Ethnobotany - LUpriede.bf.lu.lv/.../gramatas/Ethnobotany.pdf · 2015-09-09 · ethnobotany as the...

Ethnobotany

Ethnobotany

Forestry

Horticulture

Photosynthesis and Respiration

Plant Biotechnology

Plant Cells and Tissues

Plant Development

Plant Diversity

Plant Ecology

Plant Genetics

Plant Nutrition

Kim J. Young

Series EditorWilliam G. Hopkins

Professor Emeritus of Biologyuniversity of Western ontario

Ethnobotany

Ethnobotany

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Introduction vii

1 What Is Ethnobotany? 2

2 The Classification of Plants 12

3 The Emergence of Agriculture 24

4 Plants as Medicine 36

5 The Relationship Between Native North Americans and Plants 50

6 How Plants Create Cultures 62

7 The Rain Forests of the World 74

8 Ethnobotany and Conservation 86

Notes 100

Glossary 101 Bibliography 103 FurtherReading 105 Index 107

“Have you thanked a green plant today?” reads a popular bumper sticker.Indeedweshouldthankgreenplantsforprovidingthefoodweeat,fiberfortheclothingwewear,woodforbuildingourhouses,andtheoxygenwebreathe.Withoutplants,humansandotheranimalssimplycouldnotexist.Psycholo-giststellusthatplantsalsoprovideasenseofwell-beingandpeaceofmind,whichiswhywepreserveforestedparksinourcities,surroundourhomeswithgardens,andinstallplantsandflowersinourhomesandworkplaces.Giftsofflowersarethemostpopularwaytoacknowledgeweddings,funerals,andothereventsofpassage. GardeningisoneofthefastestgrowinghobbiesinNorthAmericaandtheproductionofornamentalplantscontributesbillionsofdollarsannuallytotheeconomy.

Humanhistoryhasbeenstronglyinfluencedbyplants.Theriseofagri-cultureintheFertileCrescentofMesopotamiabroughtpreviouslyscatteredhunter-gathererstogetherintovillages.Eversince,theavailabilityoflandandwaterforcultivatingplantshasbeenamajorfactorindeterminingthelocationofhumansettlements.Worldexplorationanddiscoverywasdrivenbythesearchforherbsandspices.ThecultivationofNewWorldcrops—sugar,

By William G. Hopkins

vii

cotton, and tobacco—was responsible for the introductionof slavery toAmerica,thehumanandsocialconsequencesofwhicharestillwithus.ThepushwestwardbyEnglishcolonistsintotherichlandsoftheOhioRivervalleyinthemid-1700swasdrivenbytheneedtoincreasecornproductionandwasafactorinprecipitatingtheFrenchandIndianWar.TheIrishpotatofaminein1847setinmotionawaveofmigration,mostlytoNorthAmerica,thatwouldreducethepopulationofIrelandbyhalfoverthenext50years.

Asayounguniversityinstructordirectingbiologytutorialsinaclassroomthatlookedoutoverawoodedarea,Iwouldaskeachgroupofstudentstolookoutthewindowandtellmewhattheysaw.Moreoftenthannotthequestionwouldbemetwithablank,questioninglook.Plantsaresomuchapartofourenvironmentandthefabricofoureverydaylivesthattheyrarelyregisterinourconsciousthought.Yettoday,facedwithdisappearingrainforests,explodingpopulationgrowth,urbansprawl,andconcernsaboutclimatechange,theproductivecapacityofglobalagriculturalandforestryecosystemsisputunder increasingpressure.Understandingplants isevenmoreessentialasweattempttobuildasustainableenvironmentforthefuture.

TheGreenWorldseriesopensdoorstotheworldofplants.Theseriesdescribeswhatplantsare,whatplantsdo,andwhereplantsfitintotheover-allschemeofthings.InEthnobotany,welearnofthecentralimportanceofplantstobothancientandmodernculturesandespeciallythelinksbetweentheuseofplantsinreligiousceremonies,traditionalhealingremedies,andmodernmedicine.

viii IntroductIon

2

WhatIsethnobotany?

When one tugs at a single thing in nature, he finds it attached to the rest of the world.

—John Muir (1838–1919)American environmentalist, naturalist, explorer, and writer

Google the wordethnobotanyfrom your computer. Approximately 3,000listingsfeaturingavarietyofdescriptionsabouthowplantswereusedinprimitivecultureswillappearonyourscreen.Withinthedefinitionswillbewordslikeindigenous, rain forest, ancient, pharmaceuticals, folklore, hallucinogens,andendangered.However,ifyoutrytolookupethnobotanyinthelatesteditionofWebster’s New World College Dictionaryyouwillnotfindanentry.

Ask an archeologist to explain ethnobotany and you mayreceiveascholarlylectureonhawthorneseedsfoundamongthebonesofaDelawareIndianossuary.Askachemisttodescribeeth-nobotanyandyoumaylearnaboutthepharmaceuticalbenefitsofDigitalis (alsocalledfoxglove)asatreatmentforheartdisease.VisitaNavajosweatlodgeandexperienceethnobotanyyourselfwhenabrewofwater,cedar,andpinonneedlesispouredoversearingredrockstoreleasespiritualandphysicalhealingvapors.

So,whatisethnobotany?Itisallofthesethings.Ethnobotanyisasubjectthatfillsvolumesofhistoricalandbiologicaltextsyetisasubjectlargelyignoredinmodernlanguagetexts.Itisanancientwayoflifeandarelativelynewandthrivingscientificfield.

Perhapsthesimplestdefinitionofethnobotany isprovidedbytheworditself:ethno(people)andbotany(scienceofplants).Inessence,itisastudyofhowpeopleofparticularculturesandregionsmakeuseoftheplantsintheirlocalenvironments.Theseuses can include as food, medicine, fuel, shelter, and in manycultures,inreligiousceremonies.

WhatDoesaNethNoBotaNIstDo?In 1895, during a lecture in Philadelphia, a botanist namedJohn Harshberger used the term ethnobotany to describe hiswork.Hedescribedhisresearchasthestudyof“plantsusedbyprimitiveandaboriginalpeople.”At first,ethnobotanymeantsimply listing plants and some of their uses. Many scientistsdidnotconsidertheindigenouspeoplewhousedthoseplantstobeimportant.Harshbergerprovidedthefirstdefinitionof

4

WhatIsethnobotany?

5What Is Ethnobotany?

ethnobotanyasthestudyofhownativetribesusedplantsforfood,shelter,orclothing.1

Asethnobotanyevolved,itbecameclearthatethnobotanistsmust understand not only the complex relationships peopleheldwithplants,butalsohowtheplantsthemselvesinteractedwithotherplants,asperceivedbythosepeoplewhoknewthembest.

Practicaltechniquesfortheethnobotanistinthefieldbeganto take shape as Harshberger and others who followed in hisfootstepscreatedatemplateforstudyinthefield(Figure1.1).Intheirresearch,ethnobotanistsneedtobepreparedtoaskthefollowingquestions:

•Whatarethefundamentalideasandconceptionsofpeople

livinginaparticularregionabouttheplantlifesurrounding

them?

•Whateffectdoesagivenenvironmenthaveonthelives,

customs,religion,thoughts,andeverydaypracticalaffairsof

thepeoplestudied?

•Inwhatwaysdothepeoplemakeuseofthelocalplantsfor

food,medicine,materialculture,andceremonialpurposes?

•Howmuchknowledgedothepeoplehaveoftheparts,func-

tions,andactivitiesofplants?

•Howareplantnamescategorizedinthelanguageofthe

peoplestudied,andwhatcanthestudyofthesenames

revealaboutthecultureofthepeople?

Oneofthebest-knownmodernethnobotanistswasRichardEvansSchultes.Animportantvoicefortheculturesandregionalenvironmentswherehisresearchworkwascarriedout,Schultesidentifiedthefieldofethnobotanyasaninterdisciplinaryfield,combining botany, anthropology, economics, ethics, history,chemistry,andmanyotherareasofstudy.

6 Ethnobotany

Ethnobotanistshelpclarifytheimportantdifferencebetweenhowandinwhatwayspeopleusenature,andhowandinwhatwayspeopleperceivenature.Itisanimportantdistinction.Whenethnobotanists gather data from a group of people, they aresearchingforcluesonhowthesepeople’sancestorsusedplantsfor food, medicine, construction materials, and tools. Ethno-botaniststakethisresearchastepfurthertorevealhowpeopleperceivetheirplacewithintheenvironment.

Todaywearealienatedfromourenvironment.Wethinkoftheenvironmentasaplacetovisit,tohikethrough,ortobird-watch.Incontrast,considerthatsomeindigenouspeopledonotevenhaveawordintheirlanguagetodescribetheirownnativeecosystems.Insteadtheyregardtheenvironmentasanextension

Figure 1.1 An ethnobotanist with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute in Cali, Colombia, receives a local strain of peanut from a native farmer in the Amazonian lowlands of Ecuador.


of themselvesand literallyareunable toseparate theenviron-mentfromtheirownself.

Agoalofmoderncivilizationistoinsulatepeoplefromtheenvironment.Wetrytocontroltheweatherwithair-condition-ingandhomeheating.Wedestroynaturalhabitatsinordertobuild a home or office, then sparsely relandscape with plantsthat arenot native to the region (Figure 1.2).Aswe continuetoalienateourselvesfromthenaturalworld,itmaybethatoneofethnobotany’sgreatestcontributionswillbetoclosethegapbetweennatureandman.

NeWWoRD,olDIDeaTheuseofplantsbypeopleisnotnew.PlantlifehasexistedonEarthforhundredsofmillionsofyears—longerthanhumans

Figure 1.2 A newly constructed highway cuts through dense forest in British Columbia, Canada. Development, such as this highway, has significantly altered the way that humans interact with nature.

8 Ethnobotany

havebeenaround.MostscientistsbelievethatplantsmadeEarth’satmospherelivableforhumansandanimalsbychangingcarbondioxideintotheoxygenthatweallbreathe.Today,plantsarestillresponsibleforoursurvival.

Despitethishistoricalrelationship,youwilllikelynotseethetermethnobotanyusedinanyhistoricaltext.Youwill,however,find descriptions of plant-collecting field trips and detaileddescriptionsofplantsandtheirusesdatingtopre-classicaltimes.TheearliestdocumentedusesofplantsformedicinalpurposeswerefoundinBabyloncirca1770b.c.intheCode of HammurabiandinancientEgyptcirca1550b.c.PlantsfoundwithintheGizapyramidsprovedthatancientEgyptiansbelievedthatmedicinalplantshadaroleinthespiritualafterlifeoftheirpharaohs.

Arabarmies,intimesofwar,routinelyreturnedfromtheirconquestswithmanynewplants.TheRomans,ontheircrusadesacrossEurope,soughtlocalherbaliststohelptheirtroops.IntheOldWorld,plantswereoftenregardedascurrency:Ancienttraderoutesestablishedforthesalesofexoticspicesandplantshavebeendocumented.

SpanishconquistadorskeptrecordsoftheplantsusedbythenativepeoplestheyencounteredwhentheyarrivedintheAmeri-cas.ChristopherColumbuswasactuallyinsearchofcashcropslikepepperandnutmegwhenhelandedonAmericansoil(Fig-ure1.3).

Nomadicpeoplesharingandexchangingtheirlocalbotani-cal recipes, cures, andpotionswithneighboring tribesduringtheirtravelspreservedimportantnewinformationaboutplants.Passed fromgeneration togeneration, thisknowledgebecameevidencethatplantshadbeenstudiedandusedtoimprovelivessinceveryearlyinrecordedhumanhistory.

INDIGeNousKNoWleDGeIndigenous,ornative,peoplehavealwayshadasignificantrela-tionshipwiththeecosystemsinwhichtheylive.Theseecosys-

�What Is Ethnobotany?

temsarevitalfortheirsurvival,providingawidearrayofplantsfor food, shelter, and tools. Those plants also provide sourcesforthemedicinesandreligiousritualsthatarewovenintothenativecultures.Astheecosystemsprovideakindofrevenueforindigenouspeople,they,inturn,serveasstewardsoftheirenvi-ronmentsandhavedonesoforgenerations.

Whatisindigenousknowledge?Itistheawarenessandabil-ityofnativepeople tocreatepracticaland lifesavingproductsfromtheirenvironments.Itreferstothecloseinterrelationshipbetweentheenvironmentandaspectsof theirculture.Indige-nousknowledgeisanoraltraditionthatissharedwithinanativeperson’sownculture.

Figure 1.3 Christopher Columbus is depicted arriving on the shores of the New World in 1492. Columbus was actually trying to reach Asia, where he hoped to find exotic plants and spices to bring back to Europe.

10 Ethnobotany

the Ethnobotanist in the FieldEthnobotanists are required to spend part of their time in front of a computer, in an office, or in a laboratory. But staying indoors would make it impossible for the scientist to perform his or her main duties—identifying and collecting plants, and interviewing the people living closest to those plants.

So what is the ethnobotanist’s job like? Imagine a job where warm sandy beaches massage your feet or dark brackish muck oozes between your toes. Picture yourself in the tropical waters of Costa Rica, or maneuvering through decomposing vegetation of the humid Brazilian rain forest. Listen to the siren-like calls of lemurs and follow leaf-tailed geckos as you trek through Madagascar. You will know the sensation of insects crawling over your skin while you taste native dishes and your clothes absorb the smoke of ceremo-nial fires. This is the life of an ethnobotanist.

Ethnobotanists, like explorers walking across the Sahara or naturalists paddling the Amazon, still travel the mostly hidden corners of the world. And like those who came before them, they still collect plants, preserving them for the laboratory by pressing them between sheets of newspapers or storing them in alcohol. Natural history notes, artistic sketches, compass orientations, and current weather conditions are all recorded in journals while riding canoes downstream or navigating a dense jungle.

Technology plays a part, too. Satellite images identify clusters of veg-etation from above, giving the ethnobotanist access to larger landscapes. Digital photography allows the field researcher to forward photographs of live plants directly to botanists in other parts of the world for assistance in the identification of a particular species. Answers arrive within hours or days, rather than the typical months or years for dried specimens that had to be hiked out and shipped over sea to foreign continents in the past. Computers provide information and communication almost immediately. Perhaps tech-nology removes some of the romance of the idea of field research, but at a time when our ecosystems are disappearing at an alarming rate, technology is as welcome an aid as mosquito netting, a compass, and fire.


Indigenousknowledgeisbothsacredandsecular.Itemsfromthe environment are used for ceremonies and rituals and forartisticcreationssuchassong,dance,andstorytelling.Indige-nousknowledgeofecosystemsincorporatesimportantmethodsofhunting,fishing,andgatheringinordertosecurethesenaturalresourcesandprovideforthesurvivalofthepeople.

FolKloRevs.scIeNceSomepeopleconsiderindigenousknowledgetobemerelyfolk-loreandnotbasedonscientificfacts.However,folkloreshouldnotbedismissedorconfusedwithachild’sfairytale.Folkloreshouldbeunderstoodaspartofthehistoryofaculture,aspasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration.Ethnobotanistsarehighlyinterestedinfolklore—theanecdotes,mythologies,rituals,andcommunicationswithplantsandtheirspirits—andunderstandthat regional folklore provides the keys to the character andmeaningaplanthastolocalcultures.

Traditionalhealersofallculturesfollowthefolkloreapproachto learningaboutplantuse.Traditionalhealersare thepeoplewhocan,withouttheuseofadvancedscientificequipmentorformalschooling,identifyplants,decidetheiruses,anddiscovertheircurativepowers.Itisofgreatinteresttotheethnobotanisttodiscoverhowthetraditionalhealerlearnstocombineseveralplant species to achieve greater remedy effectiveness, andalsohowthehealercontrolspotentiallydangerousdoses.

Understandingplantlorerequiresstudyingthevaluesystemsofthepeoplewhotellthestories.Theethnobotanistperformingfield research today understands that to fully understand andappreciatenativeplants,heorshemustbeknowledgeablebothinthestudyofplantsandintheobservationoftheindigenousculture.

12

theclassificationofPlants

What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other word would smell as sweet.

—William Shakespeare (1564–1616)English poet and playwright

WhatPlaNtsoFFeRusEthnobotany raises many questions. Perhaps the question most oftenaskediswhyplantshavetraditionallybeenthefocusofsomuchresearch.Whynotstudytherelationshipsbetweenvariousculturesandthewildlife they liveamong?Inhisbook,Plants, People,and Culture,MichaelJ.Balickprovidesasuccinctanswer:“Plantsproduce,whileanimalsconsume.”

Plantsareconsideredproducersbecause theyproduce theirown food. With few exceptions, animals (including humanbeings)survivebyconsumingsomethingelse.GreenplantsareamongtheonlyorganismsonEarththatcantakeenergyfromthesun,absorbwaterandnutrientsfromthesoil,andtakecar-bondioxidefromtheatmospheretocreatetheirownfood.Thus,greenplantsbeginthefoodchain.

The leavesofgreenplants containa specialgreenpigmentcalledchlorophyll.Whenlightstrikesaplant’sleaves,chlorophylltransformscarbondioxideandwaterintoasugarcalledglucose.Thesugar is thentransportedthroughtubes inthe leaftotheplant’sroots,stems,andfruits.Theextraoxygenleftoverfromthewaterisreleasedbackintotheair.Thisentireprocessiscalledphotosynthesis.AlmosteverylivingcreatureonEarthdependsonphotosynthesis(Figure2.1).

In addition to creating food, most plants are bound bytheir biological and physical design to remain standing androotedinthesoil.Thisstationarypositioncombinedwithanenormousproductionofcellulose—themainportionofplanttissue—makeplantsthemoststableandreliablesourceoffoodandbuildingmaterialsknowntoman.Animalsdonotprovideforusinquitethesameway.Weharvestanimalstouseforfood,andwealsouse theirbones,hides,and furs—butharvestinganimals involves more work, and presumably more danger.Fortunatelyforus,plantsgenerallydonottrytoeludecaptureorturntoattackwhomeverorwhateverisharvestingthemoreatingthem.

14

theclassificationofPlants

15the classification of Plants

That may seem like an absurd point, but imagine a worldwhereyourfooddoesnotappearontheshelvesofthegrocerystoreinneatlywrappedcellophanepackages,tincans,orcard-boardboxes.Whatifyouwereexpectedtohuntyourownfood

Carbon dioxide (CO2)absorbed from the air

Plant growth

Oxygen (O2)released to the air

Light energy

Photosynthesis Sugar glucose(C6H12O6)

WaterH2O

Inorganic mineralnutrients such as nitrate, phosphate,

and potassium

Figure 2.1 Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use light energy to make sugar out of carbon dioxide and water. As a result of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the air.

