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Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Progress towards the Millennium Development Goals,1990-2003

GOAL 7 – Ensure environmental sustainability

The goal 7 targets and indicators dramatically illustrate the inter-dependence of rich and poor countries. Environmental degradation ultimately impacts everyone. Climate change and loss of species diversity do not respect borders. The international community must address in common the objectives of sustaining environmental resources, ensuring access to improved water supply and sanitation and improving the lives of slum dwellers in the urban environment.

The scope of the challenge is clear: climate change brought on by human degradation of the atmosphere mainly through the spiraling increase in use of fossil fuels, is increasingly affecting weather patterns in ways that are still not well understood but that are certain to have a deep and pervasive impact on disease incidence, water distribution and human settlement among others. Likewise, ongoing reckless and uncontrolled tropical deforestation and ocean harvesting destroys species and habitat vital to the ecological diversity and biological productivity of the planet. From 1996 to 2002, the number of threatened species rose in every category of vertebrate, from mammals to fishes.1 In 1998, nearly 60 per cent of coral reefs worldwide were deemed “threatened” by human activity and today that threat is coming true on a massive scale.2 Meanwhile over a billion people still do not have safe water to drink and urban slums rapidly expand in and around the world’s major urban areas in developing regions.

How the indicators are calculated Country data

Target 9 - Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources Forests Forests provide a number of functions that are vital for mankind. These include the provision of timber and non-timber goods and the provision of services such as protection against flooding, biological diversity, carbon sequestration, watershed protection and soil conservation. Historically, large areas of the world’s forests in both temperate and tropical regions have been converted to other uses or severely degraded but currently most forest loss is in tropical regions. While substantial areas of forest remain, there is now widespread recognition that the resource is not infinite and that its wise and sustainable use is needed for our survival.

The proportion of forest area provides an indication of the relative importance of forest in

Indicators to monitor target 9 This target is monitored by reference to five indicators. Unlike the many of the other targets, these indicators are not focused on developing countries alone but incorporate actions taken or needed by rich countries as well to ensure environmental sustainability. The indicators track progress in five areas related to sustainable development and sustainable use of environmental resources: the sustainable management of forestry resources; the preservation of biodiversity and genetic resources; the efficient use of energy; the “greenhouse effect” which is linked to global warming; and damage to the ozone layer –tracked by the consumption of the ozone-depleting substances.

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a country and changes in forest area reflect the unregulated demand for land and forest products. In the year 2000, total forest area amounted to 3.9 billion hectares, of which 47 per cent were in the tropics.

During the period 1990–2000, Food and Agriculture Organization estimates the decrease was 14.2 million hectares a year in tropical forest, and 0.4 million hectares a year in non-tropical areas. This decrease was partially offset in non-tropical areas by the expansion of planted forests, but non-tropical planted forests cannot compensate for the loss of watershed purification and the habitat in the deforested tropical areas. From 1990, there was a net increase of 2.9 million hectares per year in non-tropical forest area but a continuing rapid decrease in tropical forest area of 12.3 million hectares per year.

Over the decade, the world lost 4.2 per cent of its natural forests but gained 1.8 per cent through natural expansion and establishment of planted forests, resulting in the net reduction of 2.4 per cent over the ten-year period. The estimated net loss during the decade was 9.4 million hectares per year, an area about the size of Portugal.

Table 22. Gross and net change in forest area, 1990-2000 (million hectares per year) Domain Deforestationa Increase in forest

areab Net change in

forest area Tropical -14.2 +1.9 -12.3 Non-tropical -0.4 +3.3 +2.9 Global -14.6 +5.2 -9.4

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global forest resources assessment 2000 (Rome, 2000). a Deforestation indicates the conversion of forest to other land use or long term reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10 per cent threshold. b Increase in forest area includes afforestation, that is the establishment of forest plantations in non-forested areas, and natural expansion of forests into previously non-forested areas.

In the past, deforestation was often directly attributed to population growth and shifting patterns of cultivation. Over the last decade, the world’s population has increased faster than ever before but the direct link of population growth to deforestation and demand for agricultural land has become less clear. As the economies of most countries have grown, the relative importance of the agricultural sector has decreased. Most countries have experienced large-scale migration to cities. Globally, only 18 per cent of the expected population growth between 2000 and 2005 will occur in rural areas and the rural population is already decreasing in the developed regions.3 But although population pressures have eased, forests and especially tropical forests, are still under threat from other pressures, such as harvesting of timber.

Many developing countries are now adopting policies to promote the sustainable management of natural forests and some are now committed to monitoring progress in this area–a major development since the early 1990s and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Many developed countries experienced an increase in forest area in the 1990s, as rural populations declined and the countries increased their commitment to sustainable forestry management.

Indicator on forests The indicator used to track the change in forest area is the proportion of land area covered by forest – defined as both natural forests and forest plantations, excluding stands of trees established primarily for agricultural production, example. fruit tree plantations.

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Protected areas Protected areas are an important indicator of environmental sustainability because they help to maintain biodiversity through the provision of species habitat and preservation of genetic resources. Protected areas are also widely recognized as places of high social and economic value because they can support local livelihoods, protect soil and watersheds from erosion, and support tourism, science and research. Designation and management of protected areas has only recently become a relatively new priority in national and international development programmes but is now widely recognized as a policy commitment that can yield large social and economic as well as ecological dividends at local, national and international levels.

Protected areas4 that are fully documented in the World Database of Protected Areas cover about 8.9 per cent of the world’s national territorial area, more extensive than the land under agriculture. Although protection of biodiversity has been a primary motivation, there has been a great broadening of awareness of the values of protected areas in recent decades.

Donors, governments at all levels, indigenous groups, local communities, non-governmental organizations and the private sector have invested—and are investing—in protected areas. These places are vital for ensuring a sustainable future for humanity.

Figure 3. Total surface area of protected areas, 1990-2003 (million sq. Km.)

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101214

1990 1995 2000Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre and United Nations Environment Programme, available from http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/UN.cfm (accessed June 2003).

