raw material exploitation during the middle palaeolithic in the lessini ...

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LAURA LONGO1, PAOLO GIUNTI2

RAW MATERIAL EXPLOITATIONDURING THE MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC

IN THE LESSINI MOUNTAINS (VERONA, VENETO, ITALY)

INTRODUCTION

Land use patterns have often been based mainly on zooarchaeological and/or palaeobotanical remains, to support different models of natural supplies exploita-tion. Nonetheless, biological evidence is rare and seriously subjected to tapho-nomic bias, in addition, the evidence of Pleistocene human presence often comes from non-stratifi ed sites, e.g. surface collections.

This paper examines variation in Middle Palaeolithic raw materials exploita-tion in the Alpine region of Monti Lessini. The authors argue that in the area it is possible to observe an increase in using different raw material quality correlated to different operative chains strategy, i.e. regardless which fl int types could be easily reached within a distance of three kilometres from the site, the people of Monti Lessini made intentional choices in raw material exploitation related to the techno-logical systems they were used to.

We are outlining here a model which helps to explain why in an extraordinar-ily favourable setting for raw material sources the Monti Lessini fl int is claimed to be used in sites placed on both sides on the Alps (Affolter 1999; Barfi eld 2000) during the Middle Palaeolithic (MIS 83; 30030 Kyr) different litho-types have been used in order to produce fl int artefacts.

Meanwhile, shelter/cave sites e.g. Tagliente and Mezzena rockshelters or the Fumane cave seem to more appropriately fall into a sort of residential scheme can be applied, when considering longer periods occupation, close to raw material sources (rivers) and placed in a high dietary potential area.

1 Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, University of Siena, Italy; e-mail: [email protected].

2 Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, Italy; e-mail: [email protected].

ACTA UNIVERSITATIS WRATISLAVIENSIS No 3207Wrocaw 2010Studia Archeologiczne XLI

2 Laura Longo, Paolo Giunti

The model proposed by S. Binford (1968) for the Levant, seems to be helpful in the interpretation of the chronological and geographical shift in the colonization patterns in the southernmost Alpine region (e.g. Monti Lessini and Monti Berici). Early Middle Palaeolithic sites (Monte Gazzo, Monte Cucco, Monte Mar seghina, Quinzano, Monte Loffa) were open-air sites.

Subsequently, during the Later Middle Palaeolithic, occupation became more residentially stable and focused on caves and rockshelters e.g. the Fumane, Ponte di Veja and S. Cristina caves, Tagliente and Mezzena rockshelters also because of the cold climatic conditions present even at this relic favourable areas which played a very effective refugia role.

Raw material exploitation has always been an important economic element affecting settlement choices and production strategies since the earliest prehistoric times. In particular, since the Early Palaeolithic, the area of the Monti Lessini, taken into consideration here, has played an extremely signifi cant role for the production of lithic industries, thanks to its richness in fl int outcrops. Such charac-teristic, together with the peculiar geomorphology and the advantageous location, along with the presence of caves and rockshelters, have allowed the prehistoric communities to establish a perfect balance of the varied economic, environmen-tal, biologic and climatic conditions, facilitating a rather good adaptation to the Lessini environment.

In order to verify the theoretic model at the base of our study, and to pro-pose a hypothetical reconstruction of the diversifi ed lithic resources exploita-tion strategies during the Middle Palaeolithic, we have designed a methodology which rests on a solid basis of analytical data (archaeological and geological). In this way it has been possible to formulate a series of considerations, as regards the quality of available fl int and its exploitation potential in terms of volume and in relation to the cultural tradition of the techno-complexes analysed. Such integrated approach has permitted the identifi cation of factors related to industry typology, which are not necessarily linked to the choice of better quality fl int but to the technical characteristics and fl int selection for the mise en forme of the artefacts.

Experimental reconstruction (also in terms of use-wear traces) of the op-erational sequence led to identify the rheological properties of the fl int type employed, in order to characterise it with reference to the geology of the fl int outcrops.

As regards geology and fl int characterisation within the Monti Lessini area, the SELCE project includes the detailed survey and sampling of the raw mate-rial coming from different geological fl int formations in Lessini (Affolter 2002; Binsteiner 1999; Candelato et al. 2003; Longo et al. 2006). The objective is to identify the main characteristics and variations at both inter- and intra-formational level of the fl int used for the production of artefacts during the period of human occupation in the area: from prehistory to the present.

Raw material exploitation during the Middle Palaeolithic 3

Archaeological close examination focuses on the open-air site at Monte Gaz-zo, ascribable to the Acheulean early and fi nal phases, on the open-air site of C Verde, which has provided industries datable to the Middle Palaeolithic, and on the cave site of S. Cristina, where there is evidence of human occupation during both Middle and Upper Palaeolithic (Fig. 1C). Geological survey took into con-

Fig. 1. A) area of the Lessini Mountains; B) stratigraphic sequence of the fl int formations; C) topography of the analysed sites


sideration fl int outcrops in Vajo delle Cavezze in the Valpantena area, chosen due to its location within the daily foraging activities at an average distance of 5 km from the sites.

FLINT OUTCROPS IN VALPANTENA

This paragraph briefl y describes, from the earliest to the most recent, the lithological units present in the area where it is possible to fi nd large or average quantities of fl int, listing textures and inclusions of signifi cant organisms which can be recognised in small fragments of rocks collected during survey.