16 Ethnobotany

each morning for that day’s school lunch? Your fondness forcheeseburgersmightdiminishconsiderablyifyouactuallyhadtoharvestthecowandprocessthemeatyourself.Orsupposeyouareinsearchofanewleathercoatbutyourchoiceofanimaltriestoturnyouintoitsowndinner?Whatiftheonlymaterialsavailabletobuildyoursmallsheltercamefromthebonesandtannedhideofawildanimal?Youmaysufferatthehandsoftheelementsforquitesometimebeforeyoufinallytrackdownandkillabeasttoprovideforyourneeds.

Plantsarefarmoreaccessibleandsafertoharvest.Althoughsomeculturesrelyonmeatforsustenance,mostculturesrelyonplantsforthebulkoftheirdiets.Thereareculturesthatrarelyeatplants,likethetundraInuitorAfricanKalaharitribesmen,buteventheymustrelyonplantstoprovideforageforthewildanimalstheyhuntorthedomesticherdstheyshepherdacrossthelandscape(Figure2.2).

Simplyput,plantsarenecessaryforthecontinuationoflifeonEarth.Theyarean integralpartof thefoodchain,supply-ingenergyandoxygenforthehigher,morecomplexlifeforms.PlantsarefoundeverywhereonEarthexceptthepolarzones,thehighestmountains,thedeepestoceans,andthedriestpartsofthedeserts.Accordingtoscientists,almost90percentofthelivingmassonEarthismadeupofplants,withanestimated400,000speciestobefound.2

theNutRIeNtcycleWIthINPlaNtsThe defining chemical unit among living things is the carbonmolecule.Carbonatomsoriginatefromthecarbondioxidefoundintheatmosphere.Theatomsenterthelivingworldthroughtheprocessofphotosynthesisingreenplants,algae,andsomekindsofbacteria.Knownasprimaryproducers,thegreenplants,algae,andbacteriaoriginatethecycleofconsumption,decay,andrespi-rationthatincorporatescarbonintomorecomplexorganiccom-pounds,whicharesubsequentlybrokendowntocreateenergy.


Photosynthesis is the process by which green leaves makeenergyintheformofcarbohydrates.Inadditiontorecombiningcarbonatomsfromcarbondioxideintosugarsusedasfoodfortheplant,thesugarsproducedbyphotosynthesisarealsolinkedtocreatepolymerssuchasstarchandcellulose.Itisthiscellulose,whencombinedwithplantresins, that formsoneof themostimportantbuildingmaterialswehave:wood.

Asplantscompetewithoneanotherforthesun,itistheirpar-ticularlocationinanecosystemandtheirpositionwithintheplantcanopythatenableseachplanttocapturethelightthatpowersthe

Figure 2.2 Two Inuits wearing hooded full-length fur parkas bend over to pick berries in Alaska in this photograph from 1929. Although plant life can be scarce in Alaska, plants are still a valuable part of the Inuit diet.

18 Ethnobotany

photosyntheticprocess.Competitionforsunlightexplainswhyallplantsgrowinanupwarddirection.Theirleavesmustbeexposedtosunlight.Largewoodytreeslikeoaksandsycamoreshavestrongtrunkstosupporttheirweightastheygrowskyward.Poisonivy(Toxicodendron radicans) andVirginiacreepervines(Parthenocis-sus quinquefolia)dependonstrongtreestoprovidethemwithastableframeonwhichtogrowtowardthesun.Smallershrubsandforestunderstoryspeciessuchasspicebush(Lindera benzoin) andhighbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) have distinct leafpatternsensuringthatnoleafliesintheshadeofanotherleaf.Thesamecompetitionexplainswhyleavesarepaper-thin,thusincreas-ingtheopportunityforlighttopassthroughbothsides.

VirtuallyalllifeonEarthdependson,andcompetesfor,thesun’senergy.Butonlygreenplantsareabletoconvertthisenergy,throughphotosynthesis,intoachemicalenergythattheycanuse.Whenthisenergyisstoredintheformofsimplesugars,greenplants become producers. As creatures consume plants, thatenergybeginstocyclethroughouttheenvironment.

BotaNyIsthestuDyoFPlaNtsBotany is a science divided into many areas. Plant taxonomydescribesplantsandarrangesthemintogroups.Plantgeographyisconcernedwiththe locationofcertainplants.Plantecologyexamines the relationship between plants and their environ-ment.Paleobotanyfocusesonancientplants,phytopathologyonplantdisease,andeconomicbotanyonhowplantscanbeusedincommercialproducts.Plantmorphologyreferstothephysi-calstructureofplants,includingthefunctionoftheplantparts(physiology),thestudyofplantcells(cytology),andtheanatomyandhistology,orinternalstructure,oftheplants.And,ofcourse,thereisethnobotany,thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenplantsandcultures.

Regardlessofthespecificfieldofbotanyonwhichheorsheisfocused,nobotanistcanmoveforwardwithresearchwithout

1�the classification of Plants

someunderstandingofplantclassification.Plantclassificationhelpskeep trackofourplanet’svastbiodiversityandhelpsusunderstandtheecologicalsystemsthatsupportthatbiodiversity.Botanistsareconstantlyexploringhowthegeneticdiversityofplants and their sensitivity to particular environments mightprovidesolutionstosuchproblemsasoverpopulationanddis-ease. Plant classification plays a large role in ethnobotanicalresearch.

hoWaRePlaNtsclassIFIeD?Taxonomy is the process of classifying living organisms intocategories. For the ethnobotanist, understanding how plantsareclassifiedenableshimorhertobetterunderstandlocalandspecializedplants,thephysicalpropertiesoftheplants,andthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweendifferenttypesofplants.

Scienceclassifiesplantsintoanorderlysystemthroughwhichtheycanbereadilyidentified.Inthefive-kingdomclassificationsystemfoundinmostbiologicaltexts,plantssharecertainchar-acteristics.First,theyaremulticellularandeukaryotic—mean-ingthatthereisamembranesurroundingthenucleusofeachof their cells.The light-absorbingmoleculesofplants includechlorophyll and carotenoid pigments. Finally, plants have theabilitytostorefoodintheformofstarchandhavecellwallsthataremademostlyofcellulose.

Inadditiontoplants,theotherorganismscategorizedinthefive-kingdomclassificationsystemareanimals,monera(whichincludesbacteria),protista(single-celledorganisms),andfungi(onceconsideredplants,butnowclassifiedinakingdomoftheirown).

Theplantworldcanbefurtherbrokendownintothebryo-phytes(mossesandliverworts),thepteridophytes(ferns,horse-tails,andclubmosses),thegymnosperms(conifers,yews,cycads,andginkgos),andtheangiosperms(floweringplants).

20 Ethnobotany

Three of the above, the pteridophytes, the gymnosperms,andtheangiosperms,arealsoclassifiedasvascularplants(Figure2.3).Vascularreferstoaninternaltransportsystemthatallowscertainplantstobelessdependentonwaterinthesurroundingenvironment.

Of these groups, the pteridophytes, or ferns, are the mostprimitive—dominating ancient Earth before the other twogroupsappeared.Eventually,however,theenvironmentfavoredthe gymnosperms and angiosperms that now dominate plantlife.

Theclassificationcontinuestonarrowwiththegymnospermsandangiosperms,whicharecollectivelyknownastheseedplants.

Figure 2.3 The Virginia pine, Pinus virginiana, is both a gymnosperm and a vascular plant.


Ofthesetwogroups,theangiosperms,orfloweringplants,arethemostadvancedofthegroups.Mostlandplantsfamiliartousbelongtothisgroup,whichincludesplantsofeveryshapeandsizefromgrassestocactuses,tinyherbstowildflowers,anddog-woodstolargeoaks.Thishugeanddiversegroupisdividedagainintotwosubgroups,themonocotyledonsandthedicotyledons.

Themonocotyledonsincludegrasses, lilies,andpalmtrees;thedicotyledonsaretreessuchasmaplesandoaks,andflowerssuchasdandelions,goldenrod,andbuttercups.

WhyDoWeclassIFyPlaNts?Weclassifyplantstoavoidconfusion.Weknowplantsbytheircommon names, many of which we learned as children. Forexample,buttercups(Ranuculus) aresoftyellowflowersfoundinearlyspringmeadows.Ifyoulikegardening,yourgrandpar-entsorparentsmighthave taughtyou thatAfricanmarigolds(Taretes erecta) provideasplashofcolorandalittlepestcontrolforcarrotsandsquash.Youmaybefamiliarwiththetulippop-lars (Liriodendron tulipera), dogwoods (Cornus), and easternwhite pines (Pinus strobus) that shelter our homes and shadeourschoolyards.Butsimplyreferringtothecommonnameofaplantisoftenconfusing.Oneplantcanhavemanydifferentcom-monnames.TheredmapleiscommontoPennsylvaniaandtheswampmapleiscommoninConnecticut.Asitturnsout,theyarethesameplant(Acer rubrum),butwithatleasttwocolloquialnames (and undoubtedly more). Similarly confusing: AfricanmarigoldsarenotnativetoAfrica,buttoMexicoinstead.

ThereisawhitelilyinEuropethatisbelievedtohaveatleast245differentcommonnames,and themarshmarigoldhasasmanyas280.Clearly,knowingonlythecommonnameofaplantis not an accurate method of understanding or identifying aparticularplant.

Forthisreason,botanistsuseamoreprecisewayofnaming,knownasclassificationortaxonomy.Scientificclassificationhelps

22 Ethnobotany

usnotonlybynamingorganisms,butalsobyprovidingakeytounderstandinghowaplantfunctions.Scientistsnameplantstogivethemauniqueplacingintheirecosystemandtoexplaintheirrelationshipswithotherorganismsinthatecosystem.

Plant classification can be complicated. Plant species canresembleoneanotherquiteclosely;plantscansometimesinter-breedwithin species or across species,producinghybrids andvarietiesthatsometimesdefyclassification.TheCinchonatreeisdistinguishedbyitsbark,whichpossessesanalkaloidderivativecalledquinine.Animportantplantfortreatingmalariaoutbreaks,the treehas somany species andhybridsandvarietieswithineachspeciesthatitisalmostimpossibletoclassify.Botanistsdonot know the exact number of species of cinchona trees thatactuallyexist.Evenworse,“cinchona” isalsoacommonnameusedtodescribemanydifferentmedicinalplants,furthercom-plicatingthisplant’sclassification.

theBINomIalsystemoFclassIFIcatIoNPlantsareclassifiedinseveraldifferentways.Thescientific,orbotanical,namegiventoaplanthelpsdefineitsplaceinthebio-logicalworld.Thebinomialsystemofclassificationwascreatedbyeighteenth-centurySwedishbotanistCarolusLinnaeus.Lin-naeusgaveeachplantascientificnamewithtwoparts:thegenus

andspecies.Thegenusandspeciesarealwaysitalicized,writteninLatin,andthegenusisalwayscapitalized.

Thegenus,orgenericname,ofaplantisanounthatusuallynamessomeaspectofaplant.Forexample thecoffeeplant isclassifiedasCoffea arabica. CoffeaisLatinforkahwah,theArabicwordfor“beverage.”

The species, or specific name, is usually an adjective thatdescribesthegenus.Inthecaseofcoffee,thespeciesisarabica,indicatingthattheplantwasthoughttooriginateinArabia.Thecoffeeplant’sbotanicalname,Coffea arabica,isthereforeuniquetothatparticularplanttheworldover.


Botanicalnamesmightbefollowedbyaletterorlettersthatstandforthebotanistwhonamedthatplant.Thecoffeeplant’scompletebotanicalnameisCoffea arabica L.,withthe“L”stand-ingforLinnaeus.

Linnaeus’slandmarkbookSpecies Plantarum(“TheSpeciesofPlants”),publishedinthemid-eighteenthcentury,continuestoinfluencethenamingofplantstoday.Whenabotanistneedstoknowwhetheranamehasbeenusedpreviously,thisiswhereheorshebegins.Ifaquestionarises,theearliestnameforaplantisusuallytheofficialname.

WhattheNamesmeaNInadditionto identifyingaplant, thegenusandspeciesoftentellussomethingabouttheplant.Theycandescribetheappear-anceoftheplant,reflectthecommonnameoftheplant,indicatea chemical in theplant, tellhow theplant tastesor smells,ordescribehowtheplantgrows.Thegenusorspeciesnamecanhonorsomeone,suchasthepersonwhodiscoveredtheplant,orthecountrywheretheplantwasfirstidentified.AnexampleisErythroxylum coca.Thegenusisnamedaftererythro-meaning“red”andxylo-meaning“wood.”Thespeciesname,coca,isalsothecommonnameoftheplant.Thejaboranditree(Pilocarpus jaborandi)hasagenusnamereflectingthatthealkaloidpilocar-pinecanbeextractedfromtheplant.Jaborandimeans“onewhomakessalivaoronewhospits,”referringtotheuseoftheplantasanexpectorant(asubstancethathelpstoclearmucusfromtherespiratorytract).3Theproperclassificationoftheseplantshelps theethnobotanist identify the functionalpropertiesandrelationshipsofplantswithinecosystems.

24

theemergenceofagriculture

Those who labour in the earth are the chosen people of God, if ever he had a chosen people.

—Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)Third president of the United States

In the early 1990s, the Smithsonian Institute’s Museum ofNaturalHistoryinWashington,D.C.,openedanimpressivenewexhibitcalledSeedsofChange,AQuincentennialCommemora-tion.TheexhibitionexploredtheconsequencesoftheOldandNewWorldscomingintocontactwithoneanotherasaresultofChristopherColumbusdiscoveringAmerica.ThedebateaboutwhetherColumbusactuallydiscoveredAmericawasnotpartoftheexhibit.Instead,thefamousmuseumchallengedvisitorstounderstandtheimpactonepartoftheworldhadonanother.

ThearrivalofEuropeansonAmericansoilaffectedthecourseofhistoryinmanysignificantways—disease,warfare,andslav-eryamongthem.Amidstthetragedy,however,therewereposi-tiveinteractionsaswell.Thistimeinhistorywasmarkedbytheexchangeofplantsacrosstheglobe,adevelopmentthatchangedlifeformanycultures.Insomecases,itonlytookoneplanttochangeaculture.AccordingtoSeedsofChange,theintroductionof theSouthAmericanpotatoprovidedEuropewithaneasilystoredfoodthat,alongwithimprovedhealthcare,supportedamajorincreaseinthatpartoftheworld’shumanpopulation.TheimportationofcorntoAfricafromtheNewWorldhelpedcreateahealthier,largerpopulationthere,aswell.

The world was never the same once food was exchangedbetween cultures. As new foods fed growing populations, theindustry of agriculture grew to meet those needs. Farmingbecameanecessityfortheproductionoffoodinlargequantities,butagricultureonthatscalecameatacost.Thelargemonocul-

turescreatedbythisgrowingindustryhadadownside:relyingononlyonecropcanspelldisaster,asweknowfromIreland’sgreatpotatofamineinthemid-nineteenthcentury.OriginallynativetoPeru,whereitwasastapleinthedietoftheIncas,thepotatoeventuallyfounditswaytoEuropebywayofSpanishexplorersattheendofthesixteenthcentury.Bythemid-sixteenthcentury,thepotatowasgrowinginthelushsoilsofIrelandasanentirepopulationbegantoestablishanewformoffarmingdependent

26

theemergenceofagriculture

27the Emergence of Agriculture

upontheNewWorldcropandlittleelse.WhenafungusarrivedfromAmerica,thepotatocropwasdestroyed.Asmanyasonemillion people died as a consequence of the resulting famine(Figure3.1).Hundreds of thousandsmore immigrated acrosstheAtlantictoAmerica.TheEmeraldIslelearnedahardlessonduring the great potato famine. Whether in a crop field or anaturalecosystem,diversitycreatesstability.Diversityishealthy

Figure 3.1 The Irish potato famine had a devastating effect on Irish society in the mid-nineteenth century. In this illustration, hungry peas-ants seize the crop of an evicted tenant in Kerry, Ireland.

28 Ethnobotany

foranyecosystem,andrelyingononlyonecroporoneortwonaturalplantsalwaysposesarisk.

Oneofthemanyadvantagesofagriculturewasthatforthefirst time in history human beings lived permanently in oneplace. This was new to populations that had previously beenknownmostlyashuntersandgatherers.Itisnotanexaggerationto state that the sudden change from hunting wild game andharvestingseasonalwildcropstotimespentgainingone’slivingfromasinglepieceofgroundwhollyalteredmankind.Agricul-turealsohaddrasticeffectsontheenvironment.

To pursue agriculture is essentially to live in one spot andexploitarelativelysmallpieceoflandintensivelyandoveralongperiodoftime.Forapproximately10,000years,farmingaroundtheworldhasevolvedandassumedmanyforms,dependingontheplantsandanimalsavailablelocally.Gradually,thissedentarywayoflifebecamethedominantmodeoflifeinnearlyalloftheareasoftheworldinhabitedbyhumans.

The earliest agricultural sites in the world were foundin the Nile valley and western Asia, in the valleys of Iran’sZagrosMountains,inwhatisnowcalledTurkey,innorthernSyria, and along the Jordan River valley.4 Eventually otherregionsaroundtheworlddevelopedsimilaragriculturaltech-niquesandevolvedsimilarculturaladaptations.Theseregionsincluded the north China plains, south and southeast Asia,sub-Saharan Africa, and North and South America. Onceagriculturalcivilizationswereestablished,humanpopulationsstartedtogrow,andthisgrowthwasaccompaniedbyademandformorefood.

Thisnewwayoflifeandsuddendependenceonrelativelyfewplants—themaincropsthathumansnowgrew—ratherthanonthemanydifferentkindsofwildplantsthathunter-gathererscol-lectedcreatedfreshconcerns.Thedependenceonfewerplantsledtogreatervulnerabilityfromweatherconditions,insectinfesta-tions,andoutbreaksoffungalorbacterialdiseases.Bettingyour

2�the Emergence of Agriculture

family’sfutureonweatherconditionsthatmayormaynotfavorthegrowthoftheparticularcropsyouplantedcouldbedanger-ous.Weatherpatternsfluctuateandrainfall tendstobeunpre-dictable. In contrast, the hunter-gatherers collected food fromperhapsahundreddifferentplantspecies.Someofthoseplantsflourishedinwetweather,someindry,somewerecold-resistant,andsometolerateddrought.Withtheemergenceofagriculture,

Seed-Saving Once societies became agricultural, people learned to wisely practice seed-saving. To ensure food for the coming seasons, some crops would have been allowed to plants a seed, instead of being harvested. The seeds from the best plants would be collected, stored, and saved for planting the following year, thereby providing some security against whatever natural or man-made disasters might threaten their future.