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Indicator on protected areas Progress to preserve biodiversity is measured on the proportion of protected area, defined as the surface areas of nationally protected areas as a percentage of total surface area.

Figure 2. Protected areas, 1990 and 2003

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Northern Africa

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Latin Am./Caribbean

Eastern Asia South-centralAsia

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Oceania

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Note: Western Asia is not shown because trend data are affected by a single unusually large protected area (640,000 km2) established in Saudi Arabia in 1994.

Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre and United Nations Environment Programme, available from http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/UN.cfm (accessed June 2003).

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Globally the coverage of protected areas increased from 6.9 per cent in 1990 to the current 8.9 per cent—an overall increase during the 13-year period of more than 25 per cent. The largest percentage increase was in south-eastern Asia, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean, developed regions and eastern Asia.

Despite the overall increase in the percentage of total territorial area protected between 1990 and 2003, the rate of areal expansion has slowed considerably in recent years. Since 1990, there has been a gradual leveling off of additional area brought under protected status in both developed and developing regions (see figure 3), since most new sites have been small. The average new site is only approximately 220 km2.

There are different categories of protected areas, as set out by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).5 National parks (category II) have the highest overall coverage at the global level but there has been a marked increase in the coverage of Managed Resource Areas (category VI sites). The increase in other categories more open to human use reflects the need to integrate the aspirations of human populations with the long-term need to conserve biodiversity.

Table 23. Protected areas by category, May 2003 Categories Ia Ib II III IV V VI Total

Number of protected areas 4,125 832 3,427 5,374 18,743 8,423 2,427 43,351Area protected (million square km) 0.9 1.0 4.1 0.2 2.2 1.1 3.4 12.9Percentage of total territorial area 0.6 0.7 2.9 0.1 1.5 0.7 2.4 8.9Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre and United Nations Environment Programme Available from http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/UN.cfm.

The scope and extent of actions such as protected areas needed to safeguard biodiversity are still only estimates at best. Likewise, the protected areas concepts may need to be expanded to cover biodiversity ‘hotspots’ and megadiverse areas. In 2002, the Plan of Implementation agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development set the goal of achieving significant reduction in the loss of biodiversity by the year 2010. In the same year, the 6th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation setting a global target to “conserve effectively at least 10 per cent of each of the world’s ecological regions by 2010”. We may still be a long way from achieving an adequate global network of protected areas to conserve biological diversity.

Energy use Environmental sustainability calls for sustainable use of resources. Energy is one of the most important contributors to any economy both through direct consumption for household use as an important input to other economic production. Energy production and use have considerable environmental effects but these differ greatly by energy source. Fuel combustion is the main source of local and regional air pollution and greenhouse gas emission. Other effects involve reduction in water quality, changes in land use, risks related to the nuclear fuel cycle and to the extraction, transport and use of fossil fuels. The structure of a country’s energy supply and the efficiency of its use are key determinants of environmental performance and sustainability of economic development.

Countries in both developed and developing regions have made progress in using commercial energy more efficiently and therefore in reducing their energy intensity during the 1990–2000 decade. From 1990 to 2000, low-income economies (following the World Bank classification of low, middle and high-income economies) improved their efficiency of energy

Indicator of energy intensity The ratio of energy use per unit of gross domestic product measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms is an indicator of the energy intensity of an economy and energy efficiency.

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use by 18 per cent. Middle-income economies as a whole showed significant improvement, using almost 25 per cent less energy for producing a unit of GDP measured in purchasing power parity terms, while in lower-middle economies the improvement was 30 per cent. In the same period, the energy efficiency of high-income economies improved by almost 23 per cent. Despite these improvements in efficiency of energy use, the gap between high- and low-income economies still persists. In 1990 the low-income economies, on average, were using 304 kt oil equivalent to produce $1,000,000 worth of PPP GDP, compared with 265 kt in high-income economies—15 per cent more. By 2000, low-income economies were using 250 kt oil equivalent, compared to 214 kt in high-income economies—or 17 per cent more.

Greenhouse gas emissions Most of the warming over the last fifty years is likely due to the significant increase in green-house gas emissions.6 Largely as a result of increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the global average surface temperature increased 0.6o Celsius over the 20th century. The most recent period of warming was almost global, but the largest increases in temperature, beyond regional variability in the climate system, occurred over the mid-high latitudes of the continents in the northern hemisphere. Global ocean heat content increased significantly; annual land precipitation also continued to increase in the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere.

Carbon dioxide is the main source of the so-called “greenhouse effect” which is linked to global warming. Concern over global warming led to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The protocol, which called for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, was heralded by its proponents as a landmark agreement to mitigate climate change but criticized by detractors for being inequitable and costly to implement. The United States has rejected the protocol.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)—mainly from burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas—accounts for 60 per cent of the total changes in concentrations of all long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases. Globally, human emissions, referred to as “anthropogenic emissions” of CO2, increased, although with some fluctuations, from 6,110 million metric tons of carbon in 1990 to 6,457 million metric tons of carbon in 1999. Because of population growth, over the same period, there was a small decrease in the emissions per capita from 1.16 to 1.10 metric tons. In developing countries, the estimated emissions of CO2 increased by 36 per cent between 1990 and 1999, from 1,792 to 2,441 million metric

Indicator of greenhouse gas emissions The greenhouse effect is monitored by tracking the amount of CO2 emissions—largely a by-product of energy production and use. CO2 emissions account for the largest share of greenhouse gases that are associated with global warming.

Chart 10. Countries with carbon dioxide emissions greater than 10 metric tons of CO2 per capita Carbon dioxide emissions, per capita, 1999 United Arab Emirates 31.9 Bahrain 28.8 Netherlands Antilles 26.3 Kuwait 22.7 Aruba 21.0 United States 20.1 Trinidad Tobago 19.5 Canada 18.0 Australia 17.9 Faeroe Islands 14.4 Brunei Darussalam 14.3 Singapore 13.9 Palau 12.9 Luxembourg 12.7 Falkland Islands 12.6 Finland 12.4 Belgium 12.3 Estonia 12.1 Czech Republic 11.8 Nauru 11.4 Ireland 11.1 Saudi Arabia 11.0 Netherlands 10.9 Denmark 10.8 Germany 10.5 Israel 10.3 Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003); based on data provided by United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center.

