94 ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

Duke et al.. 1975: Carter et al.. 1980a). In one study (Duke et al.. 1975). thc amounts of 15 nutrients in coca !caves were compared to averages of thesc nu-trients present in 50 Latin American foods. Coca was found to be higher in calorics (305 per 100 g vs. 279), protein (18.9 g vs. 11.4 g). carbohydratc (46.2 g vs. 37.1 g). fibcr (14.4 g vs. 3.2 g). calcium (1540 mg vs. 99 mg), phosphorus (911 mg vs. 279 mg). iron (45.8 mg vs. 3.6 mg), vitamin A (11.000 IU vs. 135 IU). ami riholavin (1.91 mg vs. 0.18 mg). Bascd on thcsc data, 100 g of Bolivian mea lea ves would more than satisfy the Recommended Dietary Allowance for refercncc man and woman in calcium, iron, phosphorus, vitamin A. and ribofiavin. Picn-Retegui (1976) pointed out that vitamin A intake in Andean populations is vcry low. so the extremely high vitamin A content in coca leaves would supplcmcnt this deficiency significantly. However, sincc thc time whcn thc nutritional valuc of coca was proved, no researchers have conducted studies on the actual or poten tia! contribution of coca in nativc dicts. A quid of fincly powdcrcd Ama-zonian coca gradually dissolves with saliva and may be completely ingested. and the intake of nutrients in this case would be higher than in chewing wholc !caves.

Coca chewing

THE MECHANICS OF COCA CHEWING

Coca !caves are chewed in a relatively uniform manner throughout thcir arca of use, although there exist numerous minor variations. The greatest divergcncc from the normal pattern is found in the Amazon, where coca is used in powdcrcd form. In the Andes, the act of chewing coca is accompanied by a complcx series ofrituals that are deeply embedded in traditional Quechua life. These are discusscd in detail later.

Coca always is dried before use; this facilita tes the rapid relea se of thc chemical constituents from the !caves during chewing. The dried leaves are placed in thc mouth one or a few at a time and slowly moistened with saliva. Almost im1rn:-diately, a rich green juice issues from the lea ves and they become soft and pliablc. They are then moved about the mouth with the tongue and rolled into a ball or quid and pushcd into onc check. Coca is ncvcr actually chcwed, but rathcr thc moistened quid ofleaves is sucked u pon to extract the juices, which slowly trickle in to the stomach. In South America, a number of words are used specifically to denote coca chewing: "mambear" (Colombia); "chacchar," "acullicar," "pijch-ear" (Peru, Bolivia); "coquear" and "mascar" (general).

The juice that emanates from thc quid is distinctive in lavor and dcpcnds somcwhat on the variety of coca. Generally, coca has a grassy or hay-like laste. with a hint of wintergreen in Trujillo coca. During the carlicst stages of chewing. all coca varieties are distinctly bitter because of the prcsence of alkaloids. This bittcrncss is countcractcd by thc addition oan alkali substancc. such as powdcrcd lime or ashes-or even baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) among non-native chewers. The alkali not only "sweetens" the chew but also noticcably potentiates its effects, both in numbing the cheeks and tonguc (through thc anesthetic effect of cocaine) and by increasing the stimulating effect. Additional doses of alkali pcriodically are added to the quid to maintain its effect on the chew; more !caves also may be added until the quid reaches an optima! size for the chewer.

The amount of time the coca quid is kcpt in the mouth vares, depending on the individual user, from about 30 to 90 minutes, after which the quid is spat out. Amount and duration of chewing depends in part upon the cost and avail-ability of lcavcs in a particular rcgion. The amount of coca chcwed also vares according to individual taste. ranging generally from 25 to 75 g ofleaves pcr day.

