. 91.

55. Ib id . , pp . 13 4-3 5.

56. Peter van Greenaway, The Judas Gospel (Ne w York: Dell Books, 197 2).

57. Girard ,

Violence


58. Ibid., p. 146.

59. Rene Girard , Things Hidden Since the Founda tion of the World (Stanford: Stanfor



Press, 1987), p. 26.

60 . Theodore J . Weeden, Mark: Tr

61 . Gi ra rd ,

Scapegoat,

p. 68 .

62 . Girard , Violence and the Sacre

63. Ibid. ,

pp.

1 5 0 - 5 4 .

64. Ibid. ,

p.

100.



Conflict

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971).



72. Ibid. , p . 212.

73. Girard,

Scapegoat

, chap. 12.

74. Er ic Auerbach,

Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature

(G

Doubleday Anchor , 1957) , pp. 35-43.

75. C. S. Gr i f f in , Judas Iscariot, the Author of the Fourth G ospel (189 2), cited in Ma

p. 138; also Kermode, Genesis of

Secrecy

, pp. 91—92.

76. Girard, Violence

and the Sacred

, p. 249-

77. Bin Gor ion, Sinai und Garazim (1926), cited in Maccoby, Sacred Executioner

Shalom Spiegel, The Last Trial, On the Legen ds and Lore of the C omma nd to Abraham to

a Sacrifice: The Akedah (W oodstock , Vt. : Jew ish Lights, 1993), p. 57.

78. Girard,

Violence


79. Ibid. , p . 268.

80. R. Ang us Dow nie, F razer and the Golden Bough (London: Victor Gollancz Lim ited

5 2 - 5 3 .

81. Girard, Things Hidden, p. 169.



82 . Ni l s Als t rup Dahl , The Crucified Messiah and Other Essays (Minne apolis: Au g

1974) ,

p.

2 5 - 2 6 .

83. R. An gus Dow nie, F razer and the Golden Bough (London: Victor G ollancz, 1970 ),

84. Girard, Things Hidden, p . 443, emphas is mine.



Chapter 7

THE CRUCI-FICTION?

i

n chap ter 1 , I showe d how, tha nk s to Koe s t e r , Rob inso n , and T alber t , t

s i m i l a r i t y t o a n d p ro b a b l e d e p e n d e n c e u p o n t h e a r e t a lo g y g e n re a r e b e i n g m o re

recognized . But someth ing se ldom not i ced i s t he s t r i k ing fac t t ha t t he gospe l s

cer t a in fea tures of t e n found in a re l a t ed ge nre , t ha t o f t he anc ie n t roma nce n

should no t surpr i se us , s ince these genres ( l i ke a l l genres) a re no t a i r t i gh t . T

romances and the a re t a log ies t end to shade over i n to one another . For example , Th

Romance a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s ' Life of Apollonius of Tyana have equa l e l ement s of bo t

the presen t chapter , t he s imi l a r i t y of t he gospe l s t o t he anc ien t nove l s wi l l t ake



r e l e v a n c e , f o r t h e i r p l o t d e v ic e s m i r r o r a t c r u c i a l p o i n t s s o m e o f t h e g o s p

c o n s i d e r e d b y a l m o s t a l l s c h o l a r s o f w h a t e v e r t h e o l o g i c a l s t r i p e t o b e b e d r o c k h

y o u k n o w w h a t t h a t m e a n s .

T h r e e m a j o r p l o t d e v i c e s r e c u r l i k e c l o c k w o r k i n t h e a n c i e n t n o v e l s , w h i c h w

a b o u t t h e a d v e n t u r e s o f s ta r - c ro s s e d l o v e r s , s o m e w h a t l i k e m o d e r n s o a p o p e r a s

h e r o i n e , a p r i n c e s s , c o l l a p s e s i n t o a c o m a a n d i s t a k e n f o r d e a d . P r e m a t u r e l y

aw ak ens l a t e r in the dar kne s s o f th e tom b. I ron ica l ly , she i s d i s cov ered in th e n ick

g r a v e r o b b e r s w h o h a v e b r o k e n i n t o t h e o p u l e n t m a u s o l e u m , l o o k i n g f o r r i c h f u n e

( as i n K i n g T u t ' s t r e a s u r e - l i n e d t o m b ) . T h e c r o o k s s a ve h e r l i f e b u t a ls o k i d n a p

t h e y c a n ' t a ff o r d t o l e a v e a w i t n e s s b e h i n d . W h e n h e r f i a n c £ o r h u s b a n d c o m e s t

t o m o u r n , h e is s t u n n e d t o f i n d t h e t o m b e m p t y a n d f i r s t g u e s s e s t h a t h i s b e l o v e

t a k e n u p t o h e a v e n b e c a u s e t h e g o d s e n v i e d h e r b e a u t y . I n o n e t a l e , t h e m a n s ee s

l e f t b e h i n d , j u s t as i n J o h n 2 0 : 6 - 7 .

T he second s tock p lo t dev ice i s tha t the hero , f ina l ly r ea l i z ing w hat has ha pp en

search of the hero ine and even tua l ly r uns a fou l o f a gov erno r o r k ing w ho wan t s

ge t h i m ou t o f the way , has the hero c ruc i f i ed . O f cour se , the hero a lways man ag

las t -minute pardon , even once a f f ixed to the c ros s , o r he surv ives c ruc i f ix ion by som

luck . So me t im es the he ro ine , too , appe ar s to have been k i l l ed bu t wind s u p a l ive a f



T hi rd , we eventua l ly have a j oyous reu nio n of t he two lovers , each of

despa i red of ever see ing th e o the r aga in . Th ey a t f i r s t can not be l i eve they a re n

gh os t c om e to com for t t he m . F ina l ly , d i sb e l i ev ing for j oy , t hey a re convinced tha t

one has surv ived in t h e f l esh . An yon e who p rofesses no t t o see m ajo r s imi l a r i t i

t hese novel s , l ong ignored by scholars because of t he i r suppo sed f r ivo l i t y , and

e i the r has never read the gospe l s o r does no t want t o ad m i t t he d i s tu rb in g para l l e

ESCAPING CROSSES EMPTY ING TO M BS

In C h a r i t o n ' s Chaereas and Callirhoe, Cha ereas i s falsely inc i ted to rage aga in

Cal l i rhoe an d de l ivers a k i ck w hich seem s to k i l l her . She i s en tom be d a l ive . S

(w h o a re v i r t u a l l y u b i q u i t o u s i n t h e se n o v e l s ) a p p e a r , i n t e n t o n ro b b i n g t h e

d i scover Cal l i rho e a l ive , now ha ving rev ived in t he cool o f t he m au so leu m , and t

her to sel l he r as a slave. In her ca pt ivi ty , Ca l l i rho e pi t ie s her do ub ly vexed

t e rm s s t r i k i n g l y r e m i n i sc e n t o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t e m p t y t o m b a c c o u n t s : " Y o u a r

fo r m e a n d r e p e n t i n g a n d s i t t i n g b y a n e m p t y t o m b . . . . "

l

But t he resemblance to



a c c o u n t s o n l y g r o w s s t r o n g e r a l i t t l e l a t e r w h e n i n f a c t p o o r C h a e r e a s d i s c o v e r s t

b e e m p t y .

When he reached the tomb, he found that the stones had been moved and the entranc

[Cf. Joh n 20:1} He was astonished at the sight and overcome by fe arful perplexity a

happened. [Cf . Mark 16:5] R um or— a swif t messenger— told the Syracusans this amazing ne

quickly crowded round the to m b, b ut no one dared g o inside un til Her - mocrates gave an

so. [Cf . Joh n 2 0: 4- 6] The m an who went in repor ted the who le si tuat ion accurately. [Cf.

21: 24 ] It seemed incredible t ha t even the corpse was not lying there. Th en Chae

determ ined to go in, in his desire to see Callirhoe again even dead; bu t thou gh he hunted

tom b, he could find noth ing . Many people could no t believe it and went in after him . T

seized by helplessness. One of those standing there said, "The funeral offerings have been

[Car t l idge 's t rans lat ion reads: "The shroud has been s t r ipped o ff — cf . Joh n 20: 6- 7] — it is

who have done that ; b ut w hat abo ut th e corpse— where is i t?" Many dif ferent sugges t ions

the crowd . Chaereas looked tow ards the heavens, stretched up his arm s, and cried: "W hic h

is i t , then, who has become my rival in love and carried off Callirhoe and is now keep

him . . . ?"

2

T h e p a r a l l e l s t o t h e e m p t y - t o m b a c c o u n t s , e s p e c i al l y t o J o h n 2 0 : 1—1 0 , a r e a b



c lose. Chaereas even sugg es t s t ha t Cal l i rho e has been ( l ike Jesu s) t rans l a t ed to

a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l s c e n e i s fo u n d i n P h o t i u s ' su m m a ry o f I a m b l i c h u s ' Babylonian S

have l e f t o f t h i s roman ce) :

The grave of the young woman is left empty, and there are left behind several robes tha

burned on the grave, and food and drink . Rhodanes and his companion feast on the foo

take some of the clo thing , and lie down to sleep in the y oung w oman's grave. As day

those who set fire to the robbers house realize that they have been tricked and follow

of Rhodanes and Sinonis, supposing th at they are henchm en of the robber. They follow t

right up to the grave and look in at the motionless, sleeping, wine-sodden bodies lying

They suppose that they are looking at corpses and leave, puzzled that the tracks led ther

2 4 : 1 2 ?

Back to Chaereas and Callirhoe: Later on, C al l i rho e, reflec t ing on h er vicissi tud es, s

d i ed an d com e to l i fe aga in . "

4

Later st i l l , she lam en ts, " I have died and been bu

been s to l en f ro m my to m b." N ot e t he para l l e l t o 1 Cor . 15 :3 -4 , " tha t Ch r i s t d i ed

he was bur i ed , t ha t he was ra i sed . . . . " Scholars deba te wh ethe r t he "bu r i ed" re f

C o r i n t h i a n s m e a n s t o i m p l y a t o m b e m p t i e d b y th e R e su r r e c t i o n . I w o u l d v e n t u

para l l e l wi th

Ch aereas and Callirhoe

does sugges t such an impl i ca t ion , s ince in



d i s a p p e a r i n g f r o m t h e t o m b is e q u a l t o r is i n g f r o m t h e d e a d . A g a i n , t o w a r d s t h e

n o v e l C a l l i r h o e r e c o u n t s , n o t s i m p l y h e r r e g a i n i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s, b u t " h o w s h e

back to l i fe in the tom b."

5

I n M i l e t u s , C a l l i r h o e c o m e s t o b e l ie v e t h a t C h a e r e a s p e r i s h e d w h i l e s e a r c h i n g

c o n s o l e h e r a n d t o l a y h e r f o n d m e m o r y o f h i s ri v a l t o r e s t , D i o n y s i u s , h e r n e

erec t s a to m b for Cha ereas . I t lacks h i s body , bu t th i s is no t , as a l l t h in k , be cause

i s i r r ecov erab le , b u t r a th er in f ac t beca use he i s s t i l l a l ive e l s ewhe re . H is to m

b e c a u s e h e is s t i l l a l i v e . W h y s e e k t h e l i v i n g a m o n g t h e d e a d ?

B u t e l s e w h e r e p o o r C h a e r e a s i s c o n d e m n e d t o t h e c r o ss

Without even seeing them or hearing their defense the master at once ordered the cruci

sixteen men in the hut. They were brought out chained together at foot and neck, each

cross. . . . N ow Chaereas said no thin g when he was led off w ith the others, bu t

Polycharmus, as he carried his cross, said: "Callirhoe, i t is because of you that we are s

this You are the cause of all our trouble s "

6

A t t h e la s t m i n u t e C h a e r e a s ' s e n t e n c e i s c o m m u t e d .



Mithridates sent everybody off to reach Chaereas before he died. They found the rest n

their crosses; Chaereas was just ascend ing h is. So the ex ecutio ner c hecked his ges ture , a

climbed down from his cros s. . . .

7

As he l a t e r reca ll s , "M i thr id a t es a t once ordered tha t I be t ake n do wn f ro m t

was prac t i ca l ly f i n i shed by then . " Here , t hen , i s a hero who went t o t he c r

be loved a nd re tur ned a l ive . In t he sam e s tory , a v i l l a in i s l i kewise c r uc i f i ed , t ho u

i s ga i n in g h i s j us t deser t s , he i s no t repr i eved . Th i s is Th ero n , t he p i ra t e w ho c

Cal l i rhoe in t o s lavery . "H e was c ruc i f i ed in f r on t o f Cal l i rhoe ' s t omb ."

8

We f

ins t ance of a c ruc i f ix ion ad jacent t o t he tomb of t he r igh teous in

The Alexand

wh en Alexa nder a r res t s t he assassins of h i s wo r thy foe Dar ius . H e com m and ed t

c ruc i f i ed a t Dar ius ' s g rave . "

9

W e canno t he lp be in g remin ded of t he loca t ion of J

" in the place where he was cruci f ied" (John 19:4 1).

We meet wi th the fami l i a r pa t t e rn aga in in t he Ephesian Tale o f X e n o p h o n . T

A nth ia seems to have died fro m a dose of poison b ut has in fact mere ly bee n

dea th l ike co ma. She awaken s f ro m i t i n t he tom b.



Meanw hile some pirates had found that a gi r l had been given a sum ptuo us b ur ial and

store of w omen 's f inery was buried w ith her, and a great h orde of gold and silver. Afte r n

came to the tomb, burst open the doors, came in and took away the finery, and saw that

sti l l alive. They th ou gh t tha t this too wo uld turn ou t very pro fitable for the m , raised

wanted to take her.

10

L a t e r o n , h e r b e l o v e d H a b r o c o m e s g o e s i n s e a r c h o f h e r a n d w i n d s u p b e i n g

t o d e a t h t h r o u g h a se r ie s o f m i s a d v e n t u r e s t o o l o n g t o r e c o u n t h e r e . " T h e y s e t u

a n d a t t a c h e d h i m t o i t , t y i n g h i s h a n d s a n d f e e t t i g h t w i t h r o p e s ; t h a t i s t h

E g y p t i a n s c r u c if y . T h e n t h e y w e n t a w a y a n d le f t h i m h a n g i n g t h e r e , t h i n k i n g t h a t

w a s s e c u r e l y i n p l a c e . " B u t H a b r o c o m e s p r a y s t h a t h e m a y y e t b e s p a r e d s u c h a n

de a th . H e i s heard fo r h i s lou d c r i es an d t ear s . "A sud de n gus t o f wi nd a rose and

c r o s s, s w e e p i n g a w a y t h e s u b s o i l o n t h e c l i f f w h e r e i t h a d b e e n f i x e d . H a b r o c o m

t h e t o r r e n t a n d w a s s w e p t a w a y ; t h e w a t e r d i d h i m n o h a r m ; h i s f e t t e r s d i d n o t

»i i

w ay . . . .

11

A t l e n g t h H a b r o c o m e s r e t u r n s t o a t e m p l e w h e r e , i n h a p p i e r d ay s , h e a n d

e r e c t e d i m a g e s o f t h e m s e l v e s as a n o f f e r i n g t o A p h r o d i t e . S t i l l d e p r i v e d o f



t h i n k i n g h e r t o b e d e a d , h e s i t s t h e r e a n d w e e p s . H e i s d i s c o v e r e d b y o l d f r i e

a n d R h o d e .

They did not recognize him [Cf. Luke 24:1 6; Jo hn 20:1 4], bu t wondered w ho would

someone else's offerings. And so Leucon spoke to him . "Wh y are you sit t in g wee ping, yo

?" [Cf . Joh n 20 :13 -14 ; Luke 24:3 8] H abrocomes repl ied, " I am . . . th e unfo r tunate

W hen Leucon and Rhode heard this they were imm ediately dumfo und ed, but gradual ly r

recognized him by his appearance and voice, from wh at he said, and from his me ntion of

H e r e I s e e a s t r i k i n g r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t e m p t y t o m b a c c o

J e s u s o r a n a n g e l a c c o s ts a w e e p i n g m o u r n e r , a n d a d r a m a t i c r e c o g n i t i o n r e s u l t

2 0 : 1 1 - 1 6 , w h e r e w e a l s o h a v e t h e q u e s t i o n " W h y a r e y o u w e e p i n g ? " t h e i n i t i a

r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n b e i n g s p a r k e d b y t h e m e n t i o n o f a w o m a n ' s

24 :1 3 is on ly s l ig h t ly l ess c lose .

I n A c h i l l e s T a t i u s ' Leucippe and Clitophon, t h e h e r o i n e t w i c e a p p e a r s t o b e d i s e m

c l i m a c t i c s c e n e s w o r t h y o f a S a t u r d a y a f t e r n o o n m o v i e s e ri a l. B u t b o t h t i m

s l e i g h t - o f - h a n d o r m i s t a k e n i d e n t i t y . O n t h e f o r m e r o cc a s i on L e u c i p p e h a d t o l i e

un t i l h er f aked sacr i f ice . She i s wa rned by he r co nfed era te to "s t ay ins ide th e co f f in



i t was da y l i gh t and no t t ry to com e ou t even if she wo ke up ear ly ."

13

A nd of co u

e v e n t u a l l y e m e r g e a l i v e f r o m t h e c o f f i n , g i v i n g u s a n o t h e r r e s u r r e c t i o n s c e n e. R e f e r r

th i s s cene in a l e t t e r to C l i to ph on , she reca l l s "For y our s ake I have be en a s acr i f

an exp ia to ry o f f e r in g , and twic e have d ied . "

1 4

A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r m a r v e l s o v e r L e u c

a d v e n t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g " t h o s e s h a m d e a t h s " : " H a s n ' t s h e d i e d m a n y t i m e s b e f o r e ?

o f t e n b e e n r e s u r re c t e d ? "

1 5

E v e n t u a l l y L e u c i p p e m u s t p r o v e h e r v i r g i n i t y b y m e a n s o f a n o l d l o c al r i t u a

t h u s l y :

If she has lied about her virginity, the syrinx is silent, and instead of music, a scream i

the cave. At once the po pulace quits that place, leaving the w oman in th e cave. On the

virgin priestess of the place enters and finds the syrinx lying on the ground, with no

woman. '

6

On the third day

a w o m a n c o m e s t o c a ve i n w h i c h s o m e o n e w a s

entombed

b u

no trace of a body\

I n L o n g u s ' Daphnis and Chloe we f ind on ly tr aces o f the pa t t e rn , b u t they

n o t i n g . " H e r a n d o w n t o t h e p l a i n , t h r e w h i s a r m s a r o u n d C h l o e , a n d f e ll d o w n



W h e n h e w a s , w i t h d i f f i c u l t y , b r o u g h t b a c k t o l i f e b y C h l o e ' s k i ss e s a n d t h e w a r

em bra ces . . . , "

17

L a t e r i n t h e t a l e w e h e a r t h a t i n t h e b l e a k m i d w i n t e r D a p h n i s ,

the s igh t of h i s be loved Ch loe , "wa i t ed fo r spr ing as i f i t we re a r eb i r th f ro m dea

w h e n s o m e v a n d a l i s m m a r s t h e g a r d e n t e n d e d b y t h e h a p p y p a s t o r a l f o l k o f t h e st

f ear o f h ar sh r epr i s a l : " T he re ' s an o ld m an [ the m as te r w i l l ] s t r i ng up on one of

l i k e M a r s y a s ; a n d p e r h a p s h e ' l l . . . s t r i n g u p D a p h n i s , t o o ' . . . C h l o e m o u r n e d

t h o u g h t t h a t D a p h n i s w o u l d b e s t r u n g u p . . . . W h e n n i g h t w a s a lr e a dy f a l l in g

b r o u g h t t h e m t h e n e w s t h a t t h e o l d m a s t e r w o u l d a r r iv e i n t h r e e d a y s ' t i m e . .

ends wel l .

T h e p a t t e r n c o m e s i n t o s h a r p e r f o c u s a g a i n i n H e l i o d o r u s '

Ethiopian Story

, w h e

hides Char ik le i a , lover o f Theagenes , in a cave fo r s a fekeep ing .

"Pu t her in, my friend, close the entrance with the stone in the norm al way, and

back. . . This stone droppe d effortlessly into place and could be opened just as easily. . . .

passed Cha rikleias l ips; this new misfo rtune was like a deathb low to her, separation fro

tan- tam ou nt to the loss of her own life. Leaving her num bed and silent, Kn em on clim bed

cave, and as he replaced the threshold stone, he shed a tear in sorrow for himself at the

constrained him , and for her at the fate tha t afflicted her; he had virtually e ntom bed her



There a re two more cases o f apparen t dea th and r esur rec t ion in The Story o

King of Tyre.

T h e k i n g s w i f e s e e m s t o e x p i r e d u r i n g c h i l d b i r t h w h i l e o n a s ea v o y

the t e x t ba ld ly s ays , " she sud den ly d ied . "

2 1

Th ey secure her bod y in a care fu l ly s

a n d c o m m i t h e r t o t h e s e a. "Three days later waves cas t up the coff in."

2 2

A m e d

exam ines the body and i s ab le to t e l l f ro m sub t l e ind ica t ion s tha t she s t i l l l ives .

to revive her , though i t wi l l be years before her loved ones learn she is not dead af t

T h e b a b y d a u g h t e r g r o w s u p a n d i s c o m m i t t e d t o t h e c a r e o f f o s t e r p a r e

gr i e f - s t r i c ken Apol lo n ius . O u t o f envy for her roya l pos ses s ions , her fos te r m oth er

have yo un g Tar s ia as sas s ina ted . T he h i r ed k i l l e r cann ot b r in g h imse l f to co m m i t

bu t ins t ead se l ls her in to a b ro the l as a s l ave . M ean wh i le , the wicked fos te r mo th

Tar s ia dea d , t ru m ps u p a f a ls e s to ry o f ho w she d ied a nd bu i ld s an "em pty to mb "

her mem ory . Tar s ia con t r ives to m ain ta in her v i rg in i ty eve n in the mid s t o f a b ro

even tua l ly h i r ed to v i s i t a desp a i r ing o ld m an (A pol lon ius , o f cour se) to cheer h i

s h e tr i e s t o d o w i t h n o t h i n g m o r e sa l a ci o u s t h a n m o r a l e x h o r t a t i o n s , b i d d i n g h i m t o

of the darknes s and in to the l igh t . "

2 4

W h e n t h e t w o r e c o g n i z e o n e a n o t h e r , h e s a y

has been b ro ug ht back to l i fe . "

2 5

Th e town speo ple , l ea rn in g of Tar s ia ' s iden t i ty ,

ou t r ag e perpe t r a t ed up on roya l ty , k i l l ing the p im p whose s l ave Tar s ia was . Ap ol lon iu



"T ha nk s to you , dea th and gr i e f have been show n to be f a ls e ."

2 6

O nc e he ha

reun i t ed w i th h i s wi fe , w ho has in the m ea nt im e be com e a p r i es tes s o f Dian a , Ap ol

to Diana , thanking her tha t "you r es to red me to l i f e . "

2 7

I a m b l i c h u s , i n h i s Babylonian Story, f e a t u r e s n o t o n l y a n e m p t y t o m b s t o ry ,

a b o v e , b u t y e t a n o t h e r a p p a r e n t d e a t h . T h e m a i d S i n o n i s i s m i s s i n g . H e r f a t h e r

h a l f - d e v o u r e d f e m a l e c o r p s e a n d h a s t e n s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t i s t h a t o f h i s l o

H e h a n g s h i m s e l f o n t h e s p o t , b u t n o t b e f o r e i n s c r i b i n g i n b l o o d , " L o v e ly S i n o n i s

h e r e . " A r r i v i n g o n t h e s c e n e n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d s , S i n o n i s ' l o v e r R h o d a n e s d e s p

a b o u t t o s t a b h i m s e l f , b u t a n o t h e r w o m a n a p p e a r s a n d s h o u t s , " I t i s n o t S i n o n i s

R h o d a n e s . "

2 8

A f r i e n d of t h e t w o l o v e rs , S o r a e c h u s , " is c o n d e m n e d t o b e c r u c i f i e d , " b u t w

led away to be c ru c i f i e d , " Sorae chus is r escued by a ba nd of so ld ie r s wh o dr iv

g u a r d s . B u t i n t h e m e a n t i m e , R h o d a n e s , t o o ,

was being led to and hoisted o nto the cross that had been designated for him by a

garland ed Ga rm us, who was dru nk and dan cing roun d th e cross with th e flute players

wi th abando n. W hile this is happen ing, Sacas informs G armu s by let ter tha t Sinonis is

youthful king of Syria. Rhodanes rejoices high up on the cross, but Garmus makes to kill



checks himself , however, and brings down Rhodanes from the cross against the latter 's

prefers to die [seeing that his beloved is to marry another])

29

A p u l e i u s ' The Golden Ass c o n t a i n s t w o s c e n e s w h i c h b e a r a n u n c a n n y r e s e m b l

g o s p e l s ' s c e n e s a t t h e e m p t y t o m b of J e s u s , t h o u g h n e i t h e r i s e x a c t l y a n a l o g o u

F i r s t i s a sc e n e of f o r b i d d e n n e c r o m a n c y . T h o s e a s s e m b l e d s e ek t o i n t e r r o g a t e t h e

m u r d e r e d m a n i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h e i d e n t i t y o f h i s s la y e r.

"Behold here is one Zatchlas, an Egy ptian, w ho is the m ost p rincipal prop hesier in all

and who was hired of me long since to bring back the soul of this man from hell for a

and to revive his body from the threshold of death for the tr ial hereof," and th erew ithal

forth a certain young ma n clothed in l inen ra ime nt . . . .

T h e d e a d m a n is b r i e f l y r e a n i m a t e d a n d s u p p l i e s t h e d e s i re d i n f o r m a t i o n . I h a

om i t t ed th e occas iona l s cenes o f ac tu a l r a i s ing of corpses fo r pu rpo ses o f nec ro

f ind i t occas iona l ly in the nove l s , bu t I inc lude th i s one because o f the as soc ia t

r e s u r r e c t i o n o f a y o u n g m a n i n w h i t e as i n M a r k 1 6 : 5 .

S e c o n d , i n t h e r o m a n c e o f Cupid and Psyche, i n t e r p o l a t e d i n t o t h e l a r g e r u



Golden Ass

y

we f ind a s cene in w hic h P sy ch es si s t e r s s eek her ou t , f ea r in g her dea

After a long search made, the sisters of Psyche came unto the hill where she had been

rock, and cried with a loud voice and beat their breasts , in such sort that the rocks

answered again th eir fr equ ent howlings: and when they called their sister by her nam e,

lam enta ble cries came down the mo unta in un to he r ears, she came forth , very anxious and

ou t of her mi nd , and said: "Behold, h ere is she for who m you weep; I pray you torm ent

more, and dry those tears with which you have so long wetted your cheeks, for now may

her for who m you mourne d. "

51

A t y p i c a l s h a m d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n d u e t o p o i s o n i n g m e e t s u s l a t e r i n t h

e v i l s t e p m o t h e r h a s s o u g h t f r o m a d o c t o r p o i s o n w i t h w h i c h s h e i n t e n d s to d

s t e p s o n , w h o h a s r e b u f f e d h e r i ll i c i t a d v a n c e s . B u t t h e d o c t o r , s u s p e c t i n g s o m e c h i

h e r o n l y a p o t e n t k n o c k o u t f o r m u l a . S o i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e i n q u e s t , h e l e a d s e v e r

c o f f i n w h e r e a s u r p r i s e a w a i t s t h e m ( t h o u g h b y n o w w k n o w f u l l w e l l w h a t t o e x

Every man had a desire to go to the sepulchre wh ere the ch ild was laid: there was

justices, none of any reputation of the town, nor any indeed of the common people, but

this strange sight. Am ong st them all the fa ther of the child removed with his own h ands



the c offin, and found his son rising up after his dead and soporiferous sleep: and when he

as one risen from the dead he embraced him in his arms; and he could speak never a

prese nt gladness, but p resented him before the peop le [cf. Luke 7:1 5] with grea t joy and

and as he was wrapped and bound in the clothes of the grave [cf. Jo hn 1 1:44], so he

before the judges.

32

The s t epmother i s ex i l ed , her henchman "hanged on a ga l lows, " or l i t e ra l ly

A g a i n w e h a v e t h e i m m e d i a t e a s so c ia t io n of c ru c i f i x i o n w i t h a n e m p t y t o m b .

P e t ro n i u s ' s

Satyricon

repea t s a wide ly d i ssem ina ted t a l e wh ich jux tapose s the

fea tures aga in , and in a s t r i k ing fash ion . A wo ma n of E phes us is so devo ted

hu sba nd tha t she reso lves to en t e r t he tom b wi t h h i m , t her e t o s t a rve herse lf t o d

jo in h im in the grea t bey ond . A servant kee ps v ig i l wi th her . Me anw hi l e a

thieves i s cruci f ied nearby.

Next night the soldier who was guarding the crosses to prevent anyone removing one of

for burial noticed a l ight shining among the tombs and, hearing the sound of someone m

was eager to know . . . who it was and wha t was goin g on . Natur ally he went down into

seeing a beautiful woman, at first stood rooted to the spot as though terrified by some stran



T h e so ld ie r b r i ng s som e food and u rges her to ea t . H e seeks to co m fo r t her

T h e s e r v a n t a c c e p t s t h e f o o d a n d b e g i n s t o j o i n i n t h e s o l d i e r 's u r g i n g s . " W h a t g o

f o r y o u t o d r o p d e a d o f s t a r v a t i o n , o r bury yourself alive . . . ? . . . W o n ' t y o u

life?'

T hi s cou nse l p rove s per suas ive . In f ac t , no t on ly does the wid ow re f r esh

t h e f o o d , b u t s h e i s s o i n f u s e d w i t h t h e joi de vivrt t h a t s h e f o r n i c a t e s w i t h t h e s

t h e r e i n t h e t o m b . "The doors o f th e vau l t were o f cou r se closed, so i f a f r i e nd o

c a m e t o t h e t o m b , h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e b l a m e l e s s w i d o w h a d e x p i r e d o v e r h e

body ."

5 4

W h i l e a ll t h i s is g o i n g o n , t h e f a m i l y o f o n e o f t h e c r u c i f i e d t h i e v e s , n o t i c i

c r o ss e s a r e u n a t t e n d e d , " t o o k d o w n t h e h a n g i n g b o d y i n t h e d a r k a n d g a v e i t t h e

T h e s o l d i e r f i n d s o n e c ro s s e m p t y a n d k n o w s w h a t m u s t b e c o m e of h i m f o r f a i l i

[ C f . M a t t . 2 8 : 1 1 - 1 4 ] H e i s a b o u t t o k i l l h i m s e l f w h e n h i s n e w l o v e r s u g g e s t s h

b o d y o f h e r h u s b a n d f r o m t h e c o f f i n a n d f i x i t t o t h e e m p t y c r o s s . " T h i s i s w h a t

H er e a dead m an ex i t s h is to m b on ly to be c ruc i f i ed and th us save th e

s o l d i e r a n d t o b r i n g a n e w le a s e o n l i f e t o h i s n o l o n g e r g r i e v i n g w i d o w H e r e t

o f the s to ry o f the c ruc i f i ed and r esur rec ted s av ior in the gospe l s a r e r eshuf f



p r e s e n t . T h e r e i s e v e n t h e e l e m e n t o f a c r u c i f i e d d e a d m a n d i s a p p e a r i n g d e s p i t e

o f g u a r d s , s o m e w h a t r e c a ll i n g M a t t h e w ' s e m p t y t o m b a c c o u n t

A no the r M at t he an pecu l i a r i ty f ind s i t s para l l e l in an acc oun t in book 4 o f

The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. I n c h a p t e r 1 6 , t h e d i v i n e s a g e m a k e s a p i l g r i m

to m b of Achi l l es . H e ca l l s ou t , li ke J es us to Lazarus ,

"O Achilles, . . . mo st of ma nkind declare you are dead, bu t I canno t agree with the m

yourself to my eyes, if you should be able to use them to attest you r existence." The reu

earthq uak e shook the neighbo rhood of the barrow [cf. M att. 28 :1 -2 ], and a youth issue

cub its h igh , wearing a cloak of T hessalian fashion . . . but he grew bigger, t i l l he was t

and even more than tha t ; a t any rate he appeared . . . to be twelve cubi ts high jus t at

when he reached his complete stature, and his beauty grew apace with his length. [Cf.

r isen Jesus in the Gospel of Peter] (Book IV, XVI, Loeb)

THE STUMBLING BLOCK OF THE CROSS?