The detailed geological survey produced an ad hoc stratigraphical sequence (Fig. 1B) (Longo et al. 2004b; 2006), which takes into consideration also informa-tion supplied by previous geological investigations in the Verona area (partially including also the area taken into account for this study) carried out by different authors and co-ordinated by Museo di Storia Naturale (Sorbini 1993).

S. VIGILIO GROUP LIMESTONES (TOARCIAN- AALENIAN)

This unit is composed of different facies: Oolitic calcarenites rich in crynoids; rift facies; wackestone with sponge and brachiopods remains. The fl int nodules, which occur in the Oolitic facies, have colours ranging from yellowish to black. In particular, during the preliminary survey undertaken for the present research, it was observed that on the Valpantena slopes, a few outcrops characterised by micritic-oncolithic strata, separated by waved limits, with coarse texture fl int nodules with organogenic elements present prior to silication, were often still recognisable. Such unit, on the basis of the characteristics described above, can be compared to the Tenno formation, known from the western border of the Venetian platform, even though this latter is positioned, stratigraphically, in the lower part of the Oolitic limestone, whereas the fl int strata of the Lessini area occupy the higher positions.

The fl int type presents an incomplete silication, the texture of the original limestone makes this lithotype not very homogeneous. Oolitic limestone fl int has no cracks and exhibits a pretty coarsed texture, different colour shades, and a quite good arheological properties. It allows the striking of large to medium sized fl akes. It can be easily reached at the bottom of vaj, local name for canyons at which bottom creeks are rich in fl ints.

ROSSO AMMONITICO (LATE BAJOCIAN LATE TITONIC)

This unit is characterised by pelagic plateau deposits with condensed sed-imentation and hard ground. It is possible to recognise three overlapping units. The lower unit comprises compact micritics of a colour ranging from pink to yellow, with pelagic lamellibranches, planctonic foraminifers and, in minor quan-


tities, radiolars. Flint coming from this level was found in the form of slubs and lens-like nodules, of a homogeneous texture. For its physical characteristics, fl ak-ing capability is good even if the presence of breaks and carbonatic inclusions affect the production process. The other two units contain few fl ints practically unusable in knapping, consist of red and grey limestone, with thickly stratifi ed radiolars and red fl int nodules.

MAIOLICA LIMESTONE AND SCAGLIA VARIEGATA (TITONIC- CENOMANIAN)

The stratigraphic series between Rosso Ammonitico and Scaglia Rossa can be subdivided in another two units: Maiolica and Scaglia Variegata. The change from Rosso Ammonitico to Maiolica happens gradually. It can be observed a pro-gressive colour change from red to white, a decrease in nodularity and of strata thickness. In general, the switchover between these two units is conventionally placed in correspondence of the appearing of white micritics limestone with con-coidal fractures and of a porcelain-like aspect with the presence of tintinnids. The Maiolica unit constituted mainly by limestone nannoplancton with dispersed radi-olars. In the lower part of the unit, fl int nodules are frequently found, the colour of which varies from red to hazelnut (maroon, orange, yellowish and pink). Towards the top, grey and beige fl int nodules are found. Maiolica fl int turns out to be the best in terms of texture, despite the presence of rare fi ssures which limit the fl ak-ing process and prevent the propagation of the ripples.

Change to the Scaglia Variegata type is gradual: fl int nodules, which are abun-dantly found after the thin level of greenish marne, become less and less frequent and display darker colours up to black, switching from a nodular shape to the slub one. The uppermost level of Scaglia Variegata, consisting of slub fl int, displays a yellow-ochre colour. The upper part of Scaglia Variegata becomes more clayey, changing into calcari marnosi and marne grey-greenish alternating to little strata with radiolarites and planctonic foraminifers. The physical characteristics, tex-ture, compactness and fragility, make both Maiolica and Scaglia Variegata optimal lithotype for fl aking.

SCAGLIA ROSSA (TURONIAN-MAASTRICHTIAN)

The changeover between Scaglia Variegata and Scaglia Veneta is generally placed in relation to an abrupt change from grey-greenish to red colour. The lower part of Scaglia Rossa is characterised by red micrits with reddish-brown fl int nod-ules, and more rarely greenish containing Praeglobotruncana.

It should be highlighted that, although rare, there are also other fl int colour varieties which resemble the colour of fl int coming from Maiolica and Scaglia Variegata.

This is matt fl int of fi ne and medium texture which is present in two main verieties: brick red and hazelnut-yellowish to the west of Valpantena, greenish in


the western Lessinia. This fl int, found in plates and lentoid nodules, is generally homogeneous, often fractured. Inside there are residues of carbonatic inclusions. Its characteristics make this litho-type good for fl aking, despite the slight imper-fections mentioned above.