Seed-saving has now become an urgent conservation method for preserv-ing the historic and endangered genetic strains of old or heirloom plants. Many of the seed varieties now available through heirloom organizations have been passed down for generations from family member to family member.

One such historic plant seed is available from an organization called the Seed Savers Exchange in Decorah, Iowa. In their catalog they offer a variety of bean called The Cherokee Trail of Tears bean. The late Dr. John Wyche gave the original beans to the organization. According to his family history, Dr. Wyche’s Cherokee ancestors carried this variety of bean over the infamous Trail of Tears. Beginning in October of 1838 in the Smokey Mountains and eventually end-ing on March 26, 1839, in the Indian Territory now known as Oklahoma, the Cherokee death march left behind a trail of over 4,000 graves.

Many seed-saving organizations offer varieties of seeds with similar fas-cinating and important histories that demonstrate the relationship between people and plants.

30 Ethnobotany

mankindstartedtoleavebehindawayoflifethatensuredthatsomesourcesoffoodwerealwaysavailablenomattertheweatherortimeofyear.

Inthebeginning,farmingriskedthelivesofthevillagersonthefrailtiesofweatherandthehardinessofthefewvarietiesofplantscultivatedbutreducedtherisksandchallengesofroughandconstanttravelandencouragedpopulationgrowth.Forourancestors,farmingcontinuedtheirdependenceonnaturaleco-logicalsystems,butitraisedtheoddsofdisasterinanygivenyearsincefarmingwasstillmorevulnerabletochangesintheweatherthanhuntingandgatheringhadeverbeen.

Farmingcreatedotherchallengesaswell.Forthefirsttimeinhistoryhumansweredependentonjustafewharvestseachyearfortheentireyear’sfoodsupply.Hunter-gatherersknewhowtofindgameandseed,nutsandberriesnomattertheseason.Agri-culturists now needed to gather all their food for the year in afewharvests,ratherthangatheringyearround.Thisplacedhighimportanceonthenarrowwindowofopportunityforplanting,cultivating, and the time-consuming harvest. There were addi-tionalpressures,notleastofwhichwashowtoproperlystoretheirharvestsoastoprovidefoodfortherestoftheyear.Thefoodnowneededtobeprotectedfrommoisture(whichcouldleadtolife-threateningmolds),fromingeniousandoftendangerouswildlife(insearchoftheirownfood),andfromotherpeople.

Fights and arguments about equal shares would no doubtaccompanysomeharvests,asnewfoodsupplieswouldbehandedouttomembersofavillage inmeasuredamounts.Therewerenew pressures to ensure survival that required the selection,harvesting,andpreservationof thisyear’s seeds fornextyear’splantings.Onecouldnolongerdependonwildcropstonaturallyspreadtheirownseedsthroughouttheenvironmentviathewind,water,orananimal’sdigestivesystem.Whenyoufarm,youareresponsibleforthecollection,storage,anddispersaloftheseedsthatwillfeedyouinthefuture.Someofyourcropmustbesaved


toallowittoproduceseeds,soevenwhenhungrythefirstfarmerslearnedthatsomefoodcouldnotbeeaten.

Agriculture forced people to plan for the future, insteadof consuming whatever was available at the moment. Thefarmerwhotriedtoliveasthehunter-gatherersdidwouldsoonstarve.

Hunter-gatherergroupssufferedhighmortalityrates,espe-cially among the young and elderly. Their way of life simplydidnotpermitlargefamilies.Newfarmingcivilizationsdidnotfacethesamepressuresfromnaturalfoodlimits,predators,andinhospitableterrain.Incontrast,asfarminggrew,largefamilies

the celebrations of HarvestThe Thanksgiving holiday in the United States is not the only example of peo-ple celebrating a successful farming season. Festivals in honor of the year’s harvest are found throughout the world. In Egypt, some ancient tombs feature paintings that demonstrate the value of grains and farming from the earliest civilizations. Farmed grains fed growing populations, helped establish new communities, and likely led to the formation of new social hierarchies and governments. It is no wonder that the plants that sustained our very existence were worshipped and viewed as symbols of the power of life.

In the African countries of Ghana and Nigeria, yams are offered to the gods and to the ancestors of the villagers before the popular crops are shared with the rest of the village. Ireland celebrates the grains that make its breads, ales, and mead during the Lughnasadh, or Lammas, festival. The autumn ritual marks the time of year when people ended a period of dependence on the previous year’s grain and begin to eat the current year’s harvest. In Malaysia, the harvest festival honors the rice gods with fairs, farm shows, buffalo races, and wine. Entire communities harvest rice stalks with special knives believed to appeal to the rice spirit, Semangat. For the Malaysians, rice is life.

32 Ethnobotany

withmanychildrenmeantmorehandstohelpinthefields.Asagricultureovertookthehunter-gather lifestyle,humanpopu-lationsbeganto increaseandcontinuedtobuild.After10,000yearsofthiswayoflife,thehumanpopulationisstillexpanding.Today,therearemorethansixbillionpeoplelivingonEarthandalmostallofthemaresupportedbyagriculture.

Agriculturehasledtomorethreatstoourhealth,too.Infectiousdiseaseisaproblemcloselyrelatedtopopulationgrowthbecauseof the difficulty of maintaining clean, healthy living spaces incrowdedconditions.Humanssharemanydiseaseswithdomesticanimals,soclusteringhumansandanimalstogetherinunsanitaryvillagescreatedaperfectenvironmentforpathogensofallkinds.Asaresult,earlyvillagelifeprovidedabreedinggroundfornewand deadly diseases. It was inevitable that in these conditions,previously rareepidemicsbecamecommonand serious threatstopeople.

Inadditiontoinvitingdisease,theprogressofintensivefarm-ingresultedinthedestructionofforestsasmorelandwasclearedtogrowmorecropsandallowlargerherdsoflivestocktograze.Thelossofwoodlandsandtheirvastrootsystemsallowedsoiltoerodeintostreamsandcreeks,suffocatingaquaticorganismsandcarrying largeamountsof sedimentdownstream(Figure3.2).Pesticidescameintousetocombattheinsectpeststhatbecameadeptat targeting justoneor twocrops.Eventually, the large-scaleuseofpesticidesintroducedpoisonsintooursoilandwater,leadingtofurtherproblemsasthesedangeroustoxinsmovedupthroughthefoodchain.

ImPlIcatIoNsFoRtheFutuReDifferentculturesare stilldiscovering the foodcropsofotherregions.Asthesenewfoodsmaketheirwaytoourgardensandkitchen tables, they will affect the diets of future generationsandcultures.SomeSouthAmericangrainsandcerealsarealsojustnowbeingintroducedtoourmarkets.Oneexampleisthe


Andeangrainquinoa(Chenopodium quinoa).Quinoaprovidesprotein for millions of people in the Andes, where the cropthrivesdespitethehighaltitude,extremecold,andhighwinds.The ancient Incas considered quinoa sacred. Containing highlevelsofalltheessentialaminoacids,itmayprovideamorebal-ancedfoodthanwheat,rice,corn,sorghum,ormillet.5

Famines, like those associated with the potato in Ireland,illustratethedangerofdependingheavilyonasinglecrop.Ascropmonoculturesbecomeevermorevulnerabletodisease,wehavebeguntorealizetheimportanceofagriculturaltechniquesemphasizingbiodiversity—someofwhichwerepracticedhun-dreds and thousands of years ago. Preserving the genes ofthe wild relatives of long-domesticated plants will also helpprovideasafetynet.Theagriculturalandscientificknowledge

Figure 3.2 An Iowa farm shows signs of soil erosion after a heavy storm. Soil erosion reduces the quality of the soil and also harms rivers and creeks that receive the run-off soil.

34 Ethnobotany

ofindigenouspeoplearoundtheworldwillbecriticaltoourfutureglobalfoodsecurity.

Ethnobotanists recognize that for centuries humans haveobserved each other’s cultures and adopted their plants forfood, textiles, medicines, and the like. But there was a miss-inglink.Weweretakingtheplant,butwewerenottakingintoaccounttheplant’srelationshipwithitsownecosystem.Ironi-cally,nativepeoplehadgrownthesesamefoodsforcenturieswithoutdestroyingtheirnaturalhabitatsordepletingtheirownfoodsupply.Bystudyingtheagriculturaltechniquesofindig-enouspeopleandtheirabilitytounderstandthecomplexrela-tionshipsthatplantshavewithoneanotherinanecosystem,theethnobotanistplaysanimportantroleinpromotinghealthier

Food originsWhere do some of your favorite foods come from? Often the tastes we associ-ate most with a particular culture come from afar. At some point in history a new plant, new seed, or new fruit was introduced into a region that slowly changed the area’s cultural flavor.

tomatoNative to Mexico, the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is also found in the Andes of Peru, where botanical geneticists still search for wild relatives that might help strengthen the genetic quality of our modern crops. The tomato is perhaps the single plant that Americans most associate with Italian cuisine, but before the explorations of the Americas, Italians did not create or serve tomato sauce on their meals. The Spaniards introduced the tomato to Italy in the mid-sixteenth century. In the United States, it was even later before tomatoes were enjoyed, since they were thought to be poisonous until the nineteenth century.


farmingmethodsandimprovedmethodsinoureffortstofeedtheworld.

Today,theincreasingconcernaboutfoodsuppliesinthird-worldcountrieshas led toan increased interest in indigenousfoodvarieties.Recordinganddocumentinglocalfoodshaslongbeenanethnobotanicalpractice.Nowthosesameethnobotanistsarealsofocusingoncollectingthegeneticresourcesofthewildrelativesofourmajorcrops.Preservingboththegenepoolsofthese historic species and the plant knowledge of indigenousculturescouldhelptransformtheindustryoffarmingbacktoahealthy,sustainablewayoflifethatcomplimentsournaturalecosystems.

chIlIPePPeRChili peppers (Capsicum annuum) transformed world cuisine through a simple navigational accident. In search of black pepper for Europeans, explorers traveled abroad in search of new sources of the spice. No pepper was found in the New World, but chili peppers were one of the new spices found in Latin America.

Chilies provide the zest that we associate with Indian, Chinese, and South-east Asian cuisine. Capsaicin, the fiery ingredient in peppers, is believed to be an effective anti-inflammatory drug for the treatment of arthritis. Like so many plants, chilies may soon have as significant a medical impact as they have culinary influence.

chocolateWho can imagine a world without chocolate? One of the world’s most popular desserts comes from the cacao plant (Theobroma cacao). The name “choco-late” comes from the Aztecs of Mexico who considered chocolate a “gift from the gods.” When chocolate made its way to Europe, this dark treat became an important trade item.

36

Plantsasmedicine

Let food be our medicine and medicine be our food. —Hippocrates (460 BC–380 BC)

Greek physician

When confronted with an illness, indigenous people have always looked to the plants of their environment for theircures and gathered wild plants as medicine. Whereas yourownmedicinemaycomefromthelocaldrugstore,manyofthemedicinesyouareprescribedstillcontaindrugsfromanaturalplantsource.Nativecultureshadnosuchstoretovisitwhentheyweresick.Instead,theydependedonthehealingplantsofthefields,woodlands,marshes,deserts,andseashorestheylivedon.

Findingtherightplants,however,wasoftenamatteroftrialanderror.Itisnothardtoimaginethatmanynativesdiedchew-ingonthewrongplantrootsordrinkingatoxicteasteepedfromleavesorbarkinanefforttostaveoffillness.Whenapoulticeorinfusiondidappeartohelpasickpatient,theplantanditsrem-edywouldbecomewidelyknownandused.Undoubtedlythesewerecostlyexperiments,butovertheagesthenativescollectedandpassedontheircuresthroughtheirownparticularmethodofrecordkeeping:oralstorytelling.

Becausenativesresortedtostorytellingratherthanwriting,ancientremediesthatdidendupincontemporarybookswerelikelypassedalongthroughtheinteractionsbetweennativesandearlyEuropeansettlers,missionaries,soldiers,andtrappers.InAmerica’s history, important and potentially life-saving infor-mationwaspreservedinthejournalsandlettersofthesemenandwomenafterIndianmedicinemenhadsharedtheirknowledgewiththem.Manynativeremediesfoundtheirwayintoourearli-estpharmaceuticalbooksinthisway.

PoIsoNoRPoteNtIal?Inthedense,humidjunglesofeasternEcuadorlivesatribeofindigenouspeoplecalledtheWaorani.Skillednaturalists, theydependontherainforestformuchoftheirdiet.Theirrelation-shipwiththeenvironmentisimpressive.TheWaoraniareableto interpret and anticipate natural phenomena like flowering

38

Plantsasmedicine

3�Plants as Medicine

cycles, pollination, fruit and seed dispersal, and the preferredfoodsoftheforestanimalstheWaoranidependon.Whatexcitesethnobotanists most are the tribe’s extraction, manipulation,anduseofthechemicalcompoundsfoundinplants.6

Considerthedartorarrowpoison,curare.FromtheChondro-dendronorStrychnosvines,itsactiveingredientsarefoundinthebark.ThechemicalsobtainedfromthisplantaresopowerfulthatphysiciansuseaderivativeofChondrodendron tomentosumasamusclerelaxantduringsurgery.7

Thereareimmensenumbersofchemicalsobtainedfromplantsforavarietyof reasons,but thedifficultpreparationofcurareandtoxinslikeitsuggestthattheiruseswouldneverhavebeenapparentjustbyobservingtheplantitself.Anunusualintellectisrequiredsincethepreparationofthispoisonisextremelycom-plex.Itisforthisreasonthatethnobotanistsrecognizeshamans,ornativehealers,ashighlyskilledpractitionersofmedicine.

Inthecaseofcurare,theplant’sbarkisscrapedoffandplacedinafunnel-shapedleafcompresssuspendedbetweentwohunt-ingspears.Coldwateristhenpercolatedthroughthecompresswhilethedrippingsarecollectedinaceramicpot.Thecollecteddark-coloreddrippingsareslowlyheatedoverafireandbroughttoafrothyboilnumeroustimesuntilthefluidthickens.Thenaperiodofcoolingandreheatingtakesplaceuntilathickgummylayerformsonthesurfaceoftheliquid.Afterthethicksurfacelayer is removed,dartsorarrowtipsaredipped into the fluidandthenslowlydriedbyafire.Whatismoststartlingaboutthediscoveryoftheusesofcurare?Whenpiecesoftheparentplantareswallowed,thesubstanceisharmless.Butwhenthebarkisprocessedinthisspecificwayandinjectedintramuscularly,thedark substance is deadly. The knowledge possessed by indig-enouspeopleliketheWaoraniissoughtbybothethnobotanistsandthemedicalcommunity.

Manyso-calledprimitivepeopleshavelearnedtocreatecom-plicatedchemicalpreparations,sometimesinvolvingingredients

40 Ethnobotany

frommorethanoneplant.Throughtheirownsystemsofteach-ingandlearning,nativepeoplehavebeenabletodeterminethatdifferentchemicalcompoundsinrelativelysmallconcentrationscanimprovetheeffectofjustonesinglecompound.

The observations that the shaman makes are the result ofadaptations of highly specialized skills that arise from a viewofnatureandtheuniverseinwhichhumansareperceivedasapartofthewhole.Ethnobotanistsbelievethatitisthisuniqueperspectivethathasenabledtheshamantomimictheintricatebalanceoftheecosysteminwhichhelives.

thethReattomeDIcaltReasuResThewidespreaddestructionofournaturalecosystemsalongwiththethreatenedandrealextinctionofnumerousplantandani-malspeciescontinuesbeforeweknoweventhemostbasicfactsaboutwhatwearelosing.Thetremendousbotanicalresourcesoftropicalforestshavealreadyprovidedtangiblemedicaladvances,yetonly1%oftheknownplantandanimalspecieshavebeenthoroughly examined for their medicinal potentials while theworld’srainforestdestructiongoeson.

Weknowthatwildplantspeciescanservemedicineinmanyways.Extractsfromplantscanbeuseddirectlyasdrugs(Figure4.1).Whethersimplytocombataheadacheortotreatsomethingfar more serious, like Parkinson’s disease, medicines obtainedfromplantshaveprovidedmodernsocietywithavarietyofcuresandpainrelievers:

•Quinine,anaidinthecureofmalaria,isanalkaloid

extractedfromthebarkofthecinchonatreefoundinLatin

AmericaandAfrica.

•TherosyperiwinkleCatharanthus roseusfromtheAfrican

islandofMadagascarprovidesseveralantitumoragentsand

aidsinthetreatmentofpediatricleukemiaandHodgkin’s

disease.

41Plants as Medicine

•ThewildyamDioscorea alatafromMexicoandGuatemala

hasprovideduswithdiosgenin,whichisusedinthemanu-

Figure 4.1 A plant biotechnologist extracts artemisinin from wormwood leaves. Artemisinin is a drug used to treat malaria.

42 Ethnobotany

factureofbirthcontrolpills.Foralongtime,yamswerethe

world’sonlyknownsourceofdiosgenin.

Thechemicalsfoundinplantsmadeournaturalecosystemsthe first laboratories. By studying the chemicals in individualspeciesofplants,scientistslearnedhowtoartificiallysynthesizedrugcompounds.Aspirinwascreatedfromwillowtree(Salix) extractsfoundintherainforest.Neostigmine,achemicalderivedfromtheCalabarbean(Physostigma venmosum) andusedinthepasttotreatglaucoma,ledtothecreationofsyntheticinsecti-cides.Creatingasyntheticdruginamodernlaboratoryisveryexpensive.Sincethechemicalstructuresofmostnaturaldrugsare so complex, extraction from the actual plant is often lesscostly.