A s C h a r l e s H . T a l b e r t h a s s h o w n , t h e c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s , e v e n in t h e i r p r e s e n t f

no t have been h ard fo r an an c ien t r eader to r ecogn ize as o f f i c i a l ( and f

b i o g r a p h i e s c o m p i l e d b y a p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o v e m e n t t o g l o r i f y t h e i r f o u n d er .

3 6

I t s

t h a t M a c k , K o e s t e r , a n d R o b i n s o n w o u l d a l l s h y a w a y f r o m s u c h a c o n c l u s i o n ,

p r o m i n e n c e o f t h e P a s s i o n s t o r y i n t h e c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s . T h e n o t i o n o f a n a t o

does no t s eem to f i t t h e p ic tu re o f the p h i lo sop hic a l a r e ta logy . Bu t it i s hard ly c l

i n M a r k a n d L u k e , t h a t t h e id e a o f a n a t o n e m e n t h a s m u c h t o d o w i t h i t .

H e l m u t K o e s t e r 's L u t h e r a n b a c k g r o u n d t h a t t e m p t s h i m t o . r e a d a t h e o l o g y of t h

M a r k , w h e n o n l y t w o b r i e f t e x t s c o u l d e v e n p o s s i b l y b e r e a d t h a t w a y ( M a r k

1 4 : 2 4 ) , a n d L u k e c h o p s ev e n t h e s e ( c o m p a r e h i s v e r s i o n s , L u k e 2 2 : 2 7 a n d 2 2 : 1 8 )

A s M a c k n o t e s ( i n c o m p a n y w i t h J o h n D o m i n i c C r o s s a n a n d o t h e r s ) , t h e s t o

a r r e s t , h u m i l i a t i o n , a n d c r u c i f i x i o n s e e m s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m a w h o l e d i f f e r e n t

i d e a s t h a n t h a t of a n a t o n e m e n t t h e o l o g y . R a t h e r , t h e s t o r y i s p r o b a b l y i n t e n d e d

s t o r y o f t h e w i s e m a n w h o e n d u r e s a l l t h e d e p r e d a t i o n s o f t h e w i c k e d , t o w h o s e

l i v i n g r e b u k e . S u c h a r i g h t e o u s o n e i s a l w a y s e i t h e r s a ve d i n t h e n i c k o f t i m e

a f t e r d e a t h .

3 7

I t i s easy to s ee J es us ' c ruc i f ix io n acco un t in these t e rm s . An d th i s i s

t h i n g w e w o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d in a c o m m u n i t y l i k e t h e Q p a r t i s a n s , a s M a c k



t h e m . T h e Q c o m m u n i t y c o u l d e a s i ly h a v e p r o d u c e d s u c h a h e r o b i o g r a p h y , s u c h

a r e t a l o g y , i s s u i n g i n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n a n d d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h e i r h e r o , t h e w i s e m a n / s o

w i t h o u t a c t u a l l y k n o w i n g

what

h a d h a p p e n e d t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s , a q u e s

say ings , a f t e r a l l , l eave wide open .

But d idn ' t t he s to ry o f the pe r secu ted wise one usua l ly end w i th the rescue

( Joseph , Danie l , An iqar , and so fo r th )? Yes , th ou gh M ack and Crossan appare n t ly

posthumous r eward wo uld no t v io la t e the log ic o f the s to ry . I t wou ld be a na tura l

the the m e. Bu t wo uld i t ? T he no t ion of the wise m an hav ing th e l as t l au gh a t the

h i s enem ies bo i l s do wn to the fu nd am en ta l idea tha t "wisd om i s th e bes t po l i cy ,

g u y s f i n i s h f i r s t . " W i s d o m i s i m p l i c i t l y e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t, t h e S o c ra t ic d i c

p e o p l e k n e w b e t t e r , t h e y w o u l d a l w a y s d o t h e v i r t u o u s t h i n g — b e c a u s e t h e y w o u l d

i s a lways in the i r ow n be s t in t e res t s . N o t , "Do th e r ig h t , and l e t the ch ips f a l l

may ," bu t r a ther , "He re ' s how to succeed . " T he Book of P rov erbs wasn ' t ask ing any

a mar ty r . N o , the idea was , i f you were wise you wo uld u l t im ate ly escape the fowl

t h e w i c k e d .

B u t m a y b e t h e a r e t a l o g y o f J e s u s did f i t t h e p a t t e r n a n y w a y . R e m e m b e r ,

d e v i c e s o f t h e a n c i e n t n o v e l i n c l u d e d p e o p l e s u r v i v i n g c r u c i f i x i o n s a n d p e o

en to m be d a l ive W h a t i f an ear l i e r ver s ion of the Pas s ion nar ra t ive pur s ue d the l



t a l e o f t h e w i s e s u f f e r e r t o t h e l e t t e r — a n d h a d J e s u s s u r v i v e c r u c i f i x i o n , a p p e a r i n g

not a l ive again? Even in th e canonica l gospe l s there a re s t r i k in g h in t s o f a b

preca non ica l ver s ion tha t m us t have r ead prec i se ly th i s way . M us l im in te rpre te r s o f

have seen som e of these h in t s , bu t i t i s on ly wi t h the adve nt o f m od ern na r ra t iv

tha t the c lues have become v i s ib le to any of the r es t o f us .

F o r i n s t a n c e , w h y d o e s M a r k 1 4 : 3 5 - 3 6 s h o w J e s u s a s k i n g h i s f a t h e r t o a l l

e s c a p e d e a t h o n t h e c r o s s i n G e t h s e m a n e ? T h i s i s a n e x c e e d i n g l y o d d , e v e n a n o f f e

to w r i t e i f t he go a l o f th i s nar r a t ive i s to hav e Jes us d ie a f t e r a l l . Bu t I susp ec t t

p l a n t i n g a s e e d t h a t w i l l b l o s s o m r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y l a t e r i n t h e st o ry . L i k e w i s e

1 5 : 3 4 t o h a v e J e s u s r e p e a t i n g P s a l m 2 2 , a p r a y e r a n t i c i p a t i n g f i n a l d e l i v e r a n c e

l a s t m o m e n t ( P s . 2 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ) , c r e a t e s a l l m a n n e r o f p r o b l e m s u n l e s s t h i s p r a y e r , t o

a n s w e r e d b y s t o r y 's e n d . D i d J e s u s t h i n k h i s G o d h a d f o r s a k e n h i m ? N o , of c o u

H eb . 5 :7 s ays , h i s lou d c r i es an d t ear s we re heard, h i s p r a y e r f o r d e l i v e r a n c e

answered.

T h e i r o n y o f t h e b y s t a n d e r s ' t a u n t , " L e t t h e C h r i s t , t h e K i n g o f I s r ae l ,

now f ro m the c ros s , th a t w e ma y see and be l i ev e" (Mark 1 5 :3 2) , l i es in the f ac t

p r e c i s e ly w h a t is a b o u t t o h a p p e n , t h o u g h t h e y w i l l n o t r e c o g n i z e it . A n d , o t h e r w

t h e p o i n t of t h e s t r a n g e d e t a i l of P i l a t e m a r v e l i n g t h a t J e s u s w a s d e a d a f t e r a m e r

(M ark 15 :44 ) , w he n i t ou gh t to t ak e days fo r th e c ros s to k i l l ? As C he ko v sa id ,



s ay s s o m e b o d y d r o v e a n a i l i n t o t h e w a l l , h e ' d b e t t e r m a k e s u r e t o h a n g s o m e t h

l a t e r i n t h e s t o r y A n d , o b v i o u s l y , t h e p a y o f f w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h a t J e s u s h a d f

c o m a , w h i c h i ro n i c a l l y , p r o v i d e n t i a l l y , r e s u l t e d i n h i s b e i n g r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c r

for h im to surv ive .

A n d w h y d o e s M a t t h e w h a v e J o s e p h o f A r i m a t h e a b u r y J e s u s i n J o s e p h ' s o w n

2 7 : 5 7 - 6 0 ) ? A n d w h y d oe s M a t t h e w a d d t h e n o t e t h a t J o s e p h w a s r i c h ( 2 7 : 5 7 ) ? W h y

p r o v i d e n a r r a t iv e m o t i v a t i o n f o r t o m b r o b b e r s t o c o m e a n d o p e n t h e t o m b , as i n

r o m a n c e s , a n d f i n d J e s u s al iv e T h e f a i n t i n g o f M a t t h e w ' s g u a r d s ( 2 7 : 4 ) p r o b a b l y

t e r ro r o f the sup er s t i t iou s tom b robber s , f ind ing a l iv ing ma n b u t no t r easure . A

L u k e 2 4 : 3 6 - 4 3 , w h e n J e s u s a p p e a r s t o h is b e r e a v e d d i s c ip l e s w h o a s s u m e h e i

cannot be l i eve the i r eyes , what does he s ay to r eas sure them? L ike Apol lon ius o f Ty

a s imi la r s cene , a f t e r a mi racu lous escape f rom the t r eacherous des igns o f Domi t i

h i s f r i end s to beh old h i s l iv ing phys ica l bo dy , to convin ce themse lves tha t he ha

f ro m the r ea lm of the dead , he i s no gho s t , b u t r a ther , as h is so l id corporea l i ty a

sti l l alive.

Dam is ' grief had just broken ou t afresh, and he had mad e some such exclam ation as t

"Shall we ever behold, O ye gods, our noble and good companion?" When Apollonius, wh



him — or as a ma tter of fact he was already present in th e cham ber . . . — answ ered: "Ye s

nay, ye have already seen him." "Alive?" said Demetrius, "for if you are dead, we have a

ceased to lame nt you ." W her eup on A pollonius stretched ou t his hand and said: "Take hold

if I evade you, then I am indeed a ghost come to you from the realm of Persephone, such

of the under-world reveal to those who are dejected with much mourning. But if I resist

then you shall persuade Damis also that I am both alive and that I have not abandone

They w ere no longer able to disbelieve, bu t rose up and threw themselves on his neck and

and asked him abo ut his defense. ( L if e of Apollonius, VIII , XII)

J o h n k n e w t h a t p e o p l e u n d e r s t o o d t h e s to r y o f J e s u s ' p a s s i o n , t h i s w a y , w h i c h

a d d s t w o i t e m s u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n a n y o t h e r g o s p e l : t h e n a i l i n g o f J e s u s t o t h e

p e o p l e w e r e s i m p l y t i e d t o t h e c r o s s ), n o t n a r r a t e d b u t a s s u m e d i n J o h n 2 0 : 2

s p e a r - t h r u s t i n J o h n 1 9 : 3 4 . H e p r o t e s t s t o o m u c h ( J o h n 1 9 : 3 5 ) , i n t h e s t y l e o f t h e

a p o c r y p h a ( c f. 2 P e t . 1 : 1 6 - 1 8 ) , t h a t h e w a s t h e r e a n d s a w t h e b l o o d f l o w . I n

J es us show s no t h i s so l id h an ds and f ee t ( as in L uk e 24 :39 ) , bu t r a the r h i s wou

a n d

side

( J o h n 2 0 : 2 0 ) . J o h n d o e s n ' t w a n t a n y o n e t h i n k i n g J e s u s s u r v i v e d t h e c r o s

t o p r e a c h a m o n g t h e G r e e k s ( J o h n 7 : 3 5 ) .



Bu t the o r ig ina l t e l le r s o f the a re ta log ica l t a l e had no conc ern fo r an a to n in g

Q , r e m e m b e r , d o e s n o t e v e n s ay t h a t J e s u s d i e d I n t h e c o n s p i c u o u s a b s e n c e of a n

t h a t h e d i e d , o n e c a n w e l l i m a g i n e t h a t t h e Q - s o p h i s t s o r t h e c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t re

w o u l d m a k e J e s u s s h r e w d l y a v o i d d e a t h . O n c e a b e l ie f i n t h e m a r t y r d e a t h o f J e

t h e p i c t u r e f r o m a n o t h e r q u a r t e r o f t h e p a t c h w o r k q u i l t o f J e s u s m o v e m e n t s , t h

w a s r e e d i t e d t o m a k e J e s u s g o o d a n d d e a d . T h e P a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s i n M a r k ( 8 : 3

1 0 : 3 3 - 3 4 ) a r e o b v i o u s l y a r t i f ic i a l " p r o l e p s e s " ( f l a s h - f o r w a r d s ) " r u i n i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e

t h e o r i g i n a l , p r e - M a r k a n v e r s i o n , w h i c h c r a f t i ly d r o p p e d h i n t s o f w h a t w o u l d h a p p

an d ke p t the r eade r gue s s ing . T he r e su l t , i n the gospe l s as we now read th em , i

"p lo t o f p redes t i - na t ion , "

3 9

wh ereb y nar ra t ive suspen se is exorc i s ed and each succes

i s a r edu nd an t r ehear sa l o f the one b efore , as a l l a l ike seek to d r ive h om e a s ing le

po in t to the r ead er v iewed as a ca te ch um en . "D id you ge t i t l as t t im e? Ju s t in cas

a g a i n : J e s u s d ie d i n J e r u s a l e m ; e v e r y t h i n g w a s l e a d i n g u p t o t h a t , n o t h i n g e l s e m a t

T h e s o -c a l le d N a r r a t i v e C r i t i c s , N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a rs l i k e J a c k D e a n K i n g s b u

K e l b e r , a n d M a r k A l l a n P o w e l l ,

4 0

fo r a l l t he i r s e l f -p rofes sed exper t i s e in nar r a to l

perce ive tha t the nar ra t ive o f the gospe l s works bes t on ly when one uncover s

theo log ica l ly obscured ou t l ines . But i t i s no surpr i s e , because in the hands

chu rch me n-sc hol ar s , t h e " l i t e r a ry" s tud y of the gosp e l s has s e rved f rom the

d i v e r s io n a r y r o u t e o f e sc a p e f r o m e n g a g e m e n t w i t h t h e t r o u b l i n g q u e s t i o n s



hi s to r i ca l c r i t i c i sm.

NOTES

1. Char i ton, Chaereas and Callirhoe, trans. B. P. Reardon, in Collected Ancient Greek N

P. Reardon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), p. 37.

2. Ibid., p. 53; as far as I know, the first one to recognize the relevance of this an

a parallel to the gospel resurrection accounts was Joha nne s Le ipoldt in 194 8. An E nglis

of his seminal article appeared nearly fif ty years later: Joha nne s Leipoldt, "The Resurrec

Journal of Higher Criticism 4, no. 1 (spring 1997 ): 13 8- 49 , trans. Darrell J . D ough ty.

3. Iamblichus , Babylonian Story, trans. Gerald N. Sandy, in Collected Ancient Greek Nov

4. Char i ton, Chaereas and Callirhoe, p. 62.

5. Ibid., p. 111.

6. Ibid., p. 67.



7. Ibid., p. 69.

8. Ibid., p. 57.

9 .

The Alexander Romance

, trans. Ken Do wd en, in

Collected Ancient Greek Novels p.

70

10. Xenophon,

Ephesian Tale

, trans. Graham Anderson, in

Collected Ancient Greek

1 5 1 - 5 2 .

11. Ibid., p. 155.

12. Ibid., p. 67.

13. Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Clitophon, t rans . Joh n J . Winkler , in Collected A

Novels

, p. 220.

14. Ibid., p. 242.

15. Ibid., p. 262.

16. Ibid., p. 273.

17. Longus , Daphnis and Chloe, trans. Ch ristoph er G ill , in Collected Ancient Greek Nov

18. Ibid., p. 319.

19. Ibid., p. 336.



20. Hel iodorus ,

Ethiopian Story

, trans. J . R. Morgan, in

Collected Ancient Greek Novels,

2 1 . The Story of Apollonius, King of Tyre, trans. G erald N . Sandy, in Collected Ancient

p. 752.

22. Ibid. , p . 753.

23. Ibid., p

24. Ibid., p

25. Ibid., p

26. Ibid., p

27. Ibid., p

28. Ibid ., p

29. Ibid., p

758.

763.

767.

769.

770.

791.

793.

30. Lucius Apuleius,

The Go lden Ass,

t rans . Wil l iam Ad l ington , rev. Harry C. Schnur

Collier Books, 1962), p. 62.

31. Ibid., p. 118.



32. Ibid., p. 241.

33. Petronius , The Satyricon, and Seneca, The Apocolocyntosis

y

trans. J . P. Sullivan

Penguin Books, 1977), p. 120.

34. Ibid., p. 121.

35. Ibid. , pp. 120 -22 .

36. Charles H. Talbert ,

What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels

(Philadelp

Press, 1977).

37. Geo rge W. E. Nic kelsb urg, "The Gen re and F unction of the Markan Passion

Harvard Theological Review 73 (1980) : 153-8 4 .

38. Gerard G enet te ,

Narrative

Discourse:

An Essay in Method

, trans. Jan e E. Lewin (I

University Press, 1983), p. 40.

39. Tzvetan Todorov, The P oetics of Prose, trans. Richard How ard (Ithaca: Cornell Univ

1977) , pp . 53 -65 , 120 -42 .

40. Mark Allan Powel l ,

What Is Narrative Criticism?

Fortress Guides to Biblical Scho

Testament Series (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990).



Chapter 8



THE HISTORICIZED

JESUS?

CHRIST EVOLVING

T -

g

h e m a i n s t r e a m o f c r i t i c a l N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s h i p t o d a y e m b r a c e s a t h

e v o l u t i o n o f C h r i s t o l o g y t h a t s t r i k i n g l y p a r a l l e l s t h e a n c i e n t c h r i s t o l o g i c a l

A d o p t i o n i s m . A n c i e n t A d o p t i o n i s t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n E b i o n i t e s , be

J e s u s w a s a n a t u r a l m a n , c o m p l e t e l y h u m a n a n d m o r t a l , n o t a n i n c a r n a t e g o d o r d



r e c o g n i t i o n a n d r e w a r d o f a l i f e o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d a m i n i s t r y o f c o s t ly

c u l m i n a t i n g i n m a r t y r d o m , J e s u s w a s e x a l t e d t o t h e r a n k o f M e s s i a h a n d r o y a l s o n

k i n d o f h o n o r a r y d i v i n i t y l i k e t h a t p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e a n c i e n t k i n g s o f J u d a h w h

c a l l e d M e s s i a h a n d s o n o f G o d ( P s . 2 : 2 , 7 ) . F e w C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s w o u l d e m b r a c e

a s t h e i r o w n p e r s o n a l c r e e d ; t h e y d o n o t b e l i e v e t h i s i s w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d t o

m o s t w o u l d s a y t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C h r i s t i a n t h o u g h t a b o u t J e s u s w a s

" a d o p t i o n i s t i c " i n t h a t t h e w h o l e p r o c e ss b e g a n w i t h a h i s t o r i c a l p r o p h e t n a m e d

d i d n o t c l a im g o d h o o d i n t h e m a n n e r of s o m e d e m a g o g u e s a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r

n o n e t h e l e s s l a te r m a g n i f i e d b y h i s a d m i r e r s t o s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t sh o r t l y h e w a s

h a v e b e e n a n i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e v e r y G o d h e a d .

1

I n t o t h i s t h e o l o g i c a l m i x t h e r e

m a n n e r of H e l l e n i s t i c m y t h e m e s a s w e l l a s p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n c e p t s ( s u c h a s t

do c t r i ne o f the Lo gos ) .

Suc h an op in io n abo ut th e h i s to ry o f be l i e f in J es us was once i t s e l f a con t ro

h e r e t i c a l v ie w , s i n c e t h e s h e e r r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d e v e l o p m e n t i n C h r i s t o l o g y w

u n d e r m i n e t h a t C h r i s t o l o g y . A s N i e t z s c h e a n d F o u c a u l t h a v e s h o w n , t h e d e l i n e

h i s t o ry , a " g e n e a l o g y " o f t h o u g h t , is i t s e lf a d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h a t t h o u g h t , s in c e i

b e l ie f t o b e t h e p r o d u c t o f a p ro c e s s o f h u m a n f a s h i o n i n g , n o t a f u l l - b l o w n f a c

(o r o f r eve la t ion) . Bu t s cho lar s , t o the i r g re a t c r ed i t , f oun d tha t the i r zea l fo r un



t he t ex t an d the h i s to ry of Ch r i s t i a n i ty w as g re a te r tha n any loya l ty to an ecc les i

l ine .

2

T h e y s t u c k t o t h e i r g u n s , a n d t h e v ie w I h a v e j u s t o u t l i n e d h a s b e c o m e s o m

c r i t i c a l o r t h o d o x y . O n e m a y s u s p e c t t h a t a n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e e v e n t u a l t r i u m

"adopt ion i s t i c , " evo lu t ionary theory of chr i s to log ica l o r ig ins was tha t i t was a t l

d i s t u r b i n g a s a n e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l v i e w , t h e p u r e C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r y : t h a t t h e r e

b e e n a h is t o r i c a l J e s u s a t t h e r o o t o f t h e f u l l - b l o w n m y t h i c a l C h r i s t o l o g y . A c c o r

C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r i s t s , J e s u s h a d f i r s t b e e n r e g a r d e d i n t h e m a n n e r o f a n a n c i e n

g o d ; h e h a d s u p p o s e d l y o n c e v is i t e d t h e e a r t h a n d d i e d a n d b e e n r a i s ed f r o m t h e

H e r c u l e s a n d A s c le p i o s . T h e i m a g i n e d i n c a r n a t i o n , d e a t h , a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n w o u l d h a

in the hazy zone of m yt h i c t im e , as Pau l Veyne descr ibes i t i n

Did the Greeks Be

Myths?* n o t in t h e h i s t o r i c a l t i m e o f c h r o n o l o g i e s a n d d a t e s . H e r c u l e s w a s n o

im ag ine d to have ex i s t ed in the s am e sor t o f pa s t as Per ic l es . N ei th er , a t f i r s t , w

w a s o n l y s u b s e q u e n t l y , s ay s t h e C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r y , t h a t t h e i n c a r n a t i o n ,

r esur re c t ion of J esus was r end ered h i s to r i c a l , da tab le , a p iece o f r ecen t wo r l

C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e n , w o u l d h a v e b e g u n w i t h a " h i g h " C h r i s t o l o g y , b u t w i t h n

g r o u n d i n g ( h e n c e o n e m i g h t c a ll i t " d o c e t i c " ), w h e r e a s t h e " a d o p t i o n i s t i c " t h e o r y o f

s cho lar s ho lds tha t Ch r i s t i an s f i r s t he ld a " low " Chr i s to logy , p la c ing Jesus on ou

Go d 's , on ly l a t e r y ie ld ing to a p roces s o f my th i f i ca t ion of the h i s to r i ca l m a



N a z a r e t h . T h e c h o i c e i s b e t w e e n a h i s to r i c a l J e s u s m y t h i c i z e d a n d a m y t h i c J e s u s

A r e t h e r e g r o u n d s f o r p r e f e r r i n g o n e t o t h e o t h e r ? I w o u l d l i k e t o e x p l o r e t h a t

the p resen t chap te r . F i r s t , I wi l l con s ider the p oss ib i l i ty th a t the re was a h i s to r i ca l

w a s r a p i d l y g l o r i f i e d t o m y t h i c h e i g h t s . I w i l l a p p e a l t o h i s t o r i c a l a n a l o g i e s u s u a l ly

a r g u i n g t h a t t h e w h o l e n o t i o n i s b y n o m e a n s i m p l a u s i b l e , t h o u g h w h e t h e r t h e g o s p

bes t in t e rpr e te d th i s way is a s epara te que s t io n .

LUBAVITCHERS AND NAZOREANS

I b e l i e v e w e c a n p o s t u l a t e a s c e n a r i o o f d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m a m o r t a l , a J e w i s h r a

s t a t u s o f a g o d u n d e r l y i n g t h e G o s p e l of J o h n . I t w i l l b e h e l p f u l t o c o m p a r e t h e

f a c t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d p r o c e s s w i t h a n a l o g o u s f a c t o r s i n t h e r e c

R a b b i M e n a c h e m M e n d e l S c h n e e r so n a n d t h e L u b a v i t c h e r m o v e m e n t in H a s i d

F i r s t , l e t u s p r e s u p p o s e a h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s p i c t u r e d a s a r a b b i w i t h h a l a c h

s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t i n c t i v e t o h a v e m a d e h i m t h e c e n t e r o f a f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l s c h o

d e a t h . W e w o u l d t h e n b e a b l e t o p la c e t h e t r a d i t i o n s c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e G o s p



a m o n g t h e J e s u s p a r t i sa n s i n w h a t B u r t o n M a c k c a ll s t h e S y n a g o g u e R e f o r m M o v

Ra bb i Sch neer s on , i t wo uld have been Jes us ' cha r i sm a of ho l ines s and p ie ty , as

p e r s u a s i v e w i s d o m a n d l e g a l r u l i n g s t h a t l e d h i s d i s c i p l e s t o i d e n t i f y h i m w i t h

M e s s i a h . P e r h a p s l i k e L u b a v i t c h e r se c t a r i a n s , t h e y d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h e i r m a s t e r

r i s e n f r o m t h e d e a d , b u t e x p e c t e d t h a t h e s o o n w o u l d , a t t h e g e n e r a l r e s u r r e c t i o n

w h e n h e w o u l d i n h e r i t h i s d u e m e s s i a n i c d i g n i t y . F r o m t h i s i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f J o h a

( as I w i l l c al l t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t t h a t u l t i m a t e l y p r o d u c e d t h e G o s p e l o

h a v e t h e e c h o t h a t s o m e w e r e w i l l i n g t o a d m i t t h a t J e s u s w a s " a t e a c h e r s e n t f r o

n o o n e c a n d o t h e s i g n s t h a t y o u d o u n l e s s G o d i s w i t h h i m " ( J o h n 3 : 2 ) . T h e s e

s i g n i f y i n g m i r a c l e s , m i g h t h a v e f u n c t i o n e d a s w h a t G e r d T h e i s s e n c a l ls " r u l e m i r

m e a n s J e s u s m i g h t h a v e b e e n b e l i e v e d t o h a v e s e t t l e d m a t t e r s o f s c r i b a l d e b a t e

m i r a c l e s ( as i n M a r k 2 : 8—1 2 ). G o d m u s t b e o n h i s s i d e . A s J a c o b N e u s n e r h a s

l a t e r m a i n s t r e a m o f r a b b i s s h i e d a w a y f r o m t h e n o t i o n t h a t p o i n t s o f T o r a h o r d o c

b e s e t t l e d b y s i g n s a n d p o r t e n t s .

4

C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g M i s h n a i c a n e c d o t e , s e

h a l a c h i c d e b a t e s a m o n g t h e r a b b i s a t Y a v n e h a f t e r t h e f a l l o f J e r u s a l e m . R a b b i E l i

in h i s ins i s t e nce on h i s op in i on in the f ace o f a un i t e d f ro n t o f h i s f e l low scr

c o n s e n s u s , a s i n I s l a m , m u s t d e c i d e t h e q u e s t i o n .



On that day, Rabbi Eliezer replied with every legal argument in the world, but the rabb

accept the m . The reup on, he said to the m , "If th e halachah is on my side, let that carob t

The carob suddenly uprooted itself and flew through the air one hundred cubits . They

"N o bring ing of proof from a carob tree " H e said to the m, "If the halachah is on my si

tha t stream of water show it " Th e stream of water tu rned around and flowed backw ard.

him , "N o b ringin g of proof from streams of water " H e turne d and said to them , "If the

on m y side, may the w alls of the house of study we are in show it " Th e walls of th e ho

leaned inward as if about to fall . Rabb i Jehosh ua rebuked the walls , saying to them , "

battle each other over halachah, why do you interfere?" They did not fall out of hono

Jehoshua, nor did they straighten up out of honor for Rabbi Eliezer; they continue crooke

to thi s day. Aga in Eliezer said t o th em , "If the halachah is on m y side, let He aven show

from Heaven cried o ut, "W ha t do the rest of you have against Rabbi Eliezer? Th e halach

side in everything " Rabb i Yehoshua leaped to his feet and quote d [De ut. 30:1 2], "It is no

" What did Yehoshua mean by saying, "It is not in heaven?" Rabbi Yeremiah explained

Torah has already been given from Mo unt Sinai, we do not pay heed any longer to a he

You yourself , O Lord, wrote in the Torah given at Mount Sinai, 'Turn aside after the

Later Rab bi Nath an h appened to see the Proph et Elijah. H e asked him , "W ha t did th

Blessed be he, do whe n we did n ot pay heed to any of Rab bi Eliezer's mira culo us p

heavenly voice?" Elijah replied, "W ha t did he do Go d said, 'My sons have defeated m e M

defeated me ' " (Baba Mezia 59b)>



D o e s t h i s c a s t d o u b t o n t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t C h r i s t i a n J e w s c o u l d h a v e

h e a d w a y b y m a k i n g s u c h a p p e a l s , t o J e s u s ' r u l e m i r a c l e s ? N o ; i t i s e n t i r e l y p

C h r i s t i a n c l a i m s h e l p e d t u r n t h e r a b b i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e y t o o k . N o t e t h a t

w ha t J es us t e l l s th e d i s c ip les they ca n do in Lu ke 17 :6 , " I f y ou h ad f a i th as

m u s t a r d s e e d , y o u w o u l d s a y t o t h i s m u l b e r r y t r e e , ' B e u p r o o t e d a n d p l a n t e d i n t

i t w o u l d o b e y y o u . " E l i e z er a l s o d u p l i c a t e d t h e f e a t p r o m i s e d b y t h e m e s s i a h T h

l i k e J o s h u a , h e w o u l d m a k e t h e J o r d a n t u r n r o u n d s o h i s f o l l o w e r s m i g h t c r

( J o s e p h u s , Antiquities of the Jews X X , V , 1 ). S i m i l a r l y , E li e z e r p e r f o r m e d a v e r

m i r a c l e p r o m i s e d b y t h e E g y p t i a n m e s s ia h m e n t i o n e d b y L u k e (A c t s 2 1 : 3 8 ) a n

(Antiquities X X , I X , 6 ) , w h o t o l d h i s f o l l o w e r s h e w o u l d , a g a i n l i k e J o s h u a , c a u s

o f J e r u s a l e m t o f a l l d o w n l i k e th o s e of J e r i c h o .

F r o m s o m e o f t h e h e a l i n g st o r i e s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n ( 5 : 8 —1 0 ; 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 f f

d e d u c e t h a t , a s i n t h e S y n o p t i c s , J e s u s ' r u l i n g s o n w h a t t y p e s o f a c t i o n w e r e p e r

t h e S a b b a t h w e r e r a t h e r l i b e r a l a n d o f f e n d e d s o m e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t , t h o u g h

t o m i r a c l e s c a r r i e d n o w e i g h t i n e m e r g i n g r a b b i n i s m , a m o r e l i b e r a l , H i l l e l i t e v i e

i s su e s , s u c h a s J e s u s i s s h o w n a d v o c a t i n g i n t h e g o s p e l s , b e c a m e t h e m a i n s t r e a m .

s o m e t h i n g w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g in w h a t f o ll o w s .



