Thinking Critically with Psychological Sciencefac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 Courses/1 General...
Transcript of Thinking Critically with Psychological Sciencefac.hsu.edu/ahmada/3 Courses/1 General...
Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 1
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PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition)David Myers
PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
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Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Chapter 1
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Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Need for Psychological Science
The limits of Intuition and Common Sense
The Scientific Attitude
The Scientific Method
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Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 2
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Thinking Critically …
DescriptionThe Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation
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Thinking Critically …
CorrelationCorrelation and CausationIllusory CorrelationPerceiving Order in Random Events
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Thinking Critically …
ExperimentationExploring Cause and Effect
Evaluating Therapies
Independent and Dependent Variables
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Psychology 8 ed., David Myers Chapter 1 PowerPoint Slides, Aneeq Ahmad 3
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Thinking Critically …
Statistical ReasoningDescribing Data
Making Inferences
FAQS About Psychology
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Impression of Psychology Hoping to satisfy curiosity, many people listen to talk‐radio counselors and psychics to know
about others and themselves.
Dr. Crane (radio‐shrink)
http://ww
w.nbc.com
http://ww
w.photovault.com
Psychic (Ball gazing)
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The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many of us believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers about
human nature.
Although intuitions and common sense may aid queries, they are not free of error.
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Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers tend to be overconfident of their “gut feelings”about job applicants.
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Errors of Common Sense
Try this !
If you were to fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) a 100 fold, how large do you think its thickness
would be?
800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.
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Hindsight Bias is the “I‐knew‐it‐all‐along”phenomenon.
We tend to believe, after learning about an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. We knew that the dot.com stocks would plummet,
only after they do.
Hindsight Bias
OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and
explain how it can make research findings
seem like mere common sense. Two
phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental
overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely
solely on intuition and common sense.
“Anything seems commonplace, once
explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.
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OverconfidenceWe tend to think we know more than we actually do.
Anagram
BARGEGRABE
ENTRYETYRN
WATERWREAT
How long do you think would it take to unscramble
these anagrams?
People said about 10 seconds. On average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence
contaminates our everyday judgments.
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Psychological Science
1. How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
2. Science of psychology can help make these examined conclusions, which lead to our understanding what people feel, think, act, as they do!
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The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (humbleness to
accept when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific
attitude encourages critical thinking.
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions.
It examines assumptions, discerns
hidden values, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions.
The Amazing Randi
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Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that
organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological
theories guide scientific research.
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Theory is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes and predicts behaviors
or events.
For example, low self‐esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
If we were to observe that depressed people talk
about their past, present, and future in a gloomy
manner, we may theorize that low‐self‐esteem
contributes to depression.
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Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often induced by a theory, to enable us to accept,
reject or revise the theory.
People with low self‐esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
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Research would require us to administer tests of self esteem and depression to
people. Individuals who score low on self‐esteem measures and high on depression
test, would confirm our hypothesis.
Research Observations
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Research Process
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Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Is language uniquely human?
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of case studies in studying
behavior and mental processes.
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Case Study
A clinical study is a form of case study where the therapist investigates the
problems associated with a client.
http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com
Clinical Study
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Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people
usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
http://ww
w.lynnefeatherstone.org
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior
and mental processes, and explain the
importance of wording effects and random
sampling.
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Survey
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
Wording Effect
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Survey
A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and
behaviors.
False Consensus Effect
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Survey
Random Sampling
From a population if each member has an
equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample
(unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are spurious. The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them.
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Naturalistic ObservationObserving and recording behavior of animals in
the wild, to recording self‐seating patterns in lunch rooms in a multiracial school constitutes
naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of naturalistic observation in
studying behavior and mental processes.
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Descriptive Methods
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation all describe behaviors.
Summary
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Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship
between two variables.
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative
correlations and explain how correlational
measures can aid the process of prediction.
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Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph that comprises of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, and the amount of
scatter the strength of relationship.
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No relationship (0.00)Perfect negativecorrelation (‐1.00)
Scatterplot on the left shows a negative, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.
Scatterplots___________________________________
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DataData showing height and temperament in people.
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Scatterplot
Scatterplot showing relationship between height and temperament in people with a moderate
positive correlation of +0.63.
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or
Correlation and CausationOBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational
research fails to provide evidence of cause‐
effect relationships.
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Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do notadopt
Disconfirming evidence
Confirming evidenceAdopt
Do not conceiveConceive
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form
illusory correlations.
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Given random data we look for order, for meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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Order in Random Events
Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
OBJECTIVE 11| Explain the human tendency
to perceive order in random events.
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Experimentation
Like other sciences, experimentation makes the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments
isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause and Effect
OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help
researchers isolate cause and effect.
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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us while keeping other factors under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
Exploring Cause & Effect
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Independent Variable is a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is being
studied.
For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Breast feeding is the independent
variable.
Independent Variable
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference
between an independent variable and a
dependent variable.
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Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it
is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Intelligence is the
dependent variable.
Dependent Variable___________________________________
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In evaluating drug therapies it important to keep the patients and experimenter’s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and
which placebo.
Evaluating Therapies
Double‐blind Procedure
OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random
assignment and double‐blind procedure build
confidence in research findings.
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Assigning participants to experimental (Breast‐fed) and control (formula‐fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre‐existing
differences between the two groups.
Evaluating Therapies
Random Assignment
Sometime research participants out of
enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out
come of an experiment. To control for such
affects, a double‐blind procedure is used, in
which the participants and the experimenter’s
assistants are not aware of which participants
got real treatment and who got placebo.
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ExperimentationA summary of steps during experimentation.
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ComparisonBelow is a comparison of different research
methods.
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Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data and let us see what the unaided eye misses.
White63%
Black16%Hispanic
10%Asian
7%Others
4%
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain the importance of
statistical principles, and give an example of
their use in daily life.
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Describing DataMeaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation can lead to incorrect
conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can
misrepresent data.
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Measures of Central Tendency
Mode the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean the arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number.
Median the middle score in a rank‐ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of
central tendency and tell which is most
affected by extreme scores.
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Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution
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Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of
variation.
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Standard Deviation___________________________________
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Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or
by chance.
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Making Inferences
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.
2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
3. More cases are better than fewer cases.
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for
making generalizations from samples.
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Making Inferences
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say
the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.
When is a Difference Significant?
OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists
decide whether differences are meaningful.
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FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior.
OBJECTIVE 21| Explain the value of
simplified laboratory conditions in
discovering general principles of behavior.
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FAQQ2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?
Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same.
OBJECTIVE 22| Discuss whether
psychological research can be generalized
across cultures and genders.
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FAQ
Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?
Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and then culture further bends the genders. Yet in many ways woman and man are similarly human.
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FAQ
Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?
Ans: Study of animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology
across animals and humans.
OBJECTIVE 23| Explain why psychologists
study animals, and discuss the ethics of
experimentation with both animals and
humans.
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FAQ
Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines
in caring for these animals.
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FAQ
Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm that is
beyond normal levels encountered in daily life can be carried out.
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FAQ
Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments.
OBJECTIVE 24| Describe how personal values
can influence psychologists’ research and its
application, and discuss psychology’s potential
to manipulate people.
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FAQ
Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of psychology is to help humanity with its problems,
like war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc.
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