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tons of carbon, corresponding to an increase in the per capita value from 0.44 to 0.51 metric tons per capita.

Data for most of the developed countries are available from the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), since these are the countries in the group of annex I Parties of the Convention, which are requested to submit information on national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories annually. In this group of countries, there was overall a slight decrease in CO2 emissions of 4 per cent between 1990 and 2000.7 However, the overall figures mask contrasting trends within the group of countries. While CO2 emissions declined significantly in transition countries-a decrease of 40 per cent mainly due to economic restructuring during the period-they actually increased by 11 per cent in the rest of annex I countries (European countries excluding transition countries, Canada and the United States, Japan, and Australia and New Zealand). For annex I Parties as a whole, CO2 emissions are projected to grow by 2010 by 8 per cent if no additional measures are taken.8

As for the other greenhouse gases, methane emissions account for 20 per cent, nitrous oxide emissions for 6 per cent and halocarbons (CFCs, HFCs, PFCs) and SF6 contribute to the remaining 14 per cent of the total changes in concentrations of all long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases.

Ozone-depleting substances The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs ultra-violet radiation that is otherwise harmful to life. Concern over damage to the ozone layer because of ozone-damaging substances led to over a hundred countries signing the Montreal Protocol.9 Under this protocol, countries committed to a dramatic reduction in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances, such as CFCs10. This has largely been achieved. The consumption of CFCs, for instance, was down to a “residual amount” by 1996 and the impact on the ozone layer has been substantially reduced.

To date, there are 185 Parties to the ozone treaties, of which 171 have reported data for various years. Industrialized countries have, in general, complied with the protocol’s requirement of reducing their consumption of ozone depleting substances by 1996 to a

Indicator on consumption of ozone-depleting substances The phasing out of ozone-depleting substances, and their substitution by less harmful substances or new processes, are aimed at the recovery of the ozone layer. Progress in the reduction of global consumption of these substances is monitored on the basis of the consumption of CFCs.

Figure 4. Anthropogenic emission of CO2 in million metric tons of carbon, 1980-1999

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'80 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003), based on data provided by CDIAC.

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Figure 5. Consumption of CFCs controlled under the Montreal Protocol, 1986-2001

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'86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003), based on data provided by the United Nations Environment Programme-Ozone Secretariat.

Industrialized countries Developing countries

residual amount. Under article 5 of the protocol, developing countries are given a grace period of about ten years—with the phasing out schedule starting in July 1999 for CFCs and in January 2002 for halons and methyl bromide. As a result, their compliance to the protocol will be more easily assessable in the next few years.

The global consumption of CFCs controlled under the Montreal Protocol dropped from 1.1 million tons of ozone depleting potential (ODP tons) in 1986, before the adoption of the Montreal Protocol, to only 120 in 200111. The bulk of 1986 consumption, more than 0.9 million ODP tons, was consumed in industrialized countries, but by 1996 these countries consumed a residual amount of 24,000 ODP tons, in compliance with the Protocol.

The success of the fast and economical reduction of consumption of CFCs has been possible thanks to the development and commercialization of alternatives to ozone-depleting substances. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) were developed as the first major replacement for CFCs. While much less destructive than CFCs, HCFCs also contribute to ozone depletion. HCFCs were critical for meeting the early CFC phase-out goals but are generally considered undesirable because they do have some ozone-depleting potential and ozone-safe alternatives are available for most applications. CFCs are also being replaced by HFCs. HFCs, however have a large global warming potential. The Kyoto Protocol on climate change includes HFCs in the basket of six gases whose emissions are to be reduced by the industrialised countries. Concentrations of HCFCs and HFCs are increasing since they have been used as substitutes for the CFCs that are being phased out.12

The only control measures in effect for developing countries are requirements to freeze from July 1999 their CFC consumption at their base level, and to freeze from January 2002 their halon and methyl bromide consumption. They are expected to reduce their CFC consumption by the year 2005 to 50 per cent of their base level. The base level for CFCs for developing countries is defined as the average consumption of 1995-1997. The consumption of CFCs in developing countries has begun to decrease after 1995—down to 95,000 ODP tons in 2001 from 184,000 in 1995. Exposure to indoor air pollution caused by solid fuels Incomplete and inefficient combustion of solid fuels results in the emission of hundreds of compounds, many of which are health-damaging pollutants or greenhouse gases and can therefore contribute to global climate change. Linkages among household solid fuel use, indoor air pollution, deforestation and soil erosion, and greenhouse gas emissions have become increasingly important in understanding the impacts of domestic energy use on local and global environment, and on health.

Indicator to monitor exposure to indoor air pollution Progress in reducing population‘s exposure to indoor air pollution is monitored by the proportion of population relying on biomass (wood, charcoal, crop residues, and dung) and coal as their primary source of domestic energy for cooking and heating.

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Figure 6. Use of solid fuel in developing regions 1990 and 2000

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Note: Insufficient data are available to calculate the regional aggregates for Latin America and the Caribbean.

Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003), based on data provided by World Health Organization.

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In addition to their local and global environmental impacts, biomass and coal smoke contain a large number of known health hazards. Exposure to indoor air pollution from the combustion of solid fuels, which especially affects women and small children, has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a causal agent of several diseases in developing countries. The World Health Organization estimates for 2000 attribute approximately 1.5 million deaths, almost all in developing countries and among children and women, were attributed to indoor air pollution from solid fuels.

Typical 24-hour average concentration of particulate matter (PM10) pollution in homes using biofuels may range as high as 5,000 µg/m3 or more throughout the year—which is more than 33 times higher than, for instance, the latest standard set by the US Environmental Protection Agency, of less than 150 µg/m3 (annual average below 50 µg/m3).

