Rick Sarre - University of South Australia Policing and the Community in Australia Rick Sarre For...

U N I V E R S I T Y O F S O U T H A U S T R A L I A

Rick Sarre - University of South Australia

Policing and the CommunityPolicing and the Community

in Australiain Australia Rick SarreRick Sarre

For the IPES, Bahrain, October, 2003For the IPES, Bahrain, October, 2003



Australian police servicesAustralian police services

Australia has 6 large, centralised police Australia has 6 large, centralised police bureaucracies (+ a Federal police service bureaucracies (+ a Federal police service and and 1 1 Territory service) covering, in Territory service) covering, in most cases, extensive geographical areas. most cases, extensive geographical areas.

About 40,000 officersAbout 40,000 officers at at approxapprox 230/100,000 population. 230/100,000 population.



Community policingCommunity policingPrincipally, community policing is designed with the Principally, community policing is designed with the idea of preventing criminal activity but ALSO idea of preventing criminal activity but ALSO tackling and reducing the conditions under which tackling and reducing the conditions under which deviant behaviour may be encouraged. Categories of deviant behaviour may be encouraged. Categories of community policing community policing cancan be listed as the following: be listed as the following:

1.1. problem-solving policingproblem-solving policing

2.2. inter-agency cooperationinter-agency cooperation

3.3. partnership with the communitypartnership with the community

I wish to focus on the last two.I wish to focus on the last two.



PProblem-solving policingroblem-solving policing

This idea emanated from the Herman Goldstein notion of problem-oriented policing and has re-emerged, arguably, as intelligence-led policing. Policing on the beat, good intelligence inspired by having the confidence of the local community and informants.



IInter-agency cooperationnter-agency cooperation

The idea that public police forces The idea that public police forces should not discourage the growth of should not discourage the growth of ad hocad hoc protection services has been protection services has been alive in Australian jurisdictions for alive in Australian jurisdictions for many years. Governments have many years. Governments have encouraged an expansion of the role encouraged an expansion of the role in peace-keeping currently being in peace-keeping currently being played by private personnel and played by private personnel and professional security providers. professional security providers.




There is currently dawning a new era There is currently dawning a new era in Australian policing that presents in Australian policing that presents police services with many police services with many opportunities to integrate their own opportunities to integrate their own resources with those of other resources with those of other institutions, including private institutions, including private providers, in establishing an efficient, providers, in establishing an efficient, yet democratic, policing ‘network’. yet democratic, policing ‘network’.




That is, re-vitalising the notion of That is, re-vitalising the notion of ‘community policing’ into a ‘community policing’ into a coordinated policing network where coordinated policing network where there are new models for mobilizing there are new models for mobilizing the community sector the community sector (public/private/community-based) and (public/private/community-based) and integrating their capacities into integrating their capacities into existing structures.existing structures. The work of The work of Australian academics at REGNET is Australian academics at REGNET is important in this regard.important in this regard.



Community partnershipsCommunity partnerships

I wish to look at Indigenous Australians and policing I wish to look at Indigenous Australians and policing issues. This setting highlights elements of all three of issues. This setting highlights elements of all three of the community policing strategies mentioned.the community policing strategies mentioned.

To begin: There is a massive over-representation of To begin: There is a massive over-representation of Indigenous Australians in the criminal justice system Indigenous Australians in the criminal justice system today. This is an embarrassment for all Australians.today. This is an embarrassment for all Australians.

E.g. Indigenous Australians are 2% of the population E.g. Indigenous Australians are 2% of the population but 20% of the prison population.but 20% of the prison population.



HistoryHistoryAn unofficial policy of Aboriginal An unofficial policy of Aboriginal eradication began to unfold amongst the eradication began to unfold amongst the military peace-keepers in late 18th military peace-keepers in late 18th century New South Wales. Australia’s century New South Wales. Australia’s colonial history is replete with stories of colonial history is replete with stories of savagery, waterhole poisonings and savagery, waterhole poisonings and shootingsshootings..



HistoryHistoryIt was not unusual for colonial administrators It was not unusual for colonial administrators to deploy police in frontier warfare against to deploy police in frontier warfare against Indigenous tribes, and as a form of self-Indigenous tribes, and as a form of self-defence. Caught up in a world of land theft, defence. Caught up in a world of land theft, attack and reprisal, colonial police, even those attack and reprisal, colonial police, even those who may have harboured some sympathy for who may have harboured some sympathy for native populations, had little option but to native populations, had little option but to carry out their assigned tasks. carry out their assigned tasks.