A t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e , t h e J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d h a v e h a d a s t r o n g s e n s

i d e n t i t y , a n d t h a t w o u l d h a v e i n c l u d e d t h e i r h e r i t a g e a s J e w s , a s m e m b e r s o f t h e

T h e i r r e f o r m i s t a c t i v i t i e s , p u r s u i n g t h e i r h a l a c h i c a g e n d a , s i g n i f y b o t h a s t r o n

i d e n t i t y a n d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g t o t h e l a r g e r s y n a g o g u e i d e n t i t y . R

s p l i t t i n g o f f, w h i c h w o u l d m e a n a h i g h e r v a l u a t i o n o f s u b g r o u p i d e n t i t y , t h e y

i n f l u e n c e a l a r g e r g r o u p f o r w h i c h t h e y s t i l l f e l t p r o p r i e t a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . A n d

M a r y D o u g l a s ' s t e r m s , t h e J o h a n n i n e g r o u p w o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d " l o w

go vern ed by a f a i r ly loose s e t o f code s , ru les ,

t a b o o s .

6

T h e w a l ls b e t w e e n t h e m a n d o t h e r g r o u p s w e r e n o t v e ry h i g h o r t h i c k

b e t w e e n t h e J o h a n n i n e J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s a n d o u t s i d e r s w a s s t i l l r e a d i ly p o s s i b l e

n o t r e g a r d t h o s e w i t h o u t l o y a l t y t o J e s u s as u n b e l i e v e r s o r " t h e u n s a v e d . " N o r

h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d a s h e r e t i c s o r a p o s t a t e s b y th o s e n o t of t h e i r n u m b e r . A l l

s een thems elve s and the i r r iva l s as goo d Jew s , even i f ou t - of - s t e p .

N o t s u r p r i s in g l y , t h e s a m e s it u a t i o n e x i s t s i n t h e L u b a v i t c h e r m o v e

d e m o g r a p h i c s a re d i f f e r e n t i n o n e s e n s e , s i n c e t h e b e l i e v e r s i n R a b b i S c h n e e r s o n ' s

f o r m t h e m a j o r i t y o f L u b a v i t c h . B u t a d i v e r s i t y o f b e l i e f d o e s e x is t i n t h i s s i n g l e

o f p i o u s h a s i d i m w h o c r e d i t o n e a n o t h e r a s g o o d J e w s a n d c a n t o l e r a t e a d

o p i n i o n o n e v e n s o l a r g e a m a t t e r a s t h e m e s s i a n i c c l a i m . D e s p i t e o u t s i d e r s ' p r e d



u p o n t h e R e b b e ' s d e a t h t h e m o v e m e n t w o u l d f r a g m e n t , i t h a s n o t h a p p e n e d , t h o

h a s b e g u n t o b r e w w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e n s i o n s , s o m e t i m e s a c t u a l f i st f i g h t s , b e t w e e n

m e s s i a n i s t s a n d o t h e r L u b a v i t c h e r s . A n d t h e r e h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n m i n o r o f f s h o o t s . I

r e p e a t i n g i ts e l f , t h e L u b a v i t c h e r m o v e m e n t w o u l d s e e m t o b e i n t h e t r a n s i

C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s i n j u s t b e f o r e t h e s p l i t b e t w e e n J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s .

W e f i n d a n o t h e r r e l e v a n t p a r a l le l i n t h e s i t u a t i o n o f R a b b i A k i b a , w h o e n d o

b a r - K o c h b a a s M e s s i a h a b o u t a c e n t u r y a f t e r J e s u s . E v e n t h o u g h h i s t o r y j u d g e d h

b e e n i n e rr o r , h i s r e p u t a t i o n a s o n e o f t h e v e ry g r e a t e s t r a b b i s w a s n o t m u c h t a r n

w h i l e h i s h o p e s f o r m e s s i a n i c r e d e m p t i o n w e r e s t i l l a l i v e , h e p r e s u m a b l y d i d n o

f e l l o w J e w s w h o h a d th e i r d o u b t s a b o u t S i m o n ; r a t h e r h e m u s t h a v e i m a g i n e d t h e

m i l d l y c h a g r i n e d a n d p l e a s a n t l y s u r p r i s e d o n c e S i m o n b a r - K o c h b a h a d u s h e r

K i n g d o m o f G o d . A n d t h o u g h t h e J o h a n n i n e f a c t i o n m u s t h a v e c h e r i s h e d

J e s u s - d e r i v e d h a l a c h a h , s i n c e t h e i r h a l a c h a h w e r e m o r e l i b e r a l i t i s n o t t h e y w h o

f e l t t h e m s e l v e s s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r J e w s . I t i s u s u a l l y t h e s t r i c t e r p a r t y

s e p a r a t i o n , a n d i t i s t h u s n o s u r p r i s e t h a t t h e J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t i a n s m i g h t h a v e

f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s o n th e re c e i v in g e n d of e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

B u t t h a t s e e m s n o t t o b e w h a t h a p p e n e d . A s I m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e p o s i t i o



t o J e s u s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n , c e n t e r i n g o n " h e a l i n g b y i n c a n t a t i o n " ( a s i t i s c

M i s h n a h ) , a p p e a r t o b e i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n s t a k e n i n t h e M i s h n a h : O n

m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e of p r o f e s s i o n a l p h y s i c i a n s w a s f o r b i d d e n o n t h e S a b b a t h , a n d t h a t

l i f e was no t a t s t ak e . A nd the s am e i s t rue on o th er h a lac h ic is sues adv oca te d by

S y n o p t i c g o s p e l s . T h u s , J e s u s ' p r a c t i c e c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n t h a t c o n t r o v e r s i a l

s c r ibes as i t s eem s in r e t rosp ec t in th e gosp e l s , d i s to r t ed by l a t e r J ew ish vs . Ch r i s

E i t h e r t h a t , o r J e s u s ' l i b e r a l i t y m u s t h a v e b e e n p a r t o f a g e n e r a l l i b e r a l - l e a n i n g m

s c r i b a l i s m w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y p r e v a i l e d , a s H a r v e y F a l k a r g u e s i n

Jesus the Pharisee?

i t m u s t n o t h a v e b e e n t h e l e g a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e J o h a n n i n e g r o u p t h a t f i n a l l

e x c o m m u n i c a t e d . W h a t t h e n w as i t ?

T h e m o r e s im i l a r t w o r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s o r s u b g r o u p s ar e , t h e m o r e a c c e n t

r e m a i n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e c o m e , e v e n s h o u l d t h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s b e fa i r l y t r i v i a l . I f t h

c l a i m s f o r J e s u s a r e t h e w e d g e of s e p a r a t i o n , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h a t t h e c l a i m s f o

b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l . J e s u s w i l l g r o w c l o s e r a n d c l o s e r t o g o d h o o d

e l e v a t e d h i s s t a t u s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e a l i e n a t i o n b e t w e e n J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s , a n d i

s t a t u s o f J e s u s w i l l c l i m b y e t h i g h e r . A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e n t h e h a l a c h i c is s u e s a r e

p a r a m o u n t , t h e l e f t o v e r i s s u e i s t h a t o f J e s u s h i m s e l f . W h a t a b o u t t h a t b u s i n e s s a b

M e s s i a h? T w o n e w s u b g r o u p s w o u l d h a v e e m e r g e d a t t h i s p o i n t . T h e c h a r a c t e r

r e p r e s e n t s t h o s e i n c l i n e d t o a c c e p t t h e h a l a c h i c p o s i t i o n s o f t h e J o h a n n i n e f a c t i



w e k n o w y o u a r e a te a c h e r s e n t f r o m G o d . N o m a n c a n d o t h e s i g n s y o u d o u n

w i t h h i m , " J o h n 3 :2 ) , b u t th e y a r e w a r y o f m e s s i a n i c c l a i m s m a d e o n J e s u s '

N i c o d e m u s t y p e s w o u l d f i n d t h e i r m o d e r n - d a y c o u n t e r p a r t s in o n e f a c t io n o f L

M e n a c h e m B r o d t , s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e L u b a v i t c h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n I s ra e l H a b a d , r e f e rs

R a b b i S c h n e e r s o n a s s i m p l y " t h e r e b b e , " n o t as t h e M e s s i a h . H e a sk e d r e p o r t e r H e

" W h y d o y o u m a k e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e b b e a n d t h e M o s h i a h ? F ir s t a n

h e i s t h e r e b b e . " S o m e a r e n o t s o o u t s p o k e n . K e i n o n s a y s t h a t t h e s m a l l e s t o f f

i n t h e m o v e m e n t i s t h a t w h i c h " b e l i e v e [ s ] t h e r e b b e w a s a g r e a t m a n , b u t n o M e s

Jos ep h of A r im ath ea ( " be ing a d i s c ip le o f J esu s , bu t in s ecre t , fo r f ear o f th e

19 :38) , on th e o th er h an d , r epresen t s those in the synag ogu e wh o do accep t J esu s

bu t f ear to say so publ i c ly as these c l a im s bec om e mo re co n t rover s i a l . The se , too

c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e L u b a v i t c h e r m o v e m e n t b e c a u s e o f t h e s i m i l a r g r o u p d y n a m i c s , b

i s o n t h e o t h e r f o o t g i v e n t h e d e m o g r a p h i c s , si n c e m o s t o f t h e m o v e m e n t

m e s s i a h s h i p o f R a b b i S c h n e e r s o n , u n l i k e t h e J o h a n n i n e p a r t y w h i c h e x i s t e d a s

w i t h i n s y n a g o g u e J u d a i s m . O n e p r o m i n e n t h a s i d ic l e a d e r w h o w o u l d n o t a l l o w r e p o

t o u s e h is n a m e , b e m o a n e d , " I s i t a t H a b a d g a t h e r i n g s , a n d h e a r p e o p l e ta l k a b o u

b e i n g t h e M o s h i a h , a n d j u s t k e e p q u i e t . W h a t a m I g o i n g t o d o , a r g u e w i t h

d i f f i c u l t to f igh t the f low." Ke ino n says th i s ma n be l i eves tha t "m an y wh o say Sch



be r esur rec ted an d r evea led as the Mess iah do no t rea l ly be l i eve i t . 'Ma ny t im es

s loga ns , because they f ee l they m us t , o r because o f p res sure f ro m the co m m un i ty

pa r t o f , even th ou gh they don ' t r eal ly be l i eve the m . ' "

9

J o h n ' s N i c o d e m u s - t y p e s f e

pres sure , on ly , g ive n th a t they w ere in the min or i t y in a g r ou p tha t d id no t a

mess ian ic iden t i ty , it was the i r m ess ian ic f a i th , no t the l ack of i t , t ha t the y f e l t

keep secre t .

T h e G o s p e l o f J o h n c o n t a i n s s t o r i e s d e s i g n e d t o e n c o u r a g e b o t h s u b g r o u p s t o

w a y t o p u b l i c c o n f e s s i o n o f J e s u s a s M e s s i a h . I n J o h n c h a p t e r 3 , N i c o d e m u s n o so

h i s a f f i r m a t i o n o f f a i t h i n J e s u s a s a d i v i n e l y c o m m i s s i o n e d t e a c h e r t h a n t h e J o h a

b r i n g s h i m u p s h o r t , s w e e p i n g h i s c o n f e s si o n a s i d e c o n t e m p t u o u s l y , d e m a n d i n g t h e

b a p t i s m ( " A m e n , a m e n , I s a y t o y o u : u n l e s s a m a n b e b o r n f r o m a b o v e h e c a n

K i n g d o m o f G o d , " 3 : 3 ) . W e t h i n k o f J o h n t h e B a p t i s t ' s b l i s t e r i n g r e j o i n d e

c o m p l a c e n t l y r e l i g i o u s w h o n a i v e l y i m a g i n e d t h e m s e l v e s h i s s u p p o r t e r s , y e t r e m a i

s i d e l i n e s , c r i s p a n d d r y , s m i l i n g o n t h e p o o r s i n n e r s w h o e m e r g e d d r i p p i n g f r o m

" D o n o t b e g i n s a y i n g t o y o u r s e l v e s , ' W e h a v e A b r a h a m a s o u r f a t h e r , ' f o r I t e l l y o

r a i se u p c h i l d r e n t o A b r a h a m f r o m t h e s e s t o n e s " i f t h a t ' s a ll h e w a n t s ( M a t t . 3 :9 ) .

T h e m a n b o r n b l i n d a n d h e a l e d b y J e s u s a t t h e P o o l of S il o a m i n J o h n c



u p h e l d a s t h e e x a m p l e f o r t h e J o s e p h o f A r i m a t h e a t y p e s . D e s p i t e

e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m t h e s y n a g o g u e ( 9 : 2 2 ; c f. 1 6 : 2 , " T h e y w i ll m a k e y o u o u t c a s

s y n a g o g u e " ) , t h e y a re e n c o u r a g e d t o t a k e a s t a n d . I n t h e f a c e o f o p p o s i t i o n , it s

s p a r k e d b y i n c r e a s in g l y s t ro n g c l a i m s f o r J e s u s , t h e J o h a n n i n e g r o u p h a d s t r e n g t

d i s t i n c t i v e g r o u p i d e n t i t y , t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e t o J e s u s t a k i n g p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e i r l o

s y n a g o g u e ( n o w t h a t p u s h h a d c o m e t o s h o v e ) , a n d t h e i r g r i d f a c t o r h a d r i s e

J e s u s a s M e s s i a h h a d b e c o m e p a r a m o u n t . I t i s t h e s h i b b o l e t h r e q u i r e d o f " b e l i

s aved . " "U nles s y ou be l i eve th a t I am he , you wi l l d i e in your s ins " ( Joh n 8 :24 ) .

w a y , i n O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 o n e g r o u p o f L u b a v i t c h e r r a b b i s is s u e d a l e g a l r u l i n g r

J e w s t o a c c e p t R a b b i S c h n e e r s o n a s M e s s i a h .

1 0

B y c o n t r a s t , D a v i d B e r g e r , O r t h o d o x

p r e s i d e n t o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r J e w i s h S t u d i e s , o p i n e d t h a t " b e l i e f i n t h e r e b b e a

s u f f i c i e n t t o e x c l u d e s o m e o n e f r o m O r t h o d o x J u d a i s m . "

1 1

I t i s o n l y o n c e t h e J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t i a n s h a d b e e n e x c o m m u n i c a t e d f r o m t h e

t h a t t h e y d e v e l o p e d t h e i r d o c t r i n e of J e s u s a s t h e true v in e o f I s r ae l ( John 1 5 :1

H a n u k k a h l i g h t (8 : 1 2 ), t h e true d o o r t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e f lo ck e n t e r s t h e d i v i n e p r e

f f . , c f . P s a l m 1 0 0 ) , t h e w i n e t h a t d e e p e n s t h e e m p t y w a t e r j a rs o f J e w i s h r

2 :1 —1 1 ), a n d s o f o r t h . S u c h m e t a p h o r s d e n o t e t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f d e v o u t J e w s f r o m

c o m m u n i t y . T h e y e x a c t l y p a r a l l e l t h e p i e t y - i n - e x i l e o f t h e D e a d S e a S c r o l ls s e c t ,

r e p u d i a t e d t h e J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e b e c a u s e o f w h a t t h e y p e r c e i v e d a s t h e r i t u a l l a x



t e m p l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t . F o r t h e s e s e c t a r i a n s e p a r a t i s t s t h e t r u e s a c r if i c e s t o G o d

a n d p i e t y o f f e r e d f r o m a s i n c e r e h e a r t . S u c h s e n t i m e n t s , w h i c h r i g h t l y s t r i k e

r e a d e r a s a s p i r i t u a l i z i n g a d v a n c e o v e r a c t u a l a n i m a l s a c r i fi c e , w e r e n o n e t h e l e s s b o

o f n e ce s s it y . T h e J o h a n n i n e " s p i r i t u a l i z a t i o n " o f J u d a i s m o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e s a m e

g r a p e s t h e o l o g y . D e p r i v e d o f t h e r i t u a l s a n d s a c r a m e n t s o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m

c r e a t e d s p i r i t u a l i z e d c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h u s f r e e o f t h e th e o l o g i c a l r e s t r a i n t o

C h r i s t o l o g y c o u l d r i s e h i g h e r a n d h i g h e r , t o m e a s u r e t h e w i d e n i n g g a p b

J o h a n n i n e s e ct a n d J u d a i s m , p a r t ly d u e t o n e w , n o n - J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e s h i t h e r t o s h u

A s e l s e w h e r e i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , t h e d e c i s i v e b r e a k b e t w e e n a C h r i s t i a n

i t s J e w i s h p a r e n t q u i c k l y l e d t o a r e d i r e c t i o n o f e v a n g e l i s t i c o u t r e a c h t o g r o u p s

o u t s i d e J e w i s h r e l i g i o u s b o u n d a r i e s . W e o b s e r v e t h e s a m e p r o c e s s l o u d a n d c l e a

J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n M a t t h e a n c o m m u n i t y ( c o m p a r e M a t t . 1 0 : 5 - 6 w i t h M a t t . 2 8 : 1 9 - 2 0

2 1 : 4 3 ) a n d i n A c t s 1 3 : 4 6 ( " It w a s n e c e s s a ry t h a t t h e w o r d o f G o d s h o u l d b e s p o

f i r s t ; s i n c e y o u r e p u d i a t e i t , a n d j u d g e y o u r s e l f u n w o r t h y o f e t e r n a l l i f e , b e h o

t u r n i n g t o t h e G e n t i l e s " ) ; 1 8 : 6 ( "Y o u r b l o o d b e o n y o u r o w n h e a d s I a m c l e a n .

o n I s h a l l g o t o t h e G e n t i l e s " ) ; a n d 2 8 : 2 8 ( " L e t i t b e k n o w n t o y o u t h e r e f o r

s a l v a t i o n o f G o d h a s b e e n s e n t t o t h e G e n t i l e s , a n d t h e y w i l l l i s t e n " ) . R o m a n s

d e a l s a t l e n g t h w i t h t h e s a m e is s u e . E v e n so , t h e J o h a n n i n e s e c t t u r n e d t o b o



( J o h n 1 0 : 1 6 : " I h a v e o t h e r s h e e p t h a t a re n o t o f t h i s f o l d ; I m u s t b r i n g t h e m a l s

s h a l l h e a r m y v o ic e ; a n d t h e y sh a l l b e c o m e o n e f l o c k w i t h o n e s h e p h e r d . " ) a n d

( J o h n c h a p t e r 4 , i n w h i c h t h e m i s s i o n t o t h e S a m a r i t a n s i s r e a d b a c k i n t o t h e t i m

f o r p u r p o s e s o f d o m i n i c a l a u t h o r i z a t i o n ) . T h e s e g r o u p s w e r e r i t u a l l y u n c l e a n i n t

J e w s , a s t h e G o s p e l of J o h n it s e l f m a k e s c l e a r ( " F o r J e w s a n d S a m a r i t a n s d o

s a m e d i s h e s i n c o m m o n , " J o h n 4 : 9 ) , a n d t h i s o n u s o f i m p u r i t y w o u l d h a v e p a

J o h a n n i n e s e c t w h i c h w a s n o w w i l l i n g t o d e a l w i t h t h e m . T h e y w e r e s h u n n e d a l l

a r e s u l t . T h e f a m o u s J o h a n n i n e t e x t s a b o u t G o d ' s l o v e f o r the whole world ( e . g . ,

w o u l d s t e m f r o m t h i s p e r i o d , t h e p o i n t b e i n g t h e s a m e a s i n R o m . 3 : 2 9 : " O r

G o d o f J e w s o n l y ? O r is h e n o t t h e G o d o f t h e G e n t i l e s t o o ? "

M y g u e s s i s t h a t i t w a s t h i s c o n t a c t w i t h G e n t i l e s a n d S a m a r i t a n s t h a t r e s u

a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e o l o g i c a l a n d m y t h o l o g i c a l t h e m e s f r o m t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s , b o t h a

m i s s i o n a r i e s a c c o m m o d a t e d t h e i r m e s s a g e t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f t h e i r h e a r e r s a n d a

a n d p a g a n c o n v e r t s b r o u g h t f a v o r i t e b e l ie f s a n d m y t h e m e s , e v e n u n w i t t i n g l y , i n t o

r e l i g i o n . T h u s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n J e s u s re p e a t s t h e w a t e r - t o - w i n e m i r a c l e o

( 2 : 1 - 1 1 ) a n d d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f , l i k e D i o n y s u s , as t h e l i fe - g i v i n g g r a p e v i n e ( 1 5

c o u r s e t h e S y n o p t i c s b e a r m a n y o f t h e s a m e t r a c e s o f D i o n y s u s i n f l u e n c e : J e s u

w i n e , h i s f l e s h b r e a d , s i n c e h e is a D i o n y s i a n c o r n k i n g . ) T h u s a l s o i n J o h n ' s G o s



e x p l i c i t l y a n d o v e r t l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e S a m a r i t a n T a h e b , t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t t o

D a v i d i c M e s s ia h ( J o h n 4 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) . I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t J o h n ' s d e b a t e s b e t w e e n J e s u

w h o f a ls e l y v a l u e th e i r d e s c e n t f r o m A b r a h a m r e f l e c t t h e s t r u g g l e s i n R o m a n s a n

o v e r w h o i s t h e t r u e se e d of A b r a h a m : J e w s o r C h r i s t i a n G e n t i l e s . L i k e M a r k , J o

a l s o d i s p a r a g e s t h e b r o t h e r s of J e s u s ( 7 : 5 ) , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e of t h e i r o p p o s i

i n t e r f e r e n c e i n , t h e G e n t i l e m i s s i o n ( c f . G a l . 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 f f ; A c t s 1 1 : 1 - 3 ) . O f

o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e H e i r s o f J e s u s o r P i ll a r s o f J e r u s a l e m m i g h t h a v e s t e m m e d

f e a r o f t h e v e r y s y n c r e t i s m t h a t r e s u l t e d i n J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t i a n i t y .

T h e s a m e f e a rs , a n d t h e s a m e a l a r m a t t h e r e a l i t y o n c e i t a p p e a r e d , m u s t a l

t o th e f a l l i n g a w a y o f a g r o u p f r o m w i t h i n t h e J o h a n n i n e m o v e m e n t it se l f. M a n y

a s s i m i l a t i o n , e . g . , o f t h e M y s t e r y R e l i g i o n s a c r a m e n t o f d i v i n e f l e sh a n d b l o o d , o u

J e w i s h s e n s i b i l i t ie s , i n c l u d i n g t h e i r s . A n d a s w e m i g h t e x p e c t , t h e m o r e c o n t r o

s a c r a m e n t b e c a m e a m o n g t h e J o h a n n i n e s ec t a r ia n s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e m o r e e x a g g e r a t e d

i n i m p o r t a n c e , j u s t a s J e s u s ' o w n m e s s i a n i c r o l e w a s t h e m o r e m a g n i f i e d t h e m o r e

a b o n e o f c o n t e n t i o n b e t w e e n J e w s a n d J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t i a n s . T h e r e s u l t i s t h a t t

b e c a m e n e e d f u l f o r s a l v a t i o n . S p e a k i n g t o J e w s w h o a r e o s t e n s i b l y h i s f o l l o w e r s , J e

t he eu cha r i s t fo r s a lva t ion ( Joh n 6 :53 : "A m en , am en , I s ay to you , un le s s you ea t

t h e S o n o f M a n a n d d r i n k h i s b l o o d , y o u h a v e n o l if e i n y o u " ) . T h i s d e n o t e s a



r e q u i r e m e n t w i t h i n t h e J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y , a n d a f u r t h e r w e e d i n g - o u t p r o c e s s ,

f o r t r e s s m e n t a l i t y . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , w h i l e t h e t h e o l o g i c a l g r i d h a d r e m a i n e d l o w , o

i n v a s i o n o f f o r e i g n m y t h e m e s , t h e s a c r a m e n t a l g r i d w a s r a is e d . T h i s m a k e s s e n s

cont rover s i a l s acrament was i t s e l f a major p iece o f such syncre t i c as s imi la t ion , an

s u r p r i s e t h a t s u c h a n i n n o v a t i o n w o u l d b e d e f e n d e d t o t h e h i l t in d i r e c t p r o p o r

c o n t r o v e r s y i t g e n e r a t e d . S u c h i s h u m a n n a t u r e .

T h o s e w i t h i n t h e J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y w h o c o u l d n o t b r o o k t h e n e w i n f l u e

u p a n d l e f t ( f o r J u d a i s m ? f o r a n o t h e r J o h a n n i n e o r o t h e r C h r i s t i a n f a c t i o n ? ) . T h e y

g o o d r i d d a n c e b y t h e i r e r s t w h i l e c o m p a t r i o t s . T h e h e a v e n l y F a t h e r m u s t n e v e r

d r a w n t h e m t o h i m a n y w a y ( " N o o n e c a n c o m e t o m e u n l e s s t h e F a t h e r d r a w

6 : 4 4 ) . T h e y w e r e n e v e r r e a l l y m e m b e r s o f J e s u s ' f lo ck a n y w a y , a n d w e r e t h u s i

h e a r i n g h i s v o i c e ( J o h n 1 0 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) . T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s l e d t o t h e n e x t s t a g e , w h e r

p i c t u r e d n o l o n g e r a s l o v i n g t h e w o r l d b u t as s e n d i n g h i s s o n t o re d e e m h i s e l e c t

w o r l d . T h e s e c t a r i a n w a l l s w e r e r i s i n g .

A s J e r o m e H . N e y r e y a r g u e s i n a f a s c i n a t i n g y e t s a d l y n e g l e c t e d m o n o g r

w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t a n a ly s i s h a s d r a w n m u c h i n s p i r a t i o n , t h e J o h a n n i n e e l e v a t i o n o f

s t a t u s o f " e q u a l t o G o d " ( J o h n 5 : 1 8 ) r e p r e s e n t s a f u l l a n d i n t e n t i o n a l s e v e ra n c e f r o

C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d b y t h i s t o k e n b e c o m e a n e w a n d s e p a r a t e r e l i g i o n . W e re a d i n



o f J o h n G n o s t i c - l i k e s n e e r s a t J e w i s h r i t u a l s , p e d i g r e e s , a n d s c r i p t u r e s ( " y o u r

10 :34) .

T o c r o s s -r e f e r e n c e t h e L u b a v i t c h e r s o n c e m o r e , i t i s s t r i k i n g t o re a d t h a t R

S h i m o n D e u t s c h , w h o b r o k e w i t h t h e L u b a v i t c h s e c t t o f o u n d h i s o w n L i o z

m o v e m e n t , f e l t t h e n e e d t o s p l i t w i t h t h e p a r e n t b o d y o n c e h e s a w s i g n s t h a t

d e i f y i n g R a b b i S c h n e e r s o n . " L u b a v i t c h h a s g o n e o ff c o u r s e . Y o u h a v e a s i t u a t i o n

a t o n e o f t h e c e n t r a l s c h o o l s , O h a l e i T o r a h , a r e k i s s i n g t h e r e b b e ' s p i c t u r e .

J u d a i s m , b u t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w r e l i g i o n . A t o n e p o i n t w e h a d t o s t a n d

t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s t e r r i b l y w r o n g . "

1 3

H e d e c i d e d t o p a c k u p a n d l e a v e

n e i g h b o r h o o d " w h e n m y d a u g h t e r , w h o w a s s ix a t t h e t i m e , c a m e h o m e a n d a s k e d

reb be is Go d . I th o ug ht to myse l f th i s is go in g of f cour se , and i t i s t im e to g

J a n u a r y 1 9 9 8 D a v i d B e r g e r, a n O r t h o d o x r a b b i , c h a rg e d t h a t f o r t h e L u b a v i t c h

" T h e L u b a v i t c h e r r e b b e i s b e c o m i n g G o d . " H e p o i n t e d t o L u b a v i t c h w r i t i n g s c a

S c h n e e r s o n t h e " E s s e n c e a n d B e i n g o f G o d e n c l o t h e d i n a b o d y , o m n i s c i e n t a n d o

A n o t h e r p r o c l a i m e d o f t h e r e b b e t h a t " h i s e n t i r e e s s e n ce i s d i v i n i t y a l o n e . "

1 4

S

B e r g e r t h e n c a l l e d f o r t h e e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f a n y L u b a v i t c h e r s w h o e s p o u s e d s u c

W h e n t h e f i g u r e h e a d o f a m o v e m e n t b e c o m e s G o d , i t m e a n s h e h a s b e c o m e

o f f a i t h o f a w h o l e n e w s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c o m m u n a l a n d s y m b o l i c w o r l d in w h i c h h



l iv e . A s a v io r C h r i s t o l o g y i m p l i e d r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d , w h a t H . R i c h a r d N i e

a " C h r i s t t r a n s f o r m i n g C u l t u r e " m o d e l,

1 5

b u t a c r e a t o r - G o d C h r i s t o l o g y m e a n s

w o r l d h a s b e e n a b a n d o n e d f o r a s h e l t e r e d s e c t a r i a n s u b w o r l d ( " If a n y o n e is i n C h r

a n e w c r e a t i o n ; o l d t h i n g s h a v e p a s s e d a w a y. B e h o l d , n e w t h i n g s h a v e c o m e , " 2

T h e c o m m u n i t y h a s r e t r e a t e d t o r a d i c a l i s o l a t i o n , l o v i n g n e i t h e r t h e w o r l d n o r t h

t h e w o r l d ( 1 J o h n 2 : 1 5 ) . W a y n e M e e k s m a d e t h i s p o i n t w e l l i n h i s m o n o g r a p h ,

f r o m H e a v e n i n J o h a n n i n e S e c t a r i a n i s m . "

1 6

T h e e l e v a t i o n o f J e s u s t o t h e s t a t u s

c o m e d o w n f r o m h e a v e n ( " Y o u a r e f r o m b e l o w , I a m f r o m a b o v e ; y o u a r e o f t h

a m n o t o f th i s w o r l d , " J o h n 8 : 2 3 ) d e n o t e d a c o m m u n i t y f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l i e n a t e

w o r l d t h e y k n e w . T h o u g h M e e k s d o e s n o t a p p e a l t o t h e p a r a l l e l , h is s k e t c h o f t h e

sec t m en ta l i ty r in gs a l l t he m ore t ru e fo r i t s s im i la r i t y in th i s r espec t to today ' s f

r e l i g i o n s w h o a v i d l y lo o k f o r o t h e r w o r l d l y d e l i v e r a n c e a t t h e P a r o u s i a of t h e M

m o s t n o t a b l y t h e e x t i n c t H e a v e n ' s G a t e s e c t .