Approximately one half of the world’s population relies on biomass (wood, charcoal, crop residues, and dung) and coal as its primary source of domestic energy for cooking and heating. While virtually no households in the countries of the established market economies use solid fuel as the primary source of domestic energy, the fraction is well above 50 per cent in Africa and south-eastern Asia. Solid fuel use is especially common among the poor households. In Latin America and the Caribbean, for example, households with per capita income of less than $1 per day and between $1 and $2 per day, are 7 and 4 times as likely to be solid fuels users, respectively, than those living above $2 per day.

There is some evidence that in some countries the declining trend of household dependence on biomass slowed in the 1990s, or even reversed, especially among poorer households. Progress in reducing the use of solid fuels in urban regions of China has been offset by some increases elsewhere. As a result, the patterns of household solid fuel use in developing countries have remained relatively unchanged between 1990 and 2000. Low-cost technologies however have begun to be tested in a number of settings, to reduce the use of household solid fuel. Women are particularly affected by the pattern of fuel use for several reasons. First, in developing countries they are important users and producers of energy resources for household and subsistence purposes. Moreover, many of women’s activities in the informal sector are fuel intensive (such as small-scale enterprises dealing with beer brewing, rice parboiling, bakeries, fish smoking, palm oil processing, etc), with consequent implications for their health and income, depending on the availability and price of fuels. Finally, use of different kinds of fuels can have different impacts for women and men. Collecting fuels such as dung, crop residues and wood is very labour-intensive but the use of kerosene, gas and electricity requires much less labour at the household level.

In addition, in many parts of the world deforestation has meant that wood—the most widely used solid fuel—is increasingly distant from the places where people live. In such cases, someone must go and collect this distant wood every few days if not daily. Usually, this task falls to female members of a household, who may spend several hours a day engaged in it.

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Making available alternative fuel sources (and the means to use them safely) can thus have a particularly positive effect on the health of women, both by reducing their exposure to damaging fumes and by reducing the burden on them of a particularly taxing and time-consuming form of labour. Alternative fuel sources may also open up opportunities for education and income generation. This may help break a vicious cycle where solid fuel use restricts economic development, while poverty reduces the ability to switch to cleaner fuels.

Target 10 - Halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation Access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation are universal needs and basic human rights. They are essential elements in human development and poverty alleviation and constitute an indispensable component of primary health care. The United Nations Committee on Economic, Cultural and Social Rights has affirmed that “Water is fundamental for life and health. The human right to water is indispensable for leading a healthy life in human dignity. It is a pre-requisite to the realization of all other human rights”. Sustainable access to improved water sources The MDG target of halving the proportion of the world’s population without access to improved sources of water between 1990 and 2015 commits the international community to reach a global safe water coverage rate of almost 90 per cent. In 2000, coverage in the developed regions was estimated as 100 per cent in urban areas and 94 per cent in rural areas. In developing regions, it was stable at 92 per cent in urban areas and rose from 60 to 69 per cent in rural areas. This means that nearly 1 billion people gained access to improved water sources during the 1990s.

Table 24. Sustainable access to improved sources of water, 1990-2000 (percentage) 1990 2000

Region Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Developed regions n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 100 94 Developing regions n.a. 92 60 n.a. 92 69 Northern Africa 86 94 80 90 95 83 Sub-Saharan Africa 54 86 40 58 83 45 Latin 82 92 58 86 94 66 Eastern Asia 71 99 60 76 94 66 South-central Asia 72 90 66 85 95 80 South-eastern Asia 72 91 64 78 91 71 Western Asia n.a. n.a. n.a. 82 88 71 Oceania 40 88 32 48 76 40 Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003); based on data provided by United Nations Children’s Fund and World Health Organization.

Indicator on access to water Access to water is measured by the percentage of population who use “improved” sources of water, as scientific standards for determining “safe” water are not practical to apply in most developing regions.

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The greatest gain in access to improved water supply was registered in south-central Asia (from 72 per cent to 85 per cent). The lowest coverage rates remain in Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa, where only 48 and 58 per cent of the population, respectively has access to improved sources of water.

According to available estimates, rural areas have seen the greatest improvements in coverage—seven percentage points increase—while in urban areas the change has been negligible, one percentage point. Rural coverage still remains low, however, at 71 per cent.

Urban-rural disparities are greatest in sub-Saharan Africa, where only 45 per cent of the rural population have access to improved sources compared with 83 per cent of the urban population. Similarly high disparities are found in Latin America and the Caribbean, eastern Asia and Oceania. In 2000 some 1.1 billion people—one sixth of the world’s population—still lacked access to improved drinking water. The majority of these people live in Asia and Africa. Achieving the 2015 target on access to improved water supply means that access will need to be provided to an additional 1.4 billion people between 2000 and the target year. This means establishing new water supply services for an additional 254,000 people each day until 2015. The overall progress seen in the period 1990-2000 indicates that the MDG target, as measured by access to improved water sources, is attainable if the current trends are sustained. Ensuring that the world’s water supplies provide safe drinking water free of chemical and bacterial contamination will be an additional challenge, requiring growth in investment and improved strategies to reach those who are not served by safe water sources, especially for the low coverage region of sub-Saharan Africa.

Chart 11. Countries where less than 75 per cent of urban population have access to improved sanitation Proportion of urban population with access to improved sanitation, 2000 Rwanda 12 Congo 14 Afghanistan 25 Ethiopia 33 Central African Republic 38 Burkina Faso 39 Gambia 41 Mauritania 44 Mongolia 46 Benin 46 Haiti 50 Democratic Republic of the Congo 54 Kiribati 54 Gabon 55 Cambodia 56 Equatorial Guinea 60 India 61 Bhutan 65 Eritrea 66 Nigeria 66 Lao People's Democratic Republic 67 Mozambique 68 Burundi 68 Togo 69 Indonesia 69 China 69 Angola 70 Dominican Republic 70 Madagascar 70 Belize 71 Venezuela 71 Bangladesh 71 Cote d'Ivoire 71 Zimbabwe 71 Lesotho 72 Nepal 73 Ghana 74 Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003); based on data provided by United Nations Children’s Fund and World Health Organization..