96 ETHNOBOTANY IN TI!! NFOTROl'ICS

F1G. 24. Archeological lime gourds (Lagcnaria siceraria) from coastal Pcru. Left: Lime gourd with pyroengraved anthropomorphic and geometric decoration. from Hacienda Hurnaya. Huacho. Huaura Valley, Peru, ca. 1000-1475 A.D. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Fthnology. accession no. 46-77-30/6189. Right: Small undecoratcd lime gourd with carved figure on dipstick. Cajamarquilla. Rimac Val ley. Dqll. Lima. Peru. dale unn:rtain. possibly Middlc llorirnn. ca. 600-1000 A.D. l'cahod) Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, accession no. 46- 77-30.16088.

transfcr the lime from the gourd to the quid in the check (Fig. 26). In southcrn Colombia, the Paez Indians mercly pour the powdercd lime from their gourd onto the palm or back of the hand and toss it onto the quid in the mouth. But rn southern Cauca, the lime normally is not pulvcrizcd, but is uscd in the form of a hard lump. Small pieces are bitten offand inserted into the quid (AntoniL 1978).

In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast of Colombia. India ns ofthe Kogi and !ka tribcs continuC' to use coca in ccnturics-old, traditinnal patterns (Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1953; Ochiai, 1978). Only thC' mcn of thcse tribcs

PLOWMAN : COC.-\ 97

E u

(Y) A B

'fi~~ ~ t1ll )_

F1

98 ETHNOBOT . .\NY li" THE ~EUTRll!'ICS

F1t> . 26. Pcru\'i:rn mcstio adding powdncd lime to hi s coca ,1uiJ w1th a s1na ll stid;. Thc lime " carried in thc srn:ill gou rd in his hand. B:i lsas. Rill Marai1 n. Dcpt. Arna;onas. Pau .

d1,icling !me in thc Andes between the n o rthern lme-gourJ-using cuca d 1''"l'r' ami the suuthcrn llipta uscrs lies appruximately at thc hnrder uf tlw Pnu' i:111 dcpanmcnts of Hunuco ancl Paseo. Along thc Pacif1c ,oast. thc use of lim e and lime gourds ~tppc:Hs to be un\"Crsal.

PLOWMAN: COCA 99

Llipta is prcparcd from a largc numbcr of plant spccies (Fig. 25). In a gi\cn arca and habitat. one ora few llipta sources will be preferred. In the high Andes. the prefrrred plant ash comes from two species of cul11vatcd chenopods. which are Chcnopodium quinoa Willd .. "quinua ," and C. pallidicaulc Aellcn. "cai1ihu:i." Also in thc highlands, llipta may be made from the roots of faba beans ( 1 1c1a faba L.) and from the stcms and fruits of severa! species of columnar cacti in thc genera Cercus. Trichocercus. and Clcistocactus. In the tropical montaa of thc eastern Andes . maize cobs, ,Husa roots. and cacao pods comrnonly are burned to make llipta. In both arcas numerous wild plants also are exploited and prcfcrred locally by coca chewers. To prepare llipta, the plant is burned thoroughly to a fine ash and then mixed with water. Starchy potato water may be uscd to hold the ash together. The resulting pasty mass then is molded into cakes in a varicty ofshapes and sizes dcpending on local custom. Llipta may be ftavorcd with variou s spices such as anise or chili peppers (Mortimer. 190 l; Antonil. 19 78). In ordcr to use llipta, a small piece of the hardened cake is broken off and insertcd with the fingers into the quid. One must be careful not to Jet the llipta touch the inncr surfaces ofthe check since it may cause painful burns. The quality ofllipta varics apprcciably and may be extremcly alkaline and caustic , or mild . vcry hard and rock-like. or soft and crumbly. Hard llipta dissolves slowly. and onc piecc may serve to supply an entire chew with alkali , without the frequent reapplications that are necessary when chewing coca with powdered lime.