1 7

T h e s a m e s o r t o f i m a g e , s a v i o r s

d e n o t e s t h e s a m e s o c i al s e c t a r i a n d y n a m i c . J . L . H o u l d e n s h o w s h o w J o h a n n i n e

J o h n ) s m a c k s o f t h e w o r s t k i n d o f s e c t a r ia n i n f i g h t i n g , d e s p i t e i ts ( s e l e c ti v e ) t a l k o

A t t h i s s t a g e , r i t u a l s i ro n i c a l l y b e c a m e l e ss i m p o r t a n t s i n c e , a s N e y r e y r e

h a d n ' t g u a r a n t e e d t r u e f a i t h ( i. e . , d i d n ' t p r e v e n t d r o p o u t s ) . O r , m o r e g e n e r a l ly ,

( l i k e b a p t i s m , t h o u g h p r o b a b l y n o t t h e E u c h a r i s t ) w e r e h e l d i n c o m m o n b y t w o



f o u n d o c c a s i o n t o d i f f e r o v e r o t h e r m a t t e r s . T h u s r i t u a l s w e r e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e

f u n c t i o n i n g as t h e s h i b b o l e t h , a n d r e c e d e d i n i m p o r t a n c e . T h e n e w s h i b b o l e t h w a

" U n l e s s y o u b e l i e v e t h a t I A m . . . " ( J o h n 8 : 2 4 ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , " s p i r i t u a l "

p r e d o m i n a t e s . T h i s i s p r o b a b l y w h y , i n J o h n c h a p t e r 6 , a f t e r i t h a s b e e n m a d e

c l e a r t h a t o n e m u s t p a r t a k e o f t h e s a c r a m e n t a l f l e sh a n d b l o o d o f J e s u s , w e a

t a k e n a b a c k t o r e a d , " I t i s t h e s p i r i t t h a t g i v e s l i fe ; t h e f l e s h c o u n t s f o r n o t h i n g .

w h i c h I h a v e s p o k e n t o y o u a r e s p i r i t a n d a r e l i f e " ( J o h n 6 : 6 3 ) . I t a k e t h i s c o m

a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n m a d e a t t h i s s t a g e , t o d e v a l u a t e t h e s a c r a m e n t s i n f a v o r o f c o r r e c t

C o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h i s f u r t h e r s p i r i t u a l i z a t i o n t h e r e e m e r g e d y e t a n o t h e r n e w p

e v o l u t i o n o f t h e J o h a n n i n e m o v e m e n t a n d i t s C h r i s t o lo g y . I t i n e r a n t J o h a n n i n e p

w h o m w e r e a d i n t h e J o h a n n i n e E p i s t l e s : " M a n y f a ls e p r o p h e t s h a v e g o n e o u

w o r l d , " 1 J o h n 4 : 1 ) , s p e a k i n g , a s t h e y s u p p o s e , b y t h e a f f l a t u s o f t h e P a r a

1 6 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) , w e r e r e c e i v i n g n e w G n o s t i c a n d d o c e t i c re v e l a t io n s , d e n y i n g " t h a t J e s u s

c o m e i n t h e f l e s h " ( 1 J o h n 4 : 2 ) . T h e s e n e w t e a c h i n g s t e n d e d t o w a r d t h e

e m p h a s e s o n t h e o n l y

apparent

r ea l i ty o f the f l esh ly fo rm of J esus and the need

m o r t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f le s h b y t h e C h r i s t i a n . I n b o t h c a s e s " t h e f l e s h c o u n t s f o r n



pa r tak e , he r e fuses : " I have food t o ea t t ha t you kn ow no t o f . . . . My food i s to

o f h i m w h o s e n t m e , a n d t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s w o r k " ( 4 : 3 2 , 3 4 ) . H o l d t h a t b u r g e r A



o f L a z a r u s , J e s u s a p p e a r s t o b e m o v e d b y t h e h u m a n t r a g e d y o f d e a t h , w e

f e l l o w - f e e l i n g ( 1 1 : 3 5 - 3 6 ) . B u t , n o , h e k n o w s L a z a r u s w i l l b e b a c k m o m e n t a r i l y , so

s h a m . T h e c h a r a d e i s o n l y m a d e m o r e g r o s s w h e n J e s u s p r a y s b e f o r e h e w o r k s

no t in g a loud tha t the p raye r i t s e lf i s bu t a s t ag e whisper , as som eon e has s a id , fo r

o f t h e c r o w d ( " F a t h e r , I t h a n k y o u t h a t y o u h e a r d m e . A n d I k n e w t h a t y o u h e a r

b u t I s a i d i t b e c a u s e o f t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g a r o u n d , t h a t t h e y m a y b e l i e v e t h a t y o

11:41-42) . The Moonies ca l l i t "heavenly decep t ion , " bu t we cou ld jus t as eas

D o c e t i s m . J e s u s ' a rr e s t i n t h e G a r d e n o f G e t h s e m a n e i s s h e e r f a r c e , t o o . A t a

f r o m J e s u s , a n d t h a t a d o u b l e e n t e n d r e d i s c e r n i b l e o n l y b y t h e C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r , t

par ty f a l l s f l a t l i ke a bun ch of b ow l ing p ins . Th ey ge t up , b rush the ms elves o f f , a

a s i f n o t h i n g h a s h a p p e n e d T h e p o i n t i s p r e c is e l y t h e s a m e as i n P h i l o s t r a t

Apollonius of Tyana , i n a sc e n e i n w h i c h A p o l l o n i u s a w a i t s h i s t ri a l b e f o r e D o m i t i a n

d i s c i p l e e x p e c t s h e w i l l b e m a r t y r e d . N o , A p o l l o n i u s r e a ss u r es h i s d i s c i p l e D a m i s ,

. . no one is goin g to kill us." "And who ," said Dam is, "is so invulnerable as that?

ever be l iberated?" "So far as i t rests with the verdict of the court," said Apollonius, "I sh

l iberty th is day, but so far as dep end s on my ow n will , now and here." And with these w

his leg out of th e fetters and remarke d to Da mis: "H ere is proof positive to you of m y



cheer up." Damis says that i t was then for the first t ime that he really and truly un

nature of Apol lonius , to wi t , that i t was divine and supe rhum an, for wi tho ut any sacri f ic

in prison could he have offered any? — and wi tho ut a single prayer, w itho ut even a word

laughe d at the fe tters, and th en inserted his leg in them afresh, and behaved like a p

more." (IV:44, Loeb)

D oce t i sm , no? O n th e c ross J esus c r i es ou t to be r e l ieved of th i r s t — no t be

ac tua l ly th i r s ty , bu t s im ply to fu l f i l l s c r ip tu re (19 :2 8) . Ra i sed f rom th e dea d , J

T h o m a s t o p r o b e h i s w o u n d s , s u r e l y a p i e c e o f a n t i d o c e t i c p o l e m i c — b u t t h e n T h o

M e r e l y s e e i n g t h e R i s e n L o r d o v e r w h e l m s h i m . J e s u s t e ll s t h e a d o r i n g M a g d a l e n e .

no t , fo r I have no t ye t ascended to the Fa ther . Bu t go to my bre thre n and say to

a s c e n d i n g t o m y F a t h e r a n d y o u r F a t h e r , t o m y G o d a n d y o u r G o d ' " ( J o h n 2 0 :

H e l m s

2 0

sug ges t s t ha t th e scene is based on a s imi la r l eave t ak ing in the Book of T

the ang e l Ra phae l i s po i sed to r e t u rn to Go d in heaven and exp la ins , "Even

wa tche d m e ea t an d dr ink , I d id no t r ea l ly do so ; wh at y ou we re s ee ing was a v i s

g e t u p o f f t h e g r o u n d a n d p r a i se G o d . B e h o l d , I a m a b o u t t o a s c e n d t o h i m w h

( T o b . 1 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . I n t h e B i b l e , a n g e l s , b e i n g p u r e s p i r i ts , c a n n o t e a t ( c f J u d g e s 1

t he au th or of the cor respo ndin g pas sage in Jo hn d id inde ed have th i s pas sage i

s e e m s l i k e l y , t h e n J e s u s ' c o m m a n d , " T o u c h m e n o t , " i s p r o b a b l y m e a n t t o



i n t a n g i b i l i t y . A g a i n , D o c e t i s m .

There a re pas sages in the Gospe l o f John tha t " r ea l i ze" escha to logy , tha t i s ,

t h a t n o l i t e r a l , p h y s i c a l r e s u r r e c t i o n o r f i n a l j u d g m e n t is t o b e e x p e c t e d , c o n t r a r y

o p i n i o n . " A m e n , a m e n , I s ay t o y o u , h e w h o h e a r s m y w o r d a n d b e l i ev e s h i m w h

h a s e t e r n a l l if e , a n d d o e s n o t c o m e i n t o j u d g m e n t , b u t h a s p a s se d o u t o f d e a t

A m e n , a m e n , I s ay t o y o u , a n h o u r i s c o m i n g a n d n o w i s w h e n t h e d e a d s h a l l h e a

of th e Son of G od ; an d th ose wh o hea r sha l l li ve" ( John 5 :24—25) " Jesus sa id to

b r o t h e r s h a l l r i s e a g a i n . ' M a r t h a s a i d t o h i m , ' I k n o w t h a t h e w i l l r i s e a g

resu r rec t io n on the l as t day . ' J es us s a id to her , ' I am th e r esu r rec t ion a nd the l

be l i eves in me sha l l l i ve even tho ug h he d ie , and he wh o lives and be l i eves in me

d i e ' " ( 1 1 : 2 3 - 2 6 ) . " J u d a s , n o t I s c a r i o t , s a i d t o h i m , ' L o r d , w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t h

revea l your se l f to us , an d no t to th e wor ld ? ' J es us answe red a nd sa id to h i m , ' I f a

m e h e w i l l k e e p m y w o r d ; a n d m y F a t h e r w i l l l o v e h i m , a n d w e w i l l c o m e

m a k e o u r a b o d e w i t h h i m ' " ( 1 4 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) . T h i s d e l i t e r a l iz a t i o n , o r s p i r i t u a l i z a t i

t r a d i t i o n a l f u t u r e e x p e c t a t i o n is o n e o f t h e m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f G n o s t i c

J o h a n n i n e t e x t s m u s t s t e m f r o m t h e s c h i s m a t i c G n o s t i c i z i n g J o h a n n i n e f a c t i o n . B

no do ub t cor re c t in s ee ing pas sages l ike Jo h n 5 :28 : "D o no t marv e l a t th i s , fo r

c o m i n g i n w h i c h a l l w h o a r e i n t h e t o m b s s h a l l h e a r h i s v o i c e a n d s h a l l c o m e



w h o d i d t h e g o o d t o a re s u r r e c t i o n o f l if e , t h o s e w h o c o m m i t t e d t h e e v i l t o a r e s

j u d g m e n t , " a s l a t e r c o r r e c t i o n s b y t h e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e f a c t i o n .

R e t u r n i n g t o o u r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n , t h e e v o l v i n g C h r i s t o l o g y o f t h e J o h a n n i n e

w e m a y o b s e rv e h o w t h e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e f a c t i o n f o r w h o m t h e e x a l t a t i o n o f J

G o d h e a d w a s a d a n g e r o u s a b o m i n a t i o n l e f t t h e i r p o l e m i c a l t ra c e s i n t h e G o s p e l o f

T h e s e a re t e x t s w h i c h s t i l l g i v e C h a l c e d o n i a n t h e o l o g i a n s h e a d a c h e s t o d a y . T h e f

1 2 : 4 4 , " H e w h o b e l ie v e s i n m e b e l i e v e s n o t i n m e b u t in h i m w h o s e n t m e . " T h e

t o b e t o r e o p e n a s p a c e b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d G o d , c o l la p s e d b y t h e J e s u s - d e i f y i n g

second i s Jo h n 14 :28 , "You h eard th a t I s a id to y ou , ' I go away , an d I wi l l co me

you loved m e, you wo uld have r e jo ice d , becau se I go to the Fa ther , fo r the Fa th e

t h a n I . " T h e t h i r d i s a c o r r e c t i o n a d d e d t o J o h n 1 4 : 7 - 1 0 : " ' If y o u h a d k n o w

w o u l d h a v e k n o w n m y F a t h e r ; f r o m n o w o n y o u k n o w h i m a n d h a v e s e e n h i m . '

t o h im , 'Lord , show us th e Fa th er , and i t is en ou gh for us . ' J es us s aid to h im , 'H

w i t h y o u so l o n g , P h i l i p , a n d s t i l l y o u d o n o t k n o w m e ? H e w h o h a s s e e n m e h

F a t h e r ' " ( v er se s 7 - 9 ) . U p t o t h i s p o i n t , t h e t e x t d e l i v e r s t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l c

s t a t e m e n t i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , t h e a b s o l u t e id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e F a t h e r w i t h t h

s t i g m a t i z e d a s a h e re s y c a l le d P a t r i p a s s i a n i s m , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e F a t h e r s u f f e re d o n

T h i s w a s t h e a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t i a n s w h o m a d e J e s u s " e q u a l t o



m e a n t i t . B u t t h e m o r e c h r i s t o l o g i c a l ly m o d e s t f a c t i o n e m e n d e d t h e i r c o p y o f t h e

t h i s e q u i v o c a t i n g a d d i t i o n , " D o y o u n o t b e l i e v e t h a t I a m i n t h e F a t h e r a n d t h e

me ?" (ver se 10) . Rea der s wis h in g to g lor i fy J es us toda y s t i l l r ead ver se 10 as so m

c o m e - d o w n , a d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a f t e r t h e m u c h s t r o n g e r s t a t e m e n t o f ve rs es 1—9.

I sug ges t tha t each f ac t ion a lon g th i s pa th o f h i s to r i ca l evo lu t io n and m i t

J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y h a d it s o w n c o p y o f t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n . A s e a c h n e w s t a

a d d i t i o n s w e r e m a d e b y e a c h f a c t i o n t o u p d a t e t h e t e x t a n d a c c o m m o d a t e i t t o

o r t h o do x y . W h e n , a s p r e s u m a b l y h a p p e n e d , a c o p y c o n t a i n i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t h e

fac t ion ca m e in to the ha nd s o f a r iva l f ac t ion ( fo r ins t an ce , wh en a s c r ibe sw i

t a k i n g h i s c o p y w i t h h i m ) , i t w o u l d r e c e iv e th e o l o g i c a l c o r r e c t i o n s i n t h e m a r

w o u l d t h e n b e i n s e r t e d r i g h t i n t o t h e t e x t d u r i n g t h e n e x t c o p y i n g . F in a l ly , o n

d e b a t e s w e r e d e a d a n d f o r g o t t e n , a n e c l e c ti c t e x t w a s p r o d u c e d , h a r m o n i z i n g a l l t h

s c r i b e s c o u l d f i n d . T h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n e d w i t h 1 J o h n w h i c h , a s a r e s u l t

G n o s t i c p e r f e c t i o n i s m (3 :5 —1 0 ; 5 : 1 8 ) a n d C a t h o l i c a n t i p e r f e c t i o n i s m ( 1 : 7 - 1 0 ; 5 : 1 6 -

B u t J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t o l o g y h a d n o t d o n e e v o l v i n g , a s w e c a n s ee w h e n w e c



o n t h e w o r k o f v a r i o u s s c h o l a r s , s h o w s t h e g e n e r a l p l a u s i b i l i t y o f w h a t I h a v e d u b

t i o n i s t i c " t h e o r i e s o f t h e g r o w t h o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f a b o u t J e s u s , a s s u m i n g h e w a

h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e . I t m a y h a v e h a p p e n e d t h i s w a y .



ALI A N D ALLAH

I n t h e I s l a m i c f i g u r e o f A l i , c o u s i n a n d a d o p t e d s o n o f t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ,

s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e C h r i s t i a n J e s u s . M a t t i M o o s a b e m o a n s t h e f a c t t h a t " A l i

m y t h o l o g i z e d t h a t , i n m a n y o f t h e a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m o r a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m , i t i s

s e p a r a t e t h e r e a l A l i f r o m t h e l e g e n d a r y o n e . "

2 2

T h i s m y t h o l o g i z a t i o n o c c u r r e d w

r a p i d i t y , b e g i n - n i n g a l r e a d y w i t h i n t h e v e ry l i f e t i m e o f A l i a n d i n c l u d e d t h e n o t i

w a s A l l a h h i m s e l f i n c a r n a t e u p o n e a r t h . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e , u n d e r P e r s i a n in

doc t r ine o f the Ghula t s ec t o f the Nusayr i ( a l so ca l l ed the Alawi , the s ec t to w

P r e s i d e n t H a f e z A s s a d b e l o n g s ) m a d e A l i t h e u l t i m a t e G o d h e a d , t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e

m y t h o l o g y o f A l i ha s u n d e r g o n e m a n y p e r m u t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t a r i a n i s m , D o

t h e e q u a t i o n o f A l i w i t h b o t h t h e s u n a n d t h e m o o n b y d i f f e r e n t f a c t io n s A n d

no pa r t i c u la r r eason to deny , even to qu es t i on th e h i s to r i ca l ex i s t ence of Al i . O n e

t o d i s r eg ard the who le b loody m ess o f the succes s ion to th e C al ip ha t e , in wh ich A

t o t h e t h r o n e f o l l o w i n g t h e d e a t h of t h e p r e v i o u s C a l i p h U t h m a n , a s s a ss i n a te d b y

A l i , w h o b e l ie v e d h e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e i m m e d i a t e s u c ce s s o r o f M u h a m m a d .



t e n d e n c y t o w a r d d e i f i c a t i o n e x p r e s se d i t s e lf i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f A l i ' s m a r t y r s o n

H uss e in , as the c rea t ive Logos of G od . In f ac t , i t s eem s to m e we a re never f a r

i d o l a t r o u s h e r o - w o r s h i p w h e n w e m e e t t h e s t a n d a r d J e w i s h v e n e r a t i o n f o r m u l a ;

J u s t , [ f o r e x a m p l e , } o n w h o s e a c c o u n t h e a v e n a n d e a r t h w e r e c r e a t e d " ( G o s p e l

s ay ing 12) . Th e m ot iv a t io n fo r the r ap id d e i f i ca t ion of Al i is no t f a r to s eek .

c o u r s e t h e f o u n t a i n h e a d o f t h e w h o l e S h i ' i t e m o v e m e n t . A s t h e S h i ' i t e m o v e m

s e p a r a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e w i d e l y f r o m t h e S u n n i m a i n s t r e a m , A l i ' s o w n s t a t u s , l i k

dard of s ec ta r i an ba t t l e , was ra i s ed h ig her an d h igh er , p rec i se ly as I have sug ge s

t r a c e i n t h e c a se o f J o h a n n i n e C h r i s t o l o g y .

CHRISTIAN MOSAIC

I t m u s t b e asked w he the r we do no t have in th e case o f J e sus jus t th e s am e sor t o

l i nk ag e in s ecu la r a f f a i r s as we do in the case o f Al i , f o r i s no t th e de a t

i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h e h i s t o r y a n d w i t h h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s o f h i s t i m e , e v e n a s A l i

M u h a m m a d , U t h m a n , a n d t h e h i s t o ry of t h e C a l i p h a t e ? A t f i rs t g l a n c e , w e d o i n



t h i n k t h e r e is l e ss t h a n m e e t s t h e e y e , t h a t t h e l i n k a g e o f J e s u s w i t h t h e

f i r s t - c e n t u r y R o m a n P a l e s t i n e is m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n r e a l . I w i l l tr y t o d e m o n s t r a t

c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e g o s p e l P a s si o n w i t h s t r i k i n g h i s t o r i c a l p a r

c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s w h i c h I d e e m t h e l i k e l y s o u r c e s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c o l o r

Pass ion s tory.

I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e w h o l e b u s i n e s s o f J e s u s e n t e r i n g J e r u s a l e m a s a m e s s i a n i c "

J e w s " a n d t h e n b e i n g c r u c i f i e d a s a m e s s i a n i c p r e t e n d e r is a s u b s e q u e n

r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a r e w r i t i n g o f t h e J e s u s s t o r y . F i r s t , a l l o w m e a r u n n i n g s t a r t . B

J o h n D o m i n i c C r o s s a n , R o b e r t F u n k , M a r c u s B o r g , J a m e s B r e e c h , a n d m a n y o t

t o d a y r e j e c t t h e g o s p e l d e p i c t i o n o f J e s u s h e r a l d i n g t h e i m m i n e n t e n d o f t h e a

m a t e r i a l i n t h e g o s p e l s t h a t g i v e s t h a t i m p r e s s i o n s e e m s t o b e s e c o n d a r y . I n o t h e r w

h i m s e l f s p o k e of t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d i n m u c h t h e s a m e t e r m s a s t h e C y n i c s

l a t e r r a b b i s d i d : G o d ' s k i n g d o m w a s s i m p l y G o d ' s r u l e s f o r l i v i n g a w i s e a n d r i g

O n l y l a t e r , a t a t i m e of c r i s i s , d i d J e s u s ' p a r t i s a n s s t a r t p r e a c h i n g , i n h i s

a p o c a l y p t i c d i s a s t e r s c e n a r i o . A s M a c k a n d o t h e r Q s c h o l a r s s u g g e s t , t h i s c r is i s m a y

n o t h i n g e l s e t h a n t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n a t a l a r g e - s c a l e r e j e c t i o n of t h e i r m e s s a g e .

B u t , a s M a c k a l s o n o t e s , M a r k s e e m s t o h a v e m i x e d t h e e v e n t s o f t h e d e a

23



w ith tho se of th e fa l l of th e ci ty in 7 0 C.E. In th i s way Mar k wa s ab le to m ak e

J e r u s a l e m t h e d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t f o r t h e e x e c u t i o n o f J e s u s . I t h i n k h e is o n t o

h e r e b u t d o e s n o t p u r s u e i t n e a r l y f a r e n o u g h . C r o s s a n se e s a f e w i n c h e s b e y o n d

h e d o e s n ' t k n o w w h a t t o m a k e o f i t e i t h e r . W h a t C r o s s a n d o e s s e e i s t h a t c e r t a i n

t h e P a s s i o n st o r y o f J e s u s r e f l e c t o t h e r e p i s o d e s f o u n d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w

J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o . W e h a v e a lr e a d y s ee n t h a t P h i l o d e s c r i b e s h o w , i n o r d e r t o

p e t t y k i n g s h i p of H e r o d A g r i p p a , t h e A l e x a n d r i a n r o w d i e s p r e p a r e d a m o c k r e

h i m a s h e w a s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y o n h i s w a y h o m e f r o m r e c e i v i n g t h e

C a l i g u l a . H e r e i s a n o t h e r g l a n c e a t t h e s t o ry .

The re was a certain mad m an nam ed Carabbas . . . this man spen t all his days and nig

the roads, minding neither cold nor heat, the sport of idle children and wanton youth

dr iving the poor wretch as far as the pu bl ic gymna sium , and set t ing him u p there on

might be seen by everybody, f lattened out a leaf of papyrus and put i t on his head

diadem, and clothed the rest of his body with a common door mat instead of a cloak an

a sceptre they p ut in his hand a small stick of the native pap yrus which they found

wayside and gave it to him; and when, l ike actors in theatrical spectacles, he had rece

insignia of public authority; and had been addressed and adorned like a king, the young

sticks on their shoulders stood on each side of him instead of spear-carriers, in imit



bodyg uards of the k ing , and th en others came up, some as if to salute him , and other

though they wished to plead their causes before him, and others pretending to wish to

him about the af fai rs of the s tate . Th en f rom the mu l t i tud e of those who were s tanding

arose a wonderful shout of men calling out

Marts',

and this is the na me by wh ich it is s

call the k ings am ong the Syrians; for they knew that A grippa was by bir th a Syrian, and

was possessed of a great district of Syria of which he was the sovereign. (Flaccus 36-39)

24

C r o s s a n a ll o w s t h a t t h e s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r m o c k e r y o f J e s u s as k i n g o f t h e J

R o m a n s o l d i e r s m i g h t b e a f i c t i v e b o r r o w i n g o f t h i s w e l l - k n o w n t a l e . T h e s a m e g

t a l e o f a n o t h e r l o c al m a d m a n , J e s u s b e n - A n a n i a s , w h o m J o s e p h u s d e s c r ib e s a s p r o p

d o o m o f J e r u s a l e m f o u r y e a r s b e f o r e t h e w a r w i t h R o m e .

One Jeshua son of Ananias, a very ordinary yokel, came to the feast at which every Jew

to set up a tabernacle for God. As he stood in the temple he suddenly began to shout, "A

the east, a voice from the west, a voice from the four winds, a voice against Jerusalem a

tuary, a voice against bridegrooms and brides [cf. Luke 17:26-27, "As it was in the days of

will be in the days of the Son of Man. They ate, they drank, they married, they we

marriage, until the day when Noah entered the ark, and the flood came and destroyed t

voice against the whole people." Day and night he uttered this cry as he went through al



Some of the more prominent cit izens, very annoyed at these ominous words, laid hold o

and beat him savagely. Without saying a word in his own defense or for the private inform

persecutors, he persisted in shou ting the same warning as before. Th e Jewish autho r

concluding that some supernatural power was responsible for the mans behavior, took him

Rom an procurator, [cf. Luke 23:1 , "Then th e whole com pany of the m rose and bro ugh t

Pilate." ] There, scourged ti l l his flesh hung in ribbon s [cf. Mark 15:15; Joh n 19 :1], he ne

for mercy nor shed a tear [cf. Mark 1 4:61, "But he was silent and made n o answer."], b ut

voice to the mo st m ou rnfu l of tones answered every blow w ith "W oe to Jerusalem

13: 34-3 5, "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, ki l l ing the proph ets and s toning those who are sent

Behold, your house is forsaken."] Whe n Albinus— for that was the procurators name— d

know who he was, where he came from and why he uttered such cries, he made no reply

the questions [cf. Jo hn 19:9, "H e entered the Praetorium again and said to Jesus, 'W h

from ?' But Jesus gave him no answer."] bu t endlessly repeated his lam ent over the City,

decided he was a mad ma n and released him [cf. Luke 23:2 2b, "I will therefore chastise h im

him."]. All the t ime ti l l the war broke out he never approached another cit izen or

conv ersation, b ut daily as if he had learned a pray er by heart he recited his lam e

Jerusa lem " Tho se who daily cursed him he never cursed [cf. Luke 6:28 a, "Bless those wh o

those who gave him food he never thanked [cf. Luke 10:7b, "For the laborer deserves his

only response to anyone was that dismal foreboding. His voice was heard most of all at th

Joh n 2:1 3 ff; 5:1 ff; 6:4 ff; 7:2 ff; 37; 10:2 2- 23 ff; 11 :55 -56 ]. For seven years and five mo



on ceaselessly, his voice as strong as ever and his vigour unabated, till during the siege aft

fulfi l lm ent of his foreboding he was silenced. He was going round on the wall utte ring

cry: "Woe a gain to th e City, the people, and the Sanctuary " [cf. Luke 21: 20 -2 1, "Bu t w

Jerusalem surroun ded by armies, then know th at i ts desolation has come near. Th en let th

in Judea flee to the mountains, and let those who are inside the city depart , and let not th

out in th e country enter i t ; for these are days of vengeance, to fu lfi l l all that is writte n.

distress shall be upon the earth and wrath upo n th is people . . . and Jerusalem shall be t

by the Gen tiles . . ."] and as he added a last word: "Woe to m e also " a stone shot fro

struck him, kill ing him instantly. Thus he uttered those same forebodings to the very end.

War, VI, V, 3. G.A . W illiamson trans.)

B u t t h i s i s o n l y t h e b e g i n n i n g . W e c a n p a r a l le l J e s u s ' t r i u m p h a l e n t r y i n t o t

c l e a n s i n g o f t h e t e m p l e w i t h t h a t o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y m e s s i a h S i m o n b a r - G i o r a , w e l

t h e t e m p l e b y t h e p r i e s t s b e c a u s e h e h a d p r o m i s e d t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e f a c t i o n o

G i s c h a l a , w h o h a d o c c u p i e d t h e s a c re d p r e c i n c t . T h e y w e r e " b r i g a n d s , " " b a n d i t s , "

w e r e c a l l e d ; t h u s J o s e p h ' s m i s s i o n w a s t o " c l e a n s e " t h e t e m p l e , w h i c h h a d b e c o m e

t h i e v e s . " T h e s e p h r a s e s , f a m i l i a r f r o m t h e g o s p e l s , m a k e m o r e n a t u r a l s e n s e i n

J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s a n d t h u s p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d t h e r e .



In order to overthrow John they voted to admit Simon, and olive-branch in hand [Mark

many spread their garments on the road, and others spread leafy branches which they had

fields."} to b ring in a second tyrant to be th eir master. The resolution was carried ou t, a

the high priest , Matthias, to implore Simon to enter—the man they so greatly feared T

was suppo rted by those cit izens who w ere trying to escape the Zealots and were anxious

homes and property. He in his lordly way expressed his will ingness to be their master,

with the air of one who intended to sweep the Zealots out of the City, acclaimed by th

deliverer and protector [cf. Luke 19:38, "Blessed is the king who comes in the na me of

(Ibid., V, IX, 11)

E v e n t u a l l y s u r r e n d e r i n g t o t h e R o m a n s , S i m o n w a s t a k e n to R o m e a n d d i s p l

t r i u m p h a l p r o c e s s i o n , f i n a l l y t o b e e x e c u t e d a s w o u l d - b e k i n g o f t h e J e w s a f t

a b u s e b y h i s R o m a n g u a r d s [ c f. M a r k 1 5 : 1 6 - 2 0 ] . H e w a s n ' t c ru c i f i e d , t r u e , b u

p o r t i o n o f t h e J e s u s s t o r y r e ca l ls P l u t a r c h ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e d e a t h o f C l e o

r e v o l u t i o n a r y k i n g o f S p a r t a , e x i l e d b e c a u s e o f h i s l a n d - r e f o r m p o l i c i e s . H e

f o m e n t i n g e g a l i t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n i n A l e x a n d r i a , t o o . K n o w i n g t h e i r t i m e w a s s h o

h i s c o m p a t r i o t s t o o k t h e i r o w n l i v e s .

Fanteus walked over them as they lay, and pricked every one with his dagger, to try



was alive [cf. Jo hn 19 :33 -34 a, "bu t when they ca me to Jesus and saw that he was alread

did no t brea k his legs. Bu t one of th e soldiers pierce d his side w ith a spear . . ."]; wh en

Cleomenes ' ankle, and saw him turn upon his back, he kissed him, sat down by him,

was qu ite de ad, covered up the body, and then killed himself over i t . . . . Ptolemy, as

account of the action was brought him, gave order that Cleomenes 's body should be flay

up [cf . Mark 15:15b , "and having scourged Jesus , he del ivered him u p to be cr uc if ie d .

days later, those that wa tched the h ang ing body of C leomene s saw a large snake wind in

head and covering his face, so that no bird of prey would fly at it [cf . Ma rk 15:33 , 38 ,

the sixth hour had com e, there was darkness over the w hole e arth u ntil the nin th hour.

cur tain of the temple was torn in two, f rom top to bot tom."] . This made the king su

afraid [cf. Ma rk 15 :44; Jo hn 19:8, "W he n Pilate heard these words he was the mo re afra

the wo me n upon several expiations [cf. Mark 1 6:1 -2 , "Mary Magdalen e, and Mary of

Salome bo ug ht spices, so tha t they m igh t go and ano int h im . And very early on the firs

week they wen t to the tom b."], as if he had been some extraordinary b eing, and one be

god s, tha t had been slain. An d the Alexandrians made processions to the place and gave C

tit le of hero, and son of the gods [cf. Mark 15:39, "And w hen th e centu rion, who stood

saw that in this way he breathe d his last , he said, 'Truly this man was the son of

(Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Grecians and Roma ns,

Cleomenes.

Dryden t rans . )"

T h e g o s p e l s s h o w P o n t i u s P i l a t e a s b e i n g d e s p e r a t e t o g e t J e s u s re l e a s



eve ntu a l ly c av in g in to the th r ea t s o f the c row d w ho say they w i l l r ep or t h im t

h e d o e s n o t e x e c u t e t h e f a ls e M e s s i a h J e s u s ( J o h n 1 9 : 1 2 ) . T h i s s e e m s q u i t e o d d

h a r d l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e P i l a t e k n o w n t o h i s t o r y as a J e w - b a i t i n g t y r a n t . I n f a

l i k e it m i g h t b e a g a r b l e d v e r s i o n of a n o t h e r s t o r y J o s e p h u s t e l ls o n P i l a t e . I t

p r o c u r a t o r h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d o f a p l a n n e d r a ll y o n M o u n t G e r i z i m in S a

S a m a r i t a n m e s s i a h

bade them g et tog ether upo n Mou nt Ge rizim , which is by them looked upo n as the m

all mountains, and assured them that, when they were come thither, he would show them

vessels which were laid und er tha t place, because Moses put th em there. So they cam e th

and thought the discourse of the man probable; and as they abode at a certain village

called Tirathaba, they got the rest together to them, and desired to go up the mountain

mult i tude together ; but Pi late prevented their going up, by seizing upon the roads wi th a

of horseme n and footm en, tha t fell upo n these that were go tten toge ther in the village,

came to an action, some of the m they slew, and oth ers of the m they pu t to f l igh t, and

many alive, the principal of whom, and also the most potentate of those that f led away, P

to be slain.