EOCENIC UNITS (EARLY EOCENE-MIDDLE EOCENE)

Flint is present in the limestone of the early Eocene and in the Nummulitic limestones of the early and middle Eocene and forms fl int levels with grey and brown nodules on the uppermost part of the fi rst unit, whereas in the second ones is less frequent even though more widespread. In some localities in the western part of the Lessini (Avesa valley, Valpolicella), the unit which belongs to the nummulitic limestones is present, constituted of fi ne limestoned, thinly stratifi ed, interspersed with thicker biomicritic stata. Flint nodules, varying from brown to grey-greenish, with fi ne to coarse texture, are present within micritic strata, as well as in the calcarenite ones. The unit, rich in planctonic foraminifers at the base, towards the top is characterized by the high content of bentonic foraminif-ers evidence of the change from a proximal marine environment to more neritic conditions. The units provide matt fl int nodules of rather large dimensions, rough surfaces and a weak fl int/carbonate substitution rate, or a fl int with fi ne texture, defi netely more siliceous. Owing to these characteristics, such litho-types do not correspond with the Upper Palaeolithic knapping concept, appearing less utilised within the UP records.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT LITHO-TYPES

It can be observed that, whereas the determination of fl int origin is rather easy when one deals with nodules with cortex not completely silicifi ed, the identifi ca-tion becomes more diffi cult and doubtful when fragments of fl int without cortex are examined, as it frequently happens when dealing with archaeological mate-rial.

Flint coming from S. Vigilio group limestones is unmistakable due to its coarse texture and always present original biogenic elements (remains of crynoids, sponges, oolits, etc.).

Scaglia Variegata fl int, only when it presents typical characteristics brown to black colour with lighter spots does not leave space for doubts. Biancone grey fl int is also easily identifi ed. In any case substantial identifi cation diffi culties remain limited to these two units (Maiolica and Scaglia Variegata), especially for fl int coming from the transition zone.

Attribution of greenish fl int to Scaglia Rossa is relatively easy.Red fl ints of the Rosso Ammonitico, Maiolica and Scaglia Rossa can be rec-

ognised with confi dence only when microfossils are present (e.g. Praeglobotrun-


cana for Scaglia Rossa). In terms of statistical analysis of archaeological artefacts, one should take into consideration the unmistakably recognisable material and, in addition, asses potentialities for the determination of individual fl int types (for in-stance, Scaglia Rossa has a high probability to be identifi ed, considering the wide-spread presence of Praeglobotruncana in the original sediment, whereas red fl int of Rosso Ammonitico and Maiolica is less straightforwardly recognised, etc.).

From the conclusions drawn so far, there is a need to further develop the geochemical and petrographical characteristics of the fl int present in the forma-tions mentioned above, concentrating on spatial and formational variation. To this end, systemised sampling of different varieties of fl int collected from outcrops in the Lessini area that provided the preliminary results of analysis undertaken on samples from the hydrographic basin of Valpantena, is being presented here. Sta-tistical analysis is in progress.

Among the various conclusions to draw, it has been noticed that Oolitic fl int strata are generally less friabile than all the rest of the non-Oolitic Mesozoic fl int strata, as if tectonics acted upon them with less violence. In fact, rocks with a thicker stratifi cation, are less deformed and, often, fl int inside them maintain those characteristics that make it suitable for knapping. For instance, Scaglia Vari-egata, which tends to respond to tectonic sollicitation by bending and/or breaking into small blocks, often presents a very poor fl int in terms of knapping properties, whereas the S. Vigilio group limestones are more resistant to bending and there-fore better preserve fl int nodules inside. Moreover, fl int from the Oolitic facies, is found in nodules inserted within a limestone wrinkled contact surfaces which respond to tectonic strains mainly by means of readjustment of the position of the fl int nodules within the calcareous matrix of the strata.

An elastic character, analogous to the one displayed by S. Vigilio group limestones, could be at the basis of the behaviour of the Eocene Limestone fl int nodules, which being less tectonically disturbed, respond to percussion more homogeneously and allow the removal of blanks of large dimensions.

Flint from Maiolica-Scaglia Variegata is often found in slubs or levels inter-spaced by thin strata of micritic limestones which tend to break in small size blocks. A further observation, which is being tested at the moment, is represented by the fact that this material, more vitreous and compact, could reply in more fragile manner to tensions caused by tectonic movements.

METHODOLOGY

Our approach is based on the following heuristic tools: traditional methods (outcrops identifi cation and characterization): detailed geological survey of fl int formations and outcrops); sampling and GPS positioning of the fl int outcrops;


description of geological samples; petrographic, microstructural and micropaleontological analyses of the

samples; powder geochemical characterization (XRF and XRPD aimed at iden-

tifying possible different silica and mineralogical phases which are not recognised by thin section analysis);

comparison with prehistoric artefacts; innovative methods: a new non-destructive methodology for XRF geochemical analysis,

based on fresh breaks, developed in order to be applied in the future also on archaeological material;

KNOOP micro-hardness analysis, aimed at determining the different rheological response for the evaluation of possible different reactions to percussion during the knapping process;

experimental reconstruction of operational sequences; functional analysis of the replica artefacts and comparison with analo-

gous data coming from the study of archaeological assemblages; integration of the data acquired through a taylor-made GIS which, at

present, allows to effi ciently manage collected data, as well as to create thematic maps, and which in the future will be in the position to generate maps with chemical parameters.

Such approach may be the fi rst step towards an integrated methodology, aim-ing at analysing, cataloguing and describing the characteristics of the fl int types found in the different geological formations in the Lessini Mountains and the fl int artefacts coming from archaeological sites. The fi nal objective is to constantly implement information regarding management of land resources on behalf of prehistoric people.

