PSYCHOLOGY - Henderson State Universityfac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 Courses/1 General Psychology/1...
Transcript of PSYCHOLOGY - Henderson State Universityfac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 Courses/1 General Psychology/1...
Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Module 3 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 1
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PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition, in Modules)
David Myers
PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2007
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Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
Module 3
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Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
DescriptionThe Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation
CorrelationCorrelation and CausationIllusory CorrelationPerceiving Order in Random Events
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Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
ExperimentationExploring Cause and Effect
Evaluating Therapies
Independent and Dependent Variables
Statistical ReasoningDescribing Data
Making Inferences
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Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Is language uniquely human?
Susan Kuklin/ Photo R
esearchers
OBJECTIVE 3‐1| Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of case studies in studying
behavior and mental processes.
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Case Study
A clinical study is a form of case study where the therapist investigates the
problems associated with a client.
http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com
Clinical Study
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Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people
usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
http://ww
w.lynnefeatherstone.org
OBJECTIVE 3‐2| Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior
and mental processes, and explain the
importance of wording effects and random
sampling.
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Survey
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
Wording Effect
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Survey
A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and
behaviors.
False Consensus Effect
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Survey
Random Sampling
From a population, if each member has an
equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample
(unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are spurious. The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them.
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Naturalistic ObservationObserving and recording behavior of animals in
the wild, to recording self‐seating patterns in lunch rooms in a multiracial school constitute
naturalistic observation.C
ourtesy of Gilda M
orelli
OBJECTIVE 3‐3| Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of naturalistic observation in
studying behavior and mental processes.
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Descriptive Methods
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation all describe behaviors.
Summary
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Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship
between two variables.
OBJECTIVE 3‐4| Describe positive and
negative correlations and explain how
correlational measures can aid the process of
prediction.
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Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, and the amount of
scatter the strength of relationship.
Scatterplots___________________________________
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No relationship (0.00)Perfect negativecorrelation (‐1.00)
Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the
two variables.
Scatterplots___________________________________
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DataData showing height and temperament in people.
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Scatterplot
Scatterplot showing relationship between height and temperament in people with a moderate
positive correlation of +0.63.
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or
Correlation and CausationOBJECTIVE 3‐5| Explain why correlational
research fails to provide evidence of cause‐
effect relationships.
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Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do notadopt
Disconfirming evidence
Confirming evidenceAdopt
Do not conceiveConceive
Michael N
ewm
an Jr./ Photo Edit
OBJECTIVE 3‐6| Describe how people form
illusory correlations.
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Given random data we look for order, for meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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Order in Random Events
Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle
OBJECTIVE 3‐7| Explain the human tendency
to perceive order in random events.
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Experimentation
Like other sciences, experimentation forms the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments
isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause and Effect
OBJECTIVE 3‐8| Explain how experiments
help researchers isolate cause and effect.
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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us while keeping other factors under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
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Independent Variable is a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is being
studied.
For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Breast feeding is the independent
variable.
Independent VariableOBJECTIVE 3‐9| Explain the difference
between an independent variable and a
dependent variable.
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Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it
is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Intelligence is the
dependent variable.
Dependent Variable___________________________________
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In evaluating drug therapies it is important to keep the patients and experimenter’s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and
which placebo.
Evaluating Therapies
Double‐blind Procedure
OBJECTIVE 3‐10| Explain why random
assignment and double‐blind procedure build
confidence in research findings.
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Assigning participants to experimental (Breast‐fed) and control (formula‐fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre‐existing
differences between the two groups.
Evaluating Therapies
Random Assignment
Sometime research participants out of
enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out
come of an experiment. To control for such
affects, a double‐blind procedure is used, in
which the participants and the experimenter’s
assistants are not aware of which participants
got real treatment and who got placebo.
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ExperimentationA summary of steps during experimentation.
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ComparisonBelow is a comparison of different research
methods.
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Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data and let us see what the unaided eye misses.
White63%
Black16%Hispanic
10%Asian
7%Others
4%
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
OBJECTIVE 3‐11| Explain the importance of
statistical principles, and give an example of
their use in daily life.
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Describing DataMeaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation can lead to incorrect
conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 3‐12| Explain how graphs can
misrepresent data.
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Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number.
Median: The middle score in a rank‐ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 3‐13| Describe three measures of
central tendency and tell which is most
affected by extreme scores.
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Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution
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Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 3‐14| Explain two measures of
variation.
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Standard Deviation___________________________________
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Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or
by chance.
OBJECTIVE 3‐15| Identify three principles for
making generalizations from samples.
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Making Inferences
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.
2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
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Making Inferences
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say
the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.
When is a Difference Significant?
OBJECTIVE 3‐16| Explain how psychologists
decide whether differences are meaningful.
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