But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitell ius,

had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder



were killed; for that they did not go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, b

the violence of Pilate. So Vitell ius sent Marcellus, a fr iend of his , to take care of th e affa

and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer before the emperor to the accusations of t

Pilate, when he had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obed

orders of V itell ius, which he du rst not c ontra dict. (

Antiquities of the Jews

, X V I I I , I V

trans.)

H e r e a r e m o s t o f t h e e l e m e n t s i n t h e g o s p e l s ' P i l a t e e p i s o d e , o n l y t h e y a r e r e

h a v e t h e g o s p e l s r e s h u f f l e d t h e p i e c e s o f a n o r i g i n a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t i n w h i c h P i

c ru she d a pea cefu l me ss iah , was r ep or te d by the surv ivo r s , and fou nd he had Ca

face?

JOSHUA MESS IAHS

I n A c t s 5 : 3 5 - 3 9 , L u k e h a s R a b b a n G a m a l i e l l u m p J e s u s to g e t h e r w i t h J u d a s o f

T h e u d a s t h e M a g i c i a n , b o t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o p h e t s o r m e s s i a h s m e n t i o n e d b



T h e u d a s h a d p r o m i s e d h i s f o l l o w e r s t h a t , l i k e t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t " J e s u s " ( J o s h u a )

p a r t t h e J o r d a n R i v e r .

Now it came to pass, while Fadus was procurator of Judea, that a certain magician,

was The udas, persuade d a great p art of the people to take their effects wit h th em , and to

to the r iver Jordan; for he told them he was a prophet , and that he would, by his ow

divide th e river, and afford them an easy passage over i t ; and m any w ere delud ed b

However , Fadus did not p ermit them to make any advantage of his wi ld at tem pt , but sen

horsemen out agains t them; who, fal l ing upon them unexpectedly, s lew many of them, an

of them alive. They also took Theudas alive, and cut off his head, and carried it to Jerus

XX, V, 1) .

S i m i l a r l y , C l a u d i u s L y s ia s a s k s P a u l i n A c t s 2 1 : 3 8 if h e i s n o t t h e n o t o r i o u

p r o p h e t w h o o r g a n i z e d a n a r m y o u t i n t h e d e s e r t s o m e t i m e a g o . J o s e p h u s m e

f a i l e d m e s s i a h , to o . T h e E g y p t i a n h a d p r o m i s e d h e w o u l d c a u s e t h e w a l l s o f J

f a l l d o w n l i k e J o s h u a d i d t h e w a l l s o f J e r i c h o .

And now these impostors and deceivers persuaded the multitude to follow them into th



and pretended that they would exhibi t manifes t wonders and s igns , that should be perfo

providenc e of G od. And many th at were prevailed on by them suffered the punis hm en ts o

for Felix brought them back, and then punished them. Moreover, there came out of Egyp

t ime to Jerusalem, one that said he was a prophet , and advised the mul t i tude of the com

to go along with him to the Mount of Olives as i t was called, which lay over against the

the distance of f ive furlo ngs . H e said farther, tha t he would show them from hence,

com ma nd, the walls of Jerusalem would fall dow n; and he promised th em th at he wo

them an entrance to the city thro ugh those walls, when they were fallen dow n. No w w h

informe d of these thing s, he ordered his soldiers to take their weapons, and cam e again st

great numb er of horsemen and footmen , f rom Jerusalem , and at tacked the Egyp t ian and

tha t were with him . He also slew fou r hun dred of the m , and took two hun dred al

Egyptian himself escaped out of the fight, but did not appear any more. (Ibid., XX, IX, 6

A f e w s c h o l a r s h a v e n o t e d t h e o d d " c o i n c i d e n c e " t h a t b o t h T h e u d a s a n d t h

s o u g h t t o r e p e a t t h e a n c i e n t f e a t s o f J o s h u a l e a d i n g h i s p e o p l e i n t o t h e p r o m i s

t h e y w e r e t r y i n g t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e i r m e s s i a n i c c l a i m s b y a p i n g J o s h u a , w o u l d n ' t

t h e r e w a s s o m e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e c a t e g o r y l i k e a " J o s h u a M e s s i a h , " a " J e s

( " J o s h u a " a n d " J e s u s " a r e v a r i a n t f o r m s o f t h e s a m e n a m e . ) I t s e e m s t h e r e w a s .

m a d e a g r e a t d e a l of t h e D e u t . 1 8 :1 8 —2 2 p r o p h e c y o f t h e e v e n t u a l a d v e n t o f a " P



M o s e s , " a n d s o m e S a m a r i t a n s e c t a r i a n s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n m a g e D o s i t h e u s

P s e u d o - C l e m e n t i n e H o m i l i e s m a k e a d i s c i p l e of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t w h o l o st o u

M a g u s i n a s q u a b b l e f o r l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e s e c t a f t e r J o h n s d e a t h ) w a s t h e M e s

S a m a r i t a n s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e f u t u r e p r o p h e t i c M e s si a h w a s M o s e s ' i m m e d i a t e s u c c es

W h a t d i d t h e y m e a n b y t h i s ? A s K i p p e n b e r g h a s s u g g e s t e d , t h e J o s h u a i d e n t i f

h a v e i n t e n d e d t o s t y m i e a n y s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e i d e n t i t y o f a f u t u r e M e s s i a h a n

i n t h e b u d a n y n e w a n d d a n g e r o u s m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s .

2 6

T h e p o i n t w o u l d h a v

s a m e as w h e n R a b b i H i l l e l a s s e r te d t h a t a l l m e s s i a n i c p r o p h e c i e s w e r e a l r e a d y f u l f

r i g h t e o u s K i n g H e z e k i a h , s o t h a t n o f u t u r e M e s s i a h o u g h t t o b e e x p e c t e d ( " I s

M e s s i a h b e c a u s e t h e y a l r e a d y c o n s u m e d h i m i n t h e d a y s o f H e z e k i a h , " B. Sanhedrin

B u t H i l l e l ' s q u i p b a c k f i r e d : S o m e c o n c l u d e d , a p p a r e n t l y o n t h e b a s i s o f i t , t h a

w o u l d c o m e

again

as M ess iah a t the end of th e age

2 7

In the s am e way , i t

D o s i t h e u s ' d i s c i p l e s a p p l i e d t h e D e u t e r o n o m y p r o p h e c y t o t h e i r m a s t e r a n d u n d e

a s t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t J o s h u a c o m e ag a in

2 8

A n d a p p a r e n t l y T h e u d a s a n d t h e E g y

t h e s a m e c l a i m f o r t h e m s e l v e s , as t h e i r J o s h u a - l i k e m e s s i a n i c p r o g r a m s s u g g e s t .

2

s o m e J e w s a n d S a m a r i t a n s , t o b e M e s s ia h w a s t o b e J o s h u a . T o b e C h r i s t w a s t o

L u k e , t h e a u t h o r of A c t s 5 : 3 5—3 9 , k n o w s i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n n a t u r a l f o r

c o n f u s e J e s u s w i t h o t h e r i n f a m o u s f i g u r e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h re v o l t a g a i n s t R o m e .



r e v e a l i n g is t h e w a r n i n g o f M a r k ' s a p o c a l y p t i c d i s c o u r s e , a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s , i n

H e h a s J e s u s w a r n t h e r e a d e r s o f t h e g o s p e l ( t h i s i s e x p l i c i t : " L e t t h e r e a d e r

v e r se 1 4 ) n o t t o c o n f u s e J e s u s w i t h v a r i o u s p r o p h e t s a n d m e s s i a h s c o n n e c t e d w i t h

J e r u s a l e m ( M a r k 1 3 : 6 , 2 1 ) . N o , t h e y a r e d i f f e r e n t , t h o u g h t h e r e i s a re a l d a n g e r o

ab le to k eep one ' s mess ia hs s t r a ig h t ( " . . . so as to dece ive , i f pos s ib le , even th e e

1 3 : 2 2 ) . I n p l a i n s p e e c h , i t s e e m s t o m e , M a r k i s l e t t i n g o n t h a t v a r i o u s e a r l y J e s

u n w i t t i n g l y c o n f u s e d J e s u s w i t h p e o p l e li k e J e s u s b e n - A n a n i a s , S i m o n b a r - G i o r a

" J o s h u a M e s s i a h s " T h e u d a s an d t h e E g y p t i a n , J e s u s b e n - S a p p h i a h t h e b a n d i t c h i e f

A b b a s t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t , E l y m a s b a r - J e s u s t h e s o r c e re r , J e s u s J u s t u s , a n d t h

S a m a r i t a n m e s s i a h . T h e w a r w a s o v e r : M a r k d i d n o t f e a r t h a t h i s r e a d e r s m i g h t t a

a g a i n s t R o m e u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of M e n a h e m o r S i m o n . T h a t w a s i n t h e p a s t . S

o f c o n f u s i o n m i g h t h e s t i l l f e a r ? P r e c i se l y t h a t h i s r e a d e r s s h o u l d h a v e a m a l g a m a

f r o m d i f f e r e n t h e r o i c b u t m a r t y r e d m e s s i a h s a n d p r o p h e t s t o g e t h e r w i t h J e s u s , p

s t o r y w i t h e l e m e n t s f r o m a g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r w h e n m e s s i a h s s w a r m e d t h e l a n d . S u c

m u s t h a v e b e e n p r o c e e d i n g a p a c e , o r t h e r e w o u l d b e n o o c c a si o n f o r M a r k t o w

i t , h a v i n g J e s u s w a r n a g a i n s t i t b e f o r e h a n d . A n d y e t i t w a s f a r t o o l a te ; M a r k ' s

a l r e a d y p r e s u p p o s e d a g r e a t a m o u n t o f s u c h c o n f l a t i o n .

S o I a m s a y i n g t h a t , i n s o f a r a s t h e J e s u s m o v e m e n t o n l y l a t e r r e p a i n t e d J



a p o c a l y p t i c f i g u r e , t h i s w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y h a v e i n c l u d e d r e p a i n t i n g h i m a s a m e s

e n t e r i n g J e r u s a l e m t r i u m p h a n t l y , c l e a ri n g t h e t e m p l e , b e i n g m o c k e d a s a p r e t e

c o n d e m n e d b y a n i n t i m i d a t e d P i l a t e , c r u c i f ie d a s k i n g o f t h e J e w s , a n d s h o w n

a t the c ros s to be the Son of G od . Al l th i s i s qu i t e pos s ib ly the r esu l t o f co nf

w i t h t h e e x c i t i n g e v e n t s o f J e w i s h r e v o l t a g a i n s t R o m e . I n d e e d , a s M a c k s ay s ,

a l r e a d y c o l l a p s e d t h e g e n e r a t i o n s e p a r a t i n g J e s u s f r o m t h e f a l l o f t h e c i t y . A n d

a n y w h e r e n e a r t h e m a r k , t h e n w e w o u l d h a v e t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e p r e - 7 0 C .E . c o

t h e P i l l a r s h a d u n d e r s t o o d t h e a b s e n t J e s u s in q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t w a y , n o t a s a s l a i

p e r h a p s a s a h i d d e n I m a m , a s I h a v e s u g g e s t e d i n m y e a r l ie r s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t

J u s t a s t h e D o o r o f J e s u s . B u t w e m u s t r a i s e e v e n m o r e s e a r c h i n g q u e s t i o n s .

EUHEMER ISM

T h e s o - c a ll e d A p o s t l e s ' C r e e d t r e a t s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f i n v i s i b l e , m e t a p h y s i c

s u p p o s e d e v e n t s t h a t s o u n d l i k e m y t h s , d i v i n e c r e a t i o n s a n d i n c a r n a t i o n s , a v i r g



d e s c e n t i n t o t h e i n f e r n o , a n d s o o n . T h e s o l e h is t o r i c a l p e g u p o n w h i c h i t a t t e m p

the l i f e o f th e sav ior J es us is h i s c ru c i f ix i on in th e t im e of Po nt i us P i l a t e . Yet

s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f J e s u s w i t h P i l a t e m a y b e b a se d o n t h e s a m e so r t

s p e c u l a t i o n s t h a t l e d L u k e t o c o n n e c t t h e b i r t h o f J e s u s w i t h b o t h H e r o d t h e

Q u i r i n i u s ' c e n s u s . J e s u s ' c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e R o m a n g o v e r n o r P i l a t e o n o n e

b i o g r a p h y n e e d b e n o m o r e h i st o r ic a l t h a n h i s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e R o m a n g o v e r n o

o n t h e o t h e r . E v e n g r e a t e r d o u b t is t h r o w n o n t h e m a t t e r b y t h e p a r a l l e l t r a d i t i o n ,

b u t j u s t b a re l y , t h a t J e s u s w a s e x e c u t e d u n d e r H e r o d A n t i p a s T h e G o s p e l o f P e t e r

c o n s u l t w i t h P i l a t e b u t s e e t o t h e e x e c u t i o n h i m s e l f . A n d , as A l f r e d L o is y n o t e d

Lu ke seems to have had acces s to a ver s ion of the Pa s s ion in whic h i t was Her o

Jesu s k i l l e d , no t P i l a te .

3 0

T h i s b e c o m e s e v i d e n t w h e n o n e e x a m i n e s L u k e 's c u m b

i m p r o b a b l e s e q u e n c e i n v o l v i n g J e s u s b e i n g t r i e d b e f o r e P i l a t e , t h e n H e r o d A n t i p a s ,

a g a i n . N o o n e h a s e v e r c o m e u p w i t h a p l a u s i b l e r e a so n f o r P i l a t e r e m a n d i n

A n t i p a s , a s L u k e h a s h i m d o . O n c e J e s u s g e t s t o H e r o d ' s c o u r t , i t i s H e r o d ' s

m o c k h i m , n o t P i l a t e ' s a s i n t h e o t h e r g o s p e l s , i m p l y i n g t h a t L u k e w a s t r y i n g t o

t h e M a r k a n P i l a t e - P a s s i o n w i t h a n o t h e r s e t i n H e r o d ' s c o u r t a n d h a d t o c h o o

m o c k i n g s . T h e m o s t f l a g r a n t m a r k o f i n d e l i c a t e e d i t i n g is H e r o d ' s a c q u i t t a l of

s end ing h im back to P i l a t e I t i s c l ear Luke mus t have had one Pas s ion s to ry



h i m , M a r k ' s , i n w h i c h P i l a t e o r d e r e d J e s u s ' e x e c u t i o n , a n d a n o t h e r , l i k e t h a t in t h e

P e t e r , i n w h i c h it w a s H e r o d A n t i p a s w h o c o n d e m n e d h i m . T o u s e b o t h , h e h a d

H e r o d ' s v e r d i c t f r o m g u i l t y t o i n n o c e n t ( o t h e r w i s e , a s i n t h e G o s p e l o f P e t e r , h e

H ero d send h im to th e c ross ) . Bu t ins t ea d of h av in g He rod l e t J es us go in p

a c q u i t t a l su r e l y w o u l d d e m a n d , h e h a s H e r o d s e n d J e s u s b a c k t o P i l a t e — f o r w h

P i l a t e a w a i t e d H e r o d ' s v e r d i c t , w h y d i d h e n o t l e t h i m g o , t o o , s i n c e H e r o d h a

J e s u s ? L u k e h a s t o o m a n y c o o k s i n t h e k i t c h e n , a n d t h e s t e w i s s p o i l e d .

B u t t h e k e y q u e s t i o n i s , i f J e s u s w a s k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n c r u c i f i e d q u i t e

d r a m a t i c p u b l i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a t t h e b e h e s t e i t h e r o f P i l a t e o r o f H e r o d , h o

c o u l d u n c e r t a i n t y o v e r w h o k i l l e d h i m e v e r h a v e a r i s e n ? I f e i t h e r H e r o d o r

r e c e n t l y e x e c u t e d h i m , h o w c o u l d a n y b e l i e f a b o u t t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e o t h e r

a b o u t ? B u t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f b o t h w e r e m e r e l y e d u c a t e d g u e s s e s a s t o w h o k

we can eas i ly s ee how the confus ion a rose .

A n d t h e r e is e v e n m o r e c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e d a t e o f J e s u s ' d e a t h . A s G . R

p o i n t e d o u t l o n g a g o , t h e r e i s a p e r s i s t e n t J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t

a b o u t 1 0 0 B . C . E . , i n t h e t i m e n o t o f P o n t i u s P i l a t e , b u t o f A l e x a n d e r J a n n a e u s a n d

Q u e e n S a l o m e . T h i s v e r s io n m a k e s J e s u s a " h e r e t i c a l " d i s c i p l e o f J o s h u a b e n P e r e c h

m a n y c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s m a k e J e s u s a d i s s e n t i n g d i s c i p l e of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t ) . I t i s

b o t h t h e T a l m u d a n d i n t h e T o l e d o t h J e s c h u , t h e J e w i s h g o s p e l s a t i r e , w h i c h



S c h o n f i e l d c o n v i n c i n g l y s h o w e d , m u s t h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n a n a p o c r y p h a l J e w i

g o s p e l f r o m n o l a t e r t h a n t h e se c o n d c e n t u r y

C . E .

3 2

C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r i s t s f r o m A r t h u r D r e w s t o G e o r g e A . W e l l s h av e r e m a r k e d

2 :8 and Col . 2 :1 3- 15 a t t r ib u te th e dea th o f J esus to no ear th ly agen t s bu t

s u p r a m u n d a n e s p i r i t u a l e n t i t i e s . W e l l s a n d o t h e r s w e n t o n t o a r g u e t h a t a t

Chr i s t i ans took to t ry ing to loca te the dea th o f the i r s av ior in the h i s to r i ca l pas t , f i

up on the r e ign of P i l a t e , a no tor ious v i l l a in .

3 3

To have don e so would have en ta i l ed

Ro m an d i s f avor , s ince as we have seen P i l a t e was d i sgraced in the eyes o f th

Cho os ing h im wo uld in f ac t be a way of cur ry ing f avor wi th Ro m e, m uch as Jo se

to do by p le ad in g tha t i t was no t Ro m e per s e bu t on ly the occas iona l ro t t e n R

tha t c r ea ted t rou b le w i th J ews .

S u c h a p r o c e s s o f h y p o t h e t i c a l h i s t o r i c i z i n g o f a g o d h i t h e r t o i m a g i n e d a s l i

v a g u e p a s t w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t . I f i n d i t i r o n i c t h a t i n h i

the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? Pau l Veyne

3 4

b o th s cof f s a t thos e wh o den y th

e x i s te n c e o f J e s u s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e i m p l i c i t l y e n h a n c e s t h e a r g u m e n t of

t h e o r i s ts . H e d e s c ri b e s h o w t h i n k e r s o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n a n t i q u i t y , i n c l u d i n g

C i c e r o , L i vy , P a u s a n i a s , a n d S t r a b o , a p p r o a c h e d m y t h i c f i g u r e s s u c h a s T h e s e u s

O d y s s e u s , M i n o s , D i o n y s u s , C a s t o r , a n d P o l l u x : T h e y r e a d i l y d i s m i s s e d t h e s u p e r n



o f t h e i r h e r o e s ' d i v i n e p a t e r n i t y a n d m i r a c u l o u s f e a ts b u t d o g g e d l y a s s u m e d t h e r e

b e e n a h i s t o r i c a l c o r e t h a t h a d b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y m y t h o l o g i z e d . T h e i r t a s k a s h i s

t o d i s t i l l t h e h i s t o r y f r o m t h e m y t h a n d t o p l a c e t h e g r e a t f i g u r e s w h e r e t h e y

o c c u r r e d o n t h e h i s t o r i c a l t i m e - c h a r t . H e r o d o t u s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t r i e d t o d e t e r m i n e

H e r a k l e s l i v e d , t h o u g h h e c o u l d n o t q u i t e m a n a g e t o re c o n c i le t h e c o n f l i c t i n g "

h e d e r i v e d f r o m E g y p t i a n , G r e e k , P h o e n i c i a n , a n d o t h e r s o u r c e s . " T h e w h o l e a p p r

t h e n a m e o f E u h e m e r i s m , f r o m E u h e m e r u s w h o o r i g i n a t e d i t . T h e i d e a w a s t o

a l l a n c i e n t g o d s w e r e g l o r i f i e d a n c e s t o r s o r h i st o r i c a l c u l t u r e h e r o e s. T h o u g h n o

" s e c u l a r " i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m s u r v i v e d , i t h a d t o b e a s s u m e d t h a t a g e n u i n

f ig ure l ay a t the roo t o f th e m yth s .

U n l e s s I a m m i s t a k e n , t h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e a p p r o a c h o f t h e q u e s t o r s f o r

J e s u s . T h o u g h t h e g o s p e l s t o ry of J e s u s m a t c h e s t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e M y t h i c H e r o

i n e v e r y d e t a i l , w i t h n o t h i n g l e f t o v e r , C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s , a m o n g w h o s e n u m b e

s u r e l y c o u n t e v e n B u l t m a n n , s i m p l y a s s u m e t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n a h i s t o r i c a l J

r o o t of t h e t h i n g , a n d t h i s e v e n i f, a l a B u l t m a n n , w e c a n n o t c o m e n e a r t o s p e c i f y

w a s . B u t j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t , i t s e e m s e q u a l l y t o h a v e b e e n t h e g u i d i n g a s s

C h r i s t i a n s a t s o m e s t a g e of r e f l e c t i o n w h e n t h e y f e l t s o m e n e e d t o n a i l d o w n

a p p e a r a n c e o f J e s u s i n , t o t h e m , re c e n t h i s to r y . T h e J e w i s h a n d J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n



J e s u s a b o u t 1 0 0 B . C . E . m a y r e p r e s e n t o n e a t t e m p t a t f i x i n g s u c h a d a t e , t h e m o

H e r o d A n t i p a s a n d / o r P o n t i u s P i l a t e d a t e r e p r e s e n t i n g a n o t h e r , e v i d e n t l y t h a t

Ch r i s t i a ns o f som e s t r i pe and of a l a t e r t i m e .

N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s a r e q u i t e a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e b a s i c l o g i c h e r e , o n l y t h e

a p p l i e d i t s o b r o a d l y a s t h e C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r i s t s . F o r i n s t a n c e , m a n y w o u l d

C h a r l e s T a l b e r t

3 6

and E la ine Page l s

3 7

t h a t t h e s p i r i t u a l , v i s i o n a r y r e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s

b y e a r li e r C h r i s t i a n s ( 1 C o r . 1 5 : 4 3 - 5 0 ; 1 P e t . 3 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) g a v e w a y t o " h

f l e s h - a n d - b l o o d r e s u r r e c t io n s t o ri e s s u c h a s w e f i n d in M a t t . 2 8 : 9 ; L u k e 2 4 : 3

2 0 : 2 4 - 2 9 ; A c t s 1 0 : 4 0 - 4 1 ) d u e t o a n e f f o r t b y e m e r g i n g c a t h o l i c C h r i s t i a n i t y

G n o s t i c s w h o c l a i m e d s t i l l t o r e c e i v e v i s i o n a r y a p p a r i t i o n s o f t h e R i s e n O n e r

n e w a n d " h e r e t i c a l " t e a c h i n g s , o f w h i c h G n o s t i c t e x t s li k e t h e P i s t i s S o p h i a a

c o n c r e t i z e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e s as t h o s e o f a p h y s i c a l i n d i v i d u a l , a l b e i t a

o n e , w a s t o i m p l y a m a n a g e a b l e , " c a n o n i c a l " n u m b e r o f t h e m . T h e s a m e l o g ic u

l a t e r a t t e m p t t o d e l i m i t t h e n u m b e r a n d c h a r a c t e r o f w r i t i n g s i n t h e N e w T e s t a m

B o t h w e r e a t t e m p t s t o c o - o p t a n d c o n t r o l r e v e l a t i o n c l a i m s .

A g a i n , m a n y N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o la r s w o u l d a g r e e t h u s f a r. C h r i s t - M y t h t h

D r e w s a n d W e l l s m a k e b u t o n e n a t u r a l s t e p f a r t h e r in t h e d i r e c t i o n t h u s i n d i c a t e d



t o c o n c r e t i z e a n d t h u s t o d e f i n e a n d c o n t r o l C h r i s t i a n t h i n k i n g a n d p r a c t i c e h a d

t o t h e h i s t o r i c i z i n g o f t h e J e s u s f i g u r e i t s e l f , t h e r e s u l t b e i n g a n e a r t h l y " l i f e

s o m e t h i n g t h e G n o s t i c s n e v e r q u i t e a c c e p t e d , w i t h t h e i r d o c e t i c C h r i s t o l o g y , e v e n

h a d a s s i m i l a t e d t h e b a s i c M a r k a n s t o r y - p l o t . T h e m o r e o f a n e a r t h l y e

C h r i s t i a n i t y b e c a m e , t h e m o r e i t f e l t t h e n e e d t o p o i n t t o " o u r f o u n d e r , " a d i v i n e

h a d o n c e l a i d d o w n t h e l aw , t h e c a n o n la w , t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f G n o s t i c d a y

h a l l u c i n a t i o n s . "

B u t w h e r e , p r a y t e l l , h a d M a r k d e r i v e d h i s J e s u s s t o r y l i n e ? F r o m t h e f a c t

h a v e a n o t h e r c a s e w h e r e a c c e p t e d c r i t i c a l a x i o m s in g o s p e l s t u d i e s w o u l d s e e m t o

m o r e r a d i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a n e v e n t h e m o s t s u p p o s e d l y s k e p t i c a l c r i t i c s t h e m s e l v

h a v e r e a l i z e d . O n e o f B u l t m a n n ' s e a r l y c o l le a g u e s in f o r m c r i t i c i s m o f t h e g o

L u d w i g S c h m i d t , b r o k e i m p o r t a n t n e w g r o u n d b y , i n a s e n se , p o i n t i n g o u t t

na m ely th a t th e o rd er o f even t s in the gospe l s i s a rb i t r a ry .

3 9

A l r e a d y i n M a r k m

h a v e n o n a r r a t i v e l o g i c i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g t h e m , b u t r a t h e r a r e m e r e l y t a p e d t o g e t h e

o f M a r k ' s f a v o r i t e c o n n e c t i v e a d v e r b " i m m e d i a t e l y , " a s i f t o s a y " N e x t h e d i d t h i

h e w e n t t h e r e . " T h e a r t i f i c i a l i t y i s e v i d e n t , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n 2 : 3 2 t h r o u g h 3 : 6 , w h e r

g r o u p e d a n e c d o t e s t o g e t h e r t o p i c a l l y , f o r e x a m p l e , S a b b a t h c o n t r o v e r s i e s , o r i n

s e q u e n c e o f l a r g e l y u n r e l a t e d s a y i n g s s t r u n g t o g e t h e r b y t h e m n e m o n i c d e v i c e o f

M a r k h a d s i m p l y c r e a t e d a s c h e m a t i c f r a m e w o r k f o r h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a g r e a t



h i t h e r t o i n d e p e n d e n t s t o r i e s a n d s a y i n g s w h i c h h a d p r e v i o u s l y c i r c u l a t e d b y w o r d

("ora l t r a d i t io n" ) on e by one . Each s to ry o r s ay in g ( and m an y of the s to r i es

s a y i n g s a s t h e i r p u n c h l i n e ) s e r v e d a p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e , f o r e x a m p l e , t o l a y

C h r i s t i a n l a w a b o u t f a s t i n g , p r a y e r , e x o r c i s m , c h u r c h d i s c i p l i n e , h e a l i n g t i p s o

m i r a c l e - m o n g e r i n g p r o p a g a n d a . A n d t h e s e o r i g i n a l u s e s c a n s t il l b e d e t e c t e d d e s

w o r k i n g t h e m a l l u p i n t o a s t o ry . I n d e e d , f o r m - c r i t i c i s m w a s a ll a b o u t r e i s o l a t i n g

f r o m t h e i r g o s p e l c o n t e x t s a n d f i g u r i n g o u t w h a t p u r p o s e e a c h m u s t o n c e h a v e s e r

In one way , th i s d i s cove ry eased th e b ur de n of ap o lo g i s t s fo r gos pe l accu

i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e c le a r t h a t n o n e o f t h e g o s p e l w r i t e r s w a s m u c h i n

c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e . I f M a t t h e w a n d L u k e f e l t f r e e t o c h a n g e t h e o r d e r o f

s a y i n g s a s t h e y f o u n d t h e m i n M a r k , t h e e x e g e t e c o u l d s t o p b a r k i n g u p t h e

t r y i n g t o d e f e n d t h e e v a n g e l i s t s a c c o r d i n g t o a s t a n d a r d o f a c c u r a c y t h e y w e r

t r y i n g t o m e e t . D i d J o h n h a v e J e s u s c l e an s e t h e t e m p l e a t t h e c o m m e n c e m

m i n i s t r y , w h i l e t h e o t h e r g o s p e l s p l a c e d t h e e v e n t a t t h e c l o s e o f h i s p u b l i c a

m a t t e r : T h e d i f f e r e n c e w a s m e r e l y a r h e t o r i c a l o n e , a n d o n e m i g h t e v e n m a k e h o m

of the d i f f e renc e .

A f t e r S c h m i d t , s c h o l a r s o s t e n s i b l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e p l o t o u t l i n e o f M a



evan gel i s t ' s ow n crea t ion , a m ore o r l es s a rb i t r a ry s t r in g a long w hich to a r r ang e

T h i s d i d n o t , h o w e v e r , s t o p m a n y o r m o s t o f t h e m f r o m c o n t i n u i n g t o t a k e

s e q u e n c e f o r g r a n t e d a s a n o u t l i n e o f a t l e a st t h e p u b l i c m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s : a " G a l i l

o f pop ula r acce p tanc e , fo l low ed by a c ros s - shad ow ed l as t journe y to J e r usa lem to

c o n f l i c t f r o m t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , t h e n d e a t h . I f o n e d i d t a k e t h e f o r m - c r i t i c a l i n s i g

t h a t t h e M a r k a n p l o t i s b u t a f r a m e d e v i c e t o s h o w c a s e a n u m b e r o f o r i g i n a l l y

a n e c d o t e s a n d s a y i n g s , o n e m i g h t b e i n c l i n e d a t t h e v e ry le a s t t o s k e p t i c i s m l i k e

O n e m i g h t g i v e u p a n y i d e a o f w r i t i n g a b i o g r a p h y , h o w e v e r r u d i m e n t a r y , o f

m i g h t , i n o t h e r w o r d s , a s s u m e t h a t t h e e v e n t s o f t h e l if e o f J e s u s , t h e i r i n t e r c o n n

w i th one ano t he r and w i th ou t s id e even t s and in f luen ces , i s fo rever los t to us . H ad

a n E s s e ne n o v i t i a t e ? P o s s ib l y , n o t u n l i k e l y , b u t p u r e s p e c u l a t i o n . H a d h e l e a

p h i l o s o p h y i n n e a r b y S e p p h o r i s ? W h o k n o w s

B u t o n e ' s a g n o s t i c i s m m i g h t g o a g o o d d e a l f u r t h e r t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h

of an ear th ly , i t i n era n t m in i s t r y o f J es us as t each er , hea le r , and exo rc i s t , wa s a

M a r k ' s f r a m i n g d e v i c e . A s t h e R u s s i a n F o r m a l i s t c r i t i c B o r i s T o m a s h e v s k y o b s

p r o t a g o n i s t . . . is t h e r e s u l t of t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y m a t e r i a l i n t o a p l o t .

h a n d , h e i s a m e a n s o f s t r i n g i n g m o t i f s t o g e t h e r ; a n d o n t h e o t h e r , h e e m b o d i e s

v a t i o n t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e m o t i f s . "

4 0

T o m a s h e v s k y m i g h t a l m o s t h a v e h ad M a r k

m i n d W a s J e s u s a n i t i n e r a n t ? T h e r e i s n o r e as o n t o t h i n k s o . I t i s t h e i m p r e s s i o n



t h e c h o i c e of p l a c i n g a n e c d o t e s s i d e b y s i d e i n n a r r a t i v e f o r m . B r u n o B a u e r o n c e

M a r k h a d h i m s e l f c r e a t e d t h e J e s u s c h a r a c t e r o u t o f w h o l e c l o t h . I a m s a y i n g

w e l l b e t h a t M a r k t o o k p r e e x i s t i n g t r a d i t i o n s o f m i r a c l e s a n d w i s e s a y i n g s , s o m

t h e m a l r e a d y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e C h r i s t i a n s a v i o r, J e s u s , a n d f r o m t h e m c r e a t e d t h

" h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s . "

TRUTHS AND TRUISMS

W h e r e d i d t h e s e p r e - M a r k a n m a t e r i a l s c o m e f r o m ? M a n y o f t h e sa y i n g s m a y h a v e

a n y w h e r e . B u l t m a n n , T. W . M a n s o n , A r t h u r D r e w s ,

4 1

a n d o t h e r s l o n g a g o d e m o n s t r

h u g e n u m b e r of t h e s a y i n g s a n d p a r a b l e s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s i n t h e S y n o p t i c g o s p

v e r b a l l y p a r a l l e l e d a m o n g t h e v o l u m i n o u s a p h o r i s m s o f t h e r a b b i s i n t h e M i s h n a h

a m o n g C y n i c a n d S t o i c p h i l o s o p h e r s . H e r e a r e s e v e ra l r a b b i n i c p a r a l l e l s.