Plantsserveasresearchtoolsaswell.Thecompoundsinsomeplantshaveenabledresearcherstobetterunderstandhowcancercellsgrow.Othercompoundshaveservedastestingagentsforpotentiallyharmful foodanddrugproducts.Plantsmayoffera solution toa safer contraceptive.Approximately 4,000plantspecieshavealreadybeenshowntooffercontraceptivecapabili-ties.8Theforestmayalsoprovideasaferpesticideforfarmers.Somewildpotatoeshaveleavesthatproduceastickysubstancethattrapsandkillspredatoryinsects.Thisnaturalself-defensemechanismcouldpotentially reduce theneed for usingpesti-cidesonpotatoes,preventingsomedangeroustoxinsfromenter-ingtheenvironment.

shamaNsaNDINDIGeNousPeoPlesItisestimatedthatoneoutofeveryfourprescriptiondrugswasdiscoveredbyethnobotanicalstudiesofmedicinalplantusesbyindigenouspeople.9Plantshavealwaysbeenasourceofmedi-cine for every culture in the world. Medicinal teas, poultices,ointments,comfreyleaves,coriander,sage,sarsaparillaroot,andhotpeppershaveallbeenusedtorelievepain.Thestemsand


leavesofbananaandaloeplantshavebeenusedtotreatburnsand blisters. Many of these ancient remedies developed intothemodernmedicinesthatweusetoday.Apain-relievingsub-stancecalledsalicinwasextractedfromwillowandbirchbark,givingpeopleanearlyformofaspirin.Anotheroftheearliestsalicin-based medicines was a myrtle leaf treatment made byancientEgyptianstosoothebackpainin1500b.c.Ethnobota-nists believe that the chemical components of plants used inindigenoushealingritescouldbethefoundationfornewlife-improvingdrugsorpossiblyevenacureforravagingdiseaseslikecancersorAIDS.

Forthousandsofyears,indigenousgroupshavemadeexten-sive use of their plant knowledge to meet their health needs.Shamanswerethefirstmedicalspecialists in indigenouscom-munities,andtheirtraditionalmethodsareknowntobeeffectiveintreatingbothphysicalandpsychologicalailments.TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)estimatesthat80%ofthepeopleindevelopingcountriesstillrelyontraditionalmedicinefortheirprimaryhealth-careneeds.Withoutmoneyorfaithinmodernmedicine, indigenous people still depend on shamans, herbalhealers,andnativeplantsfortheirsurvival.Shamansalsoplayacrucialroleinhelpingethnobotanistsdiscoverthepotentialusesofplants(Figure4.2).Thereisanurgencytopreservethisuniquesourceofinformation,buttheculturalsurvivalofthisancientmedicine is seriously threatened as developed nations, hugecorporations,andothersinvadeandsystematicallydestroytheforestswheretheindividualssafeguardingthisinformationlive.

theoRIGINsoFFolKmeDIcINePlantshavealwaysbeenavailabletopeopleandhavethereforebeenaconstantpartofourdietandhealingpractices.Everycontinent has its own kind of folk medicine; indeed, everytribehasitsown.Theuseofplantsashallucinogensdatesbackatleast10,000years;theuseofplantsformedicinesprobably

44 Ethnobotany

dates back even farther to the most ancient hunter-gatherersocieties.

Ascureswerediscovered,descriptionsofaplant,itslocationwithinitshabitat,anditsmedicinalpropertieswouldbepassedbywordofmouthandstorytelling.Thispracticewouldbecomeknown as folk medicine. The term“folk medicine” is oftenmisused.Folkmedicinehasbeenusedtodescribethemedicinepracticedbypeoplewhohavenoaccess toprofessionalmedi-cal services, suggesting that those who practice folk medicinearesettlingforalesserqualityofmedicine.Orthatpeoplewhopractice folkmedicinesimply lack themeans toacquiremoresophisticatedmeansofhealingthemselves.

Figure 4.2 An ethnobotanist talks with a shaman’s apprentice in Suri-name, a country in northern South America. Because shamans have a vast knowledge of native plant life, they are vital resources for the ethnobotanist.


Theideathatfolkmedicineisinferiortomodernmedicineisaviewthatethnobotanistsaretryingtochange.Infact,fieldresearchshowsthatfolkmedicinesaresophisticatedandcomplexandthattheindigenousculturesinpossessionofthisknowledgehaveimportantlessonstoteachthemodernworld.

NatuRe’shealINGPhaRmacyThe Babylonians imported myrrh for medicinal use by 3000b.c.MentionofmedicinalplantsoccurredintheearliestChi-nesemonograph(2700b.c.)andinIndia(1500b.c.inareli-gious text called the Rig-Veda). Physicians like Hippocratesused plant medicines, as did the Greek Theophrastus andDioscorides.Dioscorides’sMateria Medicawastheclassictext-bookofplantmedicinesfornearly1,500years,andworksbyPlinytheElderalsocontainedvaluableinformationonbotani-calmedicine.

Thefirstchemicalsusedtolowerbodytemperatureduringfeverwerefromwillowplants(Salix)andCinchona (asourceof quinine). In the 1880s the cocaine plant was used as ananesthetic for delicate eye surgery.As late as the 1970s, 25%of thedrugs inuse inNorthAmericaandEuropecontainedsomeplantextractorplantderivative.Althoughthatnumberhasdecreasedduetoreplacementbysyntheticdrugs,plantsarestillextremelyvaluablesourcesforsomeofourmostpowerfulmedicines.

Noonearguesthatnaturallyoccurringplantsarerespon-sible for many of our prescription drugs, but according toNational Geographic(Swerdlow,April2000)theFood and DrugAdministration (FDA) has approved fewer than 12 new plant-basedpharmaceuticalsinthepast40years.Despitetheprom-ise of plant chemicals, we still are not tapping into all thesubstancesthatmaybeavailableinnature,sincesuchasmallpercentageoftheworld’svegetationhasbeeninvestigatedforitstherapeuticvalue.

46 Ethnobotany

thechemIcalPRoPeRtIesoFPlaNtsWe know that plant shape, form, and function differ greatlyamong the approximately 250,000 varieties of flowering spe-cies.Itisalsosafetoassumethatthemedicinalpropertiesfoundwithin each plant probably differ as well. That same diversityhasneverbeenduplicatedintheanimalworld,andnoanimal,not even a human working in a sophisticated laboratory, haseverbeenabletoproduceevenasmallfractionofthechemicalsproducedbyplants.

Whatcausesthediversityofchemicalsfoundwithinplantsand why might a plant produce chemicals? We know that allgreenplantsutilizecarbondioxideandsunlighttogothroughthe food-makingprocessofphotosynthesis.Butnotallplants

the Growing Popularity of Medicinal HerbsAccording to the government conservation organization Plant Conservation Alliance, the demand for nonprescription medicinal herbs derived from native North American plants is thriving. As many as 175 different species of plants are now being collected from the wild for a $3 billion commercial mar-ket in the United States and overseas. Among the plants in high demand are goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) and ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). Just the harvests of these two species from our eastern forests have resulted in the loss of nearly 100 million individual plants during the past few years.

And the demand is only growing. Until recently, natural herbs were con-sidered only an alternative to traditional medicine, but today many doctors often recommend their use.

What will become of our native plants and their habitats if these plants continue to be collected at this rate? Until methods are created to farm these plants on a commercial scale, steps must be taken to ensure that any har-vest that continues is done on a sustainable basis to ensure that the natural ecosystems where these plants exist are not plundered.


havethesamechemicals,soitisunlikelythatphotosynthesishasaroleinthecreationofchemicalsinplants.Sowhydoesaplantproduceachemical?Whatpurposedoesthechemicalservetheplant?

Somebotanistsbelievetheanswertothatquestionmightbefoundbyexamininghowaplantprotectsitselffromattackorhow a plant deals with competition within its habitat. Unlikeanimals,plantscannotmovefromoneplacetoanothertocarryoutreproductiveactivities.Instead,plantsrelyonanimals,wind,water,andotherenvironmentalfactorstomovetheirseedsandpollen. Plants cannot escape an enemy. A plant’s inability tomovemaybetheprimaryreasonitproduceschemicals.Plantchemicalsareadefensestrategy.

Interactionsbetweenplantsandanimalsarenotnecessarilyharmless.Plantsdohaveawaytofightback.Fromaplant’spointofview,thegrindingmolarsofagiraffeorthesuckingmouth-partsofacicadaposethesamethreatasastalkingleopardhastoagazelleontheSerengetiplains.Becauseplantscannotfleetheirpredatorstheyhavebecomespecialistsinacertainkindofbiochemicalwarfare.

Therelationshipisnottotallyantagonistic.Plantchemicalscan reward animals, too. Plant nectar provides an importantfood source for many birds, bats, and insects in exchange fortheirworkatpollinatingaflowerorcarryingseedstoanewloca-tion.Butthevastmajorityofchemicalsproducedbyplantsaredesignedtorepelorpoisonanimalsthatattempttodestroythem.Thosesamechemicalagentsthatplantscreateanduseagainstanimalshaveprofoundimplicationforourmedicines.

The useful chemicals of plants, combined with their foodproductionandtheirimmobility,makeiteasytounderstandwhyplantshavealwaysbeencriticalforhumansurvival.Sinceindig-enouspeoplehavebecomeexpertsatusingtheplantresourcesaroundthem,ethnobotanistsgodirectlytothesourcetolearnmoreaboutthemedicinalpropertiesofplants.

48 Ethnobotany

toDayaNDtheFutuReSincetheearly1990s, therehasbeenagrowinginterest intheidentification and preservation of plants, since they are thesourceformanyoftoday’sdrugs.Pharmaceuticalcompaniesareespeciallyinterestedinexploringpartsoftheworldwhereplantmedicineremainsthepredominantformofdealingwithillness.ThejunglesandrainforestsofSouthAmerica,forexample,haveanextraordinarydiversityofplantspecies,eachofwhichhasthepotentialtoprovideauniquemedicaluse.Manyoftheseregionsare still unexplored, leaving these potentially useful species indanger of disappearing forever as vital ecosystems are lost toencroachingdevelopment.

Withtherenewedinterestinusingancientplantsasmedicinalagents,ethnobotanistsworkwithshamanstoidentifyandcol-lectplantsutilizedtotreatdiseases.Ethnobotanistsareworkingtoday with physicians to research and develop products thatcanbeofusetopharmaceuticalcompanies.Thisisaglimpseofethnobotanytoday.

Oneofthegreatesteconomicvaluesofethnobotanymaylieintheareaoffolkmedicines.Indigenoushealersfirstdiscoveredmanyof thesedrugs.Whetheryoucall themshamans,sorcer-ers,herbalists,orwitchdoctors,theyareresponsibleformakingavailablesomeofourmostpotentmedicines.Thesemedicineshavecomefromnativeecosystems—discoveredbythoselivingclosesttotheplants.

Butsincethesemedicinescomefromplantsthatstillrepre-sentjustaminorsegmentoftheworld’sflora,anypracticalstrat-egyforexpandingourknowledgeoftheselivingpharmaceuticalfactoriesmustincludeethnobotanicalresearch.

Ethnobotanistsknowthatifwearetotakeadvantageoftra-ditionalknowledgewemustdomorethanpreservetheplants.Wemustsavetheculturesthatareimmersedintheirecosystems.Theintellectualachievementsofindigenouspeoplesuggestthat

4�Plants as Medicine

thebiggestchallengeforethnobotanistsliesnotintheidentifi-cationandremovalofnaturalorganismsbutintheadaptationandpromotionofawhollydifferentwayoflivingonEarth.

50

theRelationshipBetweenNativeNorthamericansandPlants

When all the trees have been cut down, when all the animals have been hunted, when all the waters are polluted, when all the air is

unsafe to breathe, only then will you discover you cannot eat money.-—Native American (Cree tribe) prophecy

The primal, buzzing sound of a snake rattle vibrating under the scrub brush beside your feet is enough to stop anyone in histracks—justasnaturedesignedit.Ifyouchoosetostickaroundlongenough to look for the sourceof the sound,youmayberewardedwiththesightofa large-scaled,thick-bodiedreptile.Slowlycoilingonabedofleaves,thesnakewouldraiseitsheadandupperbodyintoacharacteristicdefensiveposeasitsdarktongue rhythmically darts, trying to smell the threat it sensesfromyourpresence.

Todayweknowthatmostpeoplecansafelywatchthissnakefromashortdistance.Fewpeopleencounterrattlesnakesinthewild,andfewerstilleversuffertheeffectsofavenomoussnake-bite.Butsupposetheworstdidhappen.Supposethesnakeneverheardyourapproach.Withouttimetoreacttoyou,arattlesnakewouldnotrattleitstailinalarm.Withoutthatdangersignal,youandthesnakecouldmeet...withunpleasantconsequences.

Fortunatelyinthiscountrytoday,apersonwhoisbittenbyarattlesnakeisprobablyhikingandprobablyhasacellphone.Oncehelparrives,ambulancesorhelicopterscanswiftlygetapatienttotheclosesthospital.There,doctorscanquicklyadmin-istertreatments,suchasantivenin,antibiotics,andpainkillers.

Butwhatifitwastheyear1805?Whatifyouwerehuntingaloneforjackrabbitsinthehotsummersun?Afteralongmorn-ing,youstopbeneathaflatrockoutcroptocrouchinthecoolshade. The snake does not hear you and you do not notice itstretchedoutintheshade.Asyoureachforahandholdalongtheflakyshaletopullyourselfoutofthesunyoufeelsomethingbrush against you. Now you see the snake. But it is too late.Withinmoments,thetipofyourfingerstartstoburnandshortlyafter,yourhandstartstoswell.Whatwillyoudo?

IfyouwereNativeAmericanandhadlistenedcloselytothestoriesofyourfatherorgrandfathers,youwouldknowtolookforaplantcalledsnakeroot(Figure5.1).Thisisoneoftheplants

52

theRelationshipBetweenNativeNorthamericansandPlants

53the relationship Between native north Americans and Plants

Figure 5.1 Seneca snakeroot is the common name of the plant Polygala senega.

54 Ethnobotany

youhadgrownupwith,anditwouldprovideyouwiththelatestinmedicaldiscoveries—thebesttreatmentavailabletoyouafteryearsofexperimentsbytriballeaders.

lIvINGINBalaNceWIthNatuReLike indigenous peoples around the world, Native Americanspracticed the philosophy of living in balance with all life onEarth.They longagopossesseda sophisticatedunderstandingofnaturederivedfromthousandsofyearsofobservingtherela-tionships between living things and their environment. Theirown relationship with the plants around them was deep andpersonal.Itwasbothlife-savingandlife-sustaining—arelation-shipdesignedtofeedthebodyandthesoul.

Native Americans saw themselves as a part of nature, notseparatefromit.Theybelievedtheanimalsweretheirbrothers,the plants their sisters. A relationship with the natural worldwasemphasizedoveradesireorneedtocontrolnature.Theirunfencedgardensgrewfoodalongsidethewildplantstheyfor-agedandthewildlifetheyrevered.

With this intimate knowledge of plants, the lives of thenativesrevolvedaroundtheseasonsandthenaturalbountieseach month provided. While scavenging in the wild, nativepeoplesmadesuretoprotectthewildplantsthatprovidedthemwithfood,herbalremedies,anddyes.Theforestandfieldsweretheir first gardens and eventually became extensions of theircultivated gardens.Wild berries, seeds, nuts, roots, and fruitswereparamounttotheirsurvivalandculture.Evenearlywildlifemanagementtechniqueswerepracticedtoensurethatplentyofplants flourished for thewildlife thenativesdependedon fortheirfood,clothing,tools,andceremonies.Whenlanddidhavetobeclearedforcropsandvillages,carewastakentopreserveplentyofothernaturalhabitats tosustain themin the future(Figure5.2).


Figure 5.2 This drawing of the Native American village of Secota was made in the 1580s by John White, an English explorer and artist. The villagers of Secota grew a variety of plants, including corn and sunflowers.

56 Ethnobotany

theFIRstFaRmeRsThe first farmers on our continent were Native Americans.Farmingbroughtanimportantchangetothenativewayoflife.Itmadesedentarylifepossibleandledtohomebuilding,thegrowthofvillages,andincreasesinpopulation.Despitethesebenefits, farming was still often practiced only to augmentthewildfoodthatwassecuredthroughhunting,fishing,andforaging.

MostNorthAmericanshadamatriarchalsociety.Thespe-cial power of creating life and giving birth was somethingonlythewomencouldsharewith“MotherEarth.”TheNativeAmericansrecognizedandacknowledgedthisgift.Whilemenwere the hunters and defenders of the tribe, women werethegatherersandwerethereforeprobablyresponsibleforthedevelopmentoftheoriginalfarms.Womenmostlikelywerethefirsttocollectplantsandharvestwildseeds(Figure5.3).And,exceptfortheboyswhostoodguardatthegardenoroldmenwho did heavy tilling, the women were responsible for mostgardeningchores.

Animalswereheld inhighesteeminNativeAmericancul-turesforthegiftstheyprovided,buttheyoftentookatollonthegardencrops—deer,birds,androdentsespecially.Youngtribalboysheldtheresponsibilityof“guarding”thecropsbyperchingonaplatformbesidethegardentodiscouragetheanimalsortohuntthem.Wheneveranimalsdiddamagethecrops,theanimalsmightbeharvestedforfoodandclothing.Butoneanimalwasusuallyspared,despiteitscapacityfordamage.

Accordingtolegend,theintelligent,boldcrowwasbelievedtohavebroughtthesinglemostimportantplanttotheNativeAmericans:thefirstgrainofcorn(Zea mays).Corn(ormaize)is perhaps the Native Americans’ greatest contribution to theworld’s food resources. Different tribal dialects had words intheir language for corn such as“our life,”“it sustains us,” or“giveroflife.”Astheimportanceofcorngrewwithinatribe,the


plantbecamethecenterofartandreligiouslifeofmanytribes.Ceremonieswereperformedonbehalfoftheplantanditslife-sustainingqualities.TheIroquoispeoplealonehadmorethan23differentrecipesformaize.

thethReesIsteRsCooperationbetweenplantswaswellunderstoodbythenativesandtheyusedthisinformationtotheirbenefit.Whiletheplantswidelyusedbyvarioustribesnumberedinthethousands,threeplantswereselectedasthefoundationofearlyNativeAmericanagriculture.Overtimethesethreeplantswereimprovedenoughtobehand-grownwithrelativeeaseandinsufficientquantity

Figure 5.3 An Apache woman is seen harvesting wheat with a hand sickle in this photograph from 1906.