In the Amazon basin and Andean foothills. ashes of Cecropia or Po 11ro11111a trees are used as the alkaline source for coca chewing. The Mashco ofthe southcrn Peruvian montaa burn the trunks of a Cecropia species to as hes: thcsc are frncly pulvcrized and stored in a bamboo tube. The ash then is added to thl' quid of whole coca lea ves with a small stick , not unlike the use of a lime gourd and lime stick in coastal Pcru (Califano & Femndez Diste!, 1978). In the Bcni arca of northern Bolivia. ashes are prepared from thc spathe of the "motac" palm (Schcelea prnceps [Mart.] Karst.) and are stored in a cow's horn. A small-lea\'ed form of E. coca var. coca is chewed in this area as a quid ofwholc !caves to which the motac ash is addcd (Le Cointe, 1934; Davis, 1983). A numbcr of tribes in the southern montaa, including Campa, Machiguenga. Mashco , and Chimane. chew whole coca lea ves with ashes. Further north in the "selva" arcas of lowland Amazonia. coca always is chewed as powder. pre-mixed with finely sifted Crcropia or Po11ro 11111a leaf ashcs (Plowman. 1981: Schultcs. 1981) or with banana lcaf ashes (Prance , 1972). Only Amazonian coca , E . coca var. ipadu. is prepared in powdered form.

Rivier ( 1981) measured the pH and buffer capacity of 17 different samplcs of coca alkali admixtures, including lime, llipta, and Cecropia leaf ashes, among othcrs. The pH of thcse substances rangcd from 10.1 in llipta made from quinua stcms to 12.8 in lime made from marine shells. Llipta contains high amounts of calcium. magnesium , and potassium salts , the proportions varying according to the source (Gosse, 1861; Cruz Snchez & Guilln. 1948: Bakcr & Mazcss. 1963). Bakcr and Ma1css ( 1963) bclicvc that thc calcium containcd in llipta ingestecl during coca chewing is an importan\ source of this element in the diet of coca chewers.

Besides the addition of alkaline substanccs, a numbcr of othcr plants may be uscd along with coca. Thc most importan! ofthese is tobacco, a drug that is found almost universally among tribes that use coca. Contemporary Andean coca chcw-ers frequently smoke cigarettes while chewing coca or even smoke as a substitutc for coca whcn chewing is not possiblc (Fine, 1960). A soft tobacco paste is madc in a numbcr of arcas and addcd to the coca quid by mcans of a small necdlc.

100 ETHNOBOT ANY IN THf NEOTR OP!CS

This custom is especially conspicuous in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mana ancl in the northwest Amazon, where the tobacco paste is called "ambira" and "ampiri." respectivel y (Usctegui, 1954). Tobacco paste is prepared by slowly cooking tender tobacco !caves with water; a "bush salt" made from the ashes ofone ofa number ofplants then is added to the resulting syrupy paste. In the Amazon. th e addition oftobacco paste at the beginning ofa chew ofpowdered coca stimulatessaliYation and greatly facilitates the formation of a quid from the powder (Plown .in. 1981 ). Tobacco in snuff form is used with coca by the Mashco in the Peruvia i montaa (Califano & Femndez Diste!, 1978) and by severa! tri bes in Colombia ( dsctegui. 1961 ).

A littlc known but interesting coca admixture comes from a bignnniaceous vrne . Mussatia hyacinthina (Stand!.) Sandw., known as "chamairo" (Plowman, 1980: Davis, 1983). The bark of the stem of this liana is added to the quid of wholc coca !caves among the Campa and Machiguenga of eastern Peru and al so among the Ch imane and other groups of northern lowland Bolivia . Chamairo is u sed as a flavoring and swcctcncr for thc coca quid and al so ma y be chewed alone (with ashes but without coca) as a stimulant and medicine. In northern Peru, Trujill o coca quids may be lavored with the dried lcalets of Abrus prccatorius L.. known locally as "mishquina" or ''miski miski." The foliage of Tagctcs pusilta HUK. is used with quids of E. coca var. coca in southern Peru , a nd the aromatic rcsin of Protiu111 heptaphy//11111 (Aubl.) March is employcd in thc Colombian Amazon to f'la vor Amazonian coca powder (Schultcs. 19 5 7).

