Psychology of personality

Basic theories of personality

• Temperament• Trait approaches to personality• Psychodynamic theory (S. Freud)• Phenomenal theory (Humanistic

psychology)• Cognitive theory of personality: Personal

construct theory of personality• Social cognitive theory

Typology of personality

• To find basic types of personality

Temperament

• Temperament is a basic attribute of our mental live, excitableness.

• Disposition, which determines formal qualities of our reactions, such as their strength, duration etc.

• Temperament is linked with features of function of central nervous system and/or construction of the body.

Form of experience

•Strength weak/strong

•Depth shallow/deep •Duration transient/

durable •Time course regular

(steady)/irregular (unsteady)

Typology of personality

• Temperament

• physician Galen (129-199) on the basic of older Greek sources - Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.)

Hippocrates

• Hippocrates describes four basic temperamental types. They are a function of four basic bodily saps : blood, phlegm, bile, and black bile. The Greeks believed that all of nature was composed of four basic elements – air, earth , fire, and water)

• Sanguine blood • Phlegmatic phlegm • Choleric bile • Melancholic black bile

• Sanguine - animated, fluctuant, he/she seeks for a frequent change of impressions, fast reaction to events, easily copes with unpleasantness and shame.

• Phlegmatic – slow, calm, steady moods and efforts, unimpressive external expression of mental states.

• Choleric – fast, intensive, unbalanced, inclination to emotional eruptions, and fast changes of emotions.

• Melancholic - vulnerable, deep experiences (even less important events), weak reactions.

Constitution and temperament:early view

• German psychiatrist E. Kretchmer (Physique and Character,1925)

• He studied the relation between body type and personality.

• Three fundamental types:– Pyknic (plumb, round physique)– Athletic (muscular, vigorous physique)– Asthenic (frail, linear physique)

• Kretchmer assumed a relation between physique and normal personality (e.g. Pyknic and extraversion, Asthenic and introversion)

• Criticism:

• His work suffered from faulty methodology.

Constitution and temperament

• Sheldon (1940)

• He suggested that each person has an inherited basic biological structure that determines one’s temperament.

• A study of 200 subjects.

• He found a correlation between physique and temperament.

• Endomorph: love of physical comfort; love of eating; amiable; complacent; need for people when troubled.

• Mesomorph: assertive; love of physical adventure; energetic; love of dominating; lust for power; love of risk and chance; competitive.

• Ectomorph: love of privacy; fast reactions; emotional restraint; sensitive to pain; chronic fatigue; apprehensive; self-conscious

• Criticism:

• His work suffered from faulty methodology.

C. G. Jung

• introvertion x extravertion• Introvertion – a mental energy is

oriented “inwards” • Extravertion - a mental energy is

oriented „outwards” .

H.J. Eysenck

• Theory of personality traits

• Relatively stable behavior.

• Classification of traits on the basis of statistical technique of factor analysis.

• Large number of test items are administered to many subjects.

• Individuals who agree with the item „I often go to large and noisy parties“ also tend to agree with the item „I enjoy spending time with others“ and disagree with the item „I would rather stay home than go out at night.“.

• Factor analysis identifies groups, clusters, or factors of related items.

• According to the trait theory, there are natural structures of personality, and factor analysis allows to detect them.

• If test responses covary (they appear and disappear together, then one can infer that they have some common feature behind them.

• Thus, they belong to the same aspect of personality functioning.

Basic dimensions of personality

• Two basic dimensions of personality labeled :1. introversion - extraversion 2. neuroticisms (emotionally stable-unstable)

There is the relationship of these basic dimensions of personality to the four major temperamental types distinguished by Hippocrates and Galen.

Introversion - extraversion

Neuroticisms (emotionally stable-unstable)

Psychoticisms

• Later Eysenck added a third dimension:

• Psychoticisms – People high on this dimension tend to

be solitary, insensitive, uncaring about others, and opposed to accepted social customs.