ANALYSES

Within the present work, microfacies analysis has served mainly to defi ne the sedimentological, petrographic and micro-paleontological characteristics of the fl int types coming from the studied area. The analysed fl int have been attributed to two groups with well-defi ned texture characteristics. The fi rst group is charac-terised by a crypto-crystalline texture with globular areas fi lled with micro-cristal-line quartz, the latter replaced the original opal, of which microfossils were made, and to which such shapes necessarily are to be associated (in particular radiolars). In addition, secondary chalcedony-fi lled veins can be observed, with the typical fi brous-ray structure.

The second group is defi ned by a micro-crystalline texture and an abundant frequency of bioclasts and/or oolites.


Although we are aware of the previous proposals for the classifi cation of dif-ferent fl int types (Sozzi et al. 1998; 2004), we will use here a standard petrographic terminology, until we will be in the position to describe siliceous materials within the petrographic description of the limestone rocks in the main paleo-channel. It seems to us that, for the purpose of our analysis, i.e. to defi ne the relationship between texture and fl int rheologic behaviour, traditional defi nitions represent, for the time being, a shareable descriptive basis. The original sediment matrix seems to have had a direct infl uence on the texture of the fl int formed within it, i.e. crypto-crystalline texture, in the micrits belonging to Rosso Ammonitico, Maiolica, Scaglia Variegata and Scaglia Rossa, and microcrystalline texture in the packstone and grainstone of S. Vigilio group limestones (Oolitic facies) and Eocene limestones.

Through the X-ray fl uoresence (XRF) analysis, percentual relationships were obtained for the individual chemical elements of each analysed sample. Sub-sequently, average values of the chemical parameters in each rock formation were compared. As we speak, we are assessing the potential of the comparative analysis on the single oxide value, in order to verify the signifi cance of their representativeness degree in the different rock formations (Longo et al. 2004a; 2004b; 2006). When comparing the invariant values of the geologic Eocene and of the archaeological samples from Monte Gazzo, it should be pointed out that the representative curve displays the same progression and, at the same time, it can be noticed how different is the progression of the other geologic samples. Such observation, supported also by the Al and Fe data, seems to allow us to consider the archaeological samples as belonging to the Eocene limestones.

Diffractometric analysis of powder from the geologic samples were undertaken in order to assess the possibility to identify different silica phases and possibly other types of minerals not recognised with the traditional petrographic analysis. The presence of calcite was detected in the samples coming from the Oolitic facies of the S. Vigilio group, probably associated with the existence of bioclastic residual of calcitic composition and not completely silicifi ed.

Another analytical technique employed in the present study is the KNOOP micro-hardness analysis, undertaken in order to highlight potential differences in the rheologic response to the individual varieties of fl int. It seems possible to infer that there is a tendency to a uniform response to percussion on behalf of fl ints with a cryptocrystalline texture (Rosso Ammonitico, Maiolica, Scaglia Rossa and Vari-egata), whereas those with a micro-crystalline texture show a more heterogeneous resistance to mechanical strain.

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS

Our research regards the exploitation of fl int resources and the techno-eco-nomic aspects of lithic assemblages ascribable to the Middle Palaeolithic, coming from the open-air sites at Monte Gazzo and C Verde, and from the cave site of


S. Cristina, in the Verona Province. The presented considerations should be viewed as preliminary, since the lithic assemblages, lacking chrono-stratigraphical data, were collected thanks to surface surveys (Monte Gazzo, C Verde) or from dis-turbed stratigraphy during excavation (S. Cristina cave). Despite pin-pointing that constraints, it is our interest to try to elaborate a few considerations regarding the main aspects of fl int exploitation procedures and technical production systems, in order to better understand human behaviour during the Middle Palaeolithic. We employed as a research approach the analysis of the chane opratoire, which is considered both a specifi c response to environmental constrains, in this research, of the functional-technical objective to learn about the main needs of a prehistoric artisans, and a result linked to the different subsistence activities.

MONTE GAZZO-LOTRAGO

This is an open-air site, located on the dorsal between the Valpantena and Val Squaranto valleys (municipality of Verona), at about 495 m a.s.l., which has provided, during numerous surveys carried out by the collaborators of the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale in Verona, an abundant lithic assemblage of artefacts ascribable to the Early3 and Late Acheulian (Peretto 1996), pointing at an intense human occupation since the central phases of the Middle Pleistocene.

Revision of the artefacts belonging to the earliest cultural phase, a sample of hundreds of specimen, has highlighted the possibility that they were made using fl int from the Eocene limestones with a micro-crystalline texture, characterised by deep disgregation and dehydration (ca. 24 mm thick) with a stratum of brownish-black pigmentation, at times altered by a thin white patina.

The fi rst macroscopic analysis shows an altered physical state of the arte-facts, with bevelled corners and pseudo-retouches present. From a technological point of view, a low-level conceptual exploitation type is noticeable: artefacts are mainly cortical fl akes, of medium dimensions, with plane butts and open percus-sion angles (Fig. 2). Among the retouched artefacts (Bordes 1961) there are side scrapers, denticulates, whereas types of the III Group and bifaces associated with the amygdaloid type are rare.

The revision of the assemblage belonging to the Late Acheulian, which at Monte Gazzo-Lotrago constitutes the majority of the collected artefacts (at least 5000), has been focused on a sample of about 2000 specimens distinguished, on the basis of the patina alteration, in at least two groups:

the fi rst group with deeply dehydrated and matt surfaces, with traces of Fe-Mn (also slightly dehydrated);

3 We would like to present here in 2006 preliminary qualitative considerations on material which is still under analysis. Although the theme of the conference concerns human activities during the Middle Palaeolithic, we decided to describe some aspects of the Early Acheulian industry, since such descriptions have, to date, been very rare in Northern Italy.


the second group with glossy white-ivory alterations (12 mm thick), slightly dehydrated.