THE EFFECTS OF COCA CHEWING

The primaf)' effect of chewing coca is a mild stimulation of the central nervous sys tem resulting from the assimilation of cocai ne from thc lea ves (Holmstcdt et al., 1979). Sorne workers (Montesinos. 1965: Burchard, 197 5) ha vc suggestcd th a t the ecgonine derivatives of cocaine may play a role in the combined c!Tects o f coca chewing. but their interesting th cories ha ve not been confJrmed by controllcd experiments. In addition , the minor alkaloids presumed to be presen t in tht: coca lea fh ave been implicated in the effects of coca chewing (Mortimer, 190 l; Martin. 1970) , but little is known of the biological activity of thesc compounds. Rivier ( 1981) has shown that thc only othcr alkaloid prescnt in coca lea ves at significan! leve Is (greater than 1 % of amount of cocaine) is cinnamoylcocaine. and th1 s compound is not known to be pharmacologically acti ve. If othcr alkaloids are indeed prsent , they exist only as trace constituents.

During coca chewing, free cocaine base is absorbed rapidly through thc bucea! mucosa in th c mouth and to sorne extent in the gastrointestinal trae!. Cocainc is measurable in blood plasma five minutes after coca chewing bcgins. which gi vc s a measure ofthc rapidit y ofcocaine assimilation. Peak lc vel s in plasma are rcached one to two hours after chewing begins (Holmstedt et al., 1979), although thc major subjective etfects are felt within the first half hour of chewing. Peak blood levels of cocaine ingested during coca chewing are highly variable and depend upon severa! factors, including dose and concentration of cocaine in thc leaf material, absence or presence of alkali admixtures, and indi vid ual cxperiencc of the chewer, among others. Blood levels of cocaine during chewing may a pprox-imate , but generally are lower than , those found after intranasal administrati on of cocaine (cf. Javaid et al., 1978; Holm sted t et al. , 19 79; Paly et al., 1980). Surprisingly, no modern detailed pharmacological studies of coca chewi ng in native coca chewers yet have been conducted, although numerous such studics have been conducted on cocaine users.

PLO\'.'MAN: COCA 101

The stimulation experienced during coca chewing givcs a sensc of increased energy and strength, a suppression of the sensation of fatigue, an elcvation of mood or mild euphoria , and a sense of well being and contentmcnt. Coca al so produces a temporary loss of appetite. Owing to the release of cocine in thc mouth during chewing, there is a pronounced numbing scnsation of the cheeks and tongue, which results from the anesthctic action of cocainc. 1 ine is no e"idence that coca chewing rcsults in tolcrancc or physiological depe1 ; lcnn:, nor does it show any acute or chronic deleterious effects (WeiL 197 5; Gnnspoon & Bakalar, 1976; Carter et al., l 980a).

Even though cocaine is thc principal and most powcrful conslitucnt of coca lea ves, the complex effects of chewing coca leaves, especially those that are ex-ploited in medicine. cannot be equatcd with thc comparatively straightlorward eflects of using cocaine. As mentioncd carlier, coca is a complex mixture o f chemicals, including alkaloids, essential oils, flavonoids, vitamins and minerals. and other natural leafconstituents, many ofwhich still never ha ve been cxamined in coca. For example , coca has a soothing effect on disordcrs of the stomach and intestinal tract and is used in folk medicine for a wide spcctrum of complaints. Montesinos ( 1965) suggested that ecgonine, a breakdown product of cocaine. may relax dirc.ctly intestinal smooth musclc, and thc beneficia! effccts on digestion or the volatik oils. such as methyl salicylate, are well known. Furthe rmore . coca stimulates oral secretions and may change sccretion in other parts ofthe gastroin-testinal tract (Weil, 1981 ). In spite of these possibilities, coca's mechani sm of action on the gastrointestinal trae! remains unknown.

Burchard (1975) and Bolton (1976) have suggested that coca chewing atrects carbohydrate metabolism among Andean coca chewers. who typically live on high starch diets. Burchard believes that coca may protect against thc devclopment of hyperglycemia and ofreactive hypoglycemia following oral glucose loads ingested by Andean chewers and suggests that this effect may in vol ve ecgonine. one of the products of cocaine hydrolysis . Although experimental evidcnce for thcse meta-bolic effects is lacking, Weil ( 1981) suggcsts thal coca be tested as a possiblc treatment for diabetes.