Psychoticisms

The biological basis of personality (Eysenck)

• The trait of extraversion was due to the general state of excitation of the cerabral cortex.

• How much the neurones in the cortex were likely to fire in response to a particular set of stimuli.

• Extraverts had inherited a „strong“ nervous system, which meant that the person would qickly become bored by one set of stimuli, and would look for variation and novelty, whcih would usually be provided by socialising with other people.

The biological basis of personality

• Introverts had a „weak“ nervous system, which meant that Reticular Activating System would tend to amplify incoming information, so that they were less likely to become bored by one set of stimuli.

• Because an introvert was able to maintain cortical activity with comparatively little stimulation, they would be happy with solitary pursuits and with their own company or the company of just a few other people.

Extraverted x Introverted managers

Extraverted manager• They like diversity and action. They tend to be a

quick-fire. They avoid to complicated procedures. They are often impatient

• Introverted manager• They prefer tranquillity for their concentration.

They pay attention to details. They think before a proper action.

Research Findings • Extraversion is probably the most extensively

studied of all traits, in part because relevant behaviors are relatively easy to observe.

• Introverts are more sensitive to pain that are extraverts

• Introverts become fatigued more easily that do extraverts, excitement interferes with their performance, whereas it enhances performance for extraverts.

• Introverts tend to be more careful but less fast that extraverts.

Further research findings

• Introverts do better in school that extraverts, particularly in more advanced subjects.

• Also, students withdrawing from college for academic reasons tend to be extraverts, whereas those who withdraw for psychiatric reasons tend to be introverts.

• Extraverts prefer jobs involving interactions with other people, whereas introverts tend to prefer more solitary vocations. Extraverts seek diversion from job routine, whereas introverts have less need for novelty.

Further research findings

• Extraverts enjoy explicit sexual and aggressive humor, whereas introverts prefer more intellectual forms of humor such as puns and subtle jokes.

• Extraverts are more active sexually, in terms of frequency and different partners, that introverts.

• Extraverts are more suggestible that introverts.

College students:

• Extraverts more often chose to study in library locations that provided external stimulation that did introverts.

• Extraverts took more study breaks than did introverts

• Extraverts reported a preference for a higher level of noise and for more socializing opportunities while studying than did introverts.

The five-factor model of personality

• L. R. Goldberg (1981)

• „Big Five“

The Big Five Trait Factors

NEUROTlCISM (N)• Assesses adjustment vs. emotional instability.

Identifies individuals prone to psychological distress, unrealistic ideas, excessive cravings or urges, and maladaptive coping responses.

EXTRAVERSION (E)• Assesses quantity and intensity of interpersonal

interaction; activity level; need for stimulation; and capacity for joy.

OPENNESS (O)

• Assesses proactive seeking and appreciation of experience for its own sake; toleration for and exploration of the unfamiliar.

• High scorer: Curious, broad interests, creative, original, imaginative, untraditional

• Low scorer: Conventional, down to-earth, narrow interests, unartistic, unanalytical

AGREEABLENESS (A)• Assesses the quality of one's interpersonal

orientation along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts, feelings, and actions.

• High scorer: Soft-hearted, good natured, trusting, helpful, forgiving, gullible, straightforward

• Low scorer: Cynical, rode, suspicious, uncooperative, vengeful, ruthless, irritable, manipulative

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (C) • Assesses the individual's degree of organization,

persistence, and motivation in goal-directed behavior. Contrasts dependable, fastidious people with those who are apathetic and sloppy.

• High scorer: Organized, reliable, hardworking, self disciplined, punctual, scrupulous, neat, ambitious, persevering

• Low scorer: Aimless, unreliable, lazy, careless, lax, negligent, weak-willed, hedonistic.

Leadership

• Globe Research Project - 60 countries• Results:

– Integrity of personality, trustworthiness, honesty

– Charismatic, vision, positive approaches, motivating

– Team orienting, team-building

– Excellence-oriented, decisive, intelligent

– Win-win problem solver