Legacy for the modern eraLegacy for the modern eraFor many Aboriginal peopleFor many Aboriginal people,, the first contact the first contact they had with the police was with a they had with the police was with a paramilitary force of dispossession, paramilitary force of dispossession, dispensing summary justice and on some dispensing summary justice and on some occasions involved in the indiscriminate occasions involved in the indiscriminate massacre of clan and tribal groups. (Cunneen, massacre of clan and tribal groups. (Cunneen, 2001, p 50)2001, p 50)

Similar themes today.Similar themes today.



Modern dayModern day[F]ar too much police intervention in the lives [F]ar too much police intervention in the lives of Aboriginal people … has been arbitrary, of Aboriginal people … has been arbitrary, discriminatory, racist and violent. There is discriminatory, racist and violent. There is absolutely no doubt in my mind that the absolutely no doubt in my mind that the antipathy which so many Aboriginal people antipathy which so many Aboriginal people have towards police is based not just on have towards police is based not just on historical contact but upon the contemporary historical contact but upon the contemporary experience of contact with many police experience of contact with many police officers. (Johnston, 1991, p 195)officers. (Johnston, 1991, p 195)



ConsequencesConsequences Over-policingOver-policing

In the remote New South Wales town of Walgett, for In the remote New South Wales town of Walgett, for example, where 18 per cent of residents identified as example, where 18 per cent of residents identified as Indigenous in 1993, Amnesty International (1993) Indigenous in 1993, Amnesty International (1993) found that there was one police officer per 96 found that there was one police officer per 96 residents, while the average for the rest of the State residents, while the average for the rest of the State of New South Wales (where just 1.8 per cent of of New South Wales (where just 1.8 per cent of population are of Aboriginal descent) was one police population are of Aboriginal descent) was one police officer per 459 residents. officer per 459 residents.



ConsequencesConsequences High arrest ratesHigh arrest ratesThe use of the caution, as an alternative to arrest, is The use of the caution, as an alternative to arrest, is less common for Indigenous Australians than it is for less common for Indigenous Australians than it is for non-Indigenous Australians for reasons that probably non-Indigenous Australians for reasons that probably relate to higher recidivism rates. This has the effect relate to higher recidivism rates. This has the effect of ‘confirming’ a self-fulfilling prophecy. E.g. In of ‘confirming’ a self-fulfilling prophecy. E.g. In Victoria, Indigenous young people are significantly Victoria, Indigenous young people are significantly less likely to receive a police caution than non-less likely to receive a police caution than non-Indigenous young people (11.3 per cent versus 35.6 Indigenous young people (11.3 per cent versus 35.6 per cent in 1995/1996)per cent in 1995/1996)..



ConsequencesConsequences High remand in custody ratesHigh remand in custody ratesWright, 1999 confirmed that Aboriginality is Wright, 1999 confirmed that Aboriginality is significantly associated with the likelihood of being significantly associated with the likelihood of being remanded in custody. remanded in custody. HeHe tracked 4,758 adult tracked 4,758 adult defendants whose cases were finalised in 1996 in defendants whose cases were finalised in 1996 in SASA magistrates courts. 25 legal and extra-legal remand-magistrates courts. 25 legal and extra-legal remand-in-custody predictors derived from the court and in-custody predictors derived from the court and police data were fed through a regression analysis. police data were fed through a regression analysis. The study concluded that Aboriginality is The study concluded that Aboriginality is significantly associated with a custodial outcome, significantly associated with a custodial outcome, independent of any other variable in the model.independent of any other variable in the model.



New horizons: the three aspects of New horizons: the three aspects of community policing identified can community policing identified can play a role in forging a new futureplay a role in forging a new future

1. 1. ‘Professional partnerships policing’ ‘Professional partnerships policing’ where where Aboriginal people are given a key role in Aboriginal people are given a key role in controlling anti-social behaviour, minor controlling anti-social behaviour, minor infractions and serious breaches of the law infractions and serious breaches of the law can can be and have been successfully integrated into be and have been successfully integrated into policing policiespolicing policies..