As many workers have pointcd out , it is completely erroneous to equatc tlw pharmacological effect ofcoca chewing with that ofthe use ofhighly conccntrated cocaine (Mortimer, 1901 ; Martin, 1970; Grinspoon & Bakalar. 1976; Wei l. 1981 ). Howevcr, until the complex chemistry of coca lea ves and the pharmaco logy of their constituents are studied in detail, the highly benclicial. yet subtlc, medicinal and restorative effects ofcoca remain unsubstantiated by modern medica! studics.

Uses of coca as a stimulant and medicine

Whether in the high Andean altiplano or in the Amazonian lowlands , coca 1s employed principall y for work (Burchard, 1975 ; C'arter et al .. I 980a; Plowman . 1981 ). Workers will take severa! breaks during the daily work schedule to rest and chew coca, not unlike the "coffee break" in Western society . Coca chewers maintain that coca gives them more vigor and strength and assuages feclings of hungcr, thirst.

102 ETHNOllO TANY IN TllE NLOTKOPI CS

earliest European observers in South America (cf. Mortimer. 1901: Martin . 1970). In such situations. coca temporarily postponcs the necessity for food . but it nevcr takcs thc place orfood. [ven today . coca is prcfcrred by long-distancc truck drivers in the Andes to keep them alert on dangerous mountain roads and to sustain them for long periods.

Miners in Peru and Bolivia always have depended on coca to protect them during their unhealthy and exhausting work. After an initial period of condcm-nation and prohibition of coca . the early Spanish administrators rcalized that only with coca could the lndians be forced to work in the silver mines . Miners believe that coca helps them in a numbcr of ways: as an cncrgizer. as a filtcr against the penetrating dust and toxic gases, as a stimulant to combat drowsiness. and as an almost magical substance that reduces hunger (Carter et al. . l 980a. 1981 ). Undcr thc harsh environmental conditions in the high Andes and lowland Amazon. coca chewers believe that only coca gives them the strength 1 ) do thcir work, to maintain good health. and to protect them from disease.

The second most importan! use of coca is as a medicine, and th1s u e is inex-tricable from the Indians' belief that coca is a protector and prcserver of health. lt is significant that many South Americans. Indians and non-lndians. who do not regularly chew coca leaves as a stimulant , will cultivate the plant and use thc leaves medicinally. As an interna! medicine, coca is both taken as an infusion and chewed as a quid. Probably the most importan! medicinal use o f coca is for problems of the gastrointestinal tract. lt is the remedy of choice for dysentery. stomachache, stomach ulcers , indigestion. cramps, diarrhea. and other painful conditions (Martin, 1970; Fabrega & Manning. 1972; Hulshof, 1978: Carter et al. , l 980a, 1981; Weil, 1981 ; Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1981 ). Coca also is used commonly, by lndians, mestizos and foreigners alike, for the treatment of the symptoms of altitude sickness, or "soroche," which include nausea. dizziness. cramps, and severe headaches. A related use of coca is to counteract motion sickness. a use that has received little attention in the literature (Weil. 1981) Owing to the anesthetic effects of cocaine, coca !caves are an excellent home remedy for toothache (Hulshof. 1978). Coca also serves as a dentifrice. and it is commonly believed that coca helps to protect teeth and gums from decay and disease and to keep the teeth white (Martin , 1970; Weil , 1981 ). Coca frequentl y is used to ease rheumatic pains, taken both in an infusion and simultaneously as a poultice over the affected part (Martin, 1970; Hulshof, 1978: Carter et al.. 1981 ). Coca poulticcs also are applicd extcrnally for headaches . sore throats. wounds. broken bones, and irritations to the eyes. Coca also is widely empl oycd for nu-merous minor and miscellaneous ailments. such as hangovers. hcmorrhagc. arncn-orrhea, asthma, constipation, and general debilitation (Gagliano. 1979: Grinspoon & Bakalar. 1981; Weil, 1981 ). Of special importance to the lndian. coca is an extremely valuable remedy for a number of Andean "folk" or "traditional" ill-nesscs, which lie outside the realm of Western medicine yet play a major role in the Andean medica! beliefsystem (Fabrega & Manning. 1972: Carter et al.. l 980a. 1981 ). In Peru . these illnesses include "soka," a condition of weakness . fatigue. and malaise; fiero ." a chronic wasting disease : ''locura ." severe mental distur-bances; and others . Similar illnesses, often attributed to supernatural or magical causes , are recognized in Bolivia. Coca , often used in conjunction with other medicinal herbs, is a primaf)' remedy in treating such disorders (Carter et al.. l 980a, 1981 ). The importance of coca in relation to these diseases is closcly associatcd with its reputcd magical propcnics and role in religious lifc.