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tosustainthelivesofthenativesaswellasprovideaharvestforstorage.Oncetheyhadenoughfoodtoliveabovetheneedsofdailysubsistence,therewasleisuretimetoestablishsettled,agri-culturalsocieties.

Thesethreeplantswerecorn,beans,andsquash,betterknownastheThreeSisters.Cornwasthecenterofthegarden.Thecornprovidedstaplefoodssuchasmaize,hominy,andcake,butitsvitalroleinthegardenwasinsupportingthebeansandsquash.The Three Sisters technique, or three crops garden, requiredthatthecornbeplantedamongvarietiesofbeansandsquash.Therelationshipbetweenthethreeplantsastheygrewtogetherhelpedretainmoisture,replenishandmaintainsoilconditions,andcontrolweeds.Thetallcornstalksprovidedsupportfortheclimbingbeans.Theclimbingbeanshelpedfixnitrogeninthesoil for thecorn.Thespreadingsquashplants shaded,cooled,andcontrolledtheweedsinthesoilbelowthecornandbeans.

TherelationshipbetweentheThreeSistersheldotherben-efits too.Botanicaldifferencesbetweenthethreespeciesguar-anteedthattheywouldnotallsuccumbtoasinglepestattackorweather-relatedcatastrophe.Thenativesrecognizedthatthegrowthhabitsofeachof theThreeSisterswereasdifferentastheir nutritional requirements. Beans could survive during acloudyandcoolsummerseasonthatwouldhaltthegrowthofcornandmostsquash.Thestormysummerwindsthatmoweddowncornstalksandtorethelarge,thinleavesofsquashwouldnotbotherthesmall,toughleavesandviningstemsofthebeans.Andfinally,thedeep-rootedcorncouldwithstandbothdroughtandthesuddensquallsthatmightwashoutthelesswell-rootedbeansandsquash.

ThespiritualrelationshipoftheThreeSisterswassacredandnearlyuniversalamongthesettled,agriculturalnativepeopleofNorthAmerica.TheCherokeeversionofhowcorncametofeedtheIndiansisatypicalstoryamongNorthAmericantribes.

5�the relationship Between native north Americans and Plants

the origin of corn In almost every native nation there is a story about the origin of the corn plant. Where did these stories come from? The traditional belief is that the corn itself spoke to tribe members. Native lore recognizes that human life is dependent on the plants and that those plants have an awareness of their surroundings and therefore deserve our respect. In native stories, plants interact directly with people, talking freely and entering the human realm.

Southern New England Indians described maize (or corn) as a gift from Cautantowwit, a god associated with southwestern direction. Many other tribes in this region believed the first corn was delivered by the raven—a bird held in high esteem and not to be harmed, even if it caused damage to a carefully managed cornfield. The Algonquin legends recall corn as a reward sent by the Great Spirit through a person of his choice.

The story of the Coming of Corn, belonging to the Cherokee of North Carolina, shares details similar to many other Native American stories. In essence, it tells how a young boy’s grandmother came to be the first stalk of corn after sacrificing her life so that the corn would live and feed her people. In this version, the grandmother tells her grandson to clear away a patch of ground on the south side of their lodge after she has died. He is told to drag her body over that ground seven times and then bury her in that patch of earth. She tells the young boy that if he does as she says, he will see her again and he will be able to feed his people.

The grandson did as he was told and wherever he dragged his grand-mother’s body and a drop of her blood fell, a small plant grew. As the plants grew taller it seemed he could hear his grandmother’s voice whispering in the leaves. In time, the plants grew very tall and the long tassels at the top of each plant reminded the boy of his grandmother’s long hair. When the ears of corn finally formed on each plant his, grandmother’s promise had come true. Though she had gone from the Earth, she would be with the boy’s people forever as the corn plant to feed them.

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theDoctRINeoFsIGNatuResHowdidtheNativeAmericansknowwhichplantscuredwhichills?Onemethodofdiscoveringwhatailmentaplantmightcurewastosimplylookattheplant.Atheoryofmedicinalplantlorecalledthe“doctrineofsignatures”suggeststhatplantsthatholdpotentialcuresactuallyshowvisualcluestotheiruses.Inotherwords,peoplewhobelieveinthistheorybelievethattheshapeorcolorofaparticularplant(orpartofit)wouldgiveanindicationtowhatitmightcure.

For example, in the case of snakebite, natives would mostlikelyhavefirstlookedforaplantresemblingthelong,twistedshape of a snake. That is how the snaking roots of Virginiasnakerootandothermembersof themilkwort familybecameawell-knownantidote forvenom.The rootsof the snakerootwerechewedandthenapplieddirectlyontothebiteasapoultice.Becauseofitsknownbenefitasasnakebiteremedy,therootsofthesnakerootplantwereoftenharvestedinautumnandcarriedinleatherpouchesforjustsuchanemergency.

Following the doctrine of signatures, a plant could helpsoothe an inflamed eye if you found a flower that resembledtheeyeofadeer.Ateamadefromgnarledwoodwasbelievedtocontrol convulsions.Liverdisorderswouldbe treatedwithhepatica,or liverleaf,whose leavesareshaped likethehumanliver,andsoon.

toPteNPlaNtsuseDByNatIveameRIcaNsToday, botanists can classify over 2,500 species of plants thatwereusedbyNativeAmericans formedicinal, food, fiber,andceremonialpurposes.Andwhilecorn,beans,andsquashwerecentral to the garden and the ceremonies honoring food, thefollowingisalist,withdescriptions,ofthetenplantsrecognizedfortheirbroadestusesbythelargestnumberoftribes.ThelistoriginallyappearedinNative American Ethnobotany byDanielE.Moerman.


• Thuja plicata, western red cedar—usedtomakecough

medicine,chewinggum,greendye,baskets,andbroth.

• Prunus virginiana, common chokecherry—usedtotreat

sorethroatsandtocontroldiarrhea.

• Urtica dioca, stinging nettle—rubbedonthebodytotreat

achesandpains;dried,peeledstemsusedastwine.

• Yucca baccata, banana yucca—usedtotreatheartburn,as

ahairwash,andtomakestringandshoes;fruitsoakedand

cookedintoasyrup.

• Cornus sericea, red osier dogwood—usedtosootheeye

painandpreventinfection;berriesareedible;barkburned

tocreatesmokeduringceremonies.

• Heracleum maximum, common cowparsnip—usedas

medicineforcoldsandsorethroats,flowerbudseatenwith

honey,androotsusedtomakeayellowdye.

• Rhus trilobata, skunkbush sumac—usedtotreatsmallpox

sores,driedfruitsmadeintojams,andberriessoakedin

watertomakelemonade-likedrink.

• Pseudotsuga menziesii, Douglas fir—usedtomakesnow-

shoes,toflavorbearmeat,andplacedinsidemoccasinsto

keepfeetdry.

• Bettual payrifera, paper birch—burnedtomakesmoked

fishandmeat;woodusedtomakecanoes,toboggans,and

snowshoes;barkusedtowaterproofroofs.

• Populus balsamifera, balsam poplar—usedonsores,to

preventinfectionbyparasites,andtomakesaddles.

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howPlantscreatecultures

Come forth into the light of things. Let Nature be your teacher.-—William Wordsworth (1770–1850)

English poet

themysteRyoFeasteRIslaNDCan you imagine the Vikings of Scandinavia without theirhugesailingvesselsorthenortheasternwoodlandtribeswith-outtheir longhouses?HowwouldtheShipiboIndiansoftheAmazonrainforesthuntwithouttheirhand-carvedblowguns?WhatkindoflegacywouldthedesertNavajosleaveusiftherewerenodyestocreatethevibrantcolorsfoundintheirhand-wovenrugs?

Muchattentionisfocusedontheconservationofplantsfortheirkeystoneroleinthefunctionofecosystems,andforimpor-tantmedicinalpurposes,andrightly so.Plantshave servedusthroughout history is so many ways. But what happens whencivilizations lose their access to the plants that formed theirculture?

ConsiderthemysteryofEasterIsland(Figure6.1).Atonly64squaremiles(166squarekm), locatedamidthePacificOcean2,000miles(3,200km)westofthenearestcontinentofSouthAmerican,thisstoriedisland,withitshugestone-carvedheads,isconsideredtheworld’smostisolatedpieceofhabitableland.

Thesubtropicalmildclimateandfertilevolcanicsoilshouldhavemadethissmallpieceoflandaminiatureparadise,remotefromproblemsthatplaguedtherestofworld.Forseveralcen-turies,apparentlyitwas.ButonEasterin1722,DutchexplorerJacobRoggeveenlandedontheislandtofindawasteland,notaparadise.

AsRoggeveenapproachedtheland,hefirstnoticedthatthePolynesians,famousfortheirseafaringskillsandlargeoutriggercanoes,wereinsteadapproachinghisshipinsmall,fragileves-sels,orsimplyswimmingouttogreethimandhismen.WhentheDutchmenmadelandfalltherewasnotasingletreeorbushover10feet(3m)tall,unlikethelushtropicalislandstheyhadsurveyedinthepast.Therewerenonativeanimalslargerthanan insect,eventhoughotherPolynesian islandswerehometo

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howPlantscreatecultures

65How Plants create cultures

numerousspeciesoflandbirds,bats,snails,andlizards.Eventhehumanpopulation,estimatedatabout2,000,waslow.

Anexplanationforwhathappenedtothepeopleandtheplantsthatoncecreatedan islandofmagnificent statues remainedamysteryforseveralhundredmoreyearsuntilethnobotanistsandarcheologistsunraveledthehistoryofEasterIsland.

Tens of thousands of pollen grains, found in columns ofsedimentbeneathislandmarshesandponds,wereanalyzedanditwasdeterminedthattheearliestevidenceofhumanactivity

Figure 6.1 The statues on Easter Island were carved from volcanic rock by the islanders between a.d. 1100 and 1600. Construction of the statues ceased after the total deforestation of the island.

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datesbackasfarasa.d.300toa.d.400.Thestatuesmostlikelywere carved and erected between a.d. 1100 and 1600, whenthehumanpopulationwasabout7,000orperhapsaslargeas20,000.

Originally,EasterIslandwascoveredbyasubtropicalforestof treesandwoodybushes shadingagroundcoverof shrubs,herbs,ferns,andgrasses.ThedominanttreeswereHauhauandisland palms, which the scientists believed were used to buildlargecanoesandhelpmoveanderectthestatues.

Furtherexcavationsof the island’s landscapeprovidedevi-denceoftheislanders’surprisingdiet.Insteadofshallow-waterfish,one-thirdofallbonesuncovered inanalyzed trashheapswere from ocean-dwelling porpoises. The significance of thisdiscoverymeantthatthesepeopledidindeedoncehaveaccesstolargetreesthatweremadeintodeepocean-goingvesselsthatcouldovertakeafast-swimmingmammal.

Clearly, something had happened on Easter Island thatchanged this culture from a flourishing community of boatbuilders and deep-sea fishermen into sparse grassland—onewherethedecliningpopulationshadnowaytofish,littlewoodleft to burn for heat or cooking, and a food supply that wasrapidlydisappearing.Theseriousnessof thepredicament thatthe inhabitants of Easter Island found themselves in was alsouncoveredintheisland’sexcavatedtrashheaps.

In addition to the porpoise, fish, and bird bones, buriedamongtheremainsoftheislanders’foodsupplieswerethebonesofhumans.Thisdiscoverypaintedableakpictureofwhatprob-ablyhappenedastheislandersuseduptheirnaturalresources.The islandersbegantocannibalizeoneanotheras the island’svegetationdisappeared.

It isbelievedthatby theseventeenthcentury,mostofEas-ter Island’s plants were extinct. In time, all native species ofland birds were extinct. The first Polynesians had once foundthemselvesonanislandthatprovidedeverythingtheyneeded


for comfortable living. As their populations grew they beganerectingstonestatuesasasignofstatus,wealth,andpower.Buteventually, the island’s growing population began cutting theforestsmorerapidlythanthetreescouldregenerate.Astheforestdisappeared,sowentthetimberandropetotransportanderectthestatues,andbuildfires.Withouttheplants,thebirdsdisap-peared.Withoutthewoodforboats,theycouldnolongertraveltoseaforfood.

Withfoodinshortsupply,chiefsandpriestscouldnolongerkeep the once complex society running. Local chaos replacedcentralizedgovernmentandawarriorclasstookover.Intime,manyofthegreatstatuesweretoppledtothegroundinwarfare,and the history of the island, even to those who lived there,becamelost.WhenRoggeveenlandedonEasterIslandearlyinthe1720s,noonewholivedtherewasabletodescribewhathadhappenedtotheirownancestors.

EasterIslandisadrasticexampleofwhathappenstoasocietythatdoesnotusesustainablemethodswhenharvestingitsnatu-ralresources.Whentheproductsoftheislandecosystemsweredepleted,theculturewaslostforever.

Historicalmapsofourworldillustratethepassagestakenbyculturesthatcraftedshipsfromtheplantsoftheirregion.Thoseplantsenabledmentosailthemselvesandtheirfoodcropsaroundtheworld,andindoingso,theyultimatelyalteredtheecosystemsandindigenousculturesofeverylandtheyencountered.

Plantsweresoughtforeverypurpose,suchasfortheadhe-sivequalitiesoftheirgumorsap.Wovencordsandtwinesweremanufacturedfromplants.Chemicalsfromplantswerealteredintodeadlypoisonsandusedforweaponsthatwereasdanger-ousasanygunorknifeavailableatthetime.Barkandhollowedtreesbecamevitalcontainersforstoringfoodorcarryingwatergreatdistances (Figure6.2).Thevariousplantsused for thesepurposesallowedpeopletotravelawayfromwaterandestablishvillagesinnewsettlements.Dyesfromplantswereusedasbody

68 Ethnobotany

paintsand tattoos,defining social statusandceremonial rites.Thedyesimprovedtheappearanceoftextilesandwovenobjectsandhelpedidentifyspecificculturesandartisans.

theRelIGIoususeoFPlaNtsPlantshavealwaysbeensoughttoalterman’smindandspirit.Perhapsthemostcontroversialuseofplantsthroughouthistoryhasbeentheuseofplantsforritualisticorreligiouspurposes,orforillegalorrecreationalpurposes.Boththeethnobotanistandthemedicalworldareinterestedinthechemicalpropertiesofplantsasasourceofpossibletreatmentsorcuresofdisease.Buttheethnobotanistisalsointerestedinthechemicalprop-ertiesofplantsastheyrelatetotheworldviewof indigenouspeople.

Figure 6.2 A canoe has been dug out from a single tree by the Matses Indian tribe in the Amazon rain forest of Peru.

6�How Plants create cultures

Theuseofplantsinreligiousceremoniesiswidespreadandoftenprovidesinsightintohowacultureviewsdeathortheafter-life.Eveninourindustrializedcountry,flowersplayanimpor-tantroleinharvestandholidaycelebrationsaswellasweddingsandfunerals.Throughouttheworld,plantsareseenassymbolsofspiritualpower,andmanyculturesgainaccesstowhattheyperceiveastheafterlifebyingestingplantparts.Theseceremo-niesandexperiencesareasimportanttothemasanychurchortempleserviceistoitsmembersinthiscountry.

The Quechua Indians of Ecuador boil the ayahuasca vine(Banisteriopsis caapi)inwaterbeforedrinkingthetea,withtheintentofreleasingtheirspirittowandertheworld.Beforetheirspiritreturnstotheirbody,theQuechuareportedlyexperiencementaltelepathyandtheabilitytoforecastthefuture.

Native American cultures have been documented using aderivative of the peyote cactus (Lophophora) since the mid-sixteenthcenturytoinducecolorfulvisionsandcreateasenseofwell-being.Thetipsorheadsofthepeyotecactusarecutanddried into“buttons,”whichwhenmixedwithsalivaandswal-lowed, produce strong hallucinations. During the past severalcenturies, peyote use among Native Americans has risen andfallenas theUnitedStatesgovernmenthasalternately tried tocontrolorcondemn itsuse.As recentlyas1993, theReligiousFreedomActallowedpeyoteuseintheNativeAmericanChurchaspartoftheirreligioussacrament.10

While the use of hallucinogens by indigenous cultures iswidespread,theconceptseemsforeigntomostofusinWesterncultures.Butweuseplantsonadailybasis togentlyalterourmoods.Amongthelesscontroversialsubstancesweingestfromplantstohelpuswakeinthemorning,getthroughourhecticday,orrelaxintheeveningarecoffee,tobacco,wine,andchocolate.Infact,undermanycircumstances,thesesubstancesareusedtoenhanceoursocialfunctions.

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coNtRoveRsIalPlaNtuseInmostPolynesiancultures,kava(Piper methysticum) isservedtowelcomevisitorsordeflectsocialtensions(Figure6.3).Itis

can a Shaman really Heal the Sick?Well-known ethnobotanists Michael J. Balick and Magnus Zethelius have spent years studying the work of shamans in native villages, and they believe these “medicine men” do have the ability to improve the condition of indi-viduals who are ill. In addition, they have observed what they refer to as “healings,” not only in remote villages, but also under the watchful eyes of numerous physicians in clinical settings.

In one particular case study, a young man from the Orinoco Valley of Colombia was brought to a medical clinic one day after having been bitten by Bothrops, a venomous snake. When the patient was admitted, he was pale, confused, and delirious. Vital statistics such as his blood pressure, pulse, respi-ratory rate, and temperature all indicated a very serious reaction to the snake venom. The man also had severe swelling and purple discoloration of the skin near the site of the wound, with a significant amount of blood in his urine.

The doctors immediately administered antivenim serum, but the patient’s condition only worsened. A Guahibo shaman who happened to be present asked permission to administer a traditional “smoke-blowing” treatment, which involved blowing tobacco smoke on the patient’s extremities while chanting a call similar to the song of a nocturnal bird. Balick and Zethelius describe the patient as becoming relaxed as his vital signs returned to normal, though the doctors treating the young man described him as still remaining in a toxic state. Within a few days the man’s condition improved and he survived the bite.

The attending physicians acknowledged that the antivenin serum alone had never produced such a drastic improvement and allowed that the tradi-tional treatment by the shaman indeed had an effect on the patient. Balick and Zethelius concluded that the man’s strong belief and trust in shaman-istic practices enhanced his return to good health.


an important part of the social interaction for South Pacificnatives,similartoafternoonteainGreatBritain.Althoughtherealsignificanceofkavaliesinthecontextinwhichitisservedto a visitor or tribe member, drinking from the roots of thisplantcanstillcreateapowerfuleffectonyourmindandbody.Kavahasbeendescribedascreatingafeelingof“fellowshipandbrotherhood,”orasenseof“heightenedperception,asifflyingovertherainforest.”11

Plantsknowntopromotesocialtranquilityortransporttheparticipant through hallucinations are considered psychoac-tiveplants.Whether theyareused for religiousawakeningorgentlemoodswings,theiruseswerenotalwaysintendedtobebeneficial.