I should be surprised if there were anyone in this generation who would accept correc

says to a man, "Remove the spelk from your eye," he will reply, "Remove the beam



(Rabbi Tarphon, ca. 100 C.E.; cf . Matt . 7:3-5)

A Jew who has mu ch know ledge of the Law and many good w orks is l ike a man wh

foundations for his house and builds thereon with sun-dried brick. Though floods may com

is not affected because its foundations are sound. But the man who has much knowledge

and n o good works is l ike a man wh o lays foundation s of sun-dried brick and builds

stone. If only a small f lood comes the house collapses because the foundations are not s

Elijah be n Abuya, ca. 120 C.E.; cf . M att . 7 :2 4- 27 )*

N o bird perishes w ithou t G od — ho w m uch less a ma n (Rab bi Simeon ben Jochai, ca.

Mat t . 10 :29-31)

Whoever has bread in his basket and asks "What shall I eat tomorrow?" is none other t

l i t t le faith. (Rabbi Eleazer, 1st century, Sotah 48b; cf . Matt. 5:3 1)

W he n tho u hast mercy upon thy fellow, tho u hast one to have mercy on thee; but if t

mercy upo n thy fellow, tho u hast none to have mercy upon th ee. (Tanchu ma; cf. M att. 7:1 -

He w ho h ates his neighb or, lo he belong s to th e shed ders of blood . (Eliezer, ca. 90 C

5:22)

He who looks at a woman with desire is as one who has criminal intercourse with her. (

cf .

Mat t . 5:28)

The yea of the righteo us is a yea; their no is a no. (Rabb i Hu na ; cf . M att. 5:37)



There were two chambers in the Temple: one the Chamber of Secrets , the other the

Uten sils . Into the Ch am ber of Secrets the devo ut used to p ut their gifts in secret and

good family received support therefrom in secret. (Shekalim 5, 6; cf . Matt . 6:2-4)

It is enou gh for the servant to be l ike his master. (Com mo n Jewish proverb; cf . M att. 10

Whoever gives a piece of bread to a righteous man, it is as though he had fulfilled the

(<Genesis

Rabbab on G en. 23:18; Mat t . 10:41-4 2)

Turn in to me, ye unlea rned, And lod ge in my house of instru ction . How long w ill y

things? And how long shall your soul be so athirst? I open my mouth and speak of

wisdom for yourselves with money. Bring your necks und er h er yoke, An d her burd en l

bear; She is nigh u nto the m that seek her, And he tha t is inte nt up on her f ind eth her.

your eyes that I laboured but l i t t le therein, And abundance of peace have I found.

(Sirach 51 :23 -27 ; cf . Ma t t . 11 :28- 30)

If tw o sit togethe r and words of Torah [are spok en] betw een the m the Shekinah r

them . . . . (Rabbi H ananiah ben T eradion, died 135, Aboth 3, 2; cf. Matt. 18:20)

Like a king who invited his servants to a feast and did not specify a time for them. Th

among them adorned themselves and sat at the gate of the palace. They said, "There is no

palace" [so the feast could start any time}. The foolish ones among them went to their work



"There is no feast without preparation" [thus, there is still time to spare]. Suddenly the ki

his servants. The astute ones among them came into his presence as they were, adorned; an

ones among them came into his presence as they were, dirty. The king was pleased with th

and angry with the foolish ones. He said, "Let these who adorned themselves for the feast s

eat and drink. Let those who did not adorn themselves for the feast stand and look on." (

Zakkai, Shabb. 153a; cf. Matt . 22:l -3 a, 11-1 3)

God does not give greatness to a man t i l l he has proved him in a small matter: o

prom otes him to a gre at post . Two were proved and found fai th ful , and G od p rom o

greatness. He tested David with the sheep . . . and God said, Thou wast fai th ful with

will give thee my sheep that thou shouldst feed them. And so with Moses, who fed his fa

sheep. To him God said the same. (cf. M att . 25 :14 -2 9)

He that learns from the young, to what is he l ike? To one that eats unripe grapes and

from his winepress. And he that learns from the aged, to what is he like? To one that eats

and drinks old wine. Look not on the jar but on what is in it; there may be a new jar th

old wine and an old one in which is not even new wine. (Rabbi Jose ben Judah of Ke

A both 4.20; cf. Mark 2:2 1-2 2)

A scholar whose inward (thoughts) do not correspond to his outward (profession) is no sc

died 352 c.E.; cf. Matt. 23:2^4)

Stay two or three seats below thy place and sit until they say to thee, "Go up." Do n



going up because they may say to thee, "Go down." It is better that they should say to t

go up" than that they should say to thee, "Go down, go down." (Rabbi Simeon ben Azz

C

.E.,

Leviticus Rabbah 1; cf. Luke 14:7-11)

Rabbi Abahu argues that God gives a higher place to repentant sinners than to th

righteous, (end of third century c.E.; cf. Luke 15:7)

When a man loses a piece of gold, he lights many lamps in order to seek it. If a man

trouble for the sake of temporal things, how much the more should he when there is a

treasures that keep their worth in the world to come? {Midrash Schir hashirim 3, 2; cf. Luke

It is to be compared to the son of a king who had removed from his father for the d

hundred days' journey. His friends said to h im, "Retu rn u nto your father," whereupon he

cannot." Then his father sent a message to him, "Travel as much as it is in thy power

come un to you the rest of the way." And so the Holy one, blessed be he, said 'Retu rn u n

will retu rn u nto you.' " (Mai. 3:7) (P.R., 184 b a n d 185a; cf. Luke 15:11 ft)

4J

Two godly men lived in Ashkelon. They ate together, drank together, and studied

together. One of them died and kindness was not shown to him [no one attended

Bar-Majan, a tax-collector, died, and the whole city stopped to show him kindness. Th

pious man began to complain; he said, "Alas that no evil comes upon the haters of Israel."

he saw a vision, and one said to him: "Do not despise the children of your Lord. T



com mit ted one s in and depar ted in i t [which is why he had died unrem em bered] ; and th

perform ed one good deed and depa rted in i t [ i .e. , the w ell-attended funera l was all the re

due ]." He had arranged a ba nqu et for the city councilors, bu t they did not com e. So he

tha t th e poo r should come and eat i t , so tha t the food should not be wasted. Afte r som

godly man saw the godly one, his companion, walking in gardens and parks beside sprin

[i .e. , in heaven]. And he saw bar-Majan, the publican, stretching out his tongue on the

river; he was seeking to reach the water, and he could not [ just l ike Tantalus in Hades].

Jerusalem,

Hagigab,

I I , 77d; cf . Luke 14:16-24; 16:19-31)

To wh om shall I l iken Rabb i Bon, son of Chaija? To a kin g th at ha th hired laborers, a

was one of great pow er. This man did the king sum mo n to himse lf , and held speech wi

when the night fell , the hired labourers came to receive their hire. But the king gave to

laborer the same hire which he had given unto others. Th en they m urm ured and sai

laboured the who le day, and this man ha th labored bu t two ho urs, yet there is given u

same wages that we have received." And the k ing sent the m away, saying: "Th is ma n ha t

in two ho urs than ye have don e du rin g th e whole of the day." Even so hath the Rab bi Bo

in the study of th e Law in the tw enty -eig ht years of his life than anoth er would have do

lived in a hundred years. (Beracoth. 5.3c; cf . M at t . 20 :1-1 6)

My fathers stored in a place which can be tam pered w ith, bu t I have stored in a place

be tampered with. (Baba bathra 1 la; cf . M att . 6:21)



In my w hole l ifetime I have not seen a deer engage d in gatherin g fruits , a l ion ca rrying

a fox as a shopkeeper, yet they are sustained without trouble, though they were created o

me, whereas I was created to serve my Maker. Now, if these, who were created to s

sustained without trouble, how much more should I be sustained without trouble, I who wa

serve my Maker (Kidushin. 82b; cf . Matt. 6:26)

Hast thou ever seen a bird or a beast of the forest that must secure i ts food by work

them, and they need no effort to obtain their nourishment. Yet the beast has a mind o

man. He, however , knows his higher vocat ion—namely to serve God; does i t become h

care only for his bodily wants? (Kidushin 4 , Halach 14; cf . M at t . 6 :30 -33 )

Fret not over tomo rrow's trouble , for tho u know est not wh at a day may bring

peradv enture tomo rrow he is no more; thus he shall be fou nd griev ing over a world tha

{Sank.

100b; cf. Matt. 6:34)

He who cal ls down judg me nt on his neighbor is himself punished f i rs t. (Rosch hasch

century C.E.; cf . M att . 7 :1 -2 )

Our rabbis taught: He who judges his neighbor in the scale of merit is himself judg

(Shab. 127b; cf. Matt . 7:1-2)

W he n he knocks, the door is opened for him. (R. Bannajah, ca 20 0 c.E.; cf. Ma tt . 7:7)



God says of the Israelites: "To me they are upright as doves, but to the nations they

serpents," (Judah ben Simon in Midrash on Canticles. 2:14 (10 1 a); cf. M att. 10:16)

Th e Sabba th is given over to you, not you to the Sabbath, (frequ ently in the rabbis; cf.

Is a light of any sort of use save in a dark place? (Mek. 60a; cf. Mark 4:21)

A young man deserves praise when he becomes like the children. ('

Tanchuma

36, 4; cf. M

W hoev er hu mb les himself for love of th e Law, the same will be reckoned am ong th e gr

kingdom of heaven. (Baha Mezia 84, 2; cf. Matt . 18:2-4 )

Are you from Pombeditha, where they can drive an elephant through the eye of a n

Mezia 38, 2; cf. Matt. 19:23)

Do I not number the hair of every creature?

(Pesikta

18, 4; cf. Matt. 10:30)

Thou shalt not hate, not even internally. CMetiachot, 18; cf. Matt. 5:22)

Love him that punisheth thee. (Derech Erez Sutha, c. 9; cf. Matt. 5:43-44) Be rathe

persecuted than among the persecutors. {Baba Mezia, 93; cf. Matt . 5:10)

If any man demand thy donkey, give him the saddle also. (Baba Kama, 27; cf . Mat t . 5:40

A muleteer drove twelve span before him, all laden with wine. One of them strayed into

a G entile . Th en th e driver left the others and sou ght th e one that had broken loose. As

had ventured to leave the others for the sake of one, he answered: "The others remained o



road, where there was no dang er of any man stealing my property, as he would know

observed by so many." So it was with the other c hildren of Jaco b [tha n Josep h]. They rem

the eye of their father, and were moreover older th an Josep h. He , however, was left to h

youth. Hence the Scripture says that God took special care of him. (<Genesis Rabba , 86, 84,

18 :12-14 ; Luke 15 :3-7)

A king had appo inted two overseers. O ne h e chose as master of the treasure; the othe

charge of the straw-store. After a t im e the latter fell unde r suspicion of unfa ithfuln ess. Ne

complained that he was not promoted to the post of master of the treasure. Then was

aston ishm ent at his words: "Fool, thou hast incurred suspicion in ch arge of th e stores of

couldst thou be trusted with the treasure?" (Jalkut Simeont 1, 81,1 ; cf . Luke 16:1 -12)

B u l t m a n n n o t e d t h a t i n s u c h c a s e s w h e r e t h e s a y i n g a t t r i b u t e d i n t h e g o s p e

c l o se l y p a r a l l e l s a r a b b i n i c s a y i n g , g r e a t d o u b t m u s t a r is e a s t o w h e t h e r t h e y r e a

t o J e s u s . L i k e w i s e w i t h t e x t s i n w h i c h J e s u s i s m a d e t o q u o t e O l d T e s t a m e n t s c r i p

B u l t m a n n p o i n t s o u t t h a t n o o n e e v e r r e m e m b e r s t h e G r e a t M a n q u o t i n g s o m e o n

h i s o w n q u o t e s t h a t a r e m e m o r a b l e . I t is l i k el y , h o w e v e r , t h a t c l i c h e s a y i n g s a n d

b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a G r e a t M a n f o r w a n t of r e m e m b e r i n g w h o d i d a c t u a l l y s ay

c o u r s e , a s J a c o b N e u s n e r h a s e l o q u e n t l y a r g u e d , t h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e f o r M i s h n

4 4



a t t r i b u t e d t o t h i s o r t h a t f a m o u s r a b b i . N o n e c a n b e r e l ie d u p o n f o r b i o g r a p h i c a

HERO STORIES

A s f o r t h e g o s p e l s t o r i e s , a s d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e s a y i n g s , R a n d e l H e l m s

4 5

a n d

B r o d i e

4 6

h a v e s h o w n h o w s t o r y a f t e r s t o r y i n t h e g o s p e l s h a s b e e n b a s e d , s o m e t i m e

o n s i m i l a r s t o r i e s f r o m t h e G r e e k O l d T e s t a m e n t , t h e S e p t u a g i n t . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e

t h e s t o r m ( M a r k 4 : 3 5 - 4 1 ) w a s r e w r i t t e n f r o m t h e s i m i l a r s t o r y o f J o n a h . T h e r e s

t h e so n o f t h e w i d o w o f N a i n ( L u k e 7 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) s e e m s to b e a n o t h e r v e r s io n o f E l i

o f t h e S h u n n a m i t e ' s s o n i n 2 K i n g s 4 : 3 2 - 3 7 . T h e s t o r y o f J e s u s ' a p p o i n t m e n t o f

f o l l o w e d b y h is r e f u s a l t o r e c e i v e h i s m o t h e r a n d b r o t h e r s ( M a r k 3 : 1 3 - 2 1 , 3 1 - 3 5

b e a n e g a t i v e r e w r i t i n g o f t h e s t o r y o f M o s e s r e c e i v i n g h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w J e t h

f a m i l y , f o l l o w e d b y h i s a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e S e v e n t y e l d e r s ( E x o d . 18 ) .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n E a r l D o h e r t y

4 7

h a s t a k e n a s e c o n d l o o k a t N e w T e s t a m e n t

s u c h - a n d - s u c h h a p p e n e d " a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s c r i p t u r e s " ( 1 C o r . 1 5 : 3 ^ 4 ) o r " i n o r d

s c r i p t u r e s m i g h t b e f u l f i ll e d " ( M a t t . 1 : 2 2 - 2 3 ; 2 : 5 - 6 , 1 5 , 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 3 ) . H i s c o n c l u s



c o n t r a r y t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e s a h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s , t h e s

d e n o t e n o t a t t e m p t s t o f i n d p r o o f t e x t s fo r k n o w n e v e n t s i n t h e l i fe o f J e s u s ,

m i d r a s h i c f i c t i o n s b a s e d o n s c r i p t u r e p a s s a g e s . W e u s u a l l y i m a g i n e t h a t t h e q u e s

m i n d s o f t h e e a rl y C h r i s t i a n s w a s , " H o w d o w e k n o w t h e M e s s i a h w a s s u p p o s e d

s ins an d r i se f ro m the de ad , as J es us in f ac t d id ? Becau se s c r ip tu re , r ead the

p r e d i c t e d h e would." B u t D o h e r t y a r g u e s f o r c e f u l l y t h a t t h e y m a y i n s t e a d h a v e b e e

" W h a t h a p p e n e d t o J e s u s ? H e m u s t h a v e d i e d f o r s i n s a n d r i s e n f r o m t h e d e

scr i p tu re , r ead th e r ig h t way , s ays he did" T h i s a p p r o a c h c e r ta i n l y c o m p o r t

o t h e r w i s e a s t o n i s h i n g f a c t t h a t e v e n t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n i t s e lf is a p a t c

o f ( m o s t l y u n a c k n o w l e d g e d ) s c r i p t u r e c i t a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n h i s t o r i c a l r e p o r t a g e . I t

k n o w l e d g e t h a t M a r k ' s c r u c i f i x i o n a c c o u n t c o r r e s p o n d s v e r b a l l y w i t h s e le c t e d l in e s

2 2 , b u t b e l i e v e r s i m a g i n e t h a t t h i s i s b e c a u s e M a r k w a s s e e k i n g t o s h o w h o w

e v e n t s c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e i r p r o p h e t i c p r e d i c t i o n s . H o w e v e r t h e r e i s n o r e f e re n c

s t o r y t o p r o p h e t i c p r e d i c t i o n . I t i s l e f t t o t h e r e a d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h a t " M y G o d , m y

h a v e y o u f o r s a k e n m e ? " i s t h e o p e n i n g l i n e of P s a l m 2 2 , a n d s o o n . S i m i l a r l y , w h

fee l s inc l ine d to exp an d th e moc ker y of J esu s ' enem ies a t the foo t o f the c ros s (M

h e s u p p l e m e n t s i t n o t w i t h m e m o r i e s o r h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , b u t w i t h m o r e s c r i p

t h i s t i m e f r o m W i s d . o f S o l. 2 :1 6 —1 8 . E l s e w h e r e M a t t h e w h a s c r e a t e d w h o l e f e a



v e r s i o n o f t h e P a s s io n o u t o f t h e t e x t o f t h e p r o p h e t Z e c h a r i a h . H o w d i d h e " k

r e c e iv e d t h e s u m o f t h i r t y s i l v er s h e k e l s ? H e f o u n d it i n Z e c h . 1 1 : 1 2 b ( " A n d t h

o u t as m y w a g e s t h i r t y s h e k e l s o f s il v e r ") . H o w d i d h e " k n o w " J u d a s r e t u r n e d

t h r o w i n g i t to t h e t e m p l e t r e a s u r y f l o or ? H e d e r i v e d t h e " f a c t " f r o m t h e S y ri a c

Z e c h . 1 1 : 1 3 ( " T h e n Y a h v e t o l d m e , ' C a s t i t i n t o t h e t r e a s u r y ' ") . H o w d i d h e

p r i e s t s t o o k t h i s m o n e y a n d b o u g h t a p o t t e r ' s f i e ld w i t h i t? T h e H e b r e w v e r s i o n

ver se , Ze ch . 11 :13 ( "T hen Yahve to ld m e, 'Cas t i t t o the p o t t e r ' " ) , t o ld h i m so . H

" k n o w " J u d a s h a n g e d h i m s e l f ? W e l l , M a t t h e w r e a so n e d , if i t w a s g o o d e n o u g h f o r

( 2 S a m . 1 7 : 2 3 ) , w h o b e t r a y e d D a v i d , i t w o u l d b e g o o d e n o u g h f o r J u d a s , J e s u s ' b e

Other gospe l s to r i es , as we have seen , a r e so c lose to s imi la r s to r i es o f t

w r o u g h t b y A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n a , P y t h a g o r a s , A s c l e p i u s , A s c l e p i a d e s t h e P h y s i c i a n ,

t h a t w e h a v e t o w o n d e r w h e t h e r i n a n y o r a ll s u c h c a s e s f r e e - f l o a t i n g s t o r i e s

a t t a c h e d t o al l t h e s e h e r o i c n a m e s a t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r , m u c h a s t h e n a m e s of c

j o k e s c h a n g e in o r a l t r a n s m i s s i o n . A n d t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n le a d s u s t o a c o n c l u d i n g c

I t i s no t on ly th e mi ra c le s to r i es o f th e gosp e l s th a t a r e para l l e l to the l if e s to r i

h e r o e s . I n f a c t , a s f o l k l o r i s t A l a n D u n d e s h a s s h o w n ,

4 8

the gospe l l i f e o f J esu s co

m o s t p a r t i c u l a r s w i t h t h e w o r l d w i d e p a r a d i g m o f t h e M y t h i c H e r o A r c h e t y p e a

b y L o rd R a g l a n , O t t o R a n k , a n d o t h e r s . D r a w n f r o m c o m p a r a t i v e s tu d i e s o f I n

a n d S e m i t i c h e r o l e g e n d s , t h i s p a t t e r n c o n t a i n s t w e n t y - t w o t y p i c a l , r e c u r r e n t e l e m



i s a l i s t , h i g h l i g h t i n g t h o s e p r e s e n t i n t h e s t o r y of J e s u s :

1. mother is royal virgin

2 . father is a king

3 . f a t h e r r e l a te d t o m o t h e r

4 .

unusual conception

5. hero reputed to be son of god

6. attempt to kill hero

7. hero spirited away

8 . reared b y f o s t e r p a r e n t s in a far country

9 . no details of childhood

10. goes to future kingdom

11 . i s v ic to r over k i ng



1 2 . m a r r i e s a p r i n c e s s ( o f t e n d a u g h t e r o f p r e d e c e s s o r )

13. becomes king

1 4 . for a time he reigns uneventfully

15. he prescribes laws

16. later loss favor with g o d s o r his subjects

1 7 .

driven from throne and city

18. meets with mysterious death

19. often at the top of a hill

20.

his children, if any, do not succeed him

2 1 . his body is not buried

2 2 . nonetheless has one or more holy sepulchres

J e s u s ' m o t h e r M a r y is a v i r g i n , t h o u g h n o t o f r o y a l d e s c e n t u n l e s s o n e h a r m

L u k a n a n d M a t t h e a n g e n e a l o g i e s t o m a k e o n e o f t h e m M a r y ' s . L a t e r a p o c r y p h a d o



D a v i d i c . J o s e p h i s o f c o u r s e " o f t h e h o u s e o f D a v i d , " t h o u g h n o t t h e r e i g n i n g

t h a t ' s j u s t t h e p o i n t : T h e k i n g is coming. T h e r e i s n o r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n J o s e p h a n d

c o n c e p t i o n i s c e r t a i n l y i r r e g u l a r , m i r a c u l o u s . J e s u s i s t h e so n o f G o d , a n d h e i s

p e r s e c u t e d b y t h e r e i g n i n g k i n g , H e r o d . I n m o s t h e r o l e g e n d s , t h e p e r s e c u t o r is n

k in g b u t t he in fan t hero ' s f a th er (as in the Oe di pu s s to ry) . Th i s ro le has been sp

case : H is ear th ly f a the r , Jo se ph , i s a roya l he i r , bu t no t k i ng , so ther e mu s t a l so

t o p e r s e c u t e h i m . F l e e i n g t h e p e r s e c u t i o n , t h e i n f a n t h e r o t a k e s r e f u g e i n a

E g y p t , t h o u g h i t is n o t f o s t e r p a r e n t s w h o r a i se h i m , as u s u a l l y i n h e r o l e g e n d s

J o s e p h a n d M a r y m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d a s J e s u s ' f o s t e r p a r e n t s i n t h a t h i s r e a l f a t h

T h e r e a r e n o d e t a il s o f J e s u s ' c h i l d h o o d i n t h r e e of t h e g o s p e l s , a n d t h e o n e i n c i d e

2 : 4 1 - 5 2 , w h e r e J e s u s i s d i s p l a y e d a s a c h i l d p r o d i g y , i s i t se l f a f r e q u e n t m y t h e m

h e r o t a le s n o t c o n s i d e r e d b y R a g l a n . J e s u s g o e s t o J e r u s a l e m t o b e a c c l a i m e d a

d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , t a k e m i l i t a r y p o w e r , s o t h e r e is n o c o n t e s t w i t h t h e o l d k i n g

m ig h t see a para l l e l in J es us ' t e l l ing P i l a t e th a t he i s th e k in g of Tru th , no t o

k i n g d o m l i k e C a e s a r' s — J o h n 1 8 : 3 6 - 3 7 ) . N o r d o e s h e m a r r y , t h o u g h h e i s s a id

low ed by loya l w om en , on e of th em re la t ed to roya l ty (Luke 8 :3) . Do es J es u

" u n e v e n t f u l r e i g n , p r e s c r i b i n g l a w s " ? N o t l it e r a l ly , b u t t h e p a t t e r n f i t s a n y w a y , s

J e s u s h o l d i n g c o u r t , f o r t h e m o m e n t u n c h a l l e n g e d , i n t h e t e m p l e ( M a r k 1 1 - 1 2 ) .

b i n d i n g l a w s , h e i s su e s t e a c h i n g s , p a r a b l e s , a n d p r o p h e c i e s , w h i c h a r e t a k e n w i t h



b y h i s f o l l o w e r s . B u t s u d d e n l y t h e o n c e - a r d e n t c r o w d o f a d m i r e r s t u r n s u g l y a n d d

b l o o d , w h e r e u p o n J e s u s i s d r i v e n f o r t h f r o m t h e c i t y a n d c r u c i f i e d , a c c o m

s u p e r n a t u r a l p o r t e n t s , a t o p M o u n t C a l v a ry , t h e h i l l o f G o l g o t h a . H e i s t e m p o r a

b u t h i s b o d y t u r n s u p m i s s i n g , l e a v i n g a n e m p t y t o m b , w h i c h w o u l d s e e m t o

l e g i t i m a t e v a r i a n t - d i s t a n c e o f t h e i d e a l l e g e n d t y p e . T h e h o l y s e p u l c h r e r e m a i n s a t

h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n . H e h a s n o o f f s p r i n g , b u t h i s b r o t h e r s u c c e e d s h i m a s h e a d o f h i s

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , C h r i s t - M y t h t h e o r i s t s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t o n e f i n d s a p u r

co nce p t io n of J es us in the ep i s t l es and tha t the l if e o f J esu s the h i s to r i ca l t eache r

as we r ead i t i n the gosp e l s is a l a t e r h i s to r i c i za t ion . Th i s ma y inde ed be so

i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h e o b v i o u s : T he g ospel story of Jesus is itself apparently mythi

to last.

I n t h e g o s p e l s t h e d e g r e e of h i s t o r i c i z a t i o n i s a c t u a l l y q u i t e m i n i m a l , m a i n l

o f t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e l ay e r d e r i v e d f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y m e s s i a h s a n d p r o p h e t s ,

abov e . O ne does no t need t o r epa i r to the ep i s t l es to f ind a my th ic J esu s . T he

i t s e lf i s a l r eady p ur e l egend . W h a t can we say of a supp osed h i s to r i ca l f igu re wh o

c o n f o r m s v i r t u a l l y i n e v e r y d e t a i l t o t h e M y t h i c H e r o A r c h e t y p e , w i t h n o t h i n g , n o

m u n d a n e i n f o r m a t i o n , l e f t o v e r ? A s D u n d e s is c a r e f u l t o p o i n t o u t , i t d o e s n ' t p r o v

n o h i s t o r i c a l J e s u s , f o r i t i s n o t i m p l a u s i b l e t h a t a g e n u i n e , h i s t o r ic a l i n d i v i d u a l m i

so l ion iz ed , even so de i f i ed , th a t h i s l i f e and career w ou ld be com ple te ly as s im i l



M y t h i c H e r o A r c h e t y p e .

5 0

But if t ha t happ ene d , we cou ld no long er be sure the

been a r ea l per so n a t the roo t o f the wh ole th in g . T he s t a ined g las s wo uld have

t o o t h i c k t o p e e r t h r o u g h .

A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t , C a e s ar A u g u s t u s , C y r u s , K i n g A r t h u r , a n d o t h e r s

s u f f e r e d t h i s f a t e . W h a t k e e p s h i s t o r i a n s f r o m d i s m i s s i n g t h e m a s m e r e m y t h s

B u n y a n , i s t h a t t h e r e is s o m e r e s i d u e . W e k n o w a t l e a s t a b i t o f m u n d a n e i n f o r m

t h e m , p e r h a p s q u i t e a b i t , t h a t d o e s n o t f o r m p a r t o f a n y l e g e n d c y c l e . O r

i n t r i c a t e l y w o v e n i n t o t h e h i s t o r y o f t i m e t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o m a k e s e n s e o f

w i t h o u t t h e m . B u t is t h i s t h e c a s e w i t h J e s u s ? I f e a r i t i s n o t . T h e a p p a r e n t

R o m a n a n d H e r o d i a n f i g u r e s i s t o o l o o s e , t o o d o u b t f u l f o r r e a s o n s I h a v e a lr e a

e x p l a i n . T h u s i t s e e m s t o m e t h a t J e s u s m u s t b e c a t e g o r i z e d w i t h o t h e r l e g e n d a

f i g u r e s i n c l u d i n g t h e B u d d h a , K r i s h n a , a n d L a o - t z u . T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a r e a l

b u t t h e r e i s s i m p l y n o l o n g e r a n y w a y of b e i n g s u r e .

NOTES



1. Eg., R eginald H . Fuller, The Foundations of New Testament Christology (New Yo

1965); Maurice Casey, F rom Jewish Prophet to Gentile G od: The Origins and Develop

Testament Christology (Louisville: Wes tmin ster/Jo hn Kn ox P ress, 1991).

2. Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeto

University Press, 1969 ), p. 4: "Th e sacrifices that the Eu ropean philosop her is prepared

attain tru th in and for i tself [ include the ] sacrifice of religious faith. . .

3. Paul Veyne, Did the Greeks Believe in Their M yths? An Essay on the C onstitutiv

trans. Paula Wissing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 17-18.

4. Jacob Neusner ,

Why No Gospels in Talmudic Judaism?

Brown Judaic Studies

Scholars Press, 1988).

5. Baha Mezia 59b, t rans . David L. Du nga n, in Sourcebook of Texts for the Cm para

the Gospels,

ed. Du nga n and David R. Car t l idge, 6 7- 68 .

6. Mary Douglas, N atural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmo logy, pp . 54 -64 .

7. Harvey Falk Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus (Mahwah:

1985).

8. Herb Keinon, "Messiah When?"Jerusalem Post, Au gust 30 , 1997, p . 20.



9. Ibid.

10. "Lubavitchers Prepare to Answer Charge of Idolatry," The Forward\ February 6 , 19

11. Ibid.

12. Jerome H. Neyrey,

A n Ideology of Revolt: John's Christology in S ocial-Scie

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1988).

13. "Lubavitchers Prepare," p. 2.

14. Ibid., p. 14.

15. H . Richard N iebuh r, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1951).

16. Wayne Meeks , "The Man f rom Heaven in Johannine Sectar ianism," Journal

Literature 91 (1972) : 44-72 .

17. Jam es R. Lewis, Th e G ods Have Landed: New Religions From Other W orlds (A

University of New York Press, 1995).

18. J . L . Ho ulden ,

E thics in the New Testament

(Ne w Y ork: Oxfo rd Univ ersity Pres

3 5 - 4 1 .



19. Stevan L. Davies, Revolt of the Widows: The Social World of the Apocryphal Acts

South ern Ill inois University Press), pp. 3 0 -3 1.

20. Randel Helms,

Gospel Fictions

(Am hers t , N.Y.: Prom etheus Books , 1989) , pp. 14 6

21. Hans Jonas , The Gnostic Religion: The M essage of the Alien God and the

Christianity, 2d ed (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), pp. 320-40.