As regards the raw material, there is a certain homogeneity in terms of fre-quency of microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline fl int: both are exploited mainly through the Levallois method (Boda 1994). Three chanes opratoires have been recognised (Fig. 3), which characterised the reduction process (recurrent unidirec-tional method, recurrent centripetal method and Levallois prfrential method). Blanks can reach dimensions larger than 50 mm. From a typological point of view, side scrapers, generally convex in shape and with invasive retouch, at times of Quina type, prevail on denticulates, whereas the other types recur with lower fre-quencies. A small number of bifaces is also present, at times oval-shaped and with reduced dimensions. The assemblage collected at Monte Gazzo-Lotrago seems to refer to direct exploitation of fl int resources coming from the Eocene limestones with a micro-crystalline textures, as well as of fl int coming from cretacic and eocenic outcrops with a crypto-crystalline texture, to be found in strata located on the eastern side of the ridge (the C Lotrago and C Gualiva area) but also in relicts of limestone formations (stratigraphy analysed in 2001) nowadays buried

Fig. 2. Monte Gazzo. Early Palaeolithic. Production in micro-crystalline fl int (by P. Giunti)


Fig. 3. Monte Gazzo. Early Middle Palaeolithic. Levallois production in micro-crystalline fl int (13) and in crypto-crystalline fl int (46) (by P. Giunti)


under at least 3 m of strongly pedogenised sediments, generally related to geo-climatic events of the Middle Pleistocene.

C VERDE

This site is situated in the vicinity of S. Ambrogio, in the Adige Valley. It was discovered in the 1950s by F. Zorzi, who collected lithic artefacts and a fossilised human parietal bone (Corrain 1963, re-analysis by S. Condemi in progress) during activities on a clay quarry site in the proximity of a depression rich in thin sedi-ments, yellow sands and red clay. The prehistoric deposit is situated at 220 m a.s.l. and occupies a vast dolina, generated by the karstic activity which interested the Jurassic limestones. The dolina was subsequently fi lled with a series (at least 15 m) of clay deposits, alternated to peat levels, which produced numerous carbonised plant remains. Lithic artefacts make up an assemblage of 120 pieces, 19 of which come from US argille rosse (red clays), whereas the remaining sample comes from the US sabbie gialle (yellow sands) as named by Zorzi (Zorzi 1959; 1960), and can, therefore, be considered as belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic (Longo et al. 2004a). The correct stratigraphic sequence of the units containing the ar-chaeological artefacts mentioned by Zorzi (blue and red clays, yellow sands) is at the moment being verifi ed and shall be analysed within the complex stratigraphy of the area taken into consideration.

THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE OF THE ARGILLE ROSSE (RED CLAYS)4

This is formed by a limited number of specimens (19) which forces a re-strained interpretation of its economic characteristics. The raw material is mainly represented by fl int varieties belonging to Maiolica, Scaglia Variegata, Scaglia Rossa (with a cryptocrystalline texture, Fig. 4: 3, 6, 7) followed by fl int coming from the eocenic nummulitic limestones (with a microcrystalline texture, Fig. 4: 1, 2, 4, 5).

The technological composition sees the presence of four discoid cores5 (Boda 1993), one core fragment, seven cortical fl akes, four predetermined fl akes (centrip-etal direction), two core-edge removals fl akes and fi nally a predetermining fl ake.

From a dimensional point of view, length of dbitage products ranges from a minimum value of 39 mm to a maximum of 82 mm, with a concentration around values between 39 and 60 mm. Six are the retouched tools: four of which are of

4 Since the collection methods are not known to the authors and considering the limited number of specimens taken into consideration, only the main aspects regarding the reduction pro-cess are presented here.

5 The identifi cation of the discoid method has taken into account both the principles deter-mined by Boda (1993) and further considerations elaborated in the last 13 years by other authors who have better punctualised aspects which characterise in more detail the variability within the method (Lenoir and Turq 1995; Jaubert and Morre 1996; Slimak 2003).


Biancone fl int, one of fl int from Eocene limestones and one of Scaglia Rossa. From a typological point of view, tools belonging to Group II equals, numerically, to those of the largie Group IV.

THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE FROM THE SABBIE GIALLE (YELLOW SANDS)

The industry is made of at least a hundred artefacts and is based on the ex-ploitment of four fl int varieties, among which the most important role is played by those with a cryptocrystalline texture (fl int from Maiolica, Scaglia Variegata and

Fig. 4. Ca Verde. Early Middle Palaeolithic (US Argille rosse red clays). Discoidal production in micro-crystalline fl int (12, 45) and in crypto-crystalline fl int (3, 67) (by P. Giunti)


Scaglia Rossa, Fig. 5: 111) in comparison to those with a micro-crystalline tex-ture (fl int from the Eocene limestones).