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Access to improved sanitation In 2000, access to improved sanitation in developed regions was estimated at 100 per cent in urban areas and 93 per cent in rural. In developing regions from 1990 to 2000, coverage increased from 70 to 77 per cent in urban areas, and increased substantially from 21 to 35 per cent in rural areas. Despite gains, in 2000 about 2.4 billion people, 80 per cent of them in Asia, still lacked access.

The gap between rural and urban areas in developing regions remains wide, especially in eastern and south-central Asia, where coverage in rural areas is only about 25 per cent, while urban coverage is 70 per cent. Rural areas of most regions, with the exception of sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania, experienced progress over the decade, and there was significant progress in urban areas in most parts of Asia but not elsewhere. In eastern and south-central Asia, urban sanitation coverage reached 70 per cent and rural coverage increased from as little as 2 and 11 per cent respectively, to 27 and 25 per cent. In Latin America and the Caribbean, while rural populations improved their access to sanitation, there was no progress in urban areas.

Table 25. Access to improved sanitation, 1990 and 2000 (percentage of population) 1990 2000

Region Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Developed regions n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 100 93 Developing regions n.a. 70 21 n.a. 77 35 Northern Africa 79 94 64 89 96 81 Sub-Saharan Africa 55 75 46 54 74 43 Latin 72 85 41 77 86 52 Eastern Asia 17 56 2 42 70 27 South-central Asia 22 52 11 39 70 25 South-eastern Asia 53 73 44 63 80 55 Western Asia 79 95 58 85 97 61 Oceania 82 92 80 74 87 71 Source: United Nations Statistics Division, “World and regional trends”, Millennium Indicators Database, http://millenniumindicators.un.org (accessed December 2003); based on data provided by United Nations Children’s Fund and World Health Organization..

Over the 1990-2000 period, about 1 billion people globally gained access to improved sanitation. Halving the proportion of the world’s population without improved sanitation by 2015 (from 49 to 24.5 per cent) will require reaching an additional 1.7 billion people, a challenge for greater financing and more effective sanitation programmes. Initiatives and partnerships During 2002, the international community made important commitments to finding solutions to water scarcity, lack of access to water supplies and water quality problems. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg in 2002, for instance, the MDG goal on access to safe drinking water was reaffirmed and access to sanitation was singled out for higher priority.

Achieving these goals requires partnerships among business, civil societies and governments. One example is the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All campaign (WASH),

Indicator on access to sanitation Access to adequate sanitation is measured by the percentage of population who has access to improved facilities that are not publicly shared.

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an advocacy and communications initiative to mobilize political awareness, support and action to reach the billions of unserved, mostly poor, people. The WASH campaign has now been launched in South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Madagascar, Senegal and other countries.

The WASH campaign also deals with the gender dimension of water supply and recognizes that “women in many rural areas of the developing world spend a quarter of their time in drawing and carrying water—often of poor quality”. Water of poor quality results in frequent illness in the family, adding to the burden of caring for the sick, which again falls most heavily on women and girls. Thus, bringing an improved water supply closer to households’ residences can both improve the health of a population and reduce women’s burden.

Other water supply and sanitation partnerships organized under the themes of “health and sustainable development” and “freshwater” focus on healthy environments for children, eradication of specific water and sanitation related disease threats and on improving water and sanitation in areas of particular need such as Africa. A third major initiative was launched by the World Health Organization during the 2003 World Health Day, whose theme was “Shape the future of life: healthy environments for children”. This initiative includes extensive action on various groups of environmental-related health hazards including household water security, lack of hygiene and poor sanitation.

The Third World Water Forum held in Kyoto, Shiga and Osaka, Japan 16-23 March 2003, was the latest and most important global meeting to deal with worldwide water issues.

Target 11 - By 2020 to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers Slums are the stage to the most acute scenarios of urban poverty, physical and environmental deprivation. Physical conditions of slum housing and slum neighborhoods are the most visible manifestations of human suffering, experienced by approximately one-third of the urban population globally. Typical slums in developing countries are unplanned informal settlements where access to services is minimal to non-existent and where overcrowding is the norm. Disease, mortality and unemployment rates are much higher in slum conditions compared to other areas of cities and towns. Under-5 mortality rates and morbidity rates in slum areas often equal or exceed those found in rural areas.13,14 Adding to these burdens is the vulnerability of slum dwellers to eviction due to a lack of secure tenure.

The United Nations Center for Human Settlements estimates15 that there are currently 924 million slum dwellers in the world and that without significant intervention to improve access to water, sanitation, secure tenure and adequate housing this number could grow to 1.5 billion by 2020. Some 94 per cent of the world’s slum dwellers live in developing regions, which are the regions experiencing the most rapid growth in urban populations and with the least capacity to accommodate this growth.

Indicators on slums Measuring the existence of slums and improvement in slum conditions is done by reference to the level of access that slum-dwellers have to improved services, security of tenure, living conditions, overcrowding and durability of housing. Together these five indicators are used to estimate the total number of slum dwellers.

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“Virtually all the population growth expected at the world level during 2000-2030 will be concentrated in urban areas. Almost all of the population increase expected during 2000-2030 will be absorbed by the urban areas of the less developed regions whose population will likely rise from approximately 2 billion in 2000 to just under 4 billion in 2030.”16 The comparatively more rapid growth in the urban areas of developing countries, with a yearly 2.4 per cent increase, suggests that the problems associated with slum dwelling will worsen in those areas that are already most vulnerable.

The highest percentages of slum dwellers are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where 72 per cent of urban population are classified as failing to meet one or more of the criteria identified by the five indicators, and in south-central Asia, where 58 per cent of the urban population lives in slums. Slum dwellers are the overwhelming majority of urban population in the least developed countries—78 per cent.