22. Mat t i Moosa, Extremist Shi'ites: The G hulat Sects (Syracuse: Syracuse U nive rsity Pre

23. Burton L. Mack, A Myth of

Innocetice:

Mark and Christian Origins (M inne apo lis:

1991 ), p. 282 . Ma tthew's redaction carries the same tendency furthe r. In Ma tt. 23:3 5,

patronymic "son of Berachiah" to the name "Zechariah" from a Q saying, turning

(anachronistic) reference by Jesus back to Zecha riah, son of Ba ruch, a victim of Jew ish t

had entered Jeru salem just before i t fell to the Rom ans (Josephus, The Jewish War IV, V

24. Phi lo, F/accus 36 -3 9, t rans . C. D. Yonge, The Works of Philo (Peabody: Hendr icks

25. Plutarch, The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Roma ns, trans. Jo hn Dry den , re

York: Mo dern Library, n.d.) .

26. In Stanley Jerome Isser,

T he D ositheans: A Samaritan Sect in Late Antiquity.

Studies



in Late An tiquity , vol. 17. (Leiden: E. J . Bril l , 1976), pp . 66, 1 30.

27. Raphael Patai , The Messiah Texts (New York: Avon Books, 1979) , pp. 25 -2 6.

28. A. D. Crown, "Some Traces of Heterodox Theology in the Samaritan Book

Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 50 (1967) , pp. 178-98; in Isser , The Dositheans, p. 130

29. Isser, The Dositheans, p. 129.

30. Alfred Loisy, The Origins of the New Testament, trans. L. P. Jack s (N ew York: C

1962), p. 192.

31. G. R. S. Mead, Did Jesus Live 100 B.C.? (New Hy de Park: Univers i ty Books, 196

32. Hugh J . Schonf ield, According to the Hebrews (London: Duck wo rth, 1937) .

33. George A. Wells , The Jesus of the Early Ch ristians: A Study in Christian Orig

P e m b e r to n B o ok s, 1 9 7 1) , p p . 5 - 6 , 9 2 , 2 4 2 ^ 3 , 3 1 0 - 1 1 .

34. Veyne, D id the Greeks Believe in their M yths? p. 106.

35 . Ib id . , pp . 1 -2 , 13-14 , 53 .

36. C harles L. Talberc, Luke and the Gnostics (New York: Ab ingdo n, 1966) , pp. 30 -3



37. Elaine Pagels, The G nostic Gospels (New York: Random House, 1979), pp. 3- 27 .

38. Ar thur Drews,

The Christ Myth

, trans. C. Delisle Burns, 3rd ed. (Amherst, N.Y.

Books , 1998) , pp. 271-72.

39. Karl Ludwig Schmidt, "Jesus Christ ," in

Twentieth Cen tury Theology in the Making,

Biblical Theology, ed. Jaroslav P elikan. Fontana Library of The ology an d Philosophy (Lon

Books , 1969) , pp. 93-120.

40. Tomashevsky, "Them atics," trans. Lee T. Lemon and Marion J . Reis, in Russ

Criticism: Four Essays

(Lincoln and London: Un iversity of N ebrask a Press, 1965), p . 90.

41 . Rudol f Bul tmann , History of the Synoptic Tradition, trans. John Marsh, 2d ed.

Harper & Row, 1968) ; Drews, The Christ Myth; T. W. Manson, The Sayings ofJesus (L

Press, 1948).

42. Manson's summary of the parable, p. 61.

43. In Solomon Schechter,

Som e Aspects of Rabbinic Theology

(New York: Macm il la

1910), p. 327.

44. Jacob Neusner , In Search of Talmudic Biography: The P roblem of the Attributed S

Judaic Studies 70 (Chico: Scholars Press, 1984).



45 . He lm s ,

Gospel Fictions

, 1988.

46 . Tho ma s L. Brodie, "Luke the L iterary Inte rpre ter: Lu ke-Ac ts as a System atic R

U pd atin g of the Eli jah-E lisha Narra t ive in 1 and 2 Kin gs." Ph .D . diss. , Pontifica U

Tomm aso d 'Aqu ino [Vat ican], 1981; Thom as L. Brodie , "Reope ning th e Ques t for Prot

Systemat ic Use of Judges 6-12 in Luke 16:1-18:8 "Journal of H igher Criticism 2, no. 1 (

6 8 - 1 0 1 .

47. Earl Doherty, "The Jesus Puzzle," Journal of Higher Criticism 4, no. 2 (fel l 1997)

48 . Alan Dun des , "The He ro Pa ttern an d th e L ife of Jesus," in In Q uest of the Hero

A. Segal (Princ eton: Princeton Universi ty Press, 1990), pp. , 17 9- 22 3.

49. Ibid. , p. 190.

Conclusion

THE MANY



BEHIND THE ONE

u r su r v e y o f t h e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t i e s h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e c h e r i s h e

a s i n g l e e a r ly C h u r c h u n t a i n t e d b y h er e sy , w i t h e v e r y o n e o f o n e h e a r t a n d s o u l

o n e C h r i s t , a n d e v e n t u a l l y p r o d u c i n g a h a r m o n i o u s c a n o n of s c r i p t u r e s p e a k i n

gosp e l wi t h a s ing le vo ice — is a m y th . In every case , an ear l i e r d iv er s i ty

u n s u c c e s s f u l l y h i d d e n a w a y b e h i n d a s c r e e n o f h i s t o r y as t h e f i n a l l y d o m i n a n t f a c

i t h a d b e e n . E v e n m a i n s t r e a m s c h o l a r s h i p , w h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e

a n d d i s u n i t y b o t h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d a m o n g t h e r a n g e o f e a rl y C h r i s t i a n

b e e n s l o w t o d e p a r t f r o m w h a t B u r t o n M a c k c a l ls " t h e B i g B a n g " m o d e l o f C h r i s

T h a t i s , m o s t s c h o l a r s h a v e g o n e o n b l i t h e l y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e r e w a s a s i n g l

N a z a r e t h , s o m e s o r t o f p r o p h e t a n d r e f o r m e r , w h o w a s c r u c i f i e d , a f t e r w h i c h h

e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e s o r t o f v i s i o n s o f J e s u s as i f r is e n f r o m t h e d e a d . O n l y t h e n , w



d i d t h e d i v e r s i t y b e g i n , a s v a r i o u s p e o p l e i n t e r p r e t e d a n d s y m b o l i z e d J e s u s a n d h i

i n t e r m s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e s .

A n d y e t t h e r e w e r e c lu e s t h a t t h e r e c o u l d h a v e b e e n n o p r i m o r d i a l z o n e o f o

th i s f a r be h in d the scenes . For ins t a nce , the cu r re n t c ro p of c r i t i ca l l ives o f J es us

w i t h a n e m b a r r a s s m e n t o f r ic h e s . T h e r e a r e t o o m a n y p l a u s i b l e p o r t r a i t s , e a c h c e n

d i f f e r e n t s e l e c t i o n of g o s p e l d a t a . N o n e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y f a r - f e t c h e d , b u t n e i t h e r a r e

c o m p a t i b l e . T h u s w e h a v e t h e s a m e so r t o f r a n g e o f e v i d e n c e f o r J e s u s t h a t le d

a n d W a l t e r B a u e r t o d e n y a s i n g l e , m o n o c h r o m e e a r ly C h r i s t i a n i t y . I n s o m e s e n s

m u s t r e c k o n w i t h s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n t J e s u s e s .

T h e g o s p e l s ' J e s u s e s a r e e a c h c o m p l e x s y n t h e s e s o f v a r i o u s o t h e r , e a r l ie r , J e s u s

S o m e o f t h e s e m a y h a v e b e e n r e f l e c t i o n s o f v a r i o u s m e s s i a n i c p r o p h e t s a n d r e v

o t h e r s t h e f i c t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t s o f i t i n e r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c s , a n d s t i l l o t h e r s h i s t o r i c

m y t h i c a l C o r n K i n g s a n d G n o s t i c A i o n s . I t h i n k i t i s a n o p e n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r

J e s u s h a d a n y t h i n g t o d o w i t h a n y o f th e s e J e s u s e s , m u c h l e ss t h e J e s u s e s o f

E a c h i s t h e f i g u r e h e a d , t h e t o t e m , o f a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f J e s u s c o m m u n i t y o r

a n d w e w i l l n e v e r k n o w w h e t h e r a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t ea c h c o m m u n i t y r e f l e c ts a

J es us oppo sed to a J es us o r C hr i s t w ho i s a con c re t i za t ion of i t s ow n b e l i e f s and



INDEX



Abba (Fa ther ) , 14 , 107

Achi l les Ta t ius , 217 , 225

Achtemeier , Paul , 62 , 63 , 73

Acts of Andrew, 49

Acts of Joh n. 16 . 49

Acts of Paul, 49

Acts of Peter, 49

Acts of Thomas , 25 , 49

A d on i s, 86 , 8 9 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3

A d o p t i o n i s m , 3 0 , 5 5 . 8 5 . 2 2 7 , 2 2 8

Agnost ic i sm, 10 , 16 , 17 , 252

Akiba , 101 , 231

A l a w i w c t , 2 4 1

A l e x a n d e r J a n n a e u s . 2 4 9

Alexander the Grea t , 35 , 36 . 42 . 11 2,

2 1 3 , 2 1 6 . 2 2 4 . 2 6 0

Al-GhazaJ i , 116 , 118, 119, 125, 127,

144, 146, 147, 167

a l - H a l l a j , 8 2 . 9 4 . 1 2 0

Al i , 53 . 57 , 240 , 241

Al legro , Joh n M. , 52 , 72

A l l e n , C l u t l o t t e , 1 6 6

Anath , 86 , 90

Anaximander , 10

Andrew (d isc ip le ) . 104

A n t h i a , 2 1 6 . 2 1 7

Ant iv thenes of Athen s , 114 , 15 5

Apel les , 26

A p h r o d i t e , 1 1 , 8 6 , 8 9

Apocalypse of Adam. 44 . 45

Apocalypse of Paul . 134

Apocalypse of Pe ter . 134

Apocrypha Acts of the Apos t les , 16 , 49 ,

1 0 3 , 1 3 8 , 2 6 2

A p o c r y p h o n o ( J o h n . 2 4 0

Apol lo , 35 , 161 , 175

Apol loniu s of Tyar» , 15 , 35 , 37 , 38 , 40 ,

4 1 . 4 2 , 8 4 , 2 1 3 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 3 . 2 3 8 , 2 5 8

Apol lonius of Tyre , 218 , 225

A pol ios , 49 . 84 . 103

apologet ics . 98 , 99 , 176, 178, 204

a p o l o g i t r s . 1 0 , 11 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 9 8 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 4 ,

106. 166, 179, 206, 252

Apule ius . 219 . 225

are ta logy^ica l , 35 . 40 , 42 , 43 , 49 , 103 ,

2 1 3 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 4

A r i u s ' A n a n s , 1 3 . 2 7

Atc lepiades , 192 , 258

Asclcpius , 32 , 38 , 39 , 161 , 192, 228,

2 5 8

Athxnos iu t . 13 . 26 , 32

Athena , 16 , 40

A n i l . 6 8 . 8 6 . B S . 8 9 . 9 1 . 9 2 . 1»9

Awit xch , l r>c. 201, 211

e - d . S 6 . 9 0 . 9 1 . 1 8 9

fcfc. 57. 58

B«k«i f i irh , 57

Boolk , Gil , 177. W

175. 176. 179. 180. 185. 207

b f t i s m o < ) e v u . 1 4

Bxr.bSu, 20) . 204. 248

B t x f c w t t . 2 4

B*rrt i, Ot hir J. I l l

B<uilid«. 26, 27, 187. 190

O ia p h o . J w ep h . 2 0 0 ,2 0 1

O l l t f h c * , 2 1 4 .2 1 5 . 2 1 6 ,2 2 4

Olvin .Joho, 10. KM, 111, 173

f j n b b u . 2 0 5 . 2 0 6 . 2 4 2 , 2 4 8

C u c r . M iu ik e . 1 0 2 . 1 1 1 .2 6 1

C e p t a . 4 9. 5 3 .8 4 . 1 0 3 .2 0 1

Ondo, 25

C n iM h u t . 5 5

C h K r t u . 2 1 4 . 2 1 5 . 2 l 6 . 2 2 4

O u ln d o o t i in j , 1 1 .1 3

Chxnklcu . 218

C t u r u c o . 2 1 4 .2 2 4

C h i l to n . B o w . 1 8 2 . I M , 1 9 6 . 2 1 0



Buitf. BIUIK.. 17. 25}

B*«f . Writer. 17. 22. 24. 25. 26. 27,

2 8 . 2 9 . 4 4 . I « , 1 1 2 . 2 6 5

Bull . Fcrdiiu itd (hro rnr .. 17, 22. 25,

24. 28. 29. M. 32 . 44. 265

B»lo»rd CX«tpk. Ml. 84, 197 .201

Bcrjtn . Peter L, 209

B « , j m u i . U t f m u . 1 7

Bh.raei, Agrhtr«i«i>, 102. I l l

B lm o J c y , M a d am * H c k r u W t r o m i .

147

BJnmhrci.Craix. 167

B o A iu t r . . . 3 2 . 5 0 . 8 2 . W . 1 2 6 . 1 8 1

Bool of Tt»;mu ik e CoMereta. 25. 34.

3 5 .4 3 . 7 2

BO.K. Muo u. 241

B o m k a n a t.O U W I K I . 1 5 .1 9 . I l l

B i w « , W i l hr l m . 9 2 . W

Ba» do*. S . G. F.. 14. 18. 109 ,11 2

Hretch Jimrt . 241

Brodk. rt«n v« I . 257. 265

Brown. Peter. 44. I l l

B r o wn . R j» m o o d £ .8 9 . 9 5

BuddhfSiddharttu .'GoutT*. 57. 82.

1 2 6 , 1 5 6 . 1 4 7 . 2 6 1

BuiWMim. 52. 50, 85. 9 i . 12 9. 1 )) .

1 ) 6 ,1 4 7 , 1 8 1

Bultaunn, Riadaall, 15. 19. 61. 63, TO.

7) . 98. 99. 102, 10J. 106, 110.

1 1 1 . 1 4 8 . 1 6 3 . 1 6 6 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 8 , 2 ) 9 .

2 5 0 . 2 5 1 . 2 5 5 . 2 5 7 . 2 6 5

Buikcrt. Walter, 170

C h ic . 2 1 7 .2 1 8 , 2 2 5

Chnil-Myth Theorr, 85. 115. 166. 207.

2 » . 2 5 0 . 2 5 1 . 2 6 0 , 2 6 )

Cicaro, 154, 250

Clccaune*. 244, 245

C l l i c h o n . 2 1 7 , 2 2 5

C c f a b .J e h n B . J r . , 1 7 7 ,2 0 9

C c i la y t t .u o d . R .G . , 9 7 .1 1 0

C O U M M 1 2 . 2 4 , J 2. 5 6

C w , R n bc e t B . . 2 1 0

Ccutheud, M.. 83.94

C r t t e t . 1 5 8 .1 5 9 , 1 6 2

Crorm. 175, 176

Crmufi. Join. Dutiutw- _ 13. 14. 16. 18.

19. 48. 184. 301. 21 0, 222. 241,

242

Crown. A D.. 262

crc ofalo a of Jews . 9 . 14, 47, 55. 56,

76, TJ, 78. 114, 146 . 148, 149,

189, 196, 207. 215.216. 221. 222.

228. 245, 248. 249. 258, 260. 265

cranfrt io w, 42, 187. 189, 214. 216

C t ^ id . 2 1 9

C m w , 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 . 1 7 9 . l t o , 1 9 6 . 2 0 0 ,

204

Crbele. 86. 87. 92

CrnkuSsm, 14. 16. 47, 48. 49. 50. 51,

6 8 . 6 9 . 7 1 , 8 3 . 1 1 4 . 1 1 5 . 1 1 6 . 1 2 6 ,

1 3 1 . 1 3 3 , 1 ) 7 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 8 . 1 5 0 . 1 5 1 .

1 5 4 .1 5 5 .1 5 6 .1 5 7 . 1 6 2 . 1 6 ) . 1 6 7 ,

1 8 1 . 2 4 2 . 2 5 2 . 2 5 5

Dkhl, Nil» . 207, 211

Duphnb. 217. 218. 225

n»vm, Srum L. 4) . 49. 50. 71. 167.

1 8 1 . 2 1 0 . 2 ) 7 , 2 6 2

D w d S e i S o d i . 1 * . 1 8. 3 1 . J 2 . 5 9 . 6 0 .

7 2 . 1 1 5 , 1 7 7 , 1 9 1 . 2 J 3

Drmrou. >t

D R Ii d l j K q u n . 1 1 . 1 2 . 1 8

DWCMWI. Ren i. 1 0.1 1

DuJnjur rf th» Smut. ii. 34

Diucualm if Ta: im, 24

Did»the.4S. 50.84. 191

Dio Chnr omm . 1)0. 1)1, 1)2. 153.

1 5 4 . 1 5 6 . 1 5 8 . 1 ) 9

El. 90

Elude. Mirtra, 91. 95. 261

U t M bm IKtU rus. 99. 100, 101.

102, I

CM

10). 107. 229. 230

Elijah. 51. 6). 64. 65. 66. 109. 12).

210. 250, 26)

Elidu, 6). 65. 69. 181. 210. 2)7, 26)

ENiea-Bina. L E„ 64. 73

I If bar Jnat , 24?

Lsf . d M l . . , ) 5

EiUMiim. Eunt ita. 24. 2S. )1 . )2

t a k l d o . « 9

faoA-M.mne, 102,161



OoJorui Strata, 20) . 250

Diqpnn Lwit iui , 1)1, 1)J, 1)4. 1)5.

157.15S

Dioxmn rf S- iorc. 69. 114. 126. 14) .

151. 15) . 154.155, 1)6. 160.162

Dtuy uu. 68. 86. 87. 92. 93. 176. 179.

196, 2W. 207. 234. 2)0

Dcwtk. 16. 2) . 57.1)8,199. 204. 228.

2)7, 251

I W iu n, 16. 2) . 31. 85.90. 190. 203.

2)7. 2)3

Dcdd, C H., 54. 55. T2

Ddwny. E»H. 258. 26)

DMldieiru.'am. 61. 262

D o . i i b . u s , ) ) . 6 0 . 2 4 7

Dwi#h v, Du:«ll J,. 34. 35. 4). 224

Douglas. MM,. 115. 124, 166. 2)0. 261

Do»nir, R. Anf it . 211

Do mi ng. F. Gerald. 14. 48. 71. 114.

126 1)0 16216T. 210

Drew. A nhir. IT. 94. 2)0. 25>. 25) .

262,262

Dni», 120

Duido. Ako. 259. 260. 263

Duikhtim. toil. 170

l*<Ui« Gated 178

Ekconiwi'ran, 24. 30. 31. 32. 52. 59.

60. 72.10 7, 109. 14S. 227

F*yi«i in . Tlx, 250, 246.247. 218

Eunira n. Rohm . 14. 18. )9 . 60,

7 2 . 1 1 2

Eidn. Rohm. 14.18, 59

Ea a l i U t h n . 6 1 . 8 1

l ^ a w u s . 1 ) 0 , 1 ) 1 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 . 1 5 6 . I V ,

158.1)9. 160

Epicunu'EpkuKM.. 69. 126.1 31.1 62

fptstlr of rhf Apostln, 54

Ea*nra. )9. 60. 61. 2)2

EuKfctus. 21. 24. 27. 28. 58, ICO, 109

futjKh".

I)

n u n u m, 1 5 , 2 ) 2

«»rtlsrts>. 14.15. 1C#, 252

Filk . Hanty, 14, 18. Il l , 2)1. 261

fww Xjjotui, 88.94

Fidi. Seanler. 209

h f t n i . c:<Krr 6 2 , 6 5 . 7 )

Fn»r, Jamrv 91. 205. 206. 207. 211

Fi t y u . S e u . 1 1 2

Fn g g i . 1 7 5 , l »

Foiler. Rcp=»ld H , 261

Fv iJ t, R U x « W . 7 2 , 2 4 1

Gagct , Jtka G.. 14.1 9

G^ Wa , 14. 16, 79. 107, 106. 109,

182.252

GaDce. 48. 64. 6), 66. T9. 106. 107,

1 0 8 . 1 0 9 . 1 1 0 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 6 2 . 1 6 7

C,wml,rl. 100. 246

Gandhi . M:*ir.;« K, 171.184

Gartner, Benil, 188, 210

G a si o *. l l o r d . S l . 9 4

G«MRf. Gerard, 225

Gnugi . Dicta. 49. 71

Cwh acw o. B irgff. SO, 99, 111

G h c i* 2 4 1 . 2 6 2

Giraed , R«r> 17, 1^ -2 11

G » * k . 2 6 . 2 7. J l , ) 2 . J 4 . 4 ) . » , < 0 ,

79, BO. 81, 82 .8 } . 85. 90. 9) . 1)2 .

1 4 8. 2 ) 5 , 2 ) 7 . 2 4 0 , 2 ) 1 . 2 6 6

GMKkiMk. 24. >2. J) . 4) . <0, SI , S2,

S3. 84. 239, 240

G im e in , 2 7 , 2S . ) 2 .6 1 , 8 2 . S 3 . 8 4 .9 4 .

120. 2)1

Gotfman, trvinjt. 210

Goldritxr. Igiu i. 72

Gofiou , Bin , 211

G o sp e l u c c u d io t to t lK N r a t i B . J O

H i l l e l , 1 4 .2 ) 0 ,2 4 7

tecoeiai Jesus. 9. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

1 7 . 1 9 , 2 1 . 8 4 . 1 1 7 , 1 4 9 , 2 W . 2 2 S .

2 ) 0 . 2 5 ) . 2 5 8 . 2 6 6

H o l l t t . D k . 2 0 9

Hoflminn, K Joseph. 44

Horn the Circle-Drawer, 14. 108

Hunlej . Richard A . 14. 19. 50. 162.

167, KM. 210

Honia, 86, 90

Hothsr. 175. 186.191

H o e M ra , J . L . 2 5 6 , 2 6 3

Hume, David . I I



G w p e l K t c r d in g t o t h e l / r p i i iu . 2 6 .

30

Go»f*l il'.ud^, to the Hebecwa, 26. >0

G w p e l

of

BanhoVjmta,. 191

Guapel td Petee. 21. 249

Goipel ot Philip. 45

Gwp«l rf Thomas IV Israelite. 4J

GtiHin , C .S ., 201, 211

Gtlff ln . Bwi d . 177, 209

lUnuuKi, 216

I tolad , 90

Haraehin , Rnw, 71

Hidin, Fcidiiiattd, 102, 111

Wakih , 14. 101. 101. 105. 109. 229.

2 ) 0 . 2 5 1 . 2 3 2

H-M ttoa-K rily . Rohcn G , 170, |T7,

1 » , 1 8 4 . 2 0 9 , 2 1 0

Huiii ia ban Dnu, 14 .99. 109

Hanion , Ambuiy T.. 52. T2

H a r r y . A . 8 . 1 2 3

Haaidbm. 70. 1C»» 11 J . 229. 251 , 255

l l c n t ^ m . ) 8 . 5 9

H « o f J w a , 5 2 . 5 ) . 5 4 . ) 7 . 5 8 . 6 2 .

7 5 . 1 0 7 .1 0 8 . I S ? . 2 3 4

Held . Han-Joachim . I l l

HrlindflPlf. 218, 2 2)

H r t ma , R a d i i , 2 ) 8 . 2 5 7 . 2 6 2 . 2 6 )

Hinakln , 90. 228. 2)0

Herod Antipo . 186, 249, 2)1

Herod the Gswi. 249, 2)9

Heue. Hermann. 100, 111

H i l l . S o M t D . 1 8 1 . 2 1 0

Htusein, 241

b m b lx f c w . 3 ) . 3 6 . 4 ) , 2 1 5 . 2 1 9 , 2 2 4

l^aaaiio . 25. 27. 16)

I n u m . 5 7 . 5 9 . 1 0 1 ,2 4 1 ,2 4 8

Inueey Geapal re Uarthew, 4 ) . 126

td i i* . 56, 91

bidoet. 26

f e .. 8 6 .8 8 , 9 0 .9 2

Mam

52. 56. 57. 77. 101, 112. 115,

1 1 6 . 1 1 7 , 1 2 3 . 1 2 5 . 1 2 6 . 1 3 7 . 1 4 8 .

1 7 2 , 1 9 0 .2 1 1 .2 2 9

lamailia. 187

I

SK». Stanley Jerome. 2 6 2

JainucVam, 1)3

J.rn n the Jar, Breehr* re J«us , 18, 52.

5 ) , 5 7 ,

J R .

59, <0. 61, 7) ,

7R .

108,

109. 112. 241, 24S

J a me s, s o e i t f / e t w k * , 1 6 ,5 2 ,5 ) , 1 8 7 ,1 9 8

Jcremiaa, Jouh im. 15. 19.98. 110. I l l

Jesus ben Ananias. 109. 242. 24J, 24B

Jn.15 ten Saff ihuh. 248

Joiu Semifa*. 16. 72

J e ir t . 5 0 . 3 1 , 3 2 , 5 8 . 6 ) . 66 6 8 . 7 6 . r s .

8 7 . 9 7 . 1 0 5 . 1 1 0 . I l l , 1 ) 0 , 1 7 ) .

2 0 1 . 2 ) 0 . 2 ) 0 . 2 ) 1 . 2 ) 2 . 2 ) 3 . 2 4 2 .

2 4 4 . 2 4 8 .2 5 3

Ju te tu u bet. Zakkai. 97.90 . 109. 254

John rt* 8« aK . 60. 61. 70, 109. 125,

1 2 9 , 1 8 6 . 1 9 0 . 2 0 3 . 2 4 7 . 2 4 9

Jota . ion <* Zetedte. 1 6. 52. )5 . lOI .

126. 187. 198

J o c m . H i . , 2*0.762

JoitpJl tf Gbduli, 2*4

Jowphw, lUrtui . 15.42. 59. 109. 205.

230. 242. 24) . 244. 245, 246. 262

Joihul hoi Ferechah. 249

JuHiim. 14. 19. 29. 30. 32. 67.69. 76.

77, 36. 93. 97. 99. 1CM 105. 106.

107. 112. 116. 178, 229. 2)3, 262

Joi iw Itculoc. 1S6. 18S. 18 9. 1» . 19) .

19), 197, I9S> 199. 210, 211,258

Jixfca ol Galilrr, 54. 58, 2*6

Juain Mirtii. 24. 88

MKtohr. Hyio. 14. 18. 172, ISO. 186.

188. 1S9. 197. 195. 20J. 204. 209.

210,211

Mitk. Baton L . 14. 17. 2S. 4) . 44. 45.

47. 48. 49. 50, 52, 54. 56, 58. 62,

6), 64, 67. 6S. W. 71, 75, 77. 78.

79. 9) . 104. 107. 110. Il l , 11) .

114.115, 126,148, 149, 130. 16J,

166.169. 177, 180. 1S6. 209, 222.

229.241,242, 24S. 262. 265

MigtUer*. >t*>. 238. 245

n u j / . 1 4

rmj-oani".,), 14. 16

Mifurana. 32.82.181



Kihu. Hrimin.

Kr*. l lcr*«<JO iA. 106. 112

Kribcr. W.rar. 184

Krtbet. Wrr=rr. 224

Ktfm>J;. It nk, 210. 211

Kin,t±<iry, jK-k Dun. /21

Klein. Gunter, 188

Klor^nhjf*, Jrt in . 79.11) . 166

Knuc, John. 80, <M

Koe»te«. Helmut. 17. 25, 28, 29.3). 42,

43.41. 45.8-1. 149. 213.221. 222

Kurin. 66. 101. 112, 122. 123. 144.

166.20)

K n m , W r r r « . 8 1 . 9 4

Kix«. Htm. 179.209

Urn

Itoh. 2) . 30. 31. 59. 60. 66. 67,

63. 70, 76, 77, 97. 99, 100. 102.

103. lOl . 105,106. 109.118.165.

229.2)5, 23) . 254. 255. 256

Ulbnu. GwthtU. 11

U i p d d t . J o i t ^ i i w . 2 2 4

U i K i n * . 2 1 7 , 3 2 )

UVI&IUJU. Cw d: . 12.174

U. ., . AKrr.l Hirmin. 196. 249. 262

UJti. 175. 186. 191

Uogus, 217, 225

Lu U v mh r n . 3 2 8 . 2 2 9 . 2 3 1 . 2 ) 2 . 2 ) ) .

235. 236. 261

Uoan cf SiiroMM. 47. 79. 154. 155.

62

16

LbJcminn. Gttd, 112

L«hct, Mirrin, 127

Milhtrbe, AhnhimJ, 162, 167

Mudanni.

61, 81

M i n i , 2 4 . 8 2 . 8 3

M.nkhrani.'ian, 28. M

M . . D « > . T . V . 2 5 ) . 2 6 2

Mirnon. 27, 29, 30. *4.80

M.mnrctK.'Mjtrinram,, 24. 25. 28, 29,

Mit j tdiowh. [>.$. , 116.117.1«

Mattkcw (dUcipW), 2J, 167

M M ti U, A . J . J t . 1 4 , 1 8 . 1 6 6

M c N n J f . A l l . S « , U I

Mod . G R S . 249, 262

Metfcj. Wayne. 236. 261

Mrich.wd.k_ 36, 32.81

Mck^rt . 48.69. 162

McmiKta. 25

Mrtiippn, 48

Meyer. Beit F.. 15. 19

MuhMh/MHhnaic, 97.98.99.100.101,

102, 10). 104, 106, 109, 110, 229,

2)1. 253, 257

Michr»),

4T7

92

M i n n n p o n i m, 2 7

Moon. Mtfb. 240. 262

Moericv, Williim, 118, 167

Mtnev 30. 35. 42. 60. 61. 6). 64. 65.

66. 70. T), 79. 81. 100. 104. 107,

109. 112,161, 193, 247,254. 258

Muhuunid, 53. 37. 66. 83. 99. 101.

1 1 7 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 6 . 1 3 0 . 1 3 7 . 1 6 6 , 1 9 0 ,

240. 241

MulUr, Mix, 92

M u m r . ( j i lh m . 2 0 9

M a d ia * ) , 2 5 . 5 ) . 5 6 . 5 7 . 1 17 , 1 2 4 .

129. 157, 148. 199. 222

M u t n iu t R u f iu . 1 5 1 , 15 2 , 1 ) 4 . 1 5 5 .

1 8

M

j«« 7 RrtiJionu'CuIu, 87. 88. 91. 92.

9 ) . 2 3 5

Nig l l»nm»dl, 26. 32. 33. 44. <0. 72.

8 1 , 9 0 . 9 2 . 2 4 ( 1

N u u o n , J l . 7 ) . 20 3

N u iw h , 1 7 . 1 9 . 2 9 . 4 7 . 6 0 . 6 6 . 7 J .

101 1(0

Pcmheiu . 207

P t t c gr l iM l , P r o d i s . 4 7 . 1 5 5 .1 6 2 ,1 6 )

Ptrkiiu . Ptwae, 45

Ptnit i . Not= *i. 15. 19. 4) . 102. 111.

1 1 6 .1 1 7 . 1 6 7 , I T S

p e r w p t o r * . »

Pernio. 87

Peitr. S irron, 23. 24.25 . 27,5 2.5 3. 5 5.

1 2 6 , 1 8 2 ,1 8 6 ,1 8 " . 1 *8 , 1 9 1 ,1 9 ) .

191. 197.198. 201. 202

Peiccolu i. 220. 225

P t w i w w , 1 4 , S I . 4 3 , ) 9 , 6 0 . 6 6 . 6 7 , 6 $ ,

70. 97. 105. 106, 107. 110, 121.

1 3 9 . 1 4 0 . 1 4 2 . 1 6 5 . 1 9 4 . 1 9 5 . 2 ) 1 .