The technical production system is essentially of a Levallois concept, charac-terized by two independent operational structures. The fi rst is ruled by unidirec-tional method criteria, producing the majority of the predetermined blanks with most functional edges. During the intermediate phase of this process, operational variations have been recognised which lead to the creation of new knapping sur-faces (either orthogonal or opposed to the previous one) to remove a subsequent series of Levallois fl akes. The second operational sequence is associated to the

Fig. 5. Ca Verde. Late Middle Palaeolithic (US Sabbie gialle yellow sands). Levallois production in crypto-crystalline fl int (by P. Giunti)


Levallois preferential method. From a dimensional point of view, Levallois cores have a minimum length of 42 mm and a maximum of 79 mm.

The Levallois fl akes are referable to four operational schemes. The majority of these are ascribable to the unidirectional method and its variants, whereas the Levallois fl akes deriving from the preferential method play a marginal role. The length of Levallois cores ranges between 30 and 69 mm, with specialization in the typometric group of 4050 mm. Worth mentioning is the preferential use of fl int coming from Scaglia Rossa and Maiolica for the production of predetermined blanks.

Retouched tools are formed essentially of the fl int types belonging to Group II, among which side scrapers prevail with double, transversal, abrupt, alternate and bifacial retouch. Retouch is mainly done to the simple and long type, within which the morphological Quina is recognisable in a few cases. In Group IV the largie types prevail over encoches on denticulates. Blanks selected for the latter interest both knapping by-products and Levallois fl akes, where the former are the majority. Worth mentioning is the preference to exploit cryptocrystalline fl int.

S. CRISTINA CAVE

The cave is located at about 120 m a.s.l. on a cliff which faces a tiny valley, only 700 m from the Adige river, near Parona (Verona). The cavity derives from the karstic activity on a fault, with a very modest stratigraphic displacement, be-longing to a family of faults with prevalent W/NWE/SE direction. The karstic phenomenon acted on the nummulitic limestones (Middle and Lower Eocene p.p.) composed of yellowish biocalcarenites. On the bottom of the valley alluvial-colluvial deposits are composed, of reddish clay-silty materials, with rare larger lithoid elements dispersed in the matrix. During the excavation devoted to clean-ing the stratigraphy from the back-dirt due to clandestine exploitation of the cave, Mousterian assemblages were recovered. Among 285 artefacts there are 33 cores, 139 fl akes and 113 retouched blanks (Longo et al. 2003), the analysis of which al-lowed to compare the S. Cristina assemblage with other Mousterian assemblages of the Veneto region and placed them in the frame of the MIS 3.

The principal source of raw material is represented by cripto-crystalline (Fig. 6: 14, 6, 811; Fig. 7: 111) fl int from the formations of Maiolica, Scaglia Variegata, Scaglia Rossa and Rosso Ammonitico, collected in pebbles and blocks in the immediate vicinity of the cave, on the Adige river banks. Although docu-mented, the use of microcrystalline fl int (Fig. 6: 5, 7) from Oolitic Limestones and Eocenic Limestones is much less frequent in the assemblage. The analysis of cores highlights the presence of two operative chains: the principal is based on the exploitation of blocks and pebbles with both the Levallois (Fig. 6: 111) and discoidal dbitage (Fig. 7: 111); the second utilises some cortical fl akes of the principal production of the Levallois types and fl akes connected with discoidal dbitage.


The Levallois production is ruled by the typical unidirectional mode criteria, which is characterized, during the reduction process, by remarkable technical devices concerning the dbitage axe of the predetermined series. The process develops without using particular reshaping of the lateral and distal convexities, but working on the creation of a new striking platform from which it is possible to create a new predetermined series, orthogonal or opposite to the previous ones.

The preferential modality is documented but in a defi nitive subordinate role. The discoidal production is developed utilising both the unifacial and bifa-

cial mode, with the same number of cores. The typometric asset for the Levallois

Fig. 6. S. Cristina cave. Late Middle Palaeolithic. Levallois production in crypto-crystalline fl int (14, 6, 811) and in micro-crystalline fl int (5, 7) (by P. Giunti)


cores indicates a variation between the minimum of 39 mm and the maximum of 78 mm, with a mean of 55.5 mm. Regarding the discoidal cores the variability ranges from a minimum of 34 mm to a maximum of 64 mm, with the mean of 50.3 mm.

These typometric characteristics allow us to consider the independence, since the initial phases, of two productions: one ruled by the Levallois concept, the other by the discoidal one. Regarding the Levallois production, it is possible to obtain blanks with different morphological characteristics: Levallois points, sub-triangular rarely sub-ovular Levallois fl akes, the predetermination of which is evident in the previous unidirectional, orthogonal or bidirectional detachments, as documented by the analysis of the cores.

Typometric analysis highlights an interesting frame of the referring mean values for the length. The overall Levallois fl akes mean length is 42.8 mm, while this value for unretouched blanks is 38.7 mm, less than the value of the retouched blanks (50.1 mm) and this allows a techno-functional correlation for the recurrent unidirectional and the typometrical difference between retouched and non-re-touched products.

Fig. 7. S. Cristina cave. Late Middle Palaeolithic. Discoidal production in crypto-crystalline fl int (by P. Giunti)


The discoidal production is documented by artefacts obtained both with cen-tripetal and cordal direction detachments. They are centripetal fl akes, invasive or not, pseudo-Levallois points and core-edge removal fl akes. The typometric aspect is peculiar, since it presents length mean values lower than the ones registered for the Levallois blanks (the mean values for the different technological categories vary between 27 and 34.5 mm).