In the developed regions slum dwellers have to put up with overcrowding and dilapidated housing. Nevertheless basic services are generally available. In developing regions the lack of access to basic improved services is the primary reason for slum classification, and this lack of services is often accompanied by overcrowding in inadequate structures.

Estimates of slum dwellers from earlier years are not widely available. When these are available they may not be comparable, as definitions may have changed. The World Housing Survey 1974 (WHS), however, did report on “population data for squatter settlements” providing 1970/71 data from nearly 50 countries in developing regions.17 For some of the 50 countries data points were available for more than one year. Almost without exception the WHS data showed that over time the percentage of slum dwellers was increasing.

Table 26. Estimated slum population, mid-2001

Total urban population

(millions)

Urban pop. living in slums

(millions)

Percentage of urban pop. living

in slums Region 1990 2001 2001 2001 World 2,286 2,923 924 31.6 Developed regions 846 902 54 6.0 Developing regions 1,439 2,022 870 43.0 Northern Africa 58 76 21 28.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 140 231 166 71.9 Latin America/Caribbean 313 399 128 31.9 Eastern Asia 367 533 194 36.4 Eastern Asia (excluding China) 51 61 16 25.4 South-central Asia 335 452 262 58.0 South-eastern Asia 133 203 57 28.0 Western Asia 93 125 41 33.1 Oceania 1 2 0 24.1 Transition countries 261 259 25 9.6 Least developed countries 107 179 140 78.2 Landlocked developing countries 66 84 47 56.5 Small island development States 24 30 7 24.4 Sources: United Nations Population Division, Urban population: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2001 Revision, Table A.1; slum percentages: Demographic and Housing Survey (1987-2001); Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (1995-2000); World Health Organization/United Nations Children’s Fund Joint Monitoring Programme (1998-1999).

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Furthermore, UN-HABITAT’s current estimates suggest that there has been no improvement in the proportion of urban population that is living in slums in developing countries since the WHS report.18 Partly this is because the problems of slum-dwellers have not been given sufficient weight in the debate on poverty reduction in previous decades. The magnitude of the urbanization problem is now a reality that calls for a review global development strategy.

Assuming that the current percentage of slum dwellers will not change throughout the period 2001 to 2020, the number is projected to grow to 1.5 billion people by 2020. The majority of urban slum dwellers will be in sub-Saharan Africa and south-central Asia where urban growth rates are high and the ability of the private sector or local and national governments to accommodate growth is limited. However approximate these projections are, this scenario serves to highlight the potential scale of the problem.

Initiatives and partnerships Global Campaign for Secure Tenure

Secure tenure is promoted as a key mechanism for advancing the rights of the urban poor and unlocking their potential. The initiatives undertaken by UN-HABITAT as part of the campaign since 2000 are ongoing and continue to yield results, both at national and local level. In Asia, Africa and Latin America the campaign launched in 2002 offered an unprecedented opportunity to raise awareness among all stakeholders, especially slum dwellers, on critical issues.

The launch in the Philippines was a milestone. As part of the launch, a Presidential Executive order declared idle public land available for allocation to the urban poor. This was an important move towards achieving the goal of improving the life of slum dwellers. During follow up events to the launch, representatives of local authorities translated this executive order into actual commitments to make land available to slum dwellers. Later, an executive order to prevent forced and illegal evictions, proposed by community organizations was signed by the President. The methodology used in the Philippines campaign is being adopted worldwide, for example in, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Morocco, Senegal and Uganda.

In India, the government is providing protection to pavement and slum dwellers while urban poor organizations in Mumbai have gained momentum and have carried out several Resettlement and Rehabilitation projects, example the Mumbai Urban Transport Project. In relation to this, UN-HABITAT has initiated the “Three Cities Project” in Mumbai, Durban and Manila, to provide support to organizations of slum dwellers, NGOs and governments. In Cambodia, as a result of the Global Campaign, on-going discussions between the government and slum dwellers have resulted in fewer forced evictions.

Figure 7. Percentage of population urban, 1990 and 2001

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Developed regions

Northern Africa

Sub-SaharanAfrica

LatinAmerica/

Caribbean

Eastern Asia South-centralAsia

South-easternAsia

Western Asia Oceania

Source: United Nations Population Division.

1990

2001

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In Namibia the Flexible Land Tenure Bill, and in Brazil the “Cities Status”, present clear commitments to introduce affordable systems of tenure and policies favorable to the urban poor.

In Kenya, where there is an unprecedented urban crisis, UN-HABITAT has succeeded through campaign advocacy in bringing together organizations of the urban poor and the government in the design and development of slum upgrading initiatives and policies to improve the lives of slum dwellers.

Water for African and Asian cities

In a programme directly related to MDG target 11, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) announced in 2002 at the WSSD in Johannesburg its support to expand UN-HABITAT’s Water for Asian Cities Programme. ADB is to provide a $10 million grant for fast-track funds and up to $500 million in follow-up investment to participating Asian cities. These cities are being identified in the first phase, in China, India, Democratic People’s Republic of Laos, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam. An important part of the development programme in each city is the pro-poor needs assessment and a participatory monitoring framework that addresses the MDG targets. Abidjan, Accra, Addis Ababa, Dar es Salaam, Johannesburg, Lusaka and Nairobi were the focus for Phase I of the Water for African Cities programme, which will be extended to five more cities in the second phase. Data collection

The lives of slum-dwellers will only be deemed to have improved if there is improvement according to the criteria listed above (see the section below, How the indicators are calculated), such as sufficient living area, or access to water. This will be determined through monitoring of programmes and projects as well as through a pro-active programme of global data collection. UN-HABITAT and other international agencies have therefore embarked on various initiatives aiming at strengthening data collection and survey coverage. Notes 1 International Union for the Conservation of Nature, 2003 “Red list of threatened species”, in http://www.iucnredlist.org. 2 D. Bryant, L. Burke, J. McManus, and M. Spalding, 1998. “Reefs at risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Potential Threats to the World’s Coral Reefs”. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute and Cambridge, United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centere; and T. Goreau, T. McClanahan, R. Hayes and A. E. Strong, 2000. Conservation of coral reefs after the 1998 global bleaching event. Conservation Biology, Feb 2000. 3 United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2001 Revision (United Nations publication, Sales No.E.02.XIII.16). 4 The definition of a protected area adopted by International Union for the Conservation of Nature is: “An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means.” Although all protected areas meet the general purposes contained in this definition, in practice the precise purposes for which protected areas are managed differ greatly. 5 IUCN has defined a series of seven protected area management categories, based on primary management objective. They are the following: Ia. Strict Nature Reserve: protected area managed mainly for science; Ib. Wilderness Area: protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection; II. National Park: protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation; III. Natural Monument: protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features; IV. Habitat/Species Management Area: protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention; V. Protected Landscape/Seascape: protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation; VI. Managed Resource Protected Area: protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.