N u « e u o . 3 1 . 6 0 . 6 1 . 6 6 . 7 ) , 8 5 . M ,

S5. 107. 109. 223

NocoriiH, 13

N curat . Ju cb . 17. 98. 99. 100. 101,

1 0 3 , l » t . 1 0 7 . 1 1 1. 2 2 9 .2 5 7 . 2 6 1 ,

263

N:>tCf. Jcrctnr H.. 17. 235. 23 6. 261

Nitbrliburg, G«rg { W E.. 225

N i t c & ic im . 2 6

NltbuSe. H. RiUurd. 2)6 . 261

N « h . M i f t in , 7 0 . 7 ) . 1 6 1

Nuib .kt ah , J ivvj i . 116. 119, 120, 122.

1 2 4 . 1 3 6 . 1 4 0 . 1 4 1 . 1 6 7

Nuuvri wet . 241

O l t b t r g , H m o , 1 1 1

Ordipu^ 173. 174, 179. 185. 1S9. 190.

207. 208, 259

O n o m i u i . 4 8

On t tr 3th and the 9th . )2

O s i i u . 8 6 . 3 8 . 8 9 . $ 0 . 9 1 . 9 4

Otto. Kvdotf . 170

Ov aii un . J Andrr*- , 112

P a e r X f W . 2 51 . 26 2

P a w e n b e ^ , W d & ir t , 2 0 9

5 )

P « i i . R a p h t d , 2 6 2

P « r « w o , i c e m e n J . 1 2 7 . 1 6 7

Pad 2 ) . 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 7 . 2 9 , 3 0 .4 8 , 4 9 . » .

) 9 . 7 1 . 3 0 . 8 1 . 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 8 . 9 2 , 1 0 3 ,

107, 112, 159.202

261

Ph&>. 68, 152. 163. 205. 227. 262

P lc f e K M u i . 1 5 . 3 7 . 2 1 ) . 2 2 1 . 2 5 3

PtotUM. 215

Pil .tr. Pnatiio . 14, 39. 148, 2C0, 202,

2 0 3 , 2 0 1 . 2 2 3 .2 4 3 .2 4 5 . 2 4 6 . 2 4 8 .

2 4 9 , 2 ) 0 , 2 5 1 . M 0

PilUn, 52. 5) , 54. 57. 58. 62. 7) . 107,

109. 201. 234. 248

& r h i> . ) 4 ,2 5 1

P b t o . 1 0, 3 2 .6 8 , 1 6 )

Ptoeud) . 45. 152, 244. 245. 162

K > l

K

> r p . F . j « t W , 2 S

Pu «l l . Mtik AlV.f. , 224, 225

Prk«. Rctxn M , 167

H ir e , R » y A . 1 1 2

PK?P. VI14'—ir. 174

P»

f

tht . 219

P y t t u p ™ , J ) , ) 6 , 4 5 . 2 5 8

1 } D X U IM K , 1 7 . 3 3 , 4 3 . 4 7 . 4 8 , 4 9 . 5 0 ,

51, 52. 61.63. 69. 70. 79, B». 108.

1 1 ) . 1 1 4 .1 1 5 , 1 1 6 . 1 1 7 , 1 1 3 ,1 2 1 .

1 2 2 .1 2 5 .1 2 6 , 1 2 7 . I f f l , 1 ) 0 .1 ) 2 ,

134. 140.145. 146, 147. 14S . 150.

1 6 0 . 1 6 1 . 1 6 2 . 1 6 3 . 1 6 6 , 2 2 2 . 2 2 ) .

224, 242. 262

Quirituca, 249

ttbbl. 14. 1) . }1 . 66. 98. 9?. 105. 107.

1 6 1 . 1 6 7 . 2 2 8 . 2 2 9 . 2 ) 0 . 2 ) 1 . 2 ) 2 .

2 ) ) . 2 4 2 . 2 4 7 . 2 5 ) . 2 5 4 . 2 5 5 .2 5 6

rabbinic. 14. 65. 67. 81. 58. 99, 105.

1 1 0 .1 6 2 . 2 5 7 . 2 6 5

R.gUn, LonJ, 259. 260

Rumkiufcat , 102

R»iKk. Otto. 45. 259

Reudaa, B P., 224

Reiutnv.rin . RSdaari, )2 . 73. 92

R«mo», 186

rourreet im ef >a n. 9 . 10, 27. 34. 33.

43. 47. 54. 55. 56. 61. 93. 148,

1 4 9 . 1 7 9 . 2 1 5 . 2 2 1 . 2 2 4 . 2 2 8 . 2 51 .

2 6 0 . 2 6 4

RitKiilt ld . Kanld , 9S , 99. 110

R e t i n a e . J im t t M . 1 7 . 2 8 .2 9 . 3 3 . 3 4 .

262

S c h i s t f iotntej . FKwheth, 14. 19.

172. 173. 184. 209

S c h M ir r . R t y a u n d , 1 7 7 , X »

Sehwejtxer, Albert. 12. 1). 18. 11). 166

Scobit . Loctea. 209

StgmA*, Jiun Lull , 14, 19

Sc an . 150. 151. 153. 156. 157. 158.

159, 225

Senpii . 88

Setwttu . Mxiuxl, 1 7)

Set. 86

S«h. 26. 32. 81

S lu ik in . 1 4 7



4 3 . 4 4 , 4 5 . 1 4 9 . 2 1 3 , 2 2 1

Rtfcimui.JiJ>n A T., 55. 72

R c t lm c e . N e i l , 2 1 1

R o t m m , 1 4 ,1 5 , 2 8 , 4 0 .4 7 . 5 2 .6 ) . 6 7 .

79. 97, 105. 110. 182, 183, 202 .

2 0 3 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 5 .2 1 0 . 2 4 2 . 2 4 3 , 2 4 4 .

2 4 6 . 2 4 9 . 2 6 1 , 2 6 2

Rom;. 24. 27. 40. 45. 68. 110, 112,

1 8 3 . 2 0 3 .2 4 4 .2 4 6 . 2 4 7 . 2 4 8

Romufea, <0. 186. 207

Rott>. Rfckud. 10. 11. 18

Ridnlfh , Kurt , 44

frkmt. 249

S u K i t a , 3 1 , 6 0 . 6 4 . 6 5 . 6 6 . 7 9, 1 0 7 .

109. 137. 2)1 . 245. 247. 248. 262

S.rJ»n, f . P., I ) . 19. 162.167

S m J t n j K k T . 1 12

Sjrhtdiif l , 14, 97. 109. 110. 200. 201.

202. 247, 256

Sxui. 125, 126. 1)2 . 187, 191

S * « n i ln v $ u : u m ln u s . 2 5

S J m l i t t t S c l t m n a . 2 6 )

S A l e v « m » l o . F t i t d ti i l i D a ^r i E r u t .

138

S A m id t . K s H lu d w i g. 251. 252, 262

Scfamltkab. Wfctef . iO. 82. 8) . 61. 85.

9 4 . M l . i f ®

SchoMfKA. Mean hrm Mod el. 15. 54.

2 2 8 . 2 2 9 , 2 ) 1 . 2 ) 2 . 2 3 3 . 2 3 5 . 23 6

Schotpi. Huu-Juu-him, 44

Sch caM J, Hugh J.. 14. 18, 59. 249.

Shepherd <i lle(iM >, 27

S l W i r « , 5 7 . 6 ) , 1 0 1 , 2 4 1 . 2 6 2

Si^ni £«jrcc. 62. 65

Simeon t « Cfeoph i. 109

Sirron imt C«an, 244, 248

Sutan bu KMkb*. 105. 111.231

s .rron M w b . ) 3 . 6 0 . 8 1 , 8 2 . 1 8 7 . 2 4 7

J i s n n o f C f r a e . 1 8 7 . 19 0

SjBOfi the Lepet. 1 9)

Scmm t h e P l u n w . 1 9 4

&s un the Zeilut , 187. 189. ' .91

Sfceptici. 10

Smith . Jc«. ih .n 88. «9. 90. 91. 95.

170

Smith . Jowph. 126

Smith. Morten. 14, 18

S t x e i t e i. 1 0 . 1 7 ,6 9 , 1 6 2 . 2 2 2

SOT GtJ, 14, 27, 35. 36 .40 , 55, 65,

76. 78. l(K>. 125. 227. 2)R. 245.

245. 259

Sr^hi.

r f a m

Chriit . 3) , )4

St*4K<l«. 173, 2«3

Spi«g*l. Shifcm, 211

Spilt:FJ. BMULK. 11

S u u i i d D e r m . 1 4 7

S r o h w t . 1 5 2

S e o ia /a m . 7 8 . 1 6 2 . 1 6 ) . 2 5 3

J r n u K . t > » id f r l t d t k h .

<0

Sueeker. Gecr j . 44

Sufi Q. 14 6.1 48

Sufit,4im, 82, 115, 116, 117. 118, 119.

120. 123. 12) . 126. 127. 128. 131.

132, 133, J 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 . 1 4 1 .

146, 147, 148, 167

S u n n i I s l am , 5 7 , 1 0 1 , 2 4 1

Taheb, 64 . 234

Tolber t , Char les L , 41 , 45 , 21 3 , 22 1,

225, 251, 262

Talm ud. 104, 249, 255, 263

T a m m u z , 8 6 , 9 1

Teacher of Righteousness.. 59, 60

Teichcr , J ico b L , 59 , 72

Valent inus /Valent in i ins . 26 . 27 , 81 . 82 .

84 , 85

Van Gennep. Arnold . 94

Vedanta Sutras, 147

Vermiseren . Maar ten . 91 , 95

Vermes , Gera , 14 , 18 , 102. 108. I l l ,

112

Vey™, Paul , 228 , 250, 261, 262

Vi i l te r. Danie l . 163

Weeden. Theodore J . . 44 . 192 . 211



Temple ( Jerusa lem) , 14 , 31 , 53 , 59 . 67 ,

1 0 4 , 1 0 5 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 5 , 1 9 6 , 2 0 0 ,

210, 233, 243, 244, 252. 253. 260

T h i l K , 1 0

Thc-agenes, 218

Theissen , Gerd , 48 . 50 . 71 . 72 . 83 , 84 ,

9 4 . 1 0 3 , 1 1 1 . 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 9

T h e r a v a d i , 3 2

Theseus , 90 , 250

Theu dis , 15 , 230 , 246, 247, 248

Thicr ing , Barbara , 45

Thomw (disc ip le ) , 25 . 42 . 58 . 104 , 120.

165, 188, 238

Ti tans , 176 , 196, 200

Todorov, Tzvctan , 175, 209. 225

Tttdt, H. F.. , 102, 111

Tomashtvsky, Bor is . 252 , 263

Trinity, 11, 12, 112

Tubingen Schonl , 27

Twelve , the , 23 , 24 , 30 , 53 , 80 . 110 ,

16-1, 187, 188, 198, 258

Ulansey . David , 94

L ' thman, 241

Weiss , Johannes . 15 , 19

Welbum. Andrew J . . -14

Wel ls . George A. . 115 , 166. 250, 251,

262

Wend land . Paul , 206 . 2 07

Whi te head . Al f red Nor t h . 177

Wiener , Anthony J . . 209

Wil l iams . James G. . 17 7 , 209. 210

Wil l iams. Sam K. . 76 . 78 , 79 , 94

Wilson. Brj-on, 89

Winte r . T . J . , 116 , 145, 147, 167

Wre d- . Wi l l iam, 18 , 55 . 72 , 113, 166

Wright , N. T . , 166

Xcnophoo of Ephesus . 216 . 224

Yavneh, 97 . 98 . 1 00. 109. 22 9

Zagrcus , 87

Zealo ts . 14 . 18 . 59 . 60 . 244

Zeus . 16 . 48 . 87 , 114 , 154, 156, 17 5.

1 7 6 , 1 9 6 . 2 0 0 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 7

Zotwute t . 'Zoross t t ian , 20 . 32 , 45 , 81

Zostrianos, 32

Voage . Le i fE. , 113 , 114, 166

S RIPTURE INDEX

GE NE SIS

18:18-22,

p . 247



9A-6. p . 76

30:12, p . 229

19:50-38, p . 106

clwprct

22 . p . 204

J OSHUA

23:18, p 254 24:14. p. 192

27:40,

p 108

24:19. p . 192

28:12,

p . 126

37:9 , p . 66 J UDGE S

(hapten 6 - 1 2 , p 2 6 3

E X O D U S 13:15-20, p 2 3 8

5:15-19.

p. 70

19:22, p. 204

chipcer 14 , p . 63

c h i p«r 16, p 63 1 SAMUEL

<h»p«r 18 , p . 25 8

6:7-9,

p 198

32:32, p . 79

13:5-15,

p . 183

15:1-35,

p . 183

NUM B E R S

11:14-15,

p . 63

2 SAM UE L

11:18-23, p . 63 17:23. p 258

11:31-32. p. 63

12:1-15, p . 193

1 K I N G S

chapter 16 , p . 198

5:3 , p . 183

7:17-24, p . 63

D R I T U C O N O M Y

12:1-20,

p. 64

8:17-18,

p 141

17:8-16,

p . 63

18:15-16, p 64

2 Kir*.-.

SlfcKM

4:1-7. p . 6)

5133- 27, p. 254

4:11-37. p 192

4: ) 2- 37. p

257

T o e n

4:32-35. p 63 2:7-8. p . 1)7

4:42-44, p . 61 12 19-20. p . 238

5:10. p 63

liAIAii

I CmoN iozs 1:10-17. p 118

22:8. p 185 29:13, p 106

(hapifr J) , pp . 77.197

2 M u x x n i u

5 ) 4 - 5 . p. 172

6(18-31, p. 77

5 ) * . p . 1 7 2

<twp«c 7. p 77

5):12,p. 197



7:37-38. p. 77

JUUMIAH

4

MMXABtt*

7:21-26. p JO

cfctpccn 5-6 , p . T7 8:6. p )0

6 2 7 - 2 9 .

p. 77

KrwuH.

J o .

8:14. p . 86

9-6. p . 52

DANIU

PuLMt

d up nc 7 . 5 4 . 1 0 3

2 1 - ) , p 1 0 6 9:21-22, p. 117

2 2 . p . 2 2 7

2 7 . p p . 55,227

J 0 «

1 9 3 - * . P 173

1:11-15. p. 195

22. pp . 221. 258

22:1. p 258

ZKHU1W

22:22-24, p . 22)

11:12. p . 258

100, p . 2)3

11:13. p p. 1S9.258

110, p . 10) d x p n r 12, p. 103

1 2 :1 l . p 8 6 , 9 0

PlCrMJJ.;

c h * « r 8 , p . 118 MUACHI

22

1(1. p

170

):7 , p 255

4:5. p 6 1

CA*T1CU»

2:14, p . 2)6

M « m a »

1:22-23. p . 218

WliWM Of $0«XM0M 1:21, pp 37. 84 . S5

2 : 1 ) . p . 1 2 1 2 5 - 6 . p 2 5 8

2:16-18. p 2 ) 8

2:15. P 258

2:18. p. 125 2 1 7 - 1 8 . p. 25®

2 2 3 . p 2 ) 8

):7. p- 129

10:29-31. p 253

) * > p 1 2 9

10:)0. p . 256

W , p 2 ) 3

l 0: ) 4- ) 6 . p 1 84

) 12. p . 92

10:38. R ) 47.145

p. 79

10:41-42,

f t . 50. 234

5:10. p . 257

11:19. H> 78.142

5:17-19. pp . 2) . 30, 106

11:20-24,

p 108

3:19, p . 11$

11:25-27. p 126

p. 31 11

28-30,

p 254

5:22. pp . 253, 256

12:5-7, p . 106

3:23-24, p 118

1210-14, p 1 05

5:2*, pp 127, 253

12:34, p 1)0

5 : 3 1 . p 2 5 3

13:24-30, p . 22

3:37, p 2 5 3

1) 52. pp 107,177



5:40-42. p 257 14.13. p 37

5:43-14.

p 257

13 l 7 . pp 2) . 107

6:1-18, p 140

1617 , p 194

6 2 - 4 . p . 2 ) 4 1724- 27. p. 104

6:7-8. p . 140 173 5, p 194

6 1 6 - 1 8 ,

p 14 1

18.2-4, p 256

619- 21. pp 130.132

18:12-14, p 257

6:21, p 256

18 20, pp 54. 254

6 2 2 - 2 3 , p. 128

19:16-20.

p 119

6 2 4 . p p 130.136

19:21. p. 119

6:26. p 2 56

19:23. p . 256

6 ) 0 - ) ) . p . 256 19:23-30. p 128

6:31-33. p. 132

19:28. p p 24.53

6:34.p 256

20:1-16. p . 256

7:1-2. pp 139. 253. 256 20:15. p 128

7:3-5. p 253

21: l »- 20. p 195

76 , «> 120, 164 21:))-39. p 1 95

7:7. p . 256

21:43.

P 2 ) 4

7:21-23. p 23

22:1-10, p . 13)

7:24-27, j ^ . 134.253 22:1-) . p . 254

8:5-13. p . 63

22:2. p 195

8:10. p . 79

22:11-1) , p. 254

8:20, pp .

48. 1) 2 . 133 2211- 14,

p 195

10:3. p . 189

22-12, p 195

10:5 p 122

2 2 2 ) - ) ) . p. 195

10:5. pp . 31 .6 6

2235, p 196

10:3-4, p. 234

cf apm 2) . p . 1)9

10:5-15. PP 48. 52

2 ) 2 - 4 . p 235

10:12-13. p 122

23:2, p 107

10:16. p 256

2 ) * . p . 1 0 7

10:24-25. pp 10) . 192

2 S * - 9 , p 107

10:25. p 254 2). 9. p 184

23:1).

p 121 2:2®. p. 106

2524- 39, p. 163

2:)2-):6. p 251

2);27. p 121 2:)7 , p 256

2):)5, p 262 3:13-21, p 258

2 J 1 4 - I 9 ,

p . 2M 5:14. p 80

21:31. p 14

3:14-19. p 187

21:31-46. p. 50 3:17. pp. 52.198

268 . p 193 3:19. p . 51

26.2) . p 197

3:20-21. p 5 4

26.48, p 198

3:31-35. pp 54. 258

2650. p 19 6

4:2-9. p. 29

2655, p 200 4: 12, p 108

26.59-61, p. 185

4:15. p 1)2

2664. p 58 4:21. p 256

2673. p 1 82



4:))-51. p 62

27:3. p . 191 4:))-41, p 257

27:4, p. 223 5:1-20. PP 33. 62. 63. 109

27:5, p . 189 5:11 ff.p 162

2 7 6 - 7 , p 1 8 3

5:19. p 110

27:16. p 2 03 5:21-2) , p 62

2 7 1 7 , p J 0 3

5:25-34.

p 62

27 18. p 20) 5:)2-)4. p 6 )

27:22.

p 2 03

5:))-42.

p 63

27 25. p 104 5:)5-4S. p 62

27:43. p 258

6:1-) , p. 108

27:57-60. p. 223

6:3-6. p. ICS

27:J7, p 223

6:) .n> 187.188

28:1-12. p. 221

6:34-44. p 62

28.9. p. 211

6:45-51. p 62

2fc 11-14, p. 221

6 : 7 .p 8 0

28:16-18, p. 54

6:7-11. pp 48. 52

2S. 18-20. p . 40 6:)0 . p . 80

23:19-20, pp 31, 2) 4

6:34-44, p 62

6 : ) 7 , p 1 9 )

MAMK

7:5. p 70

1-4-9. p 125

7:6-7. p <0

2 S - 1 2 . p

2 2 9

7: 11- 1) . p 104

2.15, p . 51

7:1*-19. p 48

2 1 5 - 1 7 ,

p. 78

7:19, pp 2 ) , 107

2 1 5 - 1 8 , p . 16) 7:24-30. p 62

2 1 8 . p 60. 70 7:27. p . 6)

221- 22. p . 2)5 7:)2-)7, p 62

2 2 ) . p . 1 6 ) 7:33-34. p 63

2 2 4 . p 7 0

8 1 - 9 , p 6 2

225- 26. p. 106 8:1-10, p 63

2 2 7 . p 1 0 5

8:22-26. «> 62.195

8:2) . p 63

14:)5-)6.

p. 222

8:27-29, p 51

14:36, p 146

8:27-30. p 109 14:48, p 190

8:27-33. p 1 91

14.49, p 2CO

&28, p 65

14.30.

p 202

8.31. p 22*

14:51-52, p I9«

$ 3 8 , p 3 2

14:57-59.

p 185

» 2 - « . p 6 6 1 4 * 1 . p . 2 4 )

9-12. p 224

1464 . p 202

9:14-29, p. 192

14.65. p. 202

9 33-50, pp ) ) . 251

14:66-71, p 191

9 4 1 . p . 5 0

14:70. p 182

10:17-22. p. 128

15:10. p 204

10 33-34. p 224

15:15. pp . 243.245

1 0 ) 3 - 4 1 . p. 187 15:16-20, p 244



10 18.

p

192

15:25. P 54

10 )9 . pp 53. 19«

15:27. p 190

10.41. p. 198 15:32. p 2 2 )

10:43, p. 222 15:3). PP 40. 245

10:46-52. p 194 15:34. p 223

10:47-48. p 63 13 38. p 245

duptro 11-12, 260 15 39. PP 40. 245

11:8. p 244 15 44. pp 223. 245

11:15-18. p 39

161- 2 ,

P

245

12:1-9. p 131

16:5. pp . 214. 219

12:8. p 195

166- 7 , p 41

12:14. p 181

1 6 : \ F P 55- 54

12:14-17. p 104 16:8. p 35

1220- 23. p 1)7

1228- 34, p 143

U i u

12:35-57, p . 65

1:26-38. pp 37,117

<tapMil) .pp 109.117,248

2:41-52, p 260

13:6, p 248

246- 47,

p . )6

1 M 4 . p 2 4 8 2 5 2 . p 5 6

1 ) 2 1 , p 2 4 8

M S . p 6 1

l ) : 22 , p 248

) - 2) . p 203

1):27.

p. 54

5:1-11.

P 35

13.32, p . 117 5* . p . 192

14:4, p 193 6:5. p 142

14:4-5, p. 193 6: » , pp 1) 0 . 24)

1 4 : 7 . > 0 . 1 9 4

6:45. p . 130

14:12. p 5)

6:47-49, p 134

14:20. p 197

7:1-10, p 6 )

14:22-25, p 92 7:5, p 106

14:24, p 222 7:9. p 79

14:34, p 146

7:11-17, p 257

7:15. p . 220

22:30. p 5)

7:56-10

If , p 191

22:31. p 194

7:56-50. p. 163

22:37.

p 197

8 : 3 . P » 0

22:44. p 146

9 1 - 5 . p 1 8

23:1. p . 243

9:3. p 112

23:22, p 243

9 1 1 - 1 7 . p. 38

23:31.

P 92

9 5 8 , PP 4 8 . 1 5 2 . I S )

24:12, p . 215

10:7, pp

132,24 ) 24:13-3) ,

p 39

1010- 12. p. 52

24:1) , p. 217

10 16. p 105

24:16. p . 217

1 0 2 8 , p 1 1 9 2 4 : ) 6 - 4 ) . w 2 2 ) , 2 5 1

1 0 1 9 . p . 6 6

24:)$, p . 217

11:1. p. 61

24:)9. p 2 2 )

11:34-3) . p 128

24:45-49. p 40



11:44.

p. 121

24:50-53.

P

42

11:49-51. p 16)

11:49. p 1 6 ) JOHN

11:52. p 121

l < - 7 . p 6 1

12:13-14.

p 181

1:12, p. 202

1216- 20, p . 1)2

1:14. p . 2)7

1 2 2 9 - ) l . p . 1)2

1:18, p. 58

1233- 34, p 1 JO

2:1-10.

p 92

1) ) 4 - ) 5 . f P 1 6 ) . 2 4 )

2:1-11. PP 2 ) ) , 2 ) 4

14.1-6, p 105

2 : 1 ) p 2 4 )

14:7-11. p 255

218- 22. p 185

14:16-24, p p. 1 ) ) . 2 5 5 ctupiw 5 . p 232

14:27. pp 4 7. 145

3:2, pp 2 29. 2)2

15:3-7, p 2)7

) : ) . p 2 ) 2

15:7. p 255

) 1 6 .p 2 ) 4

15:8. p 255

328- 30. p. 61

15:11 p 255

Ch*«r 4 , pp 2 )4. 2) 7

16:1-18:8. p 2 6 )

4 6 - 8 . p 2 3 7

161- 12, p 2 ) 7 4 9 . p . 2 ) 4

1 6 1 - 8 p 1 ) 0

4:16-18. H> 1)7.196

168 , p 135

4:25-26. p 2 ) 4

1619- 31, p 2 ) )

4:21. p. 64

17 A p . 2 )0

4:26. p ST

17 26- 27, p . 243

4:29. p 64

189- 14. p 142

4 : ) 2 . p 2 ) 7

19 )8 . p . 244

4:34. p 237

21: 14- 1) . p 52

4:42. p 61

21:20-21. p 2 4 )

4 46- ) 4 . p . 6)

22:3. p 190

cWpto 5 . p 1)9

22:18. p. 222 5:1 ff. p. 24 )

22:27. p , 222

5 8 - 1 0 . p 2 ) 0

5 : 1 8 . p 2 3 )

e t a p c n 1 ) - 1 7 . p ) 4

5

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1) 2 , p . 191

3 28. p 2 39 1 ) 2 3 - 2 5 , p 58

6 M f f . p . 243

1 ) 2 7 , p 1 9 0

6 10. p 63 14:7-10. p 2 3 9

6.19, p . 63

14- 22- 2) , p 2 ) 9

6 : 3 ) . p 37

14-22, pp 188, 189

6:44, p . 235 14 28, p . 2) 9

6:33, p . 233

15:1-10. p 2 ) 4

6 * 3 . p . 2 3 6

15:1-6. p p 9 2 . 2 3 3

6.-66-71. p 191 15:1 . p 57

6:70, p 33

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p . )4

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7 : 1 , p 5 7 16:12-15, p 34

7:2 lf p 243

16:12-13.

p 2 ) 7



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17:12. p 189

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9:22. p . 233

19:55.

p . 214

10:7 ff.p 233

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10:9 . p 57 19:41. pp . 92 , 189 .216

10:14-16. p 1T2

20:1-10. p . 215

10:16.

p . 234 20.1 .

p

214

10:14. p. 37

2 0 t 4 - 4 . p 2 1 4

10:16. p 76 20 .6 - 7 . p 2 15

10:22-23 IT., p 24 3

2 0 1 3 - 1 4 . P

217

10:26-27, p 235

20 14. p 217

10:34. p 2 ) 5

20 17, p 238

11:23-36, p 239 20 19. p 41

11:25, p 57

2 0 2 0 , p . 223

11:35-36. p . 2)7

2 0 24- 29 . pp 42, 251

11 41- 42 , p . 2)7 20:25. p 2 2 )

11:44, p . 220 20:30-31. p 65

11:55-54. p . 243

21:1-11. P 9

1 2 4 , p 1 9 0

2 1 4 . p 3 9

1 2 2 4 , p . 9 2 21:11, p 39

12:44. p 2 39

21:18-19.

p 187

21:24. p 2 14 1 6 2 3 -2 6 . p 2 3

186 . p . 254

THOMAS

I 9 l t - I 2 . p 23

l . p p . ) ) . 1 6 )

20 7 - 12 . p 23

6. p. 21 21 38. pp 2W , 246

12. pp 5) . 241 24:5. p 66

13. pp 51.120 .165 28:28. p. 234

21. p. 131

27. p. 127

ROWAN*

28 . p . 118

1:3-4. p 5 5

39. p. 121 1:5. p 24

60. p 66 1:14. p 24

102, p. 121 3:27-4:1-5 ff, p. 23

3 : 29 . p. 2 ) 4

ACTS 5:2. p 78



1:4. p. 54

dup:ir 8 . p 20 )

1:6. p. 34 ihiptct 11. p. 2)1

19 . P P 40. 42 dupcra 14-15. p p 106.107

1:18-19. p . I W

1 4 :1 -1 5 6 . p 70

136 , p . 197 15:15-20. p 24

23 6 . p 51

1331 , p . 52

3:1-8. p 23

3:19-21.

p. 55 1

COIJVTICAM

5:14-16. p. 23 1:11-12. P 6>

5 35-39. pp 246,247 1: 12 . p p . 49 , 8 )

6 1 2 - 1 4 . p. 181 1:12-1). p 103

6 1 3 - 1 4 .

p. 68 2:8. p 250

73 7 . p 29 3 : 13 . p 1 ) 9

8 9 - 2 4 . p. 2) 7:18. p 107

8 1 8 - 2 4 . p 185

7: 2 ) , p , 102

9 3 6 - 4 2 , p. 23

ihipnr 8. p 92

d ^ i t n 1 0 - 1 1 . p 115

duplet* 8 - 10 . p . 88

10:1-4 < T . p 106 8 . 5 . p 88

10.40—41, p. 251 86 . p 88

10.41.P 14 12 : ) . p p . 61 . 83

11:1-3. n * 165.234 12:12 f f .p 10)

1 2 :1 -2 p 5 3

13:1-3.

p. 123

122 . p . 5 )

13:1. p 12 )

1 2 1 - 1 1 , p. 23 15:3-11. p 5 4

13:6-1 l . P 2 ) 15:5-4. PP 215 . 258

13 33. p 55

15:4. p 54

13 46. p 234

15:5. P 188

1 4 8 - 1 0 . p 23 15:15. p. 202

chofccr

15. p 107

15:20-2), p 54

15:1, p. 107 15:43-50. P 251

15 5, p 106

2 Caur*rmsM>

21 9 . p 125

2:14. p. 47 22 0. p 23

5 : 1 - 2 . p 49 3 : 2 , p . 1 »

5 : 1 4 ,

p 2 « 3 5 1 6 - 1 8 . p . 1 2 )

5:17. p. 2)6

11: 4-5 . p 23 1 PBTMI

11: 5 . p H 3

2: 7 - * , p LOFL

11: 13 - 15 . p 23

2:10. p. 77

3 : 18 - 19 . p 251

G

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1:6-9. p. 23

2 P R A I

c h i p m 2 . p 107 1 : 16 - 18 . p 223

2: 7 - 9 . p 2 4

3 : 13 - 16 . p 24

2:9, p 52

2:10. pp 31 ,5 2 I JOHN



2:11-14 f f .p 234

1:7—10, p. 240

21 2 . p 107

2 : 1 5 . p p. 1 ) 5 . 2 ) 6

2:14. p 23

2:27. p 81

2:21. p 77

) : 5 - 10 , p . 240

4:1, p. 2)7

ErntsiANs 4:2. p 237

2:14, p 172

5:10, p 10

41 6- 17 . p . 103 5 16 - 17 . p . 240

5 1 8 , p 2 4 0

Ptm.vH<.Ht

2.6 -11 . pp. 54 .85 2 JOHN

4: 2- 3 , p 186

10, p 50

C O I O M U M

J

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2 * . p 1 1 9 1 0 , p 5 0

2 : 13 - 15 , p 250

4:1. p 1*0 Jt 'Ot

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2 TIIXHALCMIAM

2 : 1 . p 5 4

RO(L«IION <« JOHN

2:3, p 189 1:17. p 54

c l u p c t n 2 - 3 , p . 51

I TIMOTHY

2:9. p 78

6 : 10 . p 1 ) 1 3 : 14 - 22 . p 105

3:20, p. 54

H l l M l i

7 : 4 - 8 , p . 2 )

5:7. p 223 7:17. p. 32

11: ) ) , p 77

11:15, p. 54

14:1-5, p. 133

JAMB 14:4, p 26

1 : 22 , p 119 19 1- 9 . p » )

19:19, p. 54

21:12,

p. 23

21:14, p. 23



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Robert M. Price: Deconstructing Jesus

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Transcript of Robert M. Price: Deconstructing Jesus