Figure 6.3 Men from Viseisei village in Fiji prepare a mildly narcotic drink made from the roots of the kava plant. Kava is used in traditional ceremonies throughout the west Pacific islands.

72 Ethnobotany

IntheeleventhcenturyaPersiannamedAl-Hasanibnal-Sab-bahinfluencedyoungmenintoxicatedbyCannabistorobforhimanddestroyanyonewhogotinthewayofhismission.Cannabis,whendriedandsmoked,isbetterknownasmarijuanaorhash-ish.Usedforcenturiesformedicinalpurposes,thiscontroversialdrugstillremainsadivisivesubjectwhencomparingthebenefitsof itsmedicalpotency(suchas the reliefofnauseaassociatedwithpowerfulchemotherapydrugs)withtheallegationsthatitsabusemayleadtoanaddictiontodeadliersubstances.

ThefearinWesternculturesthatmild-alteringdrugsderivedfromplantsmightbeabusedimpliesthatalloftheseplantsaredangerousandhavenoplaceinacivilizedculture.Butpsychoac-tivedrugsdohaveanimportantroleintraditionalcultures,andethnobotanistscontinuetoinvestigatetherelationshipoftheseplant-deriveddrugstoindigenouspeople.

Likealldrugs,thelevelofaddictionortheamountofpainreliefcausedbyanysubstanceisrelatedtoitsdoseandtheformin which it is taken. The coca bush (Erythroxylum) of SouthAmericahasleavesthathavebeenusedforcenturiesasasourceofnutrientsandtostaveoffhungerandfatigue.Butcocaine,theillegalandaddictivedrugthatischemicallymanufacturedfromthecoca leaf,hasadeservedlynegativeconnotation—it is thecenterofenormousillegaltrade,itcorruptsgovernments,anditcausessocialinstability.

Thesamecanbesaidofopium,whichcomesfromthepoppyplant(Papaver somniferum).AnEgyptiandocumentcalledtheEbers Papyrus, dated around 1500 b.c., suggests that poppieswereused longagoas a cure forheadaches andas a sedative.Todaywemanufacturecodeineandmorphinefromthealkaloidsofopiumpoppiesandusethemasextremelypowerfulpainkill-ers, among other uses. The drugs are available only throughprescriptionsandtheiruseisstrictlyregulated.

Whileitmaybenecessarytoprotectpeoplebylimitingaccesstodangeroussubstances,itisalsoimportanttorecognizethatall


civilizationsviewtheirsurroundingsintheirownculturalcon-text.Itwouldbeunfairandunwisetothinkofallplant-deriveddrugsasdangerousorwithoutmerit.Forculturesthatidentifycertainpsychoactivedrugswiththesacrednessoftheirsurround-ings,imposinglawsuponthemthreatenstheirwayoflife.Forindigenouspeople,theirlifeincludestheirentireecosystem.

In Plants, People, and Culture, The Science of Ethnobotany, MichaelJ.BalickandPaulAlanCoxprovidetheseexamples:

•TostoptheloggingofThairainforests,priestswrapped

saffron-coloredrobesaroundthetreesandordainedthe

threatenedtreesasBuddhistmonks.

•IntheSouthwesternUnitedStates,Navajotribeshavepro-

testedtheconstructionofpowerlinesthroughregional

mountainrangesthattheyregardasholy.

•InAfrica,thedevelopmentoftouristresortshaspressed

tribalelderstofightagainstthedestructionofthelandthey

refertoastheirKayas,orsacredgroves.

InWestern culturewemay lookat these attempts to resist“progress”assimplegrandstanding,orsomemaysuggest thatthese people have an ulterior motive. But an ethnobotanistwould understand that a Native American who regarded theplantsashissisters,wouldreacttotrippingoveranexposedtreerootashavinghadapersonal interactionwith thatparticulartree.All indigenouspeopleregardthenaturalworldassacred,andthereforeworthyofpreservation.

74

theRainForestsoftheWorld

Destroying rainforest for economic gain is like burning a renaissance painting to cook a meal.

—Edward O. Wilson (1929– )American biologist and writer

It’s“theecoNomy,stuPID”WhenPresidentWilliamJeffersonClintonwasrunningforhisfirst term in 1992, he taped a note to a wall in his office as areminderofoneofthemostimportantissuesinhiscampaign.Despitecontinuinghumanrightsissuesaroundtheworld,thelingeringwar in theMiddleEast,or the stunning riots inLosAngeles,Clintonknewthatthekeytosolvingalltheseissueswastheeconomy.Andso,onasmallpieceofpaperhescribbledthewords,“theeconomy,stupid,”toalwaysremindhimtostayontrack.

Like that prophetic note, the keys to solving the problemsandcreatingthesolutionstothecontinuingdestructionofrainforests—themostpowerfulandbiologicallydiversenaturaleco-systemontheplanet—areeconomic.

EveryparcelofhabitablelandonEarthhas,atsomepointinitshistory,beenassociatedwithindigenouspeopleofaparticu-larculture.Someofthosecultureshavebeenlosttotime,slowlyandquietlyevolvingintolarger,moredominantcultures.Othershavebeenassimilatedbyforce.Bydefinition,indigenouspeoplearethedescendantsoftheoriginalinhabitantsoftheareawheretheylive,sharinguniquelanguages,cultures,andancestraltiestothathomeland.Someestimatesplacenearly5,000distinctcul-turesamongtheworldwideindigenouspopulationof250mil-lionpeople.Indigenouspeoplemakeuponly4%oftheworld’spopulationof6billionpeople,but they represent95%of theworld’sculturaldiversity.12

Smallpocketsofindigenousculturesarefoundineveryregionoftheworld,stillclingingtoatraditionalwayoflivewhilefacingtheencroachmentandinfluencesoftheculturesoftechnicallydeveloped nations. The greatest concentrations of indigenouspeopleremaininthegreatrainforestsoftheworld.

Found on many different continents, rain forests all arelocatedaroundtheEarth’sequatorandsharethecommonfea-turesofhighyear-roundtemperaturesandhighprecipitation.

76

theRainForestsoftheWorld

77the rain Forests of the World

Regardlessofthelocation,thedilemmasfacedbytherainforestsandtheirnativeculturesarethesame.TheTafuaforestontheWesternSamoaislandofSavaiiisagoodexample.Smallcom-paredtotheenormousAmazonforestsofSouthAmerica,thistractofjunglepossessesthesameuniqueclaimasanyrainfor-est;overone-quarterofitsforestplantsarefoundnowhereelseonEarth.Thetropicalrainforestsoftheworldarehometoanenormousdiversityoflivingorganismsuniquetoonlythatoneplace.Thisleavestheseisolatedecosystemsextremelyvulnerableto changes brought about by man-made habitat destruction,culturalassimilation,orevennaturaldisaster.

When rain forest cultures can live undisturbed, or at leastminimallydisturbed,smallindigenoustribesliveouttheirlivesmuchastheirancestorsdidthousandsofyearsago—withtheirhealth,theirreligion,andtheirlivelihoodsintricatelytiedtotheplantsandtheecosystemstheyareapartof.

Rainforestsaredestroyedfor theprofits theyyield(Figure7.1).Whethercutforlumber,slashedtoclearlandforcattle,orburnedtoopenparcelsof landforsubsistence farming,nearly200,000acresofrainforestarelosteachdayforaquicksourceofincome.13Butthetruewealthoftherainforestliesnotinthetreesthatareremovedorthebusinessesthatareestablishedintheirwake.Therealvalueoftherainforestliesinthenutrients,chemicals, and other active compounds found in the plantsthemselves—theplantsthattheindigenouscultureshaveusedfortheirhealthandwell-beingforcenturies.

Iflandowners,governments,andthoselivingintherainforesttodayweregiveneconomicreasonsnottodestroytherainforest,therapiddestructionwouldmostlikelycometoanend.Ethno-botanistshavedemonstratedthateconomicalternativesdoexist.When medicinal plants, fruits, nuts, oils, and other resourceslikerubber,chocolate,andchicle,areharvestedinasustainablemanner, therain forestshavemoreeconomicvalue than if itspartswere simplyremoved.Sustainableharvestingof the rain

78 Ethnobotany

forestplants,ratherthanlarge-scalepermanentdestructionoftheentireecosystem,notonlyprovidesincomenow,butprofitsforgenerationstocome.

Thinkoftheresourcesoftherainforestsasanewcurrency.The plant knowledge possessed by these indigenous peopleappearstobethenewrevenueforthepreservationoftheplanet’srainforests.Sincerainforestsholdthedistinctionofsupportingmillions of plant species, the true value of these specific for-estscanbefoundamongtheshamans,healers,andindigenouspeopleofeachregion.

Withethnobotanistsservingasliaisons,majorpharmaceuti-calcompaniesandgovernmentsaroundtheglobearesittingupand paying attention. World-renowned drug companies and

Figure 7.1 Smoke billows from the Amazon rain forest near the city of Sao Felix do Xingu in northern Brazil. Ranchers, soybean farmers, and loggers burn and cut down large swaths of the forest every year.

7�the rain Forests of the World

majornationsarecurrentlyfundingprojectstostudyindigenousplantknowledgeandthespecificplantsusedbythepeopleclos-esttothem.

WhatIsaRaINFoRest?Rainforestshavelongrepresentedmysteryandpower:amythiclinkbetweenhumansandthenaturalworld.ThebestknownofthegiantrainforestsoftheworldarefoundintheAmazonbasin(Figure 7.2). SouthAmerica is home to the largest contiguoustropical rain forest in the world. The Amazon spreads acrossmuch of South America, including Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,Bolivia,Brazil,Venezuela,Guyana,Surinam,andFrenchGuiana.

Anyforestthatreceivesmorethansevenfeet(2.1m)ofrainannuallyisgenerallyconsideredarainforest.Thereareasmanyas30or40different typesofrain forests, includingevergreenlowlandforests,evergreenmountainforests,tropicalevergreenalluvialforests,andsemi-deciduousforests.

Coveringonly2%oftheEarth’ssurface,rainforestsarehometoanastoundinghalfof theworld’splantandanimalspecies.Scientistsestimate that justone four-square-mile(10.4squarekm)carpetoflushrainforestmaycontainmorethan750typesoftreesand1,500speciesoffloweringplants.

RainforestsrepresentoneofthesixmajorbiomesfoundonEarth,eachtheresultofeonsofsuccessionalchangesaseacheco-systemevolvedintotheonebiomethatrepresentsitsmoststablestage.TherainforestsarealsoconsideredtheoldestecosystemsonEarth.FossilsfoundintherainforestsofSoutheastAsiaarebelievedtobe70to100millionyearsold.

Despite their significance, we know that rain forests aredisappearingatanalarmingrate.AnnuallylosingvitalhabitatsthesizeofPolandhasprofoundconsequencesforthecultur-allydiversegroupsofindigenouspeopleswhoselivesdependontheseenvironments.Dependentuponthebiologicaldiver-sityoftheforests,nativepeopleserveastheprimarystewards

80 Ethnobotany

oftheirownecosystems,somaintainingtheregion’sculturaldiversity is one of the first steps in the conservation of rainforestdiversity.

Figure 7.2 The dense vegetation of the Amazon rain forest near Manaus, Brazil, is seen in this photograph.


Becausethedesireforfastincomehasfueledsomuchoftherainforestdestruction,thegoalnowistocreateeconomicincen-tivesforindigenouspeopletoprotectandpreservetheforestssoastoyieldlong-termprofitsforthemselvesandtheirchildren.Currently,rainforestsconvertedtocattleoperationsbringland-ownersapproximately$60anacre.Loggingtreesprovidesabout$400anacre.Butwhenresourcesareharvestedinarenewablemanner, the landmayyieldasmuchas$2,000peracretothelandowner.14

It is imperative, when harvesting from the rain forest, toemployandmakeuseoftheindigenouspeopleandtheirknowl-edge.Nativecommunitiesearnconsiderablymoremoneycare-fullyharvestingwildmedicinalplants,fruits,nuts,andoilsthantheyeverearnedchoppingdowntheforesttogrowafewcrops.Subsistencefarmingisameagerwayoflife.Itisextremelydif-ficult tocontinuallygrowcropsorgraze livestockonsoil thatwasoncealushrainforest.Whentherainforestisremoved,itscrucial soil-feeding and soil-building nutrients are lost alongwiththatspecificecosystem.

Inaddition to theAmazon,othermajorrain forestsof theworldarefoundinSoutheastAsiaandAfrica’sCongobasin.InSoutheastAsialivesapopulationofindigenouspeopleknownastheOrangAsli.Asagroup,theOrangAsliisdividedintonumer-oustribesorsubgroupsdependingontheirwayoflifeortheirlocation.Thediversityevenamongonegroupofnativescreatesa challenge for the ethnobotanists wishing to study plant useamongasinglegroupofpeople.

Thereisanurgencytocreateaninventoryofusefulplantsnativetothisregion.EthnobotanistsknowthattheOrangAsliarefamiliarwithandutilizealargenumberofplantsforfood,medicine,andartifacts.However,thereisnotonecompleteinventoryrecordedforanyofthevariousgroupswithinthisparticularculture.

FoodisofparticularconcernforAsia.Ethnobotanistsbelievethattherearemanyspeciesoffoodplantsgoingunusedinthis

82 Ethnobotany

region, even while Asia imports millions of dollars worth offoodeachyear.Astudyoflocalfoodplantstodeterminewhicharebestsuitedforsustainablefarming,whichprovidethemostnutrition, which are the most appealing, and which have thelongestshelf-lifemayleadtoAsia’slocalplantssoonbeingableto compete profitably with the introduced foods currently onthemarket.

Likeinsomanyotherpartsoftheworldwherepeoplestilllivesocloselyalignedtothenaturalworld,theculturesoftheAfricanrainforestspossesstheabilitytodistinguishbetweenedibleandnonedible plants, poisonous or nonpoisonous plants, specieswithmedicinalqualities,andevenvegetationpreferredbytheirlivestock.Again,thisknowledgeisrarelywrittendown.Instead,thisessentialinformationispassedfromgenerationtogenera-tion,memorizedbybothparentsandchildrenalike.

Africa’srichdiversityoflanguagesandpastoraltribalsystemsbothprovideethnobotanistswithanimportantbaseofresearch.Incontrasttomanyotherrainforestswhereindigenousgroupsmaynotevenhavenamesformanyoftheplantstheyutilize,Afri-cantribesoftenhavenamesforeveryorganismtheyencounter.Inaddition,insteadofbeingisolated,itisthetendencyofmanyAfricantribestotravel—undoubtedlyexchangingtheirknowl-edgewithothersaroundthem.

TheprimaryuseofAfrica’sindigenousbotanicalknowledgeismedicinal.Themethodsofpreparingherbal remedies fromplantsaregenerallysimilaramongAfricans.Ineachpreparationitisthehealer’sintentiontowithdrawwhateveractivepropertiesareavailablefromtheplantbeforetheplant’sdrugisprovidedtothepatient.Whetherthatdrugisadministeredintheformofapaste,apowder,oraliquid,orisinhaled,dependsonthespecificpropertiesoftheplantinquestioncombinedwiththeknowledgeeachhealerpossesses.

Boilingtherootsandbarkoftreesorshrubscancreatedrug-infusedteasthatcanbeswallowedorbathedin,dependingon


theillness.Smallleavesortenderplantsareoftencrushedandthensoakedincoldwaterbeforebeingswallowed.Sometimesleavesareburnedandtheirashesarerubbedontowoundsorsoaked in water and gargled. For the treatment of stomachailments, sore throats, or even venomous snakebite, specificplantleavesmaybechewedandthenswallowedinanefforttoquicklyreleasethepotentialbenefitsoftheplant.Ifapoulticeorbandageisrequired,succulentplantpartsareoftencookedorroastedtopreparethemaspartofamoistfirstaiddressing.

Africanhealersarealsouniqueinthattheyoftencreatetheirown home gardens where the most important plants in theirarsenalaregrownandcultivated,eliminatingtheneedtosearchthejunglesfortheessentialplantinanemergency.

oFsPecIalcoNceRNPerhapsthemostpressingthreatstorainforestscanbefoundinthreeparticularforestsoftheworld;Brazil’sAtlanticforest,theChoco'ofSouthAmerica’sPacificcoast,andtheAfricanislandofMadagascar(Figure7.3).

The Atlantic forest was once considered one of the mostdenselyrichecosystemsintheworld,butnow,sadly,almostallofthegreatrainforesthasbeendestroyed,withperhapslessthan3to5%remaining.

AsoneofthewettestplacesonEarth,withanannualrainfallofover30feet(9.14m)peryear,theChoco'representsoneoftheleast-collectedregionsintheworldforethnobotanists.Suf-feringfromlargeclear-cutting,thispieceoflandlyingalongthePacificOceanisreceivingalotofattentioninaracetostopthedestructionandcatalogtheflorathatremains.

Madagascarisconsideredbymanybotaniststobethenumberoneconservationprioritytoday.Asmuchas80%oftheisland’svegetationhasbeenremovedordisturbedduringthepast1,000yearsthatpeoplehavelivedontheisland.Thedisappearanceofthisuniqueassemblageofplantsaffectstheanimalpopulation

84 Ethnobotany

Figure 7.3 A Verreaux’s sifaka, a type of lemur, feeds in a tree in south-ern Madagascar. It is named for its distinctive “si-fa-ka” call, which is used as a warning to other group members when predators are near.


aswell.Foracountry so small, thenumbersofnative speciesfoundonlyonthistinypieceofEartharestartling;40%oftheisland’sbirds,90%ofitsprimates,98%ofitsfrogs,and100%ofitsrodentsarefoundnowhereelse.

Ironically, the destruction of the world’s rain forests mayrepresentthefirsttimeinhistorythatplantshavesufferedfromextinctiononalargescale.Fossilevidenceshowsusthatinthepast, when organisms did fall to extinction, it was invariablythe fauna,oranimals, that suffered sucha fate. In thecaseofthedinosaurs,itwasinevitablyanaturaldisasterorprocessofnaturalselectionthatbroughtabouttheirdemise.Humanbeingsareresponsibleforthelossoftherainforestsandthemillionsoforganismsthatdependontherainforestecosystemsforlife.If futuresourcesoffoodandmedicineeludeus,wehaveonlyourselvestoblame.