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6 The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), signed by 154 states (plus the European Commission) at Rio de Janeiro and now covering over 185 members, was established with the objective of “stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. Both developed and developing countries are required to submit national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions by source and greenhouse gas removals by sink (e.g. forest). Developed countries report these inventories annually using agreed methodologies to ensure that national data are consistent and comparable. Developing countries started making their initial submissions of national inventories in 1997 and data is not available for all countries or for all years. 7 In order to assess trends, the aggregate figures for the year 2000 include data referring to a previous year for countries where 2000 data were not available. Data refer to 1999 for Liechtenstein, Monaco and Bulgaria, to 1998 for Lithuania and Ukraine, to 1996 for the Russian Federation and to 1995 for Croatia. 8 This information is based on projections provided in individual national communications (29 Annex I Parties reported projections for CO2) as compiled in the document “Compilation and synthesis of third national communications” (FCCC/SBI/2003/7/Add.3). 9 Substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol include CFCs (CFC-11, 12, 113, 114 and 115) and halons (1211, 1301, 2402). 10 Consumption of CFCs is defined as production plus imports minus exports, minus destroyed quantities minus feedstock uses. 11 The figure for 2001 is based on projections since some parties are yet to report data for that year. 12 See United Nations Environment Programme -Ozone Secretariat website, available from http://www.unep.org/ozone/public_information/print_ver.asp?fname=4av_publicinfo_facts_assessment.asp&folder=public_information, and http://www.unep.org/ozone/pressback/press-backgrounder.shtml. 13 African Population and Health Research Center, “Population and Health Dynamics in Nairobi’s Informal Settlements”, p.91 (Nairobi, April 2002). 14 S. Fry, B. Cousins, and K. Olivola, “Health of Children Living in Urban Slums in Asia and the Near East: Review of Existing Literature and Data”, Environmental Health Project, Activity Report 109 (2002). (in Ahmedabad) “Infant mortality rates are twice as high in slums as the national rural average. Slum children under five suffer more and die more often from diarrhea and acute respiratory infection than rural children. On average, slum children are more nutritionally wasted than all children in Gujarat State.” “Infant mortality rates in Manila’s slums are triple those of non-slum areas.”, p. xiii, “Nearly three-quarters of all children under five in a Cairo squatter settlement suffered from an infectious disease during the preceding two weeks; one-quarter of these had had both diarrhea and acute respiratory infection.” p. xiv. 15 Estimates are based on the operational definition of slums and secure tenure agreed by the UN-HABITAT Expert Group Meeting on Urban Indicators, Nairobi, 28-30 October 2002. See Recommendations of the Working Group on Slum Definitions, available from http://www.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/. 16 United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2001 Revision, Data Tables and Highlights, p.1, 20 March 2002 (ESA/P/WP.173). 17 United Nations, World Housing Survey 1974, Table 48, “Growth of Slums and Squatter Settlements in Selected Countries and Cities or Areas”, p.159 (New York, 1976). 18 There are exceptions. Morocco reported in its reply to the United Nations questionnaire that in 1971, 55-60 per cent of its population lived in casbahs or bidonvilles. UN-HABITAT’s current estimates for Morocco are 33 per cent; in 1971 Ethiopia reported that 90 per cent of its urban population lived in inadequate housing: this is consistent with the current estimate. According to the latest Kenya census (1999), 241,480 persons became resident in Nairobi within one year preceding the census date: the formal housing market clearly cannot accommodate that number of new arrivals even after adjusting for those who may be temporary residents. How the indicators are calculated Protected areas This indicator is defined as the percentage of total protected area (terrestrial and marine) on total territorial area (terrestrial area plus territorial sea area up to 12 nautical miles).

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The protected area data are gathered and stored in the World Database of Protected Areas, which is hosted and maintained by the United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) on behalf of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)-World Conservation Union World Commission on Protected Areas. The national data used to calculate the regional aggregates presented in this report are available from http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/UN.cfm. The database is constantly being updated by inserting newly established protected areas as well as information on already existing protected areas that are not yet recorded.

Although protected area data are currently based on IUCN management categories, these provide only a broad indication and differentiation of the way the areas are actually used and managed to conserve biodiversity. Providing more definitive information would require a more consistent and uniform adoption of the IUCN categories system by all countries—and an agreed standard definition of a protected area. At the moment, even the Convention on Biological Diversity definition of a protected area differs from that adopted by IUCN. If countries correctly and consistently applied the IUCN categories system then the designations could be used as a more coherent indicator of policy commitment to biodiversity conservation and sustainable development objectives. Energy intensity Energy use per units of PPP GDP is commercial energy use measured in units of metric tons of oil equivalent per $1,000,000 of GDP converted from national currencies using purchasing power parity (PPP) conversion factors. The ratio of energy use to GDP provides a measure of energy intensity. Differences in this ratio over time and across countries may reflect structural changes in the economy, changes in the energy efficiency of particular sectors, and differences in fuel mixes.