New horizonsNew horizons

2. 2. Community ConstablesCommunity Constables now work in now work in mainstream policing activities. While it is mainstream policing activities. While it is recognised that women are too few in number as recognised that women are too few in number as Aides or Community Constables, especially Aides or Community Constables, especially given the double impact of gender and ‘racial’ given the double impact of gender and ‘racial’ inequalities in policing Indigenous women, inequalities in policing Indigenous women, there have been a number of positive benefits there have been a number of positive benefits for police and Indigenous communities alike as for police and Indigenous communities alike as a result of these partnerships. a result of these partnerships.




3. 3. Training in non-racist attitudes.Training in non-racist attitudes. Yet a Yet a study study by Wortley and Homel (1995) highlighted that by Wortley and Homel (1995) highlighted that police prejudice is more likely to emanate from police prejudice is more likely to emanate from police police interactionsinteractions with Indigenous Australians with Indigenous Australians rather than inherently racist attitudes. This rather than inherently racist attitudes. This finding highlights the need for strategic policy-finding highlights the need for strategic policy-making that moves beyond the provision of making that moves beyond the provision of cultural awareness programs in police training. cultural awareness programs in police training.




4. 4. Customary law, community justice panels and Customary law, community justice panels and Indigenous-run policing patrolsIndigenous-run policing patrols. There are o. There are over ver one hundred of one hundred of the last of these, the last of these, which operate which operate around Australia (Blagg and Valuri, 2002). One around Australia (Blagg and Valuri, 2002). One of the best known is the Tangentyere night of the best known is the Tangentyere night patrol and social behaviour project in Alice patrol and social behaviour project in Alice Springs, an operation designed to take drunk Springs, an operation designed to take drunk and disorderly people into care before police and disorderly people into care before police need to be called to arrest themneed to be called to arrest them..




5. 5. Aboriginal court:Aboriginal court: Non-appearances at court by Non-appearances at court by Indigenous offenders provide much work for police in Indigenous offenders provide much work for police in tracking down, and arresting, those accused persons tracking down, and arresting, those accused persons who have failed to answer their bail. Non-appearance, who have failed to answer their bail. Non-appearance, then, has two major consequences for police and then, has two major consequences for police and indigenous relations: offenders are likely to be arrested indigenous relations: offenders are likely to be arrested on warrant, and the likelihood of bail being refused at on warrant, and the likelihood of bail being refused at the next hearing is extremely high. One initiative that the next hearing is extremely high. One initiative that has drastically reduced the rate of non-appearances has drastically reduced the rate of non-appearances (and therefore rates of arrest) is the (and therefore rates of arrest) is the Aboriginal Aboriginal Court. Court.




6. 6. CautionsCautions should be made more accessible and should be made more accessible and available as an option for police. This does not available as an option for police. This does not mean to suggest that all drunkenness or mean to suggest that all drunkenness or inappropriate language or behaviour in public inappropriate language or behaviour in public places is to be condoned. In many cases, places is to be condoned. In many cases, however, a stern warning to unruly persons however, a stern warning to unruly persons might be just as effective as an arrest in stopping might be just as effective as an arrest in stopping inappropriate behaviour. inappropriate behaviour.



Conclusion 1Conclusion 1Policy-makers need to consider designing Policy-makers need to consider designing policing strategies that will bring about fewer policing strategies that will bring about fewer Aboriginal arrests, and make it less likely that Aboriginal arrests, and make it less likely that officers will seek custodial remands for officers will seek custodial remands for Indigenous offenders. Furthermore, self-policing Indigenous offenders. Furthermore, self-policing and and AboriginalAboriginal courts in appropriate regions courts in appropriate regions should be explored as part of a broader political should be explored as part of a broader political agenda that embraces the possibilities of agenda that embraces the possibilities of Indigenous self-policing, self-administration of Indigenous self-policing, self-administration of justice and self-determination. justice and self-determination.



Conclusion 2Conclusion 2‘‘Community-style’ policing within Indigenous Community-style’ policing within Indigenous communitiescommunities will likely remain a major will likely remain a major challenge for governments and Indigenous challenge for governments and Indigenous administrators alike. But if these issues remain administrators alike. But if these issues remain in the forefront of police research and policy-in the forefront of police research and policy-making, however, they promise to improve making, however, they promise to improve policing for all Australians. policing for all Australians.

Rick Sarre - University of South Australia Policing and the Community in Australia Rick Sarre For...

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