86

ethnobotanyandconservation

The care of the Earth is our most ancient and most worthy, and after all, our most pleasing responsibility. To cherish what

remains of it, and to foster its renewal, is our only hope.—Wendell Berry (1934– )American novelist and poet

The relationships between plants and people are profound, affectingnearlyeveryaspectofourlives.Humanculturesandplants,fromprehistoricpeoplesandhunter-gathererstoourcur-rentworlddominatedbyagricultureandindustry,havealwaysbeenwoventogether.Whataretheconsequencesoflosingthatplant diversity? What will happen as more and more rare orunknownspeciesdisappearbecauseofhumanactivities?

theNameIsNoteNouGhIn1992,theBelizeAssociationofTraditionalHealerswasformedaspartofanefforttoconservespeciesthatareimportanttothatcountry’s complex work of traditional healers. The conserva-tioneffortemphasizedthewordcomplex whenreferringtotheknowledgeandculturalviewspossessedbyindigenouspeople.Justknowingthenameofaplantandpreservingitisnotenough.As ethnobotanists often repeat, the name alone will not healyou.

MostindigenousculturesperceivetheEarthassacred.ThisisanimportantdistinctionfromWesterntraditionthatvaluestheEarthas a commodity: a sourceof food,buildingmateri-als,medicine,beauty,andentertainment.Bothviewsregardthenaturalenvironmentassomethingworthyofprotection.Butitisthemethodofconservationandpreservationthatdiffersaccord-ingtoourvalues.

Itistheworldviewoftheindigenouspeople,ratherthantheperceptionofdevelopedcountries,thattheethnobotanistseeksto conserve. Indigenous beliefs emphasize the need to protectthejungle,notbecauseofitspotentialusetothem,butbecausethejungleisasacredplace.Thejungle’svalueisthereforeintrin-sic—valuablebecauseitisthere.

However,conservingplacesthatloomlargeinourimagina-tionsisachallenge.Junglesarestilldarkandmysteriousplacesfor many of us. European fables hide witches and warlocksin primitive forests. Dusty library books provide eyewitness

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ethnobotanyandconservation

8�Ethnobotany and conservation

accountsofheadhuntersandtinymenintheunderbrush.Fairytalestellofdragonsreturningtonestinthedarkwoods,clutch-ingtheirlatestvictimsintheirtalons.Children’sbedtimestoriesoften portray the most dangerous of beasts seeking shelter inthemostinhospitablejungle.Junglesbecamedestinationstobeavoided at all costs—the place where orphaned children wereraisedbywolves,jaguars,orapes(Figure8.1).Asamatteroffact,theEnglishword“savage”comes fromtheLatinword sylvati-cus,meaning“ofthewoods.”Asasiteofsomuchfearandwildimagination,itisnowonderthattheneedforconservationofourdeepestrainforestswasnotfullyappreciateduntilrecently.

Fearsand imaginationsaside, forestshavehistoricallybeencutdownbecausetheyrepresentthesimplestandquickestwaytoearncash—byharvestingthetimber,burningallthatremains,andthenplantingacropforafewseasons.Notsurprisingly,thismethodofclear-cuttinghas serious implications for theenvi-ronment.First, there is the immediateanddevastating lossoftheforestecosystemandalltheorganismslivingthere.Second,there is thepermanent lossofmuchof the region’snutrients.Mostofthenutrientsinarainforestarefoundnotinthesoil,butinthetissuesoftheplantsandanimalslivinginthatecosys-tem.Ironically,whateverfarmingthatfollowsfacestheconstantchallengeofgrowingcropsonpoorsoilinalocationthatonceboastedsomeofthemostfertilelandontheplanet.Thelarge-scaleremovaloflivingecosystemspreventsrainforestsfromevergrowingback.Perhapsmostimportant,indigenouspeoplehaveanincredibleknowledgeofthepropertiesandusesoftheirlocalvegetation.Amassedovercenturies,thisknowledgeisoneofthefirstaspectsoftheirculturetodisappearwhentheirecosystemsaredisturbed.

theRoleoFINDIGeNousPeoPleINcoNseRvatIoNAreconsiderationoftheroleofindigenouspeopleinconserva-tionmeansunderstandingandacceptingtheviewthattheplants

�0 Ethnobotany

canbesacred(Figure8.2).Ethnobotanistsbelievethatrainforestconservationwillbebestaccomplishedbyadoptingtheviewsofindigenous people and acknowledging the contributions that

Figure 8.1 An advertisement from 1921 for the movie Adventures of Tarzan shows Tarzan battling a lion, riding on an elephant, and fighting two men. Tarzan originally appeared in a novel by Edgar Rice Burroughs, in which the hero was orphaned as an infant and raised by apes.

�1Ethnobotany and conservation

indigenousknowledgeofplantsandresourcemanagementcanmaketoWesternculture.

Loss of biodiversity is the primary concern whenever natu-ralresourcesaredepleted.Butwealsoneedtoconsiderlossofknowledge—the knowledge that only indigenous culture canprovideabouttheusesofindividualplants.Itisthediversityofthenaturalecosystemsandthecultureoftheindigenouspeoplelivingwithinthemthatmustbeprotectedtogether.

Figure 8.2 Children of Vanuata climb a fig tree. Vanuata is an archi-pelago of 83 islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

�2 Ethnobotany

Untilrecently,indigenouspeoplewereseldominvolvedintheconservationoftheirownhomes.TheiropinionwasrarelyvaluedintheWesternworld,wheremostdecisionsabouttheuse of the world’s resources are made.And although devel-opednations, like theUnitedStates,Canada,Australia,NewZealand,Japan,andthoseinWesternEurope,constituteonlyabout 18% of the world’s population, together they controlalmost80%oftheworld’swealth.15Unfortunately,mostoftheworld’s endangered indigenous cultures and ecosystems arefoundintheundevelopedcountries.Thedifferencesbetweenthedevelopedandtheundevelopednations(the“haves”and“have-nots”oftheworld)haveoftenbeenattherootofcon-servationconflicts.

Westernnationsandindigenouspeoplerecognizethepress-ingneedtoprotectvanishingspeciesintheirnaturalhabitatsandaretryingtoworktogether.Concernedaboutthelossofnativeplantsusedinweaving,theMaoriofNewZealandorganizedahui, or traditional conference inviting both scientists and tra-ditionalleaderstodiscussstrategiesforconservingtheirnativeflora.Suchcollaborationisoftencomplicatedbyculturaldiffer-ences,butthiseffortwasasuccessandtheconferencebecameanimportantmodel for future suchcollaborations.Most impor-tantly, the conference demonstrated the three key positionsadvocated by indigenous peoples that recent ethnobotanicalstudiescanprovewithfieldevidence:

1. Thatallforestplantshaveapurposeandvalue

2. Thatthetrueeconomic,cultural,andspiritualvaluesof

rainforestsandnativehabitatshavescarcelybeenconsid-

eredandarevastlyunderestimated

3. Thatentireculturesandwaysoflifewilldisappearifrain

forestsaredestroyed


Is this a Model Plan for rain Forest communities? In Peru there are communal reserves with specific rules concerning the removal of any natural resources. This proactive stance on the use of a region’s products is a sign of progressive thinking. These rules are designed to help the local native community that benefits most from preserving their ecosystems—and stands to lose the most if those ecosystems are destroyed. After all, you preserve what you know best.

Here is a summary of a few of the rules as described in Plants, People, and Culture—The Science of Ethnobotany, by Michael J. Balick and Paul Alan Cox:

1. The extraction of forest timber is only permitted at the commu-nity level. It is prohibited for individuals, families, and groups to extract timber from the community reserve. Timber may only be removed when the community needs money for communal pur-poses, such as a new school or medicine for the village.

2. Fruits and medicinal plants may be removed by anyone who lives in that region. People from the community and from the neigh-boring communities can extract these products either for their own consumption or for the market.

3. Whenever collecting fruits, leaves, flowers, bark, resins, roots, and branches, all trees must be left standing. Special rules apply to the extraction of any particularly valuable species.

4. The community must decide as a group whether they will issue a permit to an outsider for the removal of any timber.

5. No farming is permitted in the area of the community forest reserve; however, the community recognizes the rights of its members over their old fallows for an unlimited time.

�4 Ethnobotany

thevaluesoFBIoloGIcalDIveRsItyBiologicaldiversityisincreasinglyrecognizedforitsimportancebeyondapurelyscientificinterest.Thesocialandeconomicval-uesofbiodiversityareassuminggreatersignificanceasarangeof different groups, including indigenous peoples, assert theirclaimsandinterests.

Conserving the world’s ecosystems benefits all people. Thereasonsforconservationaremany,butmostwouldagreeonatleastthefollowing:

1. Conservingecosystemsisanethicalissue.Nospecieshas

therighttodestroyanother.Mostsocieties,primitiveand

modern,promotea“liveandletlive”philosophy.Acknowl-

edgingthatwesharetheworldwithmanyotherspecies,we

shouldnotberesponsibleforthelossofanyotherspecies.

2. Weconserveecosystemsforestheticreasons.Thebeautyof

allnaturalhabitatsshouldbeprotected.

3. Weneedtoconserveourecosystemsforscientificreasons.

Whetherornotitisapparenttousnow,anyspeciesmay

provetohavesignificantscientificvaluetothehumanpop-

ulationinthefuture.Protectingourenvironmentnowwill

helpensurethehealthandhappinessoffuturegenerations.

4. Wemustconservewhatisusefultous.Wesimplycould

notsurvivewithouttheplantsandanimalsonwhichour

civilizationsdepend.Whetheritistheplant-generated

oxygenwebreatheordomesticanimalsandcropsthatsus-

tainenormoushumanpopulations,allowinganyspeciesto

becomeendangeredorextinctsimplyharmsusintheend.

5. PerhapsthemosturgentreasontoconserveEarth’seco-

systemsistoretainthebiodiversityoflife.Biodiversitycan

bedescribedasthevarietyoflifeonEarth.Ecosystemsare

complexanddynamic.Theyarelivingsystemscomposed


oforganismsconstantlyinteractingwithbothlivingand

nonlivingcomponents.Interactionisthekeywordhere.

Thediversityfoundwithinanyconstantlychangingeco-

systemiswhatprovidesstabilityfortheorganismsliving

there.

Biodiversityalsoreferstothegeneticdiversityfoundwithinaspecies,suchasthediversityofwoodpeckersthatliveintheforestorthediversityofadesertecosystemasopposedtothediversityofaforestecosystem.

Earth’sbiodiversityisimmense.Perhapsasmanyas175mil-lionspecieshavebeendescribed,andmanymorethanthatexistonEarthtoday.Ofallthegroupsoforganismsweknowof,thetwogroupsthatrepresentthehighestamountofdiversityaretheinsects,withalmostonemilliondifferentspecies,andtheflower-ingplants,withatleast270,000species.16

Because indigenouspeoplespossessknowledgeof somanyplants, ethnobotanists begin conservation there. That indig-enousknowledge,however,isasendangeredassomeoftheeco-systems.AninventoryofmedicinalplantscompiledbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)in1978estimatedthatof20,000speciesknowntobenefitman,only250wereusedoftenenoughtoanalyzeandidentifytheirmainactivechemicalcompounds.Whatisknownisstillmostlyverbalandonlypartlydocumentedwithinthehistoryandfolkloreofnativepeople.

Combinethelossofthousandsofyearsofplantknowledgeandusebyindigenouspeoplewiththelossoftheactualplantsfrom deforestation, destruction of habitats, and alterations ofecosystems,andit’sclearethnobotanistshavemoreworktodo(Figure8.3).

TheslowassimilationofnativecultureintoWesternculturesiscausingdamageaswell.TheYanomamotribesofSouthAmer-icaarerapidlylosingtheirmemberstoWesterndiseases.Nativepeopleoftenlackthenaturalimmunityfromdiseasesthatpeople

�6 Ethnobotany

fromanotherculturemaybe incubating.DeadlyoutbreaksofsmallpoxnearlywipedoutlegionsofNorthAmericanIndianswhentheU.S.militaryforcedthemontoreservationsacenturyago. TheYanomamos of Brazil andVenezuela are suffering asimilarfate.Asthepopulationsofthesetribesdwindle,sogoes

A Look at Earth’s BiodiversitySpecies are the basic unit of biodiversity, but of the tens of millions of spe-cies that have existed on Earth, only a small percentage have been studied in detail. Amazingly, new species are still being discovered. Recently, the Nature Conservancy reported that a new species of honeyeater (a type of bird) was uncovered in New Guinea, and a furry lobster was found in the south Pacific. Even the ivory-billed woodpecker, thought to be extinct for decades, has recently had verifiable sightings in the swamps of the southeastern United States. Despite these discoveries, we know that other species are disappearing from Earth every day, even before they have been identified.

How many species exist on Earth? The Global Biodiversity Assessment, pre-sented by the United Nations Environment Program in 1995, created a table of known and estimated species on Earth (Table 8.1). Though over a decade has passed since this latest working estimate, the numbers seem to remain the same due to the allowance in known species and working estimates.

Not all biologists agree with the United Nations estimates. But the total number of species still seems to fall within a staggering 1.45 million to 1.75 million. Some of the discrepancies are the result of the difficulties in classifying species. Obviously, classifying birds is not as challenging as classifying bacteria. While there are several thousand bird species living on Earth, one study found between 4,000 and 5,000 bacterial species in just one gram of soil!

To complicate matters, biodiversity is not evenly distributed among species—compare the small number of bear species found in the world to


theirartandculture.Theirknowledgeisrarelyifeverrecordedinwrittenformandthereforeisnotprotected.

Organizations likeHandsAround theWorld focusonpre-servingthecultureofthesepeoplebyencouragingthecontinua-tionoftheirnativeartforms.Thegoalisnotonlytopreservethe

the tens of thousands of beetle species known to exist. Also, biodiversity is not evenly distributed throughout the world. Seventy percent of the world’s species are found in only 11 of the world’s countries: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Peru, and Zaire. More than half of those species are found in the tropical rain forests.

Table 8.1 Known and Estimated Species on Earth

Taxonomic Group # of Known Species Working Estimated #s

Viruses 4,000 400,000Bacteria 4,000 1,000,000Fungi 72,000 1,500,000Protozoa 40,000 200,000Algae 40,000 400,000Plants 270,000 320,000Nematodes 25,000 400,000

Arthropods:Crustaceans 40,000 150,000Arachnids 75,000 750,000Insects 950,000 8,000,000

Mollusks 70,000 200,000Chordates 45,000 50,000Others 115,000 250,000Total 1,750,000 13,620,000

�8 Ethnobotany

artitselfbutalsotheirculturebygivingthemaviablemeansofsupportusingtheirtraditionalskills.Toooften,nativepeople—especially intheAmazonrainforest—areforcedtoembarkinnontraditionalandecologicallyharmfulmethodsofsupportingtheirfamilieslikethe“slashandburn”farmingthatdestroystherainforestinexchangeforquickaccesstomoney.Byencourag-ing and supporting traditional art forms, groups like HandsAround the World help preserve native cultures, their way oflife,andmostimportantly,thenaturalecosystemsthoseculturesdependon.Losingjustonetribe,justonesmallportionoftheYanomamoculture,representsanimportantlossofdiversitytotheregions.

Preservinggeneticdiversityisascrucialaspreservingbiodi-versity.Genecellsfromwildspeciesofplantsarebeingpreserved

Figure 8.3 Ethnobotanists search for wild pepper specimens near a Toba tribal settlement in Paraguay.

��Ethnobotany and conservation

nowinordertolaterstrengthenthegenepoolofanendangeredspecies, ifnecessary.Adiversegenepoolcansaveplants fromsuccumbing to disease. This is especially useful in agriculturewhereweoftenrelyononlyoneplantcropandgrowthatcropinenormousquantities.Take,forexample,barley.Thecommoncrophasanarrowgeneticbaseleadingtoagreatervulnerabilitytodiseaseandpests.Inthepastcenturyonlyabout20varietiesofbarleyhavemadeupthemajorityofNorthAmerica’sbarleycrop. This concerns growers and breeders because of recentwarningsigns:since1994,twoblightsthattargetedbarleyhavecausedbillion-dollarlossestofarmers.

The conservation of biodiversity protects the genetic basefoundineachplantspecies,maintainingtheiradaptabilityandbiological health. The conservation of indigenous people andtheir indigenous knowledge is important historically and cul-turallyas therelationships indigenouspeoplesharewith theirenvironmentsreflectourownpastrelationshipswiththenaturalworld.

1.JohnHarshberger,“WhatIsEthnobotanyandWhyIsItImportant?,”EthnobotanyatFortLewisCollege.Availableonlineathttp://anthro.fortlewis.edu/ethnobotany/ethno2.htm

2.PatriciaBarnes-Svarney,“ThePlantKingdom,”The New York Public Library Science Desk Reference. NewYork:Simon&SchusterMacmillanCompany,1995,p.104.

3.BonnieOkonek,“Introduction:What’sinaName,”ClassificationofPlants. Availableonlineat http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/Ethnobotany/page3.html

4.RichardLaw,“TheEmergenceofSedentaryAgriculture,”AgriculturalRevolution–EmergenceofAgriculture. Availableonline athttp://www.wsuedu/gened/learn-modules/top_agrev//4-Agriculture/agriculture2.html

5.“Quinoa”WholeHealthMD.Availableonlineathttp://www.wholehealthmd.com/refshelf/foods_view/0,1523,74,00.html

6.MichaelJ.BalickandPaulAlanCox,Plants, People, and Culture:

The Science of Ethnobotany. NewYork:ScientificAmericanLibrary,1996,p.117.

7.Ibid. 8.DavidW.Tschanz,“Herbal

ContraceptioninAncientTimes,”IslamOnline.net,2003.Availableonlineathttp://www.islam-oline.net/English/Science/2003/08/article02.shtml

9.BalickandCox.p.25.10.Ibid.,p.176.11.Ibid.,p.161.12.RainForestWeb,“Indigenous

Peoples,”Rainforestweb.org.Availableonlineathttp://www.rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Information/Indigenous_Peoples/

13.LeslieTaylor,“TheDisappearingRainForests,”RainforestFacts.2004.Availableonlineathttp://www.raintree-health.co.uk/data/rainforestfacts1.html

14.Ibid.15.RichardT.Wright,Environmental

Science,9thed.SaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonEducation,2005,p.127.