For the selection of the retouched pieces, typometric data highlight, for cen-tripetal and core-edge fl akes, the use of blanks with mean length lower (CNT F 27 mm, DF 33.7 mm) than the one registred from the same technological non-retouched types (CNT F 30.2 mm, DF 34.9), whereas in the group of the pseudo-Levallois points, the data present a reversed situation (NR P 26.3 mm, R P 29.7 mm).

Typological analysis points out the majority of Group II tools, among which side scrapers are the most numerous. A predominant role is played by the simple types: convex and straights, followed by doubles, transversals and alternates. Irrelevant is the frequency of Mousterian and Levallois retouched points. In Group II tools the retouch is, for the majority of cases, marginal or invasive type, whereas Quina and Quina types show lower recurrence. Group III has a weak occurence, whereas within Group IV largie notches on denticulates prevail.

The correlation between blank type and tools makes corticated fl akes (38.9%) the most often chosen, followed by Levallois fl akes (15%) and centripetal fl akes (14.1%), whereas the remaining technological categories display values below 10%. Flakes belonging to the fi rst two categories were transformed mainly for the preparation of Group II types. Peculiar is the relationship between Group IV largie and Group II in the functional aim of the discoidal blanks. From a typo-metric point of view, Group II tools have a mean length (42.1 mm) larger than that displayed by tools belonging to the remaining typological groups (about 38 mm). In the further analysis of the relationship between dimensional parameters and ty-pological categories, a peculiar picture emerges, as regards predetermined blanks. Among the retouched unidirectional Levallois fl akes noticeable is the utilization of longer elements (average 57.1 mm) for Group II tools to the detriment of those used in Group IV largie (average 43.7 mm). This would support the argument for the manufacturer focusing on obtaining larger blanks with more functional edges to be used for specifi c activities for which Group II retouched tools were designed.

A totally different picture appears when the same comparison is undertaken for discoidal predetermined retouched blanks. These seem to be utilised, in the majority, for types of Group IV largie, and their dimensions are smaller (CNT F 26.6 mm; D F 29 mm) than those utilised for Group II types (CNT F 28.5 mm; D F 36 mm), as well as for the remaining technological types analysed.

In conclusion, comparison of the total of techno-economic and typometric data, would highlight how the two reduction processes, Levallois and discoidal,


occur in the production in the specifi c search for differentiated technical objec-tives according to morphological and typometric characteristics, to be addressed to different categories of tools in the position to fulfi l needs dictated by different functional activities.

CONCLUSIONS

In the attempt to verify if the reconstructed syntax of the chane opratoire is coherent with a cultural or behavioural choice and/or other constraints related to raw material characteristics (availability, rheological properties, suitability for fl intknapping, distance, etc.) the conducted analysis brought us to propose some elements on which the discussion can focus:

1) the analyzed parameters allowed us to characterize different fl int types of the study area in order to distinguish them at both inter- and intra-formational level;

2) we can actually propose the fi rst level of comparison between attribution of formational and archaeological fl ints, on the basis of the preliminary data from the analysed samples;

3) micro-hardness data (KNOOP method, applied for the fi rst time) has been demonstrated by the experimental reconstruction of different reduction strategies applied in the archaeological assemblages of the Monti Lessini. It is, therefore, possible to propose a differentiated use of the available fl int types, depending on their textural characteristics and of clear necessities proper for the single reduction sequences;

4) we shall fi nally propose a differentiated model of the exploitation pat-terns of raw materials (Monte Gazzo lies on the nummulitic fl int resources while the resources from S. Cristina cave can be recovered within 5 km range), which have been managed within the same formal reduction strategy (Wallace and Shea 2006), during two main chrono-cultural settings of the Middle Palaeolithic in the Lessini Mountains;

5) the earliest phase of occupation, EMP (Early Middle Palaeolithic) is repre-sented by open-air sites, located nearby microcrystalline fl int formations (Oolitic facies of the S. Vigilio group limestones and nummulitic limestones) even if crypto-crystalline fl int sources were easily available in the proximity;

6) the later phases of occupation (at least two main ones: LMP, Late Middle Palaeolithic, and UP, Upper Palaeolithic) took place in caves and rockshelters situated at the foothills where it was very easy to collect all kinds of fl ints brought down by the rivers which fl owed across the valleys, cutting through all the men-tioned, rich in fl int geological formations;

7) these data will be continuously improved and upgraded within the GIS created on purpose, in order to obtain an integrated system for the evaluation


of the existing relationship between the techno-functional choices and the raw material availability and quality during different colonisation phases of the south-eastern Alpine region.

Generally speaking, it is already possible to point out that crypto-crystalline fl int seems to be suitable for reduction strategies volumetrically organised to produce blanks with specifi c morphologies (e.g. LMP and UP fl ake/blade pro-duction), characterized by a formal concept of the maximum useful extraction from the initial mass of raw material. This means maximum control of energy diffusion during striking with hard hammer (lithic hammer), in order to obtain medium or medium-small technical objectives. Micro-crystalline fl int, demon-strating a different rheological attitude towards hard hammer percussion, could have undergone a better exploitation when utilized in reduction sequences for the production of blanks with typometrical characteristics different from those described above.