Since the turn ofthe centUf)', the importance ofcoca as a medicinal plant largcly has been ignorcd by Western scientists. who identitied the coca leaf' with cocainc

PLOWMAN : COCA 103

and prcferred to experiment with thc pure, isolated compound. As a result. coca leaves completely disappeared as a pharmaceutical product and no longer wcrc available for investigation in the United States or in Europc. lronically, cven today physicians' narcotics licenses in the United States clearly state that thcy have permission to dispense coca leaves. In the mid- l 970's, intcrest in the thcr-apeutic valuc of coca was rekindled among scientists as part of a general reawak-ening ofinterest in coca. Toda y coca again is being studied for possible applications in modem medicine. Weil ( 1981) has recommended that coca be studicd for severa! therapeutic applications, including: l , for painful and spasmodic condi-tions of the en tire gastrointestinal tract; 2, as a substitute stimulant for coffee in persons who suffer gastrointestinal problems from its use or who are ovcrly de-pendent on caffeine; 3, as a fast-acting antidepressant and mood clevator without toxic side effects; 4. as a treatment for acute motion sickness: 5, asan adjunctive therapy in programs ofweight reduction and physical fitness; 6, as a symptomatic treatment of toothache and sores in the mouth; 7, as a substitute stimulant to wean users of amphetamines and cocaine from those drugs, which are more dangcrous and have highcr abuse potential; and 8, as a tonic and normalizer of body functions .

The role of coca in religious and social life

Coca plays a central role in the daily lives of many different groups of South American Indians, not only as a stimulant and medicine, but also as a unifying cultural and religious symbol. The very act of chewing coca in Andean com-munitics is an ancient and basic cultural tradition by which the lndian identifies and reaffirms his or her place in the world. It should be noted that in many arcas. such as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia and in the Amazon basin. women are forbidden by custom to chew coca, but in othcr areas. especially in the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia, women use coca with as much relish as men.

In Peru and Bolivia, the traditional act of chewing coca involves a complex series of personal rituals and etiquette. The first step is to select two or thret> lea ves from the coca bag. These are known as "k 'in tu." They are carefully placed one on top ofthe other between the thumb and index finger. The k'intu is brought in front of the mouth and blown lightly upon , and simultaneously the coquero invokes the local gods and spirits of the hills and sacred places around him. This act is known as "pukuy." The leaves then may be used to forma quid for chewing or may be crushed and blown away with additional prayers and incantations (Gifford & Hoggarth, 1976; Wagner, 1978). Wagner (1978) has described how these seemingly simple ritual acts ofusing coca serve to orient the Quechua Indian in a broader cultural Cl'ntext of time and space and in his rcligious studics and social affairs.

In traditional Andean communities, coca is prcsent at ncarly every public and prvate event or actiYi\\. It is a requisite symhol of friendship and good faith at ali popular and rclig iom festivals, engagements ind weddings, baptisms , funerals . inaugurations of public officials, and formal .1d informal meetings at which contracts are formali zed and business arrangem, ' made (Quijada Jara , 1950; Frisancho Pineda, 197 3: Gifford & Hoggarth, l 97 t ( :1 rter et al., l 980a). Offerings ofcoca are necessary to propitiate the gods on many. asions, such as the planting of crops, insuring a pnx luctivc ha rvest, or laying thc merstone for a new housc (Martn, 1970). Therc is l'Ssentially no domestic or soc . !Ct that is not solcmnized by making offerings of, or by chcw111g, coca (Quijada 1. ~ a. 1950). Coca is con-sidered a spiritual protector for tra\ cling in unfamilia1 ;, rritory whcre strange and malcvolcnt spirits abound (Qui1ada Jara , 1950; Wagncr. 1978).