16.Ibid.,p.275.

100

Agriculture Thebusinessorscienceofcultivatingthesoil,growingcrops,andraisinglivestock.

Alkaloid Physicallyactive,nitrogen-containingorganicbasesobtainedfromplants,includingnicotine,quinine,cocaine,andmorphine.

Assimilate Toabsorbanimmigrantorculturallydistinctgroupintoanotherculture.

Biodiversity Thediversityoflivingthingsfoundinthenaturalworld.Theconceptusuallyreferstodifferentspeciesbutalsoincludesecosystemsandthegeneticdiversitywithinagivenspecies.

Botany Thestudyofplants.

canopy Thelayerformedbytheupperbranchesoftreesinaforest.

chicle Themilkyjuiceofatropicalplantusedinchewinggum.

code of Hammurabi Thefirstwrittencodeoflawinhumanhistory,datedabout1770b.c.

compounds Acombinationoftwoormoreelements.

conquistadors SpanishconquerorsofMexicoandPeru.

curare Resinousextractsofvariablechemicalcomposition,obtainedfromseveralspeciesofSouthAmericantreesofthegeneraChondrodendronandStrychnos.

dicotyledons Plantscharacterizedbyembryonicseedleavesthatappearatgermination.

Ecosystem Agroupingofplants,animals,andotherorganismsinteract-ingwitheachotherandwiththeirenvironmentinasustainablemanner.

Ethnobotany Thestudyofhowculturesmakeuseoftheplantsintheirecosystems.

Food and drug Administration (FdA) Agovernmentagencyresponsibleforadvancingpublichealthbyassuringthesafetyofhumanandveterinarydrugs,biologicalproducts,andmedicaldevices.

Genetic diversity Thediversityofgenesfoundinvariousbreeds,species,varieties,etc.,oforganisms.

Genus Classificationofagroupofsimilarorganisms;agenusconsistsofoneormorespecies.

101

102

Hallucinogens Plant-baseddrugsthatinducehallucinationsforrecre-ationalorreligiouspurposes.

Indigenous Livingoroccurringnaturallyinaspecificareaorenviron-ment.

Monocotyledons Oneofthetwomajordivisionsofangiosperms,markedbyasingleembryonicseedleafatgermination.

Monoculture Thepracticeofgrowingthesamecropyearafteryearonthesameland,asopposedtocroprotation.

neanderthal AnextinctraceofhumanancestorsthatlivedduringthelatePleistoceneepochandisassociatedwithPaleolithictools.

nomad Amemberofagroupofpeoplewhowanderfromplacetoplace.

Pharaoh AkingofancientEgypt.

Photosynthesis Thechemicalprocesscarriedonbygreenplantsthroughwhichlightenergyisusedtoproduceglucosefromcarbondioxideandwater.Oxygenisreleasedasaby-product.

Polymers Anyofnumerousnaturalandsyntheticcompounds.

Poultice Anherbalpastemadebymashingplantmaterialswithaliquid.

Quinine Acrystalalkaloidobtainedfromcinchonaandusedasadrugtofightmalariaandotherdiseases.

Shaman Apriestofanindigenousculturewhoisbelievedtosummonspirits.

Species Agroupofcloselyrelatedorganismsthatarecapableofinter-breeding.

Sustainable Theprocessofcontinuingindefinitelywithoutdepletingtheenergyormaterialresourcesonwhichyoudepend.

Subsistence Meetingthefoodneedsoffarmersandtheirfamilies,withlittleelseearned.Apracticeoffarmingseenmostoftenindevelopingcountries.

taxonomy Thescienceofidentifyingandclassifyingorganismsaccordingtotheirnaturalrelationships.

Vascular Theconductivetissueofplants,whichabsorbwaterandnutri-entsthroughtheirrootsandcirculatethatfluidthroughouttheplant.

103

Balick,MichaelJ,andPaulAlanCox.Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. NewYork:ScientificAmericanLibrary,1996.

Barnes-Svarney,Patricia.The New York Public Library Science Desk Reference. NewYork:TheStonesongPress,Inc.andtheNewYorkPublicLibrary,1995.

Beazley,JohnD.The Way Nature Works.NewYork:MacmillanGeneralReference,1992.

Berlin,Brent.Ethnobiological Classification—Principles of Categorization of Plants and Animals in Traditional Societies. Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress,1992.

Caduto,MichaelJ.,andJosephBruchac.Keepers of the Earth: Native American Stories and Environmental Activities for Children. Golden,CO:FulcrumPublishingCompany,1998.

Caufield,Catherine.In the Rainforest: Report from a Strange, Beautiful, Imperiled World. Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985.

Chagnon,N.Yanomamo: The Last Days of Eden.NewYork:Harcourt,BraceJovanovich,1992.

Christman,CarolynJ.,D.PhillipSponenberg,andDonaldE.Bixby.A Rare Breeds Album of American Livestock.Pittsboro,NC:AmericanLivestockBreedsConservancy,1997.

Davis,Wade.One River: Explorations and Discoveries in the Amazon Rain Forest. NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1996.

Diamond,Jared.Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies.NewYork: W.W.Norton&Company,1999.

Fargis,Paul.The New York Public Library Desk Reference, 4th ed., NewYork:Hyperion,2002.

Gunderson,Mary,andDennisDahlin.The Food Journal of Lewis & Clark: Recipes for an Expedition. Yankton,SD:HistoryCooks,2003.

Harshberger,Dr.John.“WhatIsEthnobotanyandWhyIsItImportant?”EthnobotanyatFortLewisCollege.Availableonlineathttp://anthro.fortlewis.edu/ethnobotany/ethno2.htm

Heckewelder,Rev.John.History, Manners, and Customs of The Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States.Philadelphia:PublicationFundoftheHistoricalSocietyofPennsylvania,1876.Facsimilereprint:Bowie,MD:HeritageBooks,1990.

Heywood,V.H.,ed.Global Biodiversity Assessment.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995.

104

Kent,BarryC.Susquehanna’s Indians. Harrisburg,PA:CommonwealthofPennsylvania,ThePennsylvaniaHistoricalandMuseumCommission,1984.

Moerman,Daniel.Native American Ethnobotany.Portland,Or:TimberPress,1998.

Okonek,Bonnie.“Introduction:What’sinaName.”ClassificationofPlants. Availableonlineat http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/Ethnobotany/page3.html

Plotkin,MarkJ.,PH.D.Tales of a Shaman’s Apprentice—An Ethnobotanist Searches for New Medicines in the Amazon Rain Forest.NewYork: VikingPenguin,1993.

RainForestWeb.“IndigenousPeoples,”Rainforestweb.org,2006.Avaialbleonlineat http://www.rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Information/Indigenous_Peoples/

RaintreeHealth.“TheDisappearingRainforests,”RainforestFacts,2004.Availableonlineat http://www.raintree-health.co.uk/data/rainforestfacts1.html

Reidel,Jon.“BioprospectinginMadagascar,”TheView/FromtheUniversityofVermont,2004.Availableonlineat http://www.uvm.edu/theview/article.php?id=1438

Renfrew,JaneM.Palaeoethnobotany: The Prehistoric Food Plants of the Near East and Europe. NewHaven,CT:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1973.

Rountree,HelenC.,andThomasE.Davidson.Eastern Shore Indians of Virginia and Maryland. Charlottesville,VA:UniversityofVirginiaPress,1998.

Schultes,RichardEvans,andSirivonReis.Ethnobotany: Evolution of a Discipline.Portland,OR:DioscoridesPress,1995.

Schultes,RichardEvans,AlbertHofmann.Plants of the Gods. Rochester,VT:InnerTraditionsInternational,1992.

Taylor,Leslie.“TheDisappearingRainForests,”RainforestFacts,2004.Availableonlineathttp://www.raintree-health.co.uk/data/rainforest-facts1.html

Viola,HermanJ.andCarolynMargolis.Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration. Washington,DC:SmithsonianBooks,1991.

Waak,Patricia,andKennethStrom.Sharing the Earth: Cross-Cultural Experiences in Population, Wildlife and the Environment. NewYork:TheNationalAudubonSociety,1992.

Wright,RichardT.Environmental Science, 9th ed.SaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson

Education,Inc.,2005.

Balick,MichaelJ,andPaulAlanCox.Plants, People, and Culture, The Science of Ethnobotany. NewYork:ScientificAmericanLibrary,1996.

Beazley,JohnD.The Way Nature Works.NewYork:MacmillanGeneralReference,1992.

Caduto,MichaelJ.,andJosephBruchac.Keepers of the Earth: Native American Stories and Environmental Activities for Children. Golden,CO:FulcrumPublishingCompany,1998.

Caufield,Catherine.In the Rainforest: Report from a Strange, Beautiful, Imperiled World. Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985.

Christman,CarolynJ.,D.PhillipSponenberg,andDonaldE.Bixby.A Rare Breeds Album of American Livestock.Pittsboro,NC:AmericanLivestockBreedsConservancy,1997.

Gunderson,Mary,andDennisDahlin.The Food Journal of Lewis & Clark: Recipes for an Expedition. Yankton,SD:HistoryCooks,2003.

Viola,HermanJ.andCarolynMargolis.Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration. Washington,DC:SmithsonianBooks,1991.

Waak,Patricia,andKennethStrom.Sharing the Earth: Cross-Cultural Experiences in Population, Wildlife and the Environment. NewYork:TheNationalAudubonSociety,1992.

Web SitesAn Introduction to Ethnobotany

A comprehensive introduction to this field.www.accessexcellence.org/RC/Ethnobotany/

Aromatic and Medicinal Plants IndexAn archive of plants (with photographs and detailed information).www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/toc.html

Center for World Indigenous StudiesA site to promote the ideas and knowledge of indigenous peoples.www.cwis.org

Conservation InternationalProtecting Earth’s biodiversity around the world.www.conservation.org

Green Machine: PCA Medicinal Plant Working Group’s WebsiteInformative Web site maintained by the Plant Conservation Alliance.www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/

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106

Indigenous Peoples Survival FoundationA nonprofit whose mission is to promote understanding between ancient traditional cultures and modern civilization.www.indigenouspeople.org

IUCN—The World Conservation UnionThe world’s largest conservation organization, encompassing 138 countries.www.iucn.org

Medicinal Plants ListA site listing the most common medicinal plants in use today.www.world.std.com/~krahe/html1.html

NativeWebResources for indigenous cultures around the world.www.nativeweb.org

Rainforest AllianceAn alliance that protects rain forests through changes in land use.www.rainforest-alliance.org

The Rainforest SiteInteractive site explaining how you can preserve a piece of the rain forest.www.therainforestsite.com

Tropical American Tree FarmsInformation on how farmers are growing tropical trees in a sustainable manner.http://tropicaltreefarms.com

Wildlife Conservation SocietyManaging national and international conservation projects.www.wcs.org

107

aboriginalpeople.Seeindigenouspeoples

Africa,31,83–84agriculture,26–28,28–32,32–35alkaloids,22Amazonbasin,79–81angiosperms,19,20,21antitumoragents,40arrowpoison,39artemisinin,41Asia,81–82aspirin,42,43assimilation,76,95–96ayahuascavine,69

Babylonians,45Balick,MichaelJ.,14,70balsampoplartrees,61bark,curareand,39beans,29,42,58–59BelizeAssociationofTraditional

Healers,88binomialclassificationsystem,22–23biodiversity

importanceofpreservationof,34–35

lossofasconcern,91monocultureand,33rainforestsand,77,79–80ThreeSistersand,58valueof,94–99

birchtrees,61birthcontrolpills,41–42Brazil,78,80,83bryophytes,19

Calabarbeans,42Cannabis,72cannibalism,EasterIslandand,66canopy,positionin,17–18capsaicin,chilipeppersand,35carbondioxide,14,15,17Cautantowwit,59

cedar,61chemicalproperties,41–42,46–48Chenopodium quinoa,33CherokeeTrailofTearsbean,29chilipeppers,originsof,35chlorophyll,14,15,17chocolate,35chokecherry,61Cinchona,22,40,45classificationofplants,19–23clear-cutting,89cocabush,72cocaine,45,72CodeofHammurabi,8codeine,72colloquialnames,21Columbus,Christopher,8,9,26ComingofCorn,59competition,sunlightand,17–18compounding,medicinesand,40Congobasin,82–83conservation,29,88–93,94–99controversialusesofplants,70–73corn,56,57–59cowparsnip,61culture

EasterIslandand,64–68foodexchangeand,26lossofknowledgeand,95–98psychoactiveplantsand,71–72religiousceremoniesand,68–70studyofethnobotanyand,5,11

curare,39currency,rainforestsas,78customs,studyofethnobotanyand,5

dartpoison,39defenses,chemicalsas,46–47definitionofethnobotany,4–7deforestation,32,64–68dicotyledons,21diosgenin,41–42diseases,28–29,32,95–96

108

diversity,27–28,46–47.See alsobiodiversity

doctrineofsignatures,60dogwoods,61

EasterIsland,64–68economics,76–79,81,98ecosystems,8–9,40,89Ecuador,38–40Egypt,8,31erosion,32,33eukaryotes,19

familysize,31–32farming,93,98fieldwork,10firtrees,61floweringplants,95folkmedicines,11,43–45,48food,5,14,35foodchain,14,15forests,32,61,88–89.See alsorain

forestsfungus,potatoesand,27–28

geneticdiversity,95,98–100Ghana,31ginseng,46GlobalBiodiversityAssessment,96–97goldenseal,46gymnosperms,19,20

habitatloss,79–80hallucinogens,69,71Hammurabi,Codeof,8HandsAroundtheWorld,97–98Harshberger,John,4–5hashish,72Hauhautrees,EasterIslandand,66healing,42–43,44,48,70heirloomplants,29herbs,medicinal,46,82–83highways,7

historyofethnobotany,7–8,11Hodgkin’sdisease,40honeyeaters,96

Incas,quinoaand,33incentives,rainforestsand,77,81indigenousknowledge,8–11,95–96indigenouspeoples

conservationand,88–93medicinesand,38–40,42–43rainforestsand,76–77

infectiousdiseases,32.See alsodiseasesinsecticides,42insects,28–29,95Inuitpeople,16,17Ireland,27–28,31Irishpotatofamine,27–28

jaboranditrees,23

Kalaharitribesmen,16kava,70–71Kayas,73knowledge,5,8–11,89,91,95–96

Lammasfestival,31leukemia,40Linnaeus,Carolus,22–23Lughnasadhfestival,31

Madagascar,83–85maize,56,57–59malaria,22,40,41Malaysia,31Maoripeople,92marijuana,72Materia Medica,45matriarchies,56medicines

Africaand,82–83chemicalpropertiesand,46–48folkmedicineand,43–45futureof,48–49

10�

indigenouspeoplesand,38–40,42–43

lossofvaluableplantsfor,40–42natureand,45

monocotyledons,21monocultures,26,33,58morphine,72mortalityrates,31–32musclerelaxants,39myrtleleaves,43

naming.SeeclassificationofplantsNativeAmericans

doctrineofsignaturesand,60asfirstfarmers,56–57natureand,54–55plantsusedby,60–61ThreeSistersand,57–59

nature,7,45,54–55,88nectar,47neostigmine,42nettles,61NewZealand,Maoriand,92Nigeria,31nutrientcycle,16–18,89

opium,72OrangAslipeople,81osierdogwood,red,61

paleobotany,defined,18palmtrees,EasterIslandand,66paperbirchtrees,61perception,6periwinkle,40permits,Peruand,93Peru,conservationin,93pesticides,32peyote,69pharaohs,8pharmaceuticalcompanies,48,78–79pharmacies,natureas,45photosynthesis,14,15,16–18

physiology,defined,18phytopathology,18plants

binomialclassificationof,22–23botanyasstudyof,18–19meaningofnamesof,23methodsofclassificationof,19–21nutrientcyclewithin,16–18reasonsforclassificationof,21–22reasonsforimportanceof,14–16asrevenue,8–9

poisonivy,17pollination,47poplartrees,61poppyplants,72populationsize,agricultureand,32potatoes,26–28primaryproducers,16–18primitivepeople.Seeindigenous

peoplesproducers,plantsas,14profits,rainforestsand,77psychoactiveplants,71–72pteridophytes,19,20

QuechuaIndians,69quinine,22,40,45quinoa,33

rainforests,73,76–79,79–83,83–85,93

ravens,59record–keeping,38,81–82religion,5,68–70ReligiousFreedomAct,69revenue,plantsas,8–9rice,31Rig–Veda,45Roggeveen,Jacob,64,67

salicin,43Salix,42,43,45Samoa,77

110

Savaii,77Schultes,RichardEvans,5Secota,55seedplants,20SeedSaversExchange,29SeedsofChange,26seed-saving,29Semangat,31Senecasnakeroot,52–54,60shamans,42–43,44,48,70sifakas,84signatures,doctrineof,60skunkbushsumac,61smallpox,96snakeroot,52–54,60SouthAmerica,79–81,83,95–96species,22,96–97Species Plantarum,23spicebush,17squash,58–59stingingnettles,61storage,aschallenge,30subsistencefarming,77sumac,61sustainability,67,77–78

Tafuaforest,77taxonomy,defined,18,19technology,importanceof,10ThreeSisters,overviewof,57–59tomatoes,originsof,34toxins,potentialvalueand,38–40TrailofTearsbeans,29

vascularplants,20Virginiacreepervines,17Virginiapine,20Viseiseivillage,71

Waoranipeople,38–40weather,28–30,58willowtrees,42,43,45wormwood,41Wyche,John,29

yams,31,41–42Yanomamotribes,95–96yucca,61

Zea mays,56,57–59Zethelius,Magnus,70

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Cover: ©W.K.Fletcher/PhotoResearchers,Inc.

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Kim J. YoungreceivedherB.S.degreefromWilmingtonCollegeinOhio,whereshestudiedbiologyandenvironmentalscience.ShereceivedherM.A.insciencewritingfromJohnsHopkinsUniversityinBaltimore,Maryland.Shelives inYorkcounty,Pennsylvania,wheresheworksforthelocalcon-servationdistrict, teachesasanadjunct facultymember,andwritesabouttopicsfocusingonthepreservationofruraltraditions.

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