The micro-hardness analysis seems to confi rm such arguments and is very much consistent with the data elaborated during experimental reconstruction. Consideration of the consequences of the production of various edge morpholo-gies related to different cutting power, implies a diverse exploitation of the work-ing edges length among the hunter-gatherers who peopled the Monti Lessini dur-ing the late Middle and Upper Pleistocene.

Regarding raw material different grain size exploitation strategy (either crypto- or micro-crystalline texture), this could be considered from different view points: cultural traditions and, on the other hand, fl int availability, site function and land use strategies developed during the Middle Palaeolithic.

As regards micro-crystalline grain size fl int, e.g. Oolitic facies of the S. Vig-ilio group and Eocenic limestones, we believe it is possible that during the Early Middle Palaeolithic their outcrops or sources were more easily accessible in the vicinity of the open-air settlements, located on the top of hills, at an altitude rang-ing from 400 to 800 m a.s.l. The greatest number of sites is placed at this altitude: Monte Cucco, Trezzolano, Marseghina, Tabora/Cai and Monte Gazzo. All these sites are settled directly on the Eocenic limestones which layers are rich in micro-crystalline fl int.

It is worth to underline that the potential greatest availability of crypto-crystalline fl int comes from other limestones formations, that is, nowadays easily collectable in the rivers up to 3 km distant, but defi nitely within the typical daily foray, which is considered to be around 1020 km. It has to be demonstrated that the raw blocks of this fl int were actually available during Early Middle Palaeo-lithic (EMP).

During Late Middle Palaeolithic (LMP) and Upper Palaeolithic with site location at the base of the hills where caves and rockshelters were very frequently inhabited (Ponte di Veja, Fumane, Ghiacciaia and S. Cristina caves, Mezzena, Zampieri, Tagliente rockshelters) the hominids would have preferred to collect


good quality fl int pebbles in both the creeks running in the valleys which accumu-late different fl ints (with the exception of Oolitic limestones one, which is more rare) eroded from the upper layers crossed by the rivers, and in outcrops.

Even though the collection of raw material is composed of all types of fl int available in the vicinity of the foot hills, the subsequent exploitation in the reduc-tion sequence offers interesting elements for discussion and refl exion, regarding different exploitation strategies applied with respect to the rheologic response of different textures to the striking techniques.

If one considers as homogeneous the rheologic response of all cryptocrys-talline fl ints (from Biancone to Scaglia Variegata), it has to be underlined its preferential utilisation to obtain dimensionally more reduced blanks. On the other hand, if we relate the fl int coming from different formations to diverse rheologic behaviour groups, then the micro-crystalline Oolitic limestones is the one that is represented the best. This consideration may be interpreted as the result of the production of larger and generally bigger in dimension blanks.

This assumption seems supported, as well, by the data from the experimental reconstruction of the operative chain. In fact, the micro-crystalline fl ints seem to answer more homogeneously way to striking and the following spread of the Hertzian forces, which better maintains their strength and, therefore, allows to detach bigger fl akes/blades. One possible explanation of this rheologic response could be related to more elastic behaviour that micro-crystalline fl int has when exposed to tectonic stress.

The Levallois chain allowed to obtain medium to large blanks size, very suit-able to specifi c functional activities like skinning, butchering and hide processing, as well as hard vegetal materials processing (wood, both green and seasoned, maybe related to spear-head production connected with intensive hunting).

In terms of mobility strategy and, therefore, of settling dynamics in EMP vs LMP, it seems that the production of blanks with cutting edges which meet the above mentioned needs, functional for activities characterized by suitable width, length and angle should be accomplished with little consideration to raw mate-rial conservation. In fact, during the EMP micro-crystalline fl ints appear to be more frequent as ensuring the result of obtaining large blanks. A different strategy seems to be developed by the LMP populations which inhabited the same area during the Upper Pleistocene. As already proposed (Longo et al. 2004a, b; 2006) the rheological behaviour of crypto-crystalline fl ints (embedded in the Mesozoic limestones of the east-southern Alpine region) seems to be more suitable to obtain blanks with dimensioned morphology.

It is a fact that these fl int types are much more frequently represented in the LMP assemblages of C Verde (yellow sands) (Longo et al. 2004a, b) and S. Cris-tina, Mezzena (Giunti et al. 2008; Giunti, Longo 2010) and Tagliente rockshelters (Arzarello and Peretto 2005). Even though characterized by discontinuities, incip-ient fracturing and fi ssuring, the cryptocrystalline fl ints allow to obtain generally speaking more reduced dimensioned blanks, which involves a higher organ-


ized reduction strategies in order to maintain maximum effi cacy of core volume exploitation. The constraints in the case of Lessini crypto-crystalline fl ints is not related to minimize raw material transportation costs fl int is enormously easy to fi nd but due to the reduction strategies.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The SELCE Project (Flint) has been designed and coordinated since 2003 by L. Longo, Curator of Prehistory of the Natural History Museum of Verona. The people involved in the project are: F. Candelato, A. De Francesco, A. Ferrari, P. Giunti, L.C. Isotta, A. Petruzziello, V. Rioda and G. Signori. We thank all of them for their contribution to the enhancement of the knowledge of land use dur-ing Pleistocene.

The authors would like to thank V. Rioda, who is in charge of the geologic section of the SELCE project, and T. Lidestri and M.H. Sorrentino for the graphic elaboration.

Translated by Martina Dalla Riva,Birmingham University (UK)

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