Commercial energy use refers to domestic primary energy before transformation to other end-use fuels (such as electricity and refined petroleum products). It includes energy from combustible renewables and waste, which comprises solid biomass and animal products, gas and liquid from biomass, industrial waste, and municipal waste. The underlying data on commercial energy production and use are from the International Energy Agency (IEA) of the OECD. The IEA data for non-OECD countries are based on national energy data adjusted to conform to annual questionnaires completed by OECD member governments. The IEA’s data are published in its annual publications, Energy Statistics and Balances of Non-OECD Countries, Energy Statistics of OECD Countries, and Energy Balances of OECD Countries.

Greenhouse gas emissions Estimates of CO2 emissions for all countries are available from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Carbon dioxide emissions are those stemming from the burning of fossil fuels and the manufacture of cement. They include contributions to the carbon dioxide produced during consumption of solid, liquid, and gas fuels and gas flaring. The CO2 emission estimates are derived primarily from energy statistics.

Other important greenhouse gas emissions are methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)-- mainly due to agriculture and changes in land use--and long-lived industrial gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride (SF6). Ozone-depleting substances Ozone depleting substances (ODS) are any substance containing chlorine or bromine, which destroys the stratospheric ozone layer that absorbs most of the biologically damaging ultraviolet radiation. The phasing out of ozone depleting substances, and their substitution by less harmful substances or new processes, are aimed at the recovery of the ozone layer.

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Substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol include CFCs (CFC-11, 12, 113, 114 and 115) and halons (1211, 1301 and 2402).

Ozone depleting potential (ODP) refers to the amount of ozone depletion caused by a substance. It is the ratio of the impact on ozone of a chemical substance compared to the impact of a similar mass of CFC-11. The ODP of CFC-11 is defined to be 1. Other CFCs and HCFCs have ODPs that range from 0.01 to 1. The halons have ODPs ranging up to 10.

CFCs are considered most representative of the protocol’s efforts towards phasing out the use of ozone depleting substances and were the first to be targeted for elimination, hence depict best the phase-out process for ozone depleting substances.

The consumption of CFCs is calculated as the national production plus imports, minus exports minus destroyed quantities minus feedstock uses. For ODS (in this case CFCs), the sum of national annual consumption of CFCs is multiplied by the estimated ozone-depleting potential of CFCs.

For a full list of the controlled substances as well as the control measures applicable to each group of substance, refer to the publication Production and Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances under the Montreal Protocol: 1986–2000, which is available on the Ozone Secretariat's web-site at http://www.unep.org/ozone.

Use of solid fuels Data on both fuel use and cooking can be gathered in surveys, as done in a number of Living Standard Measurement Surveys (LSMS), Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), and national censuses. Development of standard and comparable questions for inclusion in all nationally representative household surveys however is essential. The following categorization of fuels provides measurable and predictive information on both the health and environmental impacts of household energy use: a) dung and crop residues; b) wood; ci) charcoal; cii) coal; d) kerosene; e) gas and electricity.

Exposure to indoor air pollution depends on interactions of pollution source (fuel and stove type), pollution dispersion (housing and ventilation), and activities of household members. The type of fuel and participation in cooking tasks seem to be the most important predictors of risk. While large-scale monitoring of actual exposure in field conditions is excessively costly, household fuel use patterns provide an easily measurable predictor of exposure. Using the type of fuel as indicator also provides a direct mapping to policy and intervention options as well as local and global environmental impacts. Fuel use surveys will also allow monitoring of multiple fuel use, which is common in many households. Access to an improved water source Access to improved water sources refers to the percentage of population who use any of the following types of water supply for drinking: piped water, public tap; borehole/pump; protected well; protected spring; rainwater. Improved water sources do not include: vendor-provided water, bottled water, tanker trucks, and unprotected wells and springs. Access to improved sanitation facilities Access to improved sanitation facilities refers to the percentage of the population with access to facilities, which hygienically separates human excreta from human, animal, and insect contact. It is assumed that facilities such as a sewer or septic tank system, poor-flush latrines, simple pit or ventilated improved pit latrines are likely to be adequate, provided that they are not public or shared. To be effective, facilities must be correctly constructed and properly maintained.

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Estimates of slum population Data directly reporting on slum conditions globally has been extremely limited and, until recently, there was no standard definition of “slum”. In the absence of available data on the number of slum dwellers, estimates are based on an operational definition of slums and secure tenure as agreed at the October 2002 Expert Group Meeting (EGM) convened by UN-HABITAT in Nairobi, Kenya. According to this definition, a slum household is a group of individuals living under the same roof that lack one or more18 of the following five attributes: • Security of tenure (Evidence of documentation can be used as proof of secure tenure

status; not under threat of eviction). • Structural quality/durability of dwellings (Permanent structure – not earthen floor, type of

wall or roof materials used – in compliance of building codes, not located in a hazardous area).

• Access to improved water (Piped connection to house or plot; public stand pipe; bore hole; protected dug well; protected spring; rain water collection; all sources should be within a suitable distance so as not to overburden the occupants).

• Access to sanitation facilities (Direct connection to public sewer; direct connection to septic tank; pour flush latrine; ventilated improved pit latrine).

• Sufficient-living area (Less than 3 people per habitable room). The estimates, based on the new definition of slums, are at the country level and use national household survey data. More than 100 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), 55 Joint Monitoring Programmes (JMP) and 56 Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) informed the country level estimates of the urban condition. In countries where there were no DHS or MICS, UN-HABITAT relied on census data, other sources of national data or made missing value estimates based on similar-country experience. Households are asked to identify which category of access to water, sanitation, construction material and security of tenure applies to them. These categories are then used to classify the household as slum or no slum. Country estimates were added to obtain the regional and global totals. Due to changes in definition and methodology, these estimates cannot be compared with previous data sets produced by UN-HABITAT. References and international data comparisons * BRUCE, NIGEL, ROGELIO PEREZ-PADILLA and RACHEL ALBALAK (2000). Indoor air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78 (9), 1078-1092 Geneva.

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* Capital letters A, C, E, F, R, S in parentheses indicate publications available in files at http://unstats.un.org under “Publications” in the languages shown, referring to Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.