104 ETHNOBOTANY IN TllE NEOTKOPICS

Coca always has been a major means of exchange in trade networks throughout the Andes, particularly betwecn the tropical montaa and the high sierra and altiplano regions. Such trade networks apparently are descended from Inca times or earlier (Burchard, 1974). Long-distance trade in coca became evcn more ex-tensive during the Colonial period after the Spanish took control of coca pro-duction to supply the silver mines at Potos in Bolivia (Gagliano, 1960).

Coca is a medium of exchange not only of products but also as a symbol of friendship. Wherever coca is chewed, exchanges of coca lea ves or coca powder are considered the most gracious form of greeting when people meet while trav-eling. Such exchanges form an immediate bond of friendship and trust and are accompanied always by the usual formalities of coca etiquette. Gifts of coca are often olfered by a young man to a girl's parents to obtain their consent for marriage (Martin, 1970), and bundles of coca will be included in the dowry (Gilford & Hoggarth , 1976).

The religious and shamanistic use ofcoca probabl y is very ancient and originatcd from thc psychoactivity produccd by chcwing the !caves (Martin, J 970). Ritual coca chewing enablcd shamans and priests to medita te, to enter trance-like states. orto communicate with the supematural world, evcn though coca produces slight mental distortion comparcd to hallucinogcnic plants such as Datura and Banis-f('Tfopsis or even tobacco.

Many sacrcd practices associated with coca chewing have disappcarcd among tri bes whose numbers were dccimated or who lost their cultural identit y after the Spanish Conquest. However, such ceremonies involving coca still exist among the Kogi and related tribcs of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northcrn Colombia. These rituals have been carefully documented by the Colombian an-thropologist Reichel-Dolmatolf ( 1950). Only the men among the Kogi a re pcr-mitted to cultivate and chew coca although women are responsible for harvesting the !caves. Kogi m en describe the most important elfect ofcoca chewing as mental lucidity, which they value for ceremonial meetings, personal rituals , and rcligious activitics in general. They assert that coca makes their bodies tingle and rcfrcshcs their memory so that they can speak, chant, and recite for hours on end . They consider the suppression ofhunger caused by coca chewing a great advant ge but not hccausc they lack food. T o thc Kogi, fasting is a prcrcquisite for ali f \ 1gious ceremonies, and by consuming only coca, they are better able "to speak of the Ancients." According to Reichel-Dolmatolf, "the ideal of thc Kogi male would be to eat nothing but coca , to abstain totally from scx , never to slcep an,d to speak ali his life of the 'Ancients', that is , to chant, to dance and to recite ."

In both Andean and Amazonian cultures, reverencc for coca is rcftected in its widespread use in divination , both for shamanistic healing practiccs and for pre-dicting the future . These two general applications of divination are incxtricably linked together in daily life. Divination is a very ancient custom among South American lndians and , in spite of relentless persecution by the Spanish clergy following the Conquest. it remains widely practiced today. The Andcan lndian relies on divination for many purposes but primarily for diagnosing discasc and finding a cure, for predicting the outcome ofeconomic situations and futurc evcnts in general , and for assuaging his constant fears ofthe spirit world which surrounds him (Contreras Hemndez, 1972; Carter et al., J 980a). Although there are nu-merous means of divination employed in the Andes, divination with coca lea ves is the most common and most respected (Carter et al. , l 980a) .

Diviners fall into many dilferent categories according to their specialties and abilities and are known by an assortment of native namcs . "Yatiri," mcaning

l'LOW~IAN: CUCA 105

"one who knows." is probably the most widespread term in both Quechua and Aymara. Many diviners have congenital deformitics or have bcen (or claim to have bcen) struck by lightning (Carter et al., l 980a).

The act of divining or "reading" coca leavcs takes many forms. It may be a formal ceremony performed by a specialist or an informal or personal act pcr-fonncd by an individual coquero. lndians who chew coca are intenscly awarc of the signs laten! in the leavcs thcy chcw: in thcir form and color. in the laste and form of thc chewed quid, or in the saliva which issues from it.

Formal divination involves the consultation of a knowledgeable yatiri at a specific time and place. A spccial woven cloth, the "cocatari" (Aymara) or "'un-cua" (Quechua), is placed on the ground. A small handful of selectcd leaves is allowed to drop upon the cloth . The reading of the leaves depends upon many features ofthe leaves, including their color, shape, sizc, deformities. spots. boles . and creases as wcll as their spatial rclationship to onc another. Dcpcnding on ali thesc factors, thc leaves will symbolize death, bad or good luck. money. evil spclls. a safe joumey. or other things or will suggest the diagnosis or cure of an illncss (Contreras Hernndez. 1972; Frisancho Pineda. 1973: Caner et al.. l 980a).

According to Manin ( 1970). divincrs among the Incas would chew coca \caves and spit the juice into their palms with the two longest fingers extended. Jf the juice ran down both fingers equally, it was a good sign; if it ran down unequally . it was abad one. Other diviners would bum coca lea ves with llama fat and observe the way they bumed.

Among the Campa of eastern Peru , coca is used by the shaman to determine the pcrpetrator ofwitchcraft. Thc shaman spits coca into his hand. shakes it. and ascenains the guilty party through its configuration (Ordinaire. 1892). The neigh-boring Machiguenga ofthe Peruvian montaa carve small idols out of coca wood. They believe that coca comes from benevolent spirit s called "'saanka'riite" and that it has the ability to revea! the future. For examplc, if a man chews coca and does not taste its sweetness, it is a sign of impending m isfortunc (Baer. 1970). Coca is al so u sed in divination among tri bes of the North" cst Amazon who use coca in powdered form. Future events may be foreseen by bl owing a spoonful or coca powder into the air and obscrYing thc way it falls to tht ground.

ln Colombia , the Paez lndians of Cauca Department also t"n ploy coca in di'>'-ination (Usctegui, 1954), as did Chibcha priests in the cent: .il highlands at the time of the Spanish Conquest (Martin, 1970).

To summarize the importance of coca in lndian life , 1 would like to quote the eloquent rcmarks ofWagner ( 1978: 878): ..... 'to chcw coca' is part ofthe process through wh ich the Quechuas absorb the dcpth of their culture and leam to un-derstand wh ;! t it means to be a Runa, a par: icipant in traditional Quc\' hua culture'" (translation from Spanish mine) and of }. L1rtin ( 1970: 424): '"Onl: ;1pprcciatrng the use of co ' from the point of view f' thc lndian's cultural b,, 1gc. their beliefs and th nccessities oftheir daily !1 s can give a propcr pcrspc< ! e- on thc-meaning of c a to these people ."

Aeknowl

Early phascs (ll the research reporte Museum of Han ard University unde1 Agriculture (no. 12-14-1001-230, R . E. support was also p rovided by a grant J (no. 5 RO DA02 J 1 0-02). 1 am grate!

gments

here were conc\l: . ;ed at the Botanical contract with th t U.S. Department of

hultes, principal i: cstigator). Financia! m the Na tional 1 n ,. tu te of Drug A bus e to the Field Muse ' ' 111 Library staff for

106 ETHNOl30TANY IN TH E N EOT ROPICS

locating obscurc rcfcrcnccs and to Ron Testa and Flcur Hales for prcparing most of the photographic prints. I would like to acknowledge the Lowie Museum of Anthropology, Univcrsity of California, Berkeley for supplying photographs of archeological coca from thcir collections and the Harvard Botanical Muscum ir allowing me to photograph coca-rclated anifacts from their cxhibits. Gcoffre y ":'. Conrad of thc Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology supplied nccd

PLOWMAN